The British Army in the Korean WarIn June 1950, just five years after the end of the Second World War, war erupted in Korea. United Nations forces, led by the USA, intervened on the side of South Korea, while the (then) USSR and (later) China supported North Korea. Although British forces only made up a small proportion of the troops involved in this conflict, they were involved in heavy fighting. This gallery focuses on the Battle of Imjin River in April 1951.

North and southKorea was annexed by Japan in 1910, and its inhabitants responded by demanding independence. With Japan's defeat in the Second World War, Korea had been divided into two separate zones of occupation, the north controlled by the USSR and the south by the USA.

The United Nations (UN) attempted to hold elections in Korea in 1948, but the USSR instead established a Communist republic in the north known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). Its leader was Kim Il-Sung. In the south, the American zone became the Republic of Korea (ROK) under Rhee Syngman. The dividing line between the two new countries followed the 38th parallel.

At 04:00 on 25 June 1950, North Korea, supported by the USSR, launched an invasion of the south. In response, the UN sent a mainly American force to help South Korea. The USA's president Truman regarded this attack as a challenge to American interests in the Far East; Britain, by contrast, had no direct interest in Korea but became involved through its alliance with the USA.

This extract from a memorandum presented to the British Cabinet reports the crossing of the 38th parallel by North Korean forces.

The opposing forces

Seoul in flames: A soldier watches Seoul, the capital of South Korea, burning. Seoul was captured and recaptured by both sides several times

during the war.

The Korean conflict would involve huge numbers of troops on both sides. Figures for North Korean and, later, Chinese forces vary, but in November 1950 it is estimated that some 150,000 North Korean and around 200,000 Chinese forces had been fielded. (By July 1953, combined Chinese and North Korean forces would be estimated at 1,200,000.)

The UN contingent included troops, not only from the USA and Britain, but also from Canada, Australia, the Netherlands, Colombia, Turkey, the Philippines, France and many others. The USA made the largest contribution of troops and equipment; Britain the second. By Spring 1951, Britain's contribution to the UN forces was 12,000 strong. In 1950, ROK forces numbered between 80,000 and 100,000, increasing, according to some estimates, to 240,000 by Spring 1951. (UN and ROK forces combined would number 932,000 by July 1953.)

Across the 38th parallelDuring the summer of 1950, North Korean forces almost pushed the UN forces off the Korean peninsula. In September, however, the USA launched a successful counter-attack and, on 1 October, the North Koreans were pushed back over the 38th parallel. UN and ROK forces then advanced into North Korean territory in an attempt to reunite the two countries. Mao Tse Tung, the Chinese leader, fearing that UN and ROK forces would enter Chinese territory, launched a massive and successful attack in support of North Korea.

In January 1951, the Chinese pushed the UN and ROK forces back 60 miles south of the 38th parallel; however, during February and March, the Chinese and North Koreans were themselves forced back. The front line was now 45 km north of Seoul along the southern bank of the Imjin River. This defensive line became known as 'Kansas' and ran roughly along the 38th parallel.

Refugees crossing the Imjin River:This photograph shows refugees from North Korea being helped across the Imjin River by soldiers of the

Royal Northumberland Fusiliers.

The build-up to Imjin River

Spring offensiveIn April 1951, the Chinese launched a new and meticulously planned advance. General P'eng The-huai (or Dehai), commander of the Chinese Communist Field Army, directed a massive attack on a weak point in the UN and ROK lines.

Until 21 April, the opposing forces had been between 16 and 24 kilometres apart. On Sunday 22 April 1951, P'eng's 63rd Army attacked, aiming to break through the lines and capture Uijongbu and, ultimately, to recapture Seoul.

Map showing the Spring offensive: This map, taken from a UN military intelligence section report about the first year of fighting in Korea,

shows the positions of the opposing armies both on 22 April 1951 at the start of the Chinese offensive and the new front line just outside Seoul

on 30 April. The 63rd Army and Uijongbu are highlighted.

The 29th Independent BrigadeP'eng's forces were opposed by the UN's Ist Corps, principally by the British 29th Independent Brigade, which held a 15 kilometre section of the front line: if this collapsed, American units to the north-east would be cut off. Of the 29th Independent Brigade, the 1st Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment (known as the Glosters) and C Troop, Light Mortar Battery, Royal Artillery held the principal invasion route towards Seoul. The Glosters under Lieutenant-Colonel Carne, together with the Royal Artillery and the reserves, had 773 men holding three points, after which there was a 3 kilometre gap before the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers' position on the right. The Royal Ulster Rifles and the tanks of the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars were in reserve further down the road to Seoul.

The British soldiers were better armed than their opponents and many were veterans of the Second World War. They were however no match in numbers for the 27,000-30,000 Chinese troops who attacked them.

American actions during the Battle of Imjin RiverThe following is an extract from a report by Ist Corps Command detailing the role of American 3rd Infantry Division troops in the battle. Paragraphs 3 and 4 on the second page of this extract show attempts to relieve the Glosters.

Chinese actions during the Spring offensiveThis extract from a UN military intelligence section report about the first year of fighting in Korea details the actions of Chinese forces (here called Chinese Communist forces or CCF) during the Spring 1951 offensive.

Tactics

P'eng's tactics were to probe the UN and ROK front line for weaknesses using numerous 'feeler' patrols of two or three men. He then sent in huge numbers of less experienced troops in order to overwhelm the enemy, after which he followed through with his best men.

The Battle of Imjin River

The first waveThe Battle of Imjin River began on 22 April 1951. The first contact between British and Chinese forces was made at 09:45 and, throughout the day, small parties of Chinese advanced to the UN and ROK front line. By late evening, battle had been fully joined. British forces managed to fend off early attempts to cross the Imjin. By 23:30, however - and despite heavy fire from the Glosters' "A" Company whose Vickers guns grew so hot with firing belt after belt of ammunition that they started to seize up - Chinese forces were moving across the river en masse.

By 03:00 on 23 April, it was plain that the Chinese forces had successfully penetrated UN and ROK lines. The situation had calmed slightly by that afternoon, however, and it seemed that the first wave of attacks had been completed. Then, at 17:00, the Glosters were once again attacked. At around the same time, the Belgian Volunteer Battalion managed to fight its way out eastwards across the Imjin River and was withdrawn through the American 3rd Infantry Division.

Account of the Battle of Imjin RiverThis extract from a memorandum presented to the British Cabinet reports the crossing of the 38th parallel by North Korean forces.

American presidential citationThis presidential of the battle constitutes official American recognition of the bravery of both 1st Battalion, the Gloucester Regiment and C Troop, Light Mortar Battery, Royal Artillery.

Gloster Hill

After a lull in the fighting, during which the Chinese 187th Division reorganised, the action against the Glosters in particular became more concentrated. In the early hours of 24 April, in the face of heavy fire, the Glosters had to withdraw from their position and re-form on Hill 235 (which became known as Gloster Hill) above the hamlet of Solma-ri.

The Glosters were now completely surrounded and low on water, ammunition and battery power. An attempt to break through to them failed. The Glosters managed to fight off Chinese forces for over 24 hours. By early morning on 25 April, however, it was thought that Chinese movement southward threatened to cut off the whole of the 29th Independent Brigade and the Brigade was ordered to withdraw. At 10:30, the Glosters attempted to break out of their besieged position and reach UN and ROK lines. Only 39 succeeded and many were taken prisoner. The battle had been lost, but the Glosters' holding action had enabled the left flank of 1st Corps to withdraw safely.

These photographs were taken some five weeks after the Battle of Imjin River. This first photograph shows Hill 235 itself.

This second photograph (of a Gloster pointing to the main supply route through the valley) shows the ridge on the left along which Chinese

forces attacked the Glosters' "D" Company during the battle.

About 25% of the 29th Independent Brigade as a whole had been killed over three days of fighting; the Chinese 63rd Army had lost about 40% of its men.

The aftermath of Imjin

Honours and awardsAlthough UN and ROK forces were heavily defeated at Imjin River, they did manage to delay the invading troops so that the bulk of their forces could move south to regroup. The bravery of the Glosters was widely saluted and gained official recognition. The men of the regiment won a large number of medals. The Victoria Cross was awarded to both Lieutenant-Colonel Carne and Lieutenant Curtis: Carne for his inspired leadership and Curtis for a charge on a hill occupied by the Chinese that resulted in his death.

Lieutenant-Colonel James Power Carne, commander of 1st Battalion Gloucestershire Regiment at the Battle of Imjin River.

Criticisms of the leadershipNevertheless, there was some criticism of the conduct of the battle. Within the UN, there was some feeling that the American and British leaderships had been wrong to leave the Glosters in such a vulnerable position. In addition, less than two weeks after the battle, Rhee Syngman, the South Korean leader, was reported to have publicly criticised both British troops in Korea and the Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and British governments.

Rhee's alleged comments were probably intended to blame those governments for the recent dismissal of General MacArthur as military commander of UN and ROK forces; MacArthur, like Rhee, had wanted to push the Chinese completely out of the Korean peninsular. The comments may also have been coloured, however, by the fact that the British had been experiencing failure on the battlefield. This incident resulted in a storm of protest in Britain and a denial was issued on behalf of the South Korean government the following day.

This Foreign Office report quotes both Rhee's alleged criticisms of British and other governments as well as later, more positive,

comments.

'The Manchurian Candidate'?Many of the survivors of the Battle of Imjin River became prisoners-of-war of the Chinese. Among them was Carne who, after his release, gave evidence of Chinese attempts to brainwash him. Carne alleged that, between January 1952 and August 1953, the Chinese had singled him out as the most senior British officer in captivity. He had been kept in solitary confinement and subjected to a softening-up process involving the use of drugs, the aim of which, he claimed, was to make his brain 'like a sponge' capable of accepting any kind of information put into it.

In March 1953, during the period leading up to armistice, Carne was apparently given details of China's proposals for a Korean settlement. The Foreign Office did not know what to make of this bizarre story and was extremely sceptical about it. Carne's claim does fit in, however, with known experiments in brainwashing techniques carried out by the Chinese on prisoners-of-war in Korea.

This is the statement made by Carne to Foreign Office officials in Tokyo about Chinese attempts to brainwash him.

The end of the Korean War

Towards armisticeFighting continued for another two years along the border between the ROK and North Korea with American planes bombing the cities of the north. From as early as October 1951, armistice talks were periodically convened, but they always faltered. In November 1952, however, Eisenhower was elected president of the USA, replacing Truman. Stalin died in March 1953 and within two weeks, the USSR withdrew its support from North Korea. That same year, the USA hinted at the use of nuclear weapons, and on 27 July, a ceasefire agreement known as the Panmunjom Armistice was signed by representatives of the UN, North Korea and China.

Policing the 38th parallel:A member of the Royal Military Police beside a sign indicating the position of the 38th parallel, effectively the border

between North and South Korea.

The deadThe Korean conflict had been devastating for both sides. The civilian populations of both the ROK and North Korea had suffered massive social and economic dislocation; according to UN estimates, three million Koreans (soldiers and civilians on both sides) had been killed. Chinese deaths were estimated by the UN at 900,000; the USA reported 33,629 of its own dead. The UN also recorded the deaths of 686 British troops with a further 1,102 missing in action or prisoners-of-war.

These photographs illustrate the cost of war. The first photograph shows a Korean woman carrying a child past a dead ROK soldier.

This second photograph shows civilian refugees on the road.

An uneasy peaceTheoretically the two Koreas have remained at war ever since the uneasy armistice of July 1953; it was not until 1991 that a non-aggression pact was signed between them.

In June 2000, the South Korean president, Kim Dae-jung, met with the North Korean leader, Kim Jong-il, for a three day summit on reconciliation which discussed not only greater economic co-operation and the opening of cross-border links but also the possible reunification of the peninsular in the future. It was also agreed to reunite some of the families that had been separated since the 1950s. The South Korean president described the meeting as 'the biggest event of our history…to us a new day is beginning'. This 'sunshine policy' was broadly supported by the USA, which maintains a strong military presence in South Korea, and shortly afterwards, security talks resumed between the Americans and North Korea with particular emphasis on the latter's nuclear programme.

In 2001, however, with a change in the American administration and the resultant hardening of American policy, talks between the two Koreas broke down. Tensions in the peninsula were exacerbated by the 11 September terrorist attacks on the USA (which led, amongst other things, to an increased state of military alert in South Korea) and by the American president George W. Bush's subsequent naming of North Korea as part of 'an axis of evil.' In April 2002, however, the two Koreas met again and the USA and North Korea subsequently agreed to renew security talks.