THE BEST GUIDE TO IELTS WRITING
description
Transcript of THE BEST GUIDE TO IELTS WRITING
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
1
Collected and Shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Foreign Language Department
Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa Province
THE BEST GUIDES TO IELTS WRITING
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
2
FORMAL AND INFORMAL WORD LIST
(Collected and selected by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University)
Rules for formal writing are quite strict though often unstated Formal writing is used in academic and
scientific settings whenever you want to convey your ideas to a wide audience with many possible backgrounds
and assumptions Unlike casual conversation or emails to friends formal writing needs to be clear
unambiguous literal and well structured
Table 01
Ord
INFORMALEVERYDAY
FORMALACADEMIC
VIETNAMESE MEANING
01 a lot of loads of plenty of a great deal of numerous several nhiều
02 a bit Somewhat (before adj or adv) slightly một chuacutet iacutet
03 to get together to collaborate with sbd on smth cộng taacutec
04 to startto begin to initiateto commence smthv-ing bắt đầu khởi đầu
05 big large (numberpercentage) considerable lớn to lớn
06 thing deviceobject vật dụngvật thể
07 stuff material chất liệu vật liệu
08 to find out to ascertaindiscover tigravem ra tigravem thấy
09 to do again to repeat lặp lại
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10 to do well to succeed thagravenh cocircng
11 to set up to establish thiết lập
12 to cut down on to reduce giảm bớt
13 to go up to increase tăng lecircn
14 to come up with to create tạo ra
15 to look into to investigate điều tra
16 to go up and down to fluctuate dao động
17 to bring up a question to raise a question đưa ra vấn đề
18 to get rid of to eliminate loại bỏ
19 to turn down smth to refuse từ chối
20 to turn out smth to produce lagravem ra tạo ra
21 to take smth back to retract (a statement) ruacutet lại
22 to put off smth to postpone smth hoatilden lại
23 to put up with to tolerate chịu đựng
24 to put away smth to save tiết kiệm để dagravenh
25 to put down to smth to attribute to quy cho gaacuten cho
26 to come about to occur xảy ra
27 to give up to relinquish từ bỏ
28 to go backgive back return to swh smth trở lại trả lại
29 to give off smth to produce (heat) sản sinh tạo ra
30 to give away to betray tiết lộ phản bội
31 to carry out smth to conduct tiến hagravenh
32 to seem to appear higravenh như dường như
33 to climb to ascend đi lecircn tăng lecircn (số lượng)
34 to help to assist aid giuacutep đỡ
35 to stop to cease dừng lại
36 to use to consume dugraveng tiecircu dugraveng
37 to shorten to decrease to abbreviate giảm bớt ruacutet ngắn
37 to show to demonstrate chỉ ra chứng minh
38 to go to depart đi khởi hagravenh
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39 to want to desire mong muốn
40 to end to finish to terminate kết thuacutec
41 to tell to inform thocircng tin cho biết
42 to keep preserve retain giữ gigraven giữ
43 to say no to reject từ chối
44 to free to release to liberate trả tự do phoacuteng thiacutech
45 to mend to fix to repair sửa chữa
46 to need to require cần
47 to live to reside ở tại truacute tại
48 in the end finallyultimately cuối cugraveng
49 at once immediately ngay lập tức
50 at the same time simultaneously concurrently đồng thời cugraveng luacutec
51 at first initially đầu tiecircn
52 on and off intermittently giaacuten đoạn luacutec coacute luacutec khocircng
53 mainly principallyprimarily chủ yếu
54 next subsequently tiếp theo
55 again and again repeatedly lặp đi lặp lại
56 so therefore consequently vigrave thế vigrave vậy
57 understanding comprehension sự hiểu
58 lack deficiency sự thiếu hụt
59 chance opportunity cơ hội dịp
60 sweat perspiration mồ hocirci
61 house residence nơi cư truacute (count)
62 sight vision khả năng nhigraven thị giaacutec
63 friendly amiable thacircn mật
64 whole complete toagraven bộ
65 lively energeticallyanimated đầy sinh lực sống động
67 lucky fortunate may mắn
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5
68 childish immature infantile như trẻ con (tiacutenh caacutech)
69 wrong incorrectquestionable sai coacute vấn đề
70 worse inferior to thấp keacutem hơn
71 cheap inexpensive rẻ
72 dim indistinct khocircng rotilde ragraveng mờ
73 mad insane điecircn
74 to lay back to relax thư giatilden
75 in charge of responsible for chịu traacutech nhiệm
76 enough sufficient đầy đủ
77 better superior to tốt hơn giỏi hơn
78 clear transparent rotilde ragraveng
79 empty vacant trống khocircng
80 to ask for to require to request đogravei hỏi yecircu cầu
81 hot (topic) controversial đang gacircy tranh catildei
82 more and more Increasingly unceasinglynon-stop tăng lecircn khocircng ngừng
83 to get to obtain to receive đạt được lấy mua
84 bad disappointing tồi tệ đaacuteng thất vọng
85 to get worse to deteriorate trở necircn xấu đi
86 horrible unacceptable khocircng thể chấp nhận kinh khủng
87 to come in to enter đi vagraveo
88 to talk about to discuss thảo luận
89 to go down to descend đi xuống giảm xuống
90 to come up with to suggest gợi yacute đưa ra
91 to look at to examine xem xeacutet
92 to pin down to determine quyết tacircm dứt khoaacutet
93 to experience the influence of to be influenced chịu ảnh hưởng
94 Letrsquos consider hellip It is important to consider hellip hatildey cacircn nhắc xem xeacutet
95 I lovelikeprefer Personally I favour hellip Tocirci thiacutech tocirci ủng hộ
96 On top of that Another point is hellip một điểm khaacutec nữa lagrave
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
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97 Government must make laws There is a need for laws cần coacute luật về hellip
98 In a nutshell To state it briefly In brief toacutem lại
99 Every coin has two sides There are advantages and disadvantages to mọi vấn đề đều coacute ưu điểm vagrave nhược điểm
100 by chance Incidentally nhacircn tiện
101 to try to attempt to endeavor cố gắng
102 to swap to exchange trao đổi
103 as far as x goes in respect of with respect to đối với về phần
104 to skip omitnot attend smth bỏ qua khocircng tham dự
105 by accident accidentally ngẫu nhiecircn tigravenh cờ
106 kids infantsoffsprings trẻ em
107 OK acceptable satisfactory được chấp nhận được
108 to make up for to compensate for đền bugrave bugrave lại
109 to catch on smth to understand nắm bắt hiểu
110 to go down with a disease to contract a disease mắc bệnh
111 to go up to increase tăng lecircn
112 to get in touch with to contact liecircn hệ liecircn lạc
113 to let somebody know to inform cho biết
114 to call off to cancel huỷ bỏ batildei bỏ
115 to sort out to resolve giải quyết đi đến quyết định
116 to deal with to handle to address giải quyết xử lyacute
117 small minimallimited modest nhỏ beacute
118 to think of to conceive ofimagine nghĩ về suy tiacutenh
119 about an estimated approximately roughly khoảng chừng
120 to do (research) to carry out perform undertake tiến hagravenh (nghiecircn cứu) đảm nhiệm
121 hard difficult problematicchallenging khoacute khăn
122 to keep up to maintain duy trigrave
123 a lot a substantial amount a considerable sum nhiều
124 stand for denote represent chỉ thay cho
126 next adjacent kề cận
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
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127 prove confirm khẳng định
128 rich affluent wealthy prosperous giagraveu coacute
129 the same as equivalent to giống nhau tương đương
130 drink beverage (count) đồ uống
131 man male đagraven ocircng
132 old people senior citizens retirees người cao tuổi
133 crooks offenders lawbreakers tội phạm
134 great awesome preferable desirable tuyệt vời đaacuteng ao ước
135 sick of fed up with dissatisfied with khocircng hagravei lograveng
136 feature characteristic đặc điểm
137 before Prior to trước
138 to think (that) to assume (that) cho rằng
139 Because Owing to or due to the fact thatAs a result of vigrave
140 Nobody can say It is impossible to predict hellip Khocircng coacute thể dự đoaacuten trước
141 I think that It seems that It could be argued that nNười ta noacutei rằng
142 About Regarding Concerning Về về phần
143 And as well as cograven cũng như
144 but whilewhereas nưng khi magrave
145 to write a cheque to issue a checque viết tờ ngacircn phiếu
146 carefullcautious prudent (imprudent)prudential cẩn thận thận trọng
147 to check to verify kiểm tra
148 to agree with to be bound by đồng yacute với
149 to go over exeed vượt quaacute quaacute mức
150 to hand to give to submit trigravenh lecircn nộp
152 In accordance with Pursuant to Phugrave hợp với
153 to involve to entail keacuteo theo kegravem theo
154 lost inadvertently mislaid vocirc tigravenh thất lạc
155 to make sure to ensure để đảm bảo rằng
156 to order to authorise uỷ quyền
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157 to pay to settle trả tiền thanh toaacuten
158 to supply to furnish cung cấp
159 to take away to withdraw lấy ra ruacutet (tiền) ra
160 when we get hellip On receipt of hellip Khi nhận được hellip
161 Whenever we like want Without prior notice hellip Khocircng baacuteo trước hellip
162 One after the other At regular intervals Đều đặn
163 There are no big differences between No significant differences emerges between Khocircng coacute sự khaacutec biệt đaacuteng kể nagraveo
164 This shows that This demonstrates that Điều nagravey chỉ ra rằng
165 to put smth into action To be implemented carried out Được tiến hagravenh được đưa vagraveo hoạt động
166 etc and so forth and so on among other examples vagrave vv
167 ie namely that is tức lagrave chẳng hạn
168 eg For example viacute dụ
169 vs versusas apposed of chống lại ngược với
170 nice cute attractive hấp dẫn locirci cuốn
171 smart intelligent thocircng minh
172 come arrive đến
173 lifestyle way of life manner of life lối sống
174 19th century The nineteenth century Khocircng viết tắt
175 workmate colleague đồng nghiệp
176 tired exhausted mệt mỏi
177 drunk intoxicated bị say rượu
178 sad dejected buồn chaacuten nản
179 who whom ( đại từ tacircn ngữ sau giới từ) ai
180 to get your money back refund your payment lấy lại tiền
181 to pay your bills to settle your account trả tiền hoaacute đơn mua hagraveng thanh toaacuten
182 really extremely cực kỳ vocirc cugraveng
183 to go up to to reach lecircn tới (con số) đạt tới
184 to work to function hoạt động
185 breathing respiration sự hocirc hấp
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
9
186 meat-eater carnivore động vật ăn thịt
187 chance opportunity cơ hội
188 wrong erroneous sai soacutet
189 died out extinct tuyệt chủng
190 relevant pertinent thiacutech đaacuteng đuacuteng chỗ
191 relatives kindred họ hagraveng thacircn tộc
192 copy imitate bắt chước
193 break fracture đập vỡ
194 mix blend pha trộn
195 preference predilection sự thiecircn vị
196 to come across to find tigravem thấy
197 to do away with to abolish batildei bỏ
198 to build up to accumulate tiacutech luỹ
199 to finish off to conclude kết luận
200 to back up to supportto advocate ủng hộ
201 to put forward propose đề xuất đề nghị
202 to put across to express biểu lộ bagravey tỏ
203 to obey a law to comply with a law tuacircn thủ phaacutep luật
204 poor country developing country nước nghegraveo
205 Thatrsquos why why For this reason hellip hellip the reason for hellip Viacute lyacute do nagravey
206 new novel mới
207 dependence surbodination sự phụ thuộc
208 quarrel debatedispute Catildei nhau
209 In the same way Similarly Tương tự như vậy
210 to look for to seek Tigravem kiếm
211 way mannersolution giải phaacutep
212 money currency tiền tệ
213 to imagine to conceive conceivably tưởng tượng
214 place location nơi vị triacute
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10
215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
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11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
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13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
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14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
16
2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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Types of Trend
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
24
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25
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27
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28
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30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
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32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
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35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
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45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
2
FORMAL AND INFORMAL WORD LIST
(Collected and selected by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University)
Rules for formal writing are quite strict though often unstated Formal writing is used in academic and
scientific settings whenever you want to convey your ideas to a wide audience with many possible backgrounds
and assumptions Unlike casual conversation or emails to friends formal writing needs to be clear
unambiguous literal and well structured
Table 01
Ord
INFORMALEVERYDAY
FORMALACADEMIC
VIETNAMESE MEANING
01 a lot of loads of plenty of a great deal of numerous several nhiều
02 a bit Somewhat (before adj or adv) slightly một chuacutet iacutet
03 to get together to collaborate with sbd on smth cộng taacutec
04 to startto begin to initiateto commence smthv-ing bắt đầu khởi đầu
05 big large (numberpercentage) considerable lớn to lớn
06 thing deviceobject vật dụngvật thể
07 stuff material chất liệu vật liệu
08 to find out to ascertaindiscover tigravem ra tigravem thấy
09 to do again to repeat lặp lại
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
3
10 to do well to succeed thagravenh cocircng
11 to set up to establish thiết lập
12 to cut down on to reduce giảm bớt
13 to go up to increase tăng lecircn
14 to come up with to create tạo ra
15 to look into to investigate điều tra
16 to go up and down to fluctuate dao động
17 to bring up a question to raise a question đưa ra vấn đề
18 to get rid of to eliminate loại bỏ
19 to turn down smth to refuse từ chối
20 to turn out smth to produce lagravem ra tạo ra
21 to take smth back to retract (a statement) ruacutet lại
22 to put off smth to postpone smth hoatilden lại
23 to put up with to tolerate chịu đựng
24 to put away smth to save tiết kiệm để dagravenh
25 to put down to smth to attribute to quy cho gaacuten cho
26 to come about to occur xảy ra
27 to give up to relinquish từ bỏ
28 to go backgive back return to swh smth trở lại trả lại
29 to give off smth to produce (heat) sản sinh tạo ra
30 to give away to betray tiết lộ phản bội
31 to carry out smth to conduct tiến hagravenh
32 to seem to appear higravenh như dường như
33 to climb to ascend đi lecircn tăng lecircn (số lượng)
34 to help to assist aid giuacutep đỡ
35 to stop to cease dừng lại
36 to use to consume dugraveng tiecircu dugraveng
37 to shorten to decrease to abbreviate giảm bớt ruacutet ngắn
37 to show to demonstrate chỉ ra chứng minh
38 to go to depart đi khởi hagravenh
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
4
39 to want to desire mong muốn
40 to end to finish to terminate kết thuacutec
41 to tell to inform thocircng tin cho biết
42 to keep preserve retain giữ gigraven giữ
43 to say no to reject từ chối
44 to free to release to liberate trả tự do phoacuteng thiacutech
45 to mend to fix to repair sửa chữa
46 to need to require cần
47 to live to reside ở tại truacute tại
48 in the end finallyultimately cuối cugraveng
49 at once immediately ngay lập tức
50 at the same time simultaneously concurrently đồng thời cugraveng luacutec
51 at first initially đầu tiecircn
52 on and off intermittently giaacuten đoạn luacutec coacute luacutec khocircng
53 mainly principallyprimarily chủ yếu
54 next subsequently tiếp theo
55 again and again repeatedly lặp đi lặp lại
56 so therefore consequently vigrave thế vigrave vậy
57 understanding comprehension sự hiểu
58 lack deficiency sự thiếu hụt
59 chance opportunity cơ hội dịp
60 sweat perspiration mồ hocirci
61 house residence nơi cư truacute (count)
62 sight vision khả năng nhigraven thị giaacutec
63 friendly amiable thacircn mật
64 whole complete toagraven bộ
65 lively energeticallyanimated đầy sinh lực sống động
67 lucky fortunate may mắn
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
5
68 childish immature infantile như trẻ con (tiacutenh caacutech)
69 wrong incorrectquestionable sai coacute vấn đề
70 worse inferior to thấp keacutem hơn
71 cheap inexpensive rẻ
72 dim indistinct khocircng rotilde ragraveng mờ
73 mad insane điecircn
74 to lay back to relax thư giatilden
75 in charge of responsible for chịu traacutech nhiệm
76 enough sufficient đầy đủ
77 better superior to tốt hơn giỏi hơn
78 clear transparent rotilde ragraveng
79 empty vacant trống khocircng
80 to ask for to require to request đogravei hỏi yecircu cầu
81 hot (topic) controversial đang gacircy tranh catildei
82 more and more Increasingly unceasinglynon-stop tăng lecircn khocircng ngừng
83 to get to obtain to receive đạt được lấy mua
84 bad disappointing tồi tệ đaacuteng thất vọng
85 to get worse to deteriorate trở necircn xấu đi
86 horrible unacceptable khocircng thể chấp nhận kinh khủng
87 to come in to enter đi vagraveo
88 to talk about to discuss thảo luận
89 to go down to descend đi xuống giảm xuống
90 to come up with to suggest gợi yacute đưa ra
91 to look at to examine xem xeacutet
92 to pin down to determine quyết tacircm dứt khoaacutet
93 to experience the influence of to be influenced chịu ảnh hưởng
94 Letrsquos consider hellip It is important to consider hellip hatildey cacircn nhắc xem xeacutet
95 I lovelikeprefer Personally I favour hellip Tocirci thiacutech tocirci ủng hộ
96 On top of that Another point is hellip một điểm khaacutec nữa lagrave
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
6
97 Government must make laws There is a need for laws cần coacute luật về hellip
98 In a nutshell To state it briefly In brief toacutem lại
99 Every coin has two sides There are advantages and disadvantages to mọi vấn đề đều coacute ưu điểm vagrave nhược điểm
100 by chance Incidentally nhacircn tiện
101 to try to attempt to endeavor cố gắng
102 to swap to exchange trao đổi
103 as far as x goes in respect of with respect to đối với về phần
104 to skip omitnot attend smth bỏ qua khocircng tham dự
105 by accident accidentally ngẫu nhiecircn tigravenh cờ
106 kids infantsoffsprings trẻ em
107 OK acceptable satisfactory được chấp nhận được
108 to make up for to compensate for đền bugrave bugrave lại
109 to catch on smth to understand nắm bắt hiểu
110 to go down with a disease to contract a disease mắc bệnh
111 to go up to increase tăng lecircn
112 to get in touch with to contact liecircn hệ liecircn lạc
113 to let somebody know to inform cho biết
114 to call off to cancel huỷ bỏ batildei bỏ
115 to sort out to resolve giải quyết đi đến quyết định
116 to deal with to handle to address giải quyết xử lyacute
117 small minimallimited modest nhỏ beacute
118 to think of to conceive ofimagine nghĩ về suy tiacutenh
119 about an estimated approximately roughly khoảng chừng
120 to do (research) to carry out perform undertake tiến hagravenh (nghiecircn cứu) đảm nhiệm
121 hard difficult problematicchallenging khoacute khăn
122 to keep up to maintain duy trigrave
123 a lot a substantial amount a considerable sum nhiều
124 stand for denote represent chỉ thay cho
126 next adjacent kề cận
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
7
127 prove confirm khẳng định
128 rich affluent wealthy prosperous giagraveu coacute
129 the same as equivalent to giống nhau tương đương
130 drink beverage (count) đồ uống
131 man male đagraven ocircng
132 old people senior citizens retirees người cao tuổi
133 crooks offenders lawbreakers tội phạm
134 great awesome preferable desirable tuyệt vời đaacuteng ao ước
135 sick of fed up with dissatisfied with khocircng hagravei lograveng
136 feature characteristic đặc điểm
137 before Prior to trước
138 to think (that) to assume (that) cho rằng
139 Because Owing to or due to the fact thatAs a result of vigrave
140 Nobody can say It is impossible to predict hellip Khocircng coacute thể dự đoaacuten trước
141 I think that It seems that It could be argued that nNười ta noacutei rằng
142 About Regarding Concerning Về về phần
143 And as well as cograven cũng như
144 but whilewhereas nưng khi magrave
145 to write a cheque to issue a checque viết tờ ngacircn phiếu
146 carefullcautious prudent (imprudent)prudential cẩn thận thận trọng
147 to check to verify kiểm tra
148 to agree with to be bound by đồng yacute với
149 to go over exeed vượt quaacute quaacute mức
150 to hand to give to submit trigravenh lecircn nộp
152 In accordance with Pursuant to Phugrave hợp với
153 to involve to entail keacuteo theo kegravem theo
154 lost inadvertently mislaid vocirc tigravenh thất lạc
155 to make sure to ensure để đảm bảo rằng
156 to order to authorise uỷ quyền
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
8
157 to pay to settle trả tiền thanh toaacuten
158 to supply to furnish cung cấp
159 to take away to withdraw lấy ra ruacutet (tiền) ra
160 when we get hellip On receipt of hellip Khi nhận được hellip
161 Whenever we like want Without prior notice hellip Khocircng baacuteo trước hellip
162 One after the other At regular intervals Đều đặn
163 There are no big differences between No significant differences emerges between Khocircng coacute sự khaacutec biệt đaacuteng kể nagraveo
164 This shows that This demonstrates that Điều nagravey chỉ ra rằng
165 to put smth into action To be implemented carried out Được tiến hagravenh được đưa vagraveo hoạt động
166 etc and so forth and so on among other examples vagrave vv
167 ie namely that is tức lagrave chẳng hạn
168 eg For example viacute dụ
169 vs versusas apposed of chống lại ngược với
170 nice cute attractive hấp dẫn locirci cuốn
171 smart intelligent thocircng minh
172 come arrive đến
173 lifestyle way of life manner of life lối sống
174 19th century The nineteenth century Khocircng viết tắt
175 workmate colleague đồng nghiệp
176 tired exhausted mệt mỏi
177 drunk intoxicated bị say rượu
178 sad dejected buồn chaacuten nản
179 who whom ( đại từ tacircn ngữ sau giới từ) ai
180 to get your money back refund your payment lấy lại tiền
181 to pay your bills to settle your account trả tiền hoaacute đơn mua hagraveng thanh toaacuten
182 really extremely cực kỳ vocirc cugraveng
183 to go up to to reach lecircn tới (con số) đạt tới
184 to work to function hoạt động
185 breathing respiration sự hocirc hấp
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
9
186 meat-eater carnivore động vật ăn thịt
187 chance opportunity cơ hội
188 wrong erroneous sai soacutet
189 died out extinct tuyệt chủng
190 relevant pertinent thiacutech đaacuteng đuacuteng chỗ
191 relatives kindred họ hagraveng thacircn tộc
192 copy imitate bắt chước
193 break fracture đập vỡ
194 mix blend pha trộn
195 preference predilection sự thiecircn vị
196 to come across to find tigravem thấy
197 to do away with to abolish batildei bỏ
198 to build up to accumulate tiacutech luỹ
199 to finish off to conclude kết luận
200 to back up to supportto advocate ủng hộ
201 to put forward propose đề xuất đề nghị
202 to put across to express biểu lộ bagravey tỏ
203 to obey a law to comply with a law tuacircn thủ phaacutep luật
204 poor country developing country nước nghegraveo
205 Thatrsquos why why For this reason hellip hellip the reason for hellip Viacute lyacute do nagravey
206 new novel mới
207 dependence surbodination sự phụ thuộc
208 quarrel debatedispute Catildei nhau
209 In the same way Similarly Tương tự như vậy
210 to look for to seek Tigravem kiếm
211 way mannersolution giải phaacutep
212 money currency tiền tệ
213 to imagine to conceive conceivably tưởng tượng
214 place location nơi vị triacute
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
10
215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
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12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
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13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
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14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
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15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
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2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
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32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
3
10 to do well to succeed thagravenh cocircng
11 to set up to establish thiết lập
12 to cut down on to reduce giảm bớt
13 to go up to increase tăng lecircn
14 to come up with to create tạo ra
15 to look into to investigate điều tra
16 to go up and down to fluctuate dao động
17 to bring up a question to raise a question đưa ra vấn đề
18 to get rid of to eliminate loại bỏ
19 to turn down smth to refuse từ chối
20 to turn out smth to produce lagravem ra tạo ra
21 to take smth back to retract (a statement) ruacutet lại
22 to put off smth to postpone smth hoatilden lại
23 to put up with to tolerate chịu đựng
24 to put away smth to save tiết kiệm để dagravenh
25 to put down to smth to attribute to quy cho gaacuten cho
26 to come about to occur xảy ra
27 to give up to relinquish từ bỏ
28 to go backgive back return to swh smth trở lại trả lại
29 to give off smth to produce (heat) sản sinh tạo ra
30 to give away to betray tiết lộ phản bội
31 to carry out smth to conduct tiến hagravenh
32 to seem to appear higravenh như dường như
33 to climb to ascend đi lecircn tăng lecircn (số lượng)
34 to help to assist aid giuacutep đỡ
35 to stop to cease dừng lại
36 to use to consume dugraveng tiecircu dugraveng
37 to shorten to decrease to abbreviate giảm bớt ruacutet ngắn
37 to show to demonstrate chỉ ra chứng minh
38 to go to depart đi khởi hagravenh
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
4
39 to want to desire mong muốn
40 to end to finish to terminate kết thuacutec
41 to tell to inform thocircng tin cho biết
42 to keep preserve retain giữ gigraven giữ
43 to say no to reject từ chối
44 to free to release to liberate trả tự do phoacuteng thiacutech
45 to mend to fix to repair sửa chữa
46 to need to require cần
47 to live to reside ở tại truacute tại
48 in the end finallyultimately cuối cugraveng
49 at once immediately ngay lập tức
50 at the same time simultaneously concurrently đồng thời cugraveng luacutec
51 at first initially đầu tiecircn
52 on and off intermittently giaacuten đoạn luacutec coacute luacutec khocircng
53 mainly principallyprimarily chủ yếu
54 next subsequently tiếp theo
55 again and again repeatedly lặp đi lặp lại
56 so therefore consequently vigrave thế vigrave vậy
57 understanding comprehension sự hiểu
58 lack deficiency sự thiếu hụt
59 chance opportunity cơ hội dịp
60 sweat perspiration mồ hocirci
61 house residence nơi cư truacute (count)
62 sight vision khả năng nhigraven thị giaacutec
63 friendly amiable thacircn mật
64 whole complete toagraven bộ
65 lively energeticallyanimated đầy sinh lực sống động
67 lucky fortunate may mắn
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
5
68 childish immature infantile như trẻ con (tiacutenh caacutech)
69 wrong incorrectquestionable sai coacute vấn đề
70 worse inferior to thấp keacutem hơn
71 cheap inexpensive rẻ
72 dim indistinct khocircng rotilde ragraveng mờ
73 mad insane điecircn
74 to lay back to relax thư giatilden
75 in charge of responsible for chịu traacutech nhiệm
76 enough sufficient đầy đủ
77 better superior to tốt hơn giỏi hơn
78 clear transparent rotilde ragraveng
79 empty vacant trống khocircng
80 to ask for to require to request đogravei hỏi yecircu cầu
81 hot (topic) controversial đang gacircy tranh catildei
82 more and more Increasingly unceasinglynon-stop tăng lecircn khocircng ngừng
83 to get to obtain to receive đạt được lấy mua
84 bad disappointing tồi tệ đaacuteng thất vọng
85 to get worse to deteriorate trở necircn xấu đi
86 horrible unacceptable khocircng thể chấp nhận kinh khủng
87 to come in to enter đi vagraveo
88 to talk about to discuss thảo luận
89 to go down to descend đi xuống giảm xuống
90 to come up with to suggest gợi yacute đưa ra
91 to look at to examine xem xeacutet
92 to pin down to determine quyết tacircm dứt khoaacutet
93 to experience the influence of to be influenced chịu ảnh hưởng
94 Letrsquos consider hellip It is important to consider hellip hatildey cacircn nhắc xem xeacutet
95 I lovelikeprefer Personally I favour hellip Tocirci thiacutech tocirci ủng hộ
96 On top of that Another point is hellip một điểm khaacutec nữa lagrave
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
6
97 Government must make laws There is a need for laws cần coacute luật về hellip
98 In a nutshell To state it briefly In brief toacutem lại
99 Every coin has two sides There are advantages and disadvantages to mọi vấn đề đều coacute ưu điểm vagrave nhược điểm
100 by chance Incidentally nhacircn tiện
101 to try to attempt to endeavor cố gắng
102 to swap to exchange trao đổi
103 as far as x goes in respect of with respect to đối với về phần
104 to skip omitnot attend smth bỏ qua khocircng tham dự
105 by accident accidentally ngẫu nhiecircn tigravenh cờ
106 kids infantsoffsprings trẻ em
107 OK acceptable satisfactory được chấp nhận được
108 to make up for to compensate for đền bugrave bugrave lại
109 to catch on smth to understand nắm bắt hiểu
110 to go down with a disease to contract a disease mắc bệnh
111 to go up to increase tăng lecircn
112 to get in touch with to contact liecircn hệ liecircn lạc
113 to let somebody know to inform cho biết
114 to call off to cancel huỷ bỏ batildei bỏ
115 to sort out to resolve giải quyết đi đến quyết định
116 to deal with to handle to address giải quyết xử lyacute
117 small minimallimited modest nhỏ beacute
118 to think of to conceive ofimagine nghĩ về suy tiacutenh
119 about an estimated approximately roughly khoảng chừng
120 to do (research) to carry out perform undertake tiến hagravenh (nghiecircn cứu) đảm nhiệm
121 hard difficult problematicchallenging khoacute khăn
122 to keep up to maintain duy trigrave
123 a lot a substantial amount a considerable sum nhiều
124 stand for denote represent chỉ thay cho
126 next adjacent kề cận
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127 prove confirm khẳng định
128 rich affluent wealthy prosperous giagraveu coacute
129 the same as equivalent to giống nhau tương đương
130 drink beverage (count) đồ uống
131 man male đagraven ocircng
132 old people senior citizens retirees người cao tuổi
133 crooks offenders lawbreakers tội phạm
134 great awesome preferable desirable tuyệt vời đaacuteng ao ước
135 sick of fed up with dissatisfied with khocircng hagravei lograveng
136 feature characteristic đặc điểm
137 before Prior to trước
138 to think (that) to assume (that) cho rằng
139 Because Owing to or due to the fact thatAs a result of vigrave
140 Nobody can say It is impossible to predict hellip Khocircng coacute thể dự đoaacuten trước
141 I think that It seems that It could be argued that nNười ta noacutei rằng
142 About Regarding Concerning Về về phần
143 And as well as cograven cũng như
144 but whilewhereas nưng khi magrave
145 to write a cheque to issue a checque viết tờ ngacircn phiếu
146 carefullcautious prudent (imprudent)prudential cẩn thận thận trọng
147 to check to verify kiểm tra
148 to agree with to be bound by đồng yacute với
149 to go over exeed vượt quaacute quaacute mức
150 to hand to give to submit trigravenh lecircn nộp
152 In accordance with Pursuant to Phugrave hợp với
153 to involve to entail keacuteo theo kegravem theo
154 lost inadvertently mislaid vocirc tigravenh thất lạc
155 to make sure to ensure để đảm bảo rằng
156 to order to authorise uỷ quyền
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157 to pay to settle trả tiền thanh toaacuten
158 to supply to furnish cung cấp
159 to take away to withdraw lấy ra ruacutet (tiền) ra
160 when we get hellip On receipt of hellip Khi nhận được hellip
161 Whenever we like want Without prior notice hellip Khocircng baacuteo trước hellip
162 One after the other At regular intervals Đều đặn
163 There are no big differences between No significant differences emerges between Khocircng coacute sự khaacutec biệt đaacuteng kể nagraveo
164 This shows that This demonstrates that Điều nagravey chỉ ra rằng
165 to put smth into action To be implemented carried out Được tiến hagravenh được đưa vagraveo hoạt động
166 etc and so forth and so on among other examples vagrave vv
167 ie namely that is tức lagrave chẳng hạn
168 eg For example viacute dụ
169 vs versusas apposed of chống lại ngược với
170 nice cute attractive hấp dẫn locirci cuốn
171 smart intelligent thocircng minh
172 come arrive đến
173 lifestyle way of life manner of life lối sống
174 19th century The nineteenth century Khocircng viết tắt
175 workmate colleague đồng nghiệp
176 tired exhausted mệt mỏi
177 drunk intoxicated bị say rượu
178 sad dejected buồn chaacuten nản
179 who whom ( đại từ tacircn ngữ sau giới từ) ai
180 to get your money back refund your payment lấy lại tiền
181 to pay your bills to settle your account trả tiền hoaacute đơn mua hagraveng thanh toaacuten
182 really extremely cực kỳ vocirc cugraveng
183 to go up to to reach lecircn tới (con số) đạt tới
184 to work to function hoạt động
185 breathing respiration sự hocirc hấp
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186 meat-eater carnivore động vật ăn thịt
187 chance opportunity cơ hội
188 wrong erroneous sai soacutet
189 died out extinct tuyệt chủng
190 relevant pertinent thiacutech đaacuteng đuacuteng chỗ
191 relatives kindred họ hagraveng thacircn tộc
192 copy imitate bắt chước
193 break fracture đập vỡ
194 mix blend pha trộn
195 preference predilection sự thiecircn vị
196 to come across to find tigravem thấy
197 to do away with to abolish batildei bỏ
198 to build up to accumulate tiacutech luỹ
199 to finish off to conclude kết luận
200 to back up to supportto advocate ủng hộ
201 to put forward propose đề xuất đề nghị
202 to put across to express biểu lộ bagravey tỏ
203 to obey a law to comply with a law tuacircn thủ phaacutep luật
204 poor country developing country nước nghegraveo
205 Thatrsquos why why For this reason hellip hellip the reason for hellip Viacute lyacute do nagravey
206 new novel mới
207 dependence surbodination sự phụ thuộc
208 quarrel debatedispute Catildei nhau
209 In the same way Similarly Tương tự như vậy
210 to look for to seek Tigravem kiếm
211 way mannersolution giải phaacutep
212 money currency tiền tệ
213 to imagine to conceive conceivably tưởng tượng
214 place location nơi vị triacute
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
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215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
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13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
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14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
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15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
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2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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Types of Trend
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
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THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
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32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
4
39 to want to desire mong muốn
40 to end to finish to terminate kết thuacutec
41 to tell to inform thocircng tin cho biết
42 to keep preserve retain giữ gigraven giữ
43 to say no to reject từ chối
44 to free to release to liberate trả tự do phoacuteng thiacutech
45 to mend to fix to repair sửa chữa
46 to need to require cần
47 to live to reside ở tại truacute tại
48 in the end finallyultimately cuối cugraveng
49 at once immediately ngay lập tức
50 at the same time simultaneously concurrently đồng thời cugraveng luacutec
51 at first initially đầu tiecircn
52 on and off intermittently giaacuten đoạn luacutec coacute luacutec khocircng
53 mainly principallyprimarily chủ yếu
54 next subsequently tiếp theo
55 again and again repeatedly lặp đi lặp lại
56 so therefore consequently vigrave thế vigrave vậy
57 understanding comprehension sự hiểu
58 lack deficiency sự thiếu hụt
59 chance opportunity cơ hội dịp
60 sweat perspiration mồ hocirci
61 house residence nơi cư truacute (count)
62 sight vision khả năng nhigraven thị giaacutec
63 friendly amiable thacircn mật
64 whole complete toagraven bộ
65 lively energeticallyanimated đầy sinh lực sống động
67 lucky fortunate may mắn
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
5
68 childish immature infantile như trẻ con (tiacutenh caacutech)
69 wrong incorrectquestionable sai coacute vấn đề
70 worse inferior to thấp keacutem hơn
71 cheap inexpensive rẻ
72 dim indistinct khocircng rotilde ragraveng mờ
73 mad insane điecircn
74 to lay back to relax thư giatilden
75 in charge of responsible for chịu traacutech nhiệm
76 enough sufficient đầy đủ
77 better superior to tốt hơn giỏi hơn
78 clear transparent rotilde ragraveng
79 empty vacant trống khocircng
80 to ask for to require to request đogravei hỏi yecircu cầu
81 hot (topic) controversial đang gacircy tranh catildei
82 more and more Increasingly unceasinglynon-stop tăng lecircn khocircng ngừng
83 to get to obtain to receive đạt được lấy mua
84 bad disappointing tồi tệ đaacuteng thất vọng
85 to get worse to deteriorate trở necircn xấu đi
86 horrible unacceptable khocircng thể chấp nhận kinh khủng
87 to come in to enter đi vagraveo
88 to talk about to discuss thảo luận
89 to go down to descend đi xuống giảm xuống
90 to come up with to suggest gợi yacute đưa ra
91 to look at to examine xem xeacutet
92 to pin down to determine quyết tacircm dứt khoaacutet
93 to experience the influence of to be influenced chịu ảnh hưởng
94 Letrsquos consider hellip It is important to consider hellip hatildey cacircn nhắc xem xeacutet
95 I lovelikeprefer Personally I favour hellip Tocirci thiacutech tocirci ủng hộ
96 On top of that Another point is hellip một điểm khaacutec nữa lagrave
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
6
97 Government must make laws There is a need for laws cần coacute luật về hellip
98 In a nutshell To state it briefly In brief toacutem lại
99 Every coin has two sides There are advantages and disadvantages to mọi vấn đề đều coacute ưu điểm vagrave nhược điểm
100 by chance Incidentally nhacircn tiện
101 to try to attempt to endeavor cố gắng
102 to swap to exchange trao đổi
103 as far as x goes in respect of with respect to đối với về phần
104 to skip omitnot attend smth bỏ qua khocircng tham dự
105 by accident accidentally ngẫu nhiecircn tigravenh cờ
106 kids infantsoffsprings trẻ em
107 OK acceptable satisfactory được chấp nhận được
108 to make up for to compensate for đền bugrave bugrave lại
109 to catch on smth to understand nắm bắt hiểu
110 to go down with a disease to contract a disease mắc bệnh
111 to go up to increase tăng lecircn
112 to get in touch with to contact liecircn hệ liecircn lạc
113 to let somebody know to inform cho biết
114 to call off to cancel huỷ bỏ batildei bỏ
115 to sort out to resolve giải quyết đi đến quyết định
116 to deal with to handle to address giải quyết xử lyacute
117 small minimallimited modest nhỏ beacute
118 to think of to conceive ofimagine nghĩ về suy tiacutenh
119 about an estimated approximately roughly khoảng chừng
120 to do (research) to carry out perform undertake tiến hagravenh (nghiecircn cứu) đảm nhiệm
121 hard difficult problematicchallenging khoacute khăn
122 to keep up to maintain duy trigrave
123 a lot a substantial amount a considerable sum nhiều
124 stand for denote represent chỉ thay cho
126 next adjacent kề cận
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
7
127 prove confirm khẳng định
128 rich affluent wealthy prosperous giagraveu coacute
129 the same as equivalent to giống nhau tương đương
130 drink beverage (count) đồ uống
131 man male đagraven ocircng
132 old people senior citizens retirees người cao tuổi
133 crooks offenders lawbreakers tội phạm
134 great awesome preferable desirable tuyệt vời đaacuteng ao ước
135 sick of fed up with dissatisfied with khocircng hagravei lograveng
136 feature characteristic đặc điểm
137 before Prior to trước
138 to think (that) to assume (that) cho rằng
139 Because Owing to or due to the fact thatAs a result of vigrave
140 Nobody can say It is impossible to predict hellip Khocircng coacute thể dự đoaacuten trước
141 I think that It seems that It could be argued that nNười ta noacutei rằng
142 About Regarding Concerning Về về phần
143 And as well as cograven cũng như
144 but whilewhereas nưng khi magrave
145 to write a cheque to issue a checque viết tờ ngacircn phiếu
146 carefullcautious prudent (imprudent)prudential cẩn thận thận trọng
147 to check to verify kiểm tra
148 to agree with to be bound by đồng yacute với
149 to go over exeed vượt quaacute quaacute mức
150 to hand to give to submit trigravenh lecircn nộp
152 In accordance with Pursuant to Phugrave hợp với
153 to involve to entail keacuteo theo kegravem theo
154 lost inadvertently mislaid vocirc tigravenh thất lạc
155 to make sure to ensure để đảm bảo rằng
156 to order to authorise uỷ quyền
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
8
157 to pay to settle trả tiền thanh toaacuten
158 to supply to furnish cung cấp
159 to take away to withdraw lấy ra ruacutet (tiền) ra
160 when we get hellip On receipt of hellip Khi nhận được hellip
161 Whenever we like want Without prior notice hellip Khocircng baacuteo trước hellip
162 One after the other At regular intervals Đều đặn
163 There are no big differences between No significant differences emerges between Khocircng coacute sự khaacutec biệt đaacuteng kể nagraveo
164 This shows that This demonstrates that Điều nagravey chỉ ra rằng
165 to put smth into action To be implemented carried out Được tiến hagravenh được đưa vagraveo hoạt động
166 etc and so forth and so on among other examples vagrave vv
167 ie namely that is tức lagrave chẳng hạn
168 eg For example viacute dụ
169 vs versusas apposed of chống lại ngược với
170 nice cute attractive hấp dẫn locirci cuốn
171 smart intelligent thocircng minh
172 come arrive đến
173 lifestyle way of life manner of life lối sống
174 19th century The nineteenth century Khocircng viết tắt
175 workmate colleague đồng nghiệp
176 tired exhausted mệt mỏi
177 drunk intoxicated bị say rượu
178 sad dejected buồn chaacuten nản
179 who whom ( đại từ tacircn ngữ sau giới từ) ai
180 to get your money back refund your payment lấy lại tiền
181 to pay your bills to settle your account trả tiền hoaacute đơn mua hagraveng thanh toaacuten
182 really extremely cực kỳ vocirc cugraveng
183 to go up to to reach lecircn tới (con số) đạt tới
184 to work to function hoạt động
185 breathing respiration sự hocirc hấp
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
9
186 meat-eater carnivore động vật ăn thịt
187 chance opportunity cơ hội
188 wrong erroneous sai soacutet
189 died out extinct tuyệt chủng
190 relevant pertinent thiacutech đaacuteng đuacuteng chỗ
191 relatives kindred họ hagraveng thacircn tộc
192 copy imitate bắt chước
193 break fracture đập vỡ
194 mix blend pha trộn
195 preference predilection sự thiecircn vị
196 to come across to find tigravem thấy
197 to do away with to abolish batildei bỏ
198 to build up to accumulate tiacutech luỹ
199 to finish off to conclude kết luận
200 to back up to supportto advocate ủng hộ
201 to put forward propose đề xuất đề nghị
202 to put across to express biểu lộ bagravey tỏ
203 to obey a law to comply with a law tuacircn thủ phaacutep luật
204 poor country developing country nước nghegraveo
205 Thatrsquos why why For this reason hellip hellip the reason for hellip Viacute lyacute do nagravey
206 new novel mới
207 dependence surbodination sự phụ thuộc
208 quarrel debatedispute Catildei nhau
209 In the same way Similarly Tương tự như vậy
210 to look for to seek Tigravem kiếm
211 way mannersolution giải phaacutep
212 money currency tiền tệ
213 to imagine to conceive conceivably tưởng tượng
214 place location nơi vị triacute
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
10
215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
16
2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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26
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27
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28
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29
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30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
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35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
5
68 childish immature infantile như trẻ con (tiacutenh caacutech)
69 wrong incorrectquestionable sai coacute vấn đề
70 worse inferior to thấp keacutem hơn
71 cheap inexpensive rẻ
72 dim indistinct khocircng rotilde ragraveng mờ
73 mad insane điecircn
74 to lay back to relax thư giatilden
75 in charge of responsible for chịu traacutech nhiệm
76 enough sufficient đầy đủ
77 better superior to tốt hơn giỏi hơn
78 clear transparent rotilde ragraveng
79 empty vacant trống khocircng
80 to ask for to require to request đogravei hỏi yecircu cầu
81 hot (topic) controversial đang gacircy tranh catildei
82 more and more Increasingly unceasinglynon-stop tăng lecircn khocircng ngừng
83 to get to obtain to receive đạt được lấy mua
84 bad disappointing tồi tệ đaacuteng thất vọng
85 to get worse to deteriorate trở necircn xấu đi
86 horrible unacceptable khocircng thể chấp nhận kinh khủng
87 to come in to enter đi vagraveo
88 to talk about to discuss thảo luận
89 to go down to descend đi xuống giảm xuống
90 to come up with to suggest gợi yacute đưa ra
91 to look at to examine xem xeacutet
92 to pin down to determine quyết tacircm dứt khoaacutet
93 to experience the influence of to be influenced chịu ảnh hưởng
94 Letrsquos consider hellip It is important to consider hellip hatildey cacircn nhắc xem xeacutet
95 I lovelikeprefer Personally I favour hellip Tocirci thiacutech tocirci ủng hộ
96 On top of that Another point is hellip một điểm khaacutec nữa lagrave
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
6
97 Government must make laws There is a need for laws cần coacute luật về hellip
98 In a nutshell To state it briefly In brief toacutem lại
99 Every coin has two sides There are advantages and disadvantages to mọi vấn đề đều coacute ưu điểm vagrave nhược điểm
100 by chance Incidentally nhacircn tiện
101 to try to attempt to endeavor cố gắng
102 to swap to exchange trao đổi
103 as far as x goes in respect of with respect to đối với về phần
104 to skip omitnot attend smth bỏ qua khocircng tham dự
105 by accident accidentally ngẫu nhiecircn tigravenh cờ
106 kids infantsoffsprings trẻ em
107 OK acceptable satisfactory được chấp nhận được
108 to make up for to compensate for đền bugrave bugrave lại
109 to catch on smth to understand nắm bắt hiểu
110 to go down with a disease to contract a disease mắc bệnh
111 to go up to increase tăng lecircn
112 to get in touch with to contact liecircn hệ liecircn lạc
113 to let somebody know to inform cho biết
114 to call off to cancel huỷ bỏ batildei bỏ
115 to sort out to resolve giải quyết đi đến quyết định
116 to deal with to handle to address giải quyết xử lyacute
117 small minimallimited modest nhỏ beacute
118 to think of to conceive ofimagine nghĩ về suy tiacutenh
119 about an estimated approximately roughly khoảng chừng
120 to do (research) to carry out perform undertake tiến hagravenh (nghiecircn cứu) đảm nhiệm
121 hard difficult problematicchallenging khoacute khăn
122 to keep up to maintain duy trigrave
123 a lot a substantial amount a considerable sum nhiều
124 stand for denote represent chỉ thay cho
126 next adjacent kề cận
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
7
127 prove confirm khẳng định
128 rich affluent wealthy prosperous giagraveu coacute
129 the same as equivalent to giống nhau tương đương
130 drink beverage (count) đồ uống
131 man male đagraven ocircng
132 old people senior citizens retirees người cao tuổi
133 crooks offenders lawbreakers tội phạm
134 great awesome preferable desirable tuyệt vời đaacuteng ao ước
135 sick of fed up with dissatisfied with khocircng hagravei lograveng
136 feature characteristic đặc điểm
137 before Prior to trước
138 to think (that) to assume (that) cho rằng
139 Because Owing to or due to the fact thatAs a result of vigrave
140 Nobody can say It is impossible to predict hellip Khocircng coacute thể dự đoaacuten trước
141 I think that It seems that It could be argued that nNười ta noacutei rằng
142 About Regarding Concerning Về về phần
143 And as well as cograven cũng như
144 but whilewhereas nưng khi magrave
145 to write a cheque to issue a checque viết tờ ngacircn phiếu
146 carefullcautious prudent (imprudent)prudential cẩn thận thận trọng
147 to check to verify kiểm tra
148 to agree with to be bound by đồng yacute với
149 to go over exeed vượt quaacute quaacute mức
150 to hand to give to submit trigravenh lecircn nộp
152 In accordance with Pursuant to Phugrave hợp với
153 to involve to entail keacuteo theo kegravem theo
154 lost inadvertently mislaid vocirc tigravenh thất lạc
155 to make sure to ensure để đảm bảo rằng
156 to order to authorise uỷ quyền
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
8
157 to pay to settle trả tiền thanh toaacuten
158 to supply to furnish cung cấp
159 to take away to withdraw lấy ra ruacutet (tiền) ra
160 when we get hellip On receipt of hellip Khi nhận được hellip
161 Whenever we like want Without prior notice hellip Khocircng baacuteo trước hellip
162 One after the other At regular intervals Đều đặn
163 There are no big differences between No significant differences emerges between Khocircng coacute sự khaacutec biệt đaacuteng kể nagraveo
164 This shows that This demonstrates that Điều nagravey chỉ ra rằng
165 to put smth into action To be implemented carried out Được tiến hagravenh được đưa vagraveo hoạt động
166 etc and so forth and so on among other examples vagrave vv
167 ie namely that is tức lagrave chẳng hạn
168 eg For example viacute dụ
169 vs versusas apposed of chống lại ngược với
170 nice cute attractive hấp dẫn locirci cuốn
171 smart intelligent thocircng minh
172 come arrive đến
173 lifestyle way of life manner of life lối sống
174 19th century The nineteenth century Khocircng viết tắt
175 workmate colleague đồng nghiệp
176 tired exhausted mệt mỏi
177 drunk intoxicated bị say rượu
178 sad dejected buồn chaacuten nản
179 who whom ( đại từ tacircn ngữ sau giới từ) ai
180 to get your money back refund your payment lấy lại tiền
181 to pay your bills to settle your account trả tiền hoaacute đơn mua hagraveng thanh toaacuten
182 really extremely cực kỳ vocirc cugraveng
183 to go up to to reach lecircn tới (con số) đạt tới
184 to work to function hoạt động
185 breathing respiration sự hocirc hấp
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
9
186 meat-eater carnivore động vật ăn thịt
187 chance opportunity cơ hội
188 wrong erroneous sai soacutet
189 died out extinct tuyệt chủng
190 relevant pertinent thiacutech đaacuteng đuacuteng chỗ
191 relatives kindred họ hagraveng thacircn tộc
192 copy imitate bắt chước
193 break fracture đập vỡ
194 mix blend pha trộn
195 preference predilection sự thiecircn vị
196 to come across to find tigravem thấy
197 to do away with to abolish batildei bỏ
198 to build up to accumulate tiacutech luỹ
199 to finish off to conclude kết luận
200 to back up to supportto advocate ủng hộ
201 to put forward propose đề xuất đề nghị
202 to put across to express biểu lộ bagravey tỏ
203 to obey a law to comply with a law tuacircn thủ phaacutep luật
204 poor country developing country nước nghegraveo
205 Thatrsquos why why For this reason hellip hellip the reason for hellip Viacute lyacute do nagravey
206 new novel mới
207 dependence surbodination sự phụ thuộc
208 quarrel debatedispute Catildei nhau
209 In the same way Similarly Tương tự như vậy
210 to look for to seek Tigravem kiếm
211 way mannersolution giải phaacutep
212 money currency tiền tệ
213 to imagine to conceive conceivably tưởng tượng
214 place location nơi vị triacute
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
10
215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
16
2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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25
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30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
6
97 Government must make laws There is a need for laws cần coacute luật về hellip
98 In a nutshell To state it briefly In brief toacutem lại
99 Every coin has two sides There are advantages and disadvantages to mọi vấn đề đều coacute ưu điểm vagrave nhược điểm
100 by chance Incidentally nhacircn tiện
101 to try to attempt to endeavor cố gắng
102 to swap to exchange trao đổi
103 as far as x goes in respect of with respect to đối với về phần
104 to skip omitnot attend smth bỏ qua khocircng tham dự
105 by accident accidentally ngẫu nhiecircn tigravenh cờ
106 kids infantsoffsprings trẻ em
107 OK acceptable satisfactory được chấp nhận được
108 to make up for to compensate for đền bugrave bugrave lại
109 to catch on smth to understand nắm bắt hiểu
110 to go down with a disease to contract a disease mắc bệnh
111 to go up to increase tăng lecircn
112 to get in touch with to contact liecircn hệ liecircn lạc
113 to let somebody know to inform cho biết
114 to call off to cancel huỷ bỏ batildei bỏ
115 to sort out to resolve giải quyết đi đến quyết định
116 to deal with to handle to address giải quyết xử lyacute
117 small minimallimited modest nhỏ beacute
118 to think of to conceive ofimagine nghĩ về suy tiacutenh
119 about an estimated approximately roughly khoảng chừng
120 to do (research) to carry out perform undertake tiến hagravenh (nghiecircn cứu) đảm nhiệm
121 hard difficult problematicchallenging khoacute khăn
122 to keep up to maintain duy trigrave
123 a lot a substantial amount a considerable sum nhiều
124 stand for denote represent chỉ thay cho
126 next adjacent kề cận
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
7
127 prove confirm khẳng định
128 rich affluent wealthy prosperous giagraveu coacute
129 the same as equivalent to giống nhau tương đương
130 drink beverage (count) đồ uống
131 man male đagraven ocircng
132 old people senior citizens retirees người cao tuổi
133 crooks offenders lawbreakers tội phạm
134 great awesome preferable desirable tuyệt vời đaacuteng ao ước
135 sick of fed up with dissatisfied with khocircng hagravei lograveng
136 feature characteristic đặc điểm
137 before Prior to trước
138 to think (that) to assume (that) cho rằng
139 Because Owing to or due to the fact thatAs a result of vigrave
140 Nobody can say It is impossible to predict hellip Khocircng coacute thể dự đoaacuten trước
141 I think that It seems that It could be argued that nNười ta noacutei rằng
142 About Regarding Concerning Về về phần
143 And as well as cograven cũng như
144 but whilewhereas nưng khi magrave
145 to write a cheque to issue a checque viết tờ ngacircn phiếu
146 carefullcautious prudent (imprudent)prudential cẩn thận thận trọng
147 to check to verify kiểm tra
148 to agree with to be bound by đồng yacute với
149 to go over exeed vượt quaacute quaacute mức
150 to hand to give to submit trigravenh lecircn nộp
152 In accordance with Pursuant to Phugrave hợp với
153 to involve to entail keacuteo theo kegravem theo
154 lost inadvertently mislaid vocirc tigravenh thất lạc
155 to make sure to ensure để đảm bảo rằng
156 to order to authorise uỷ quyền
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
8
157 to pay to settle trả tiền thanh toaacuten
158 to supply to furnish cung cấp
159 to take away to withdraw lấy ra ruacutet (tiền) ra
160 when we get hellip On receipt of hellip Khi nhận được hellip
161 Whenever we like want Without prior notice hellip Khocircng baacuteo trước hellip
162 One after the other At regular intervals Đều đặn
163 There are no big differences between No significant differences emerges between Khocircng coacute sự khaacutec biệt đaacuteng kể nagraveo
164 This shows that This demonstrates that Điều nagravey chỉ ra rằng
165 to put smth into action To be implemented carried out Được tiến hagravenh được đưa vagraveo hoạt động
166 etc and so forth and so on among other examples vagrave vv
167 ie namely that is tức lagrave chẳng hạn
168 eg For example viacute dụ
169 vs versusas apposed of chống lại ngược với
170 nice cute attractive hấp dẫn locirci cuốn
171 smart intelligent thocircng minh
172 come arrive đến
173 lifestyle way of life manner of life lối sống
174 19th century The nineteenth century Khocircng viết tắt
175 workmate colleague đồng nghiệp
176 tired exhausted mệt mỏi
177 drunk intoxicated bị say rượu
178 sad dejected buồn chaacuten nản
179 who whom ( đại từ tacircn ngữ sau giới từ) ai
180 to get your money back refund your payment lấy lại tiền
181 to pay your bills to settle your account trả tiền hoaacute đơn mua hagraveng thanh toaacuten
182 really extremely cực kỳ vocirc cugraveng
183 to go up to to reach lecircn tới (con số) đạt tới
184 to work to function hoạt động
185 breathing respiration sự hocirc hấp
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
9
186 meat-eater carnivore động vật ăn thịt
187 chance opportunity cơ hội
188 wrong erroneous sai soacutet
189 died out extinct tuyệt chủng
190 relevant pertinent thiacutech đaacuteng đuacuteng chỗ
191 relatives kindred họ hagraveng thacircn tộc
192 copy imitate bắt chước
193 break fracture đập vỡ
194 mix blend pha trộn
195 preference predilection sự thiecircn vị
196 to come across to find tigravem thấy
197 to do away with to abolish batildei bỏ
198 to build up to accumulate tiacutech luỹ
199 to finish off to conclude kết luận
200 to back up to supportto advocate ủng hộ
201 to put forward propose đề xuất đề nghị
202 to put across to express biểu lộ bagravey tỏ
203 to obey a law to comply with a law tuacircn thủ phaacutep luật
204 poor country developing country nước nghegraveo
205 Thatrsquos why why For this reason hellip hellip the reason for hellip Viacute lyacute do nagravey
206 new novel mới
207 dependence surbodination sự phụ thuộc
208 quarrel debatedispute Catildei nhau
209 In the same way Similarly Tương tự như vậy
210 to look for to seek Tigravem kiếm
211 way mannersolution giải phaacutep
212 money currency tiền tệ
213 to imagine to conceive conceivably tưởng tượng
214 place location nơi vị triacute
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
10
215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
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13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
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14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
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15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
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2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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Types of Trend
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
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32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
7
127 prove confirm khẳng định
128 rich affluent wealthy prosperous giagraveu coacute
129 the same as equivalent to giống nhau tương đương
130 drink beverage (count) đồ uống
131 man male đagraven ocircng
132 old people senior citizens retirees người cao tuổi
133 crooks offenders lawbreakers tội phạm
134 great awesome preferable desirable tuyệt vời đaacuteng ao ước
135 sick of fed up with dissatisfied with khocircng hagravei lograveng
136 feature characteristic đặc điểm
137 before Prior to trước
138 to think (that) to assume (that) cho rằng
139 Because Owing to or due to the fact thatAs a result of vigrave
140 Nobody can say It is impossible to predict hellip Khocircng coacute thể dự đoaacuten trước
141 I think that It seems that It could be argued that nNười ta noacutei rằng
142 About Regarding Concerning Về về phần
143 And as well as cograven cũng như
144 but whilewhereas nưng khi magrave
145 to write a cheque to issue a checque viết tờ ngacircn phiếu
146 carefullcautious prudent (imprudent)prudential cẩn thận thận trọng
147 to check to verify kiểm tra
148 to agree with to be bound by đồng yacute với
149 to go over exeed vượt quaacute quaacute mức
150 to hand to give to submit trigravenh lecircn nộp
152 In accordance with Pursuant to Phugrave hợp với
153 to involve to entail keacuteo theo kegravem theo
154 lost inadvertently mislaid vocirc tigravenh thất lạc
155 to make sure to ensure để đảm bảo rằng
156 to order to authorise uỷ quyền
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
8
157 to pay to settle trả tiền thanh toaacuten
158 to supply to furnish cung cấp
159 to take away to withdraw lấy ra ruacutet (tiền) ra
160 when we get hellip On receipt of hellip Khi nhận được hellip
161 Whenever we like want Without prior notice hellip Khocircng baacuteo trước hellip
162 One after the other At regular intervals Đều đặn
163 There are no big differences between No significant differences emerges between Khocircng coacute sự khaacutec biệt đaacuteng kể nagraveo
164 This shows that This demonstrates that Điều nagravey chỉ ra rằng
165 to put smth into action To be implemented carried out Được tiến hagravenh được đưa vagraveo hoạt động
166 etc and so forth and so on among other examples vagrave vv
167 ie namely that is tức lagrave chẳng hạn
168 eg For example viacute dụ
169 vs versusas apposed of chống lại ngược với
170 nice cute attractive hấp dẫn locirci cuốn
171 smart intelligent thocircng minh
172 come arrive đến
173 lifestyle way of life manner of life lối sống
174 19th century The nineteenth century Khocircng viết tắt
175 workmate colleague đồng nghiệp
176 tired exhausted mệt mỏi
177 drunk intoxicated bị say rượu
178 sad dejected buồn chaacuten nản
179 who whom ( đại từ tacircn ngữ sau giới từ) ai
180 to get your money back refund your payment lấy lại tiền
181 to pay your bills to settle your account trả tiền hoaacute đơn mua hagraveng thanh toaacuten
182 really extremely cực kỳ vocirc cugraveng
183 to go up to to reach lecircn tới (con số) đạt tới
184 to work to function hoạt động
185 breathing respiration sự hocirc hấp
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
9
186 meat-eater carnivore động vật ăn thịt
187 chance opportunity cơ hội
188 wrong erroneous sai soacutet
189 died out extinct tuyệt chủng
190 relevant pertinent thiacutech đaacuteng đuacuteng chỗ
191 relatives kindred họ hagraveng thacircn tộc
192 copy imitate bắt chước
193 break fracture đập vỡ
194 mix blend pha trộn
195 preference predilection sự thiecircn vị
196 to come across to find tigravem thấy
197 to do away with to abolish batildei bỏ
198 to build up to accumulate tiacutech luỹ
199 to finish off to conclude kết luận
200 to back up to supportto advocate ủng hộ
201 to put forward propose đề xuất đề nghị
202 to put across to express biểu lộ bagravey tỏ
203 to obey a law to comply with a law tuacircn thủ phaacutep luật
204 poor country developing country nước nghegraveo
205 Thatrsquos why why For this reason hellip hellip the reason for hellip Viacute lyacute do nagravey
206 new novel mới
207 dependence surbodination sự phụ thuộc
208 quarrel debatedispute Catildei nhau
209 In the same way Similarly Tương tự như vậy
210 to look for to seek Tigravem kiếm
211 way mannersolution giải phaacutep
212 money currency tiền tệ
213 to imagine to conceive conceivably tưởng tượng
214 place location nơi vị triacute
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
10
215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
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11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
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12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
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13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
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14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
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15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
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2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
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32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
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33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
8
157 to pay to settle trả tiền thanh toaacuten
158 to supply to furnish cung cấp
159 to take away to withdraw lấy ra ruacutet (tiền) ra
160 when we get hellip On receipt of hellip Khi nhận được hellip
161 Whenever we like want Without prior notice hellip Khocircng baacuteo trước hellip
162 One after the other At regular intervals Đều đặn
163 There are no big differences between No significant differences emerges between Khocircng coacute sự khaacutec biệt đaacuteng kể nagraveo
164 This shows that This demonstrates that Điều nagravey chỉ ra rằng
165 to put smth into action To be implemented carried out Được tiến hagravenh được đưa vagraveo hoạt động
166 etc and so forth and so on among other examples vagrave vv
167 ie namely that is tức lagrave chẳng hạn
168 eg For example viacute dụ
169 vs versusas apposed of chống lại ngược với
170 nice cute attractive hấp dẫn locirci cuốn
171 smart intelligent thocircng minh
172 come arrive đến
173 lifestyle way of life manner of life lối sống
174 19th century The nineteenth century Khocircng viết tắt
175 workmate colleague đồng nghiệp
176 tired exhausted mệt mỏi
177 drunk intoxicated bị say rượu
178 sad dejected buồn chaacuten nản
179 who whom ( đại từ tacircn ngữ sau giới từ) ai
180 to get your money back refund your payment lấy lại tiền
181 to pay your bills to settle your account trả tiền hoaacute đơn mua hagraveng thanh toaacuten
182 really extremely cực kỳ vocirc cugraveng
183 to go up to to reach lecircn tới (con số) đạt tới
184 to work to function hoạt động
185 breathing respiration sự hocirc hấp
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
9
186 meat-eater carnivore động vật ăn thịt
187 chance opportunity cơ hội
188 wrong erroneous sai soacutet
189 died out extinct tuyệt chủng
190 relevant pertinent thiacutech đaacuteng đuacuteng chỗ
191 relatives kindred họ hagraveng thacircn tộc
192 copy imitate bắt chước
193 break fracture đập vỡ
194 mix blend pha trộn
195 preference predilection sự thiecircn vị
196 to come across to find tigravem thấy
197 to do away with to abolish batildei bỏ
198 to build up to accumulate tiacutech luỹ
199 to finish off to conclude kết luận
200 to back up to supportto advocate ủng hộ
201 to put forward propose đề xuất đề nghị
202 to put across to express biểu lộ bagravey tỏ
203 to obey a law to comply with a law tuacircn thủ phaacutep luật
204 poor country developing country nước nghegraveo
205 Thatrsquos why why For this reason hellip hellip the reason for hellip Viacute lyacute do nagravey
206 new novel mới
207 dependence surbodination sự phụ thuộc
208 quarrel debatedispute Catildei nhau
209 In the same way Similarly Tương tự như vậy
210 to look for to seek Tigravem kiếm
211 way mannersolution giải phaacutep
212 money currency tiền tệ
213 to imagine to conceive conceivably tưởng tượng
214 place location nơi vị triacute
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
10
215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
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11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
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12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
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13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
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14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
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15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
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2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
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32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
9
186 meat-eater carnivore động vật ăn thịt
187 chance opportunity cơ hội
188 wrong erroneous sai soacutet
189 died out extinct tuyệt chủng
190 relevant pertinent thiacutech đaacuteng đuacuteng chỗ
191 relatives kindred họ hagraveng thacircn tộc
192 copy imitate bắt chước
193 break fracture đập vỡ
194 mix blend pha trộn
195 preference predilection sự thiecircn vị
196 to come across to find tigravem thấy
197 to do away with to abolish batildei bỏ
198 to build up to accumulate tiacutech luỹ
199 to finish off to conclude kết luận
200 to back up to supportto advocate ủng hộ
201 to put forward propose đề xuất đề nghị
202 to put across to express biểu lộ bagravey tỏ
203 to obey a law to comply with a law tuacircn thủ phaacutep luật
204 poor country developing country nước nghegraveo
205 Thatrsquos why why For this reason hellip hellip the reason for hellip Viacute lyacute do nagravey
206 new novel mới
207 dependence surbodination sự phụ thuộc
208 quarrel debatedispute Catildei nhau
209 In the same way Similarly Tương tự như vậy
210 to look for to seek Tigravem kiếm
211 way mannersolution giải phaacutep
212 money currency tiền tệ
213 to imagine to conceive conceivably tưởng tượng
214 place location nơi vị triacute
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
10
215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
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13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
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14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
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15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
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2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
10
215 viewpoint stance lập trường quan điểm
216 fastquickly rapidly as a matter of urgency nhanh
217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) tới mức độ nagraveo
218 when (conj) At the time of hellip Khi magrave
219 InFor many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiều năm
220 to make smth better to get better to improveto upgrade cải thiện lagravem cho tốt hơn
221 To put on weight to gain weight Tăng cacircn
223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
224 verb + not + manymuch + noun verb + fewlittle + noun hellip khocircng (caacutei gigrave)
225 to give to provide đưa cho cung cấp
226 as you can be seen as can be seen như ta coacute thể thấy
227 wood timber gỗ
228 to describe to depict mocirc tả
229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nhớ
230 to go on to continue tiếp tục
231 may be possibly perhaps coacute lẽ
232 somehow in a certain way bằng caacutech nagraveo đoacute
233 job occupation nghề nghiệp
234 to take on employ thuecirc
235 to give donate contribute cho tặng
236 dad father bố
237 plane aeroplane maacutey bay
238 (not) smoke to refrain from smoking khocircng huacutet thuốc
239 to follow these guidelines to adhere to these guidelines theo sự chỉ dẫn
240 grangrannynana grandmother bagrave
241 every year each year annually hằng năm
242 glasses spectacles kiacutenh đeo mắt
243 shop retail outlet cửa hiệu
244 fridge refrigerator tủ lạnh
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
16
2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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25
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28
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30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
11
245 TV telly television tivi
246 boss employer ocircng chủ
247 change transform chuyển đổi
248 phone you back return your call gọi điện lại
249 bin man refuse collector người thu raacutec
250 and so on and so forth etc among other examples or avoid using them vv
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms college or universities Moreover it is the language of textbooks and exams Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups ie groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts For example the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology language acquisition or language learning
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written For
example an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used The three features of academic
languag are lexical grammatical and discourserdquo
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
16
2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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27
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28
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29
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30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
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59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
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69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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12
IELTS Writing Task 2 Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2
Introducing the topic
Some people argue thathellip
Have you ever consideredhellip
The question raises the issue ofhellip
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)
I believe thathellip
It is my belief thathellip
This essay will argue thathellip
Indicating the scope of the essay
In this essay I will statehellip
This essay will examinehellip
hellip will be covered in this essay
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13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
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14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
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15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
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2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
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51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
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68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
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69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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13
Giving reasons
One reason for this is thathellip
This can be explained byhellip
This can be attributed to the fact thathellip
Giving further reasons
Not only that buthellip
A further reason ishellip
It should also be stated thathellip
Citing general opinions
It has been claimed thathellip
It is widely believed thathellip
There is a widespread belief thathellip
Refuting opinions
I would dispute this however
However this is not necessarily the case
There are some faults with this reasoning however
Hedging strategies
It could be argued thathellip
One explanation might be thathellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
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2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
14
This suggests thathellip
Strengthening an argument
There can be no doubt thathellip
Therefore we can say beyond any doubt thathellip
These are just some of the reasons whyhellip
Concluding and summarising
To sum up hellip In summary hellip In short hellip
Overall hellip On the whole hellip To return to my original ideahellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
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16
2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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25
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28
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30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
15
IELTS Writing Task 1 Useful Language
1 THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number There are a number of reasons for doing this
Firstly it is easier for people to understand and remember Secondly the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary
Table 02
Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions Ord numbersstatistics similar fractions
1 65 about two-thirds of 13 1043 over a thousand
2 28 just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred
3 21 about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten
4 49 just under a half of 16 2 a small number
5 74 almost three ndash quarters of 17 4 a few
6 33333 a third of 18 67 several
7 92 most of 19 749982 about three-quarters of a million
8 985 almost all 20 1256890534 over 12 billion
9 1998 about a fifth of 21 101997 about 100000
10 26 just over a quarter of 22 248112 a quarter of a million
11 48873 almost a half of 23 1695193 about 17 million
12 7425 nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
16
2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
23
Types of Trend
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
24
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
25
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
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35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
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68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
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69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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16
2 THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
Table 03
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
23
Types of Trend
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24
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
25
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26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
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51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
23
Types of Trend
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
24
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
25
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
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35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
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68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
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69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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19
MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS
A Introduction
1 The graph (biểu đồ)table (bảng) shows (cho thấy)indicates (chỉ) illustrates (minh hoạ) reveals (tiết lộ)
represents (trigravenh bagravey) hellip 2 It is clear from the graphtable hellip
3 It can be seen from the graphtable hellip 4 As the graphtable shows hellip
5 As can be seen from the graphtable hellip 6 As is shown by the graphtable hellip
7 As is illustrated by the graphtable hellip 8 From the graph table it is clear hellip
B Verbs
1 to constitute make up tạo thagravenh 2 to comprise bao gồm
3 to account for chiếm đến 4 to amount to lecircn đến (số)
5 to stand at giữ ở (số) 6 to treble gấp ba lần
7 to double gấp đocirci 8 to increase three fold tăng gấp ba lần
9 to halve chia đocirci giảm đi một nửa 10 to diminish sụt giảm lagravem sụt giảm
11 to slow down chậm lại 12 to remain the same unchanged khocircng thay đổi giữ nguyecircn
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20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
20
13 to deplete lagravem giảm 14 to lessen giảm bớt lagravem giảm bớt
15 to escalate leo thang tăng nhan 16 to stand at the same level giữ nguyecircn
17 to fall to hellip giảm tới hellip 18 to fall from hellip giảm xuống dưới hellip
19 to fall by hellip giảm khoảng hellip 20 to drop to hellip giảm tới hellip
21 to rise to hellip tăng tới hellip 22 to rise by hellip tăng khoảng
23 to rise from hellip tăng từ hellip
24 to increase at hellip reduce at hellip tănggiảm hellip
25 to increase to hellip reduce to hellip tănggiảm tới hellip (số)
26 to remain relatively steady vẫn duy trigrave tương đối ổn định
C Adverbs
1 exceptionally caacute biệt khaacutec thường 2 remarkably đaacuteng chuacute yacute
3 moderately vừa phải 4 extremelyenormously cực kỳ rất
5 substantially to lớn đaacuteng kể 6 marginally hơi đocirci chuacutet
7 hardly scarcely hầu như khocircng 8 slowly chậm
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
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25
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26
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27
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28
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29
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30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
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35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
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59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
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68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
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69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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21
D Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1 Inwithin the range of hellip and hellip Trong phạm vi
2 ForDuring the first six months hellip Trong saacuteu thaacuteng đầu
3 During the remainder of the year hellip Trong thời gian cograven lại của năm hellip
4 During the first half of this century hellip Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ nagravey hellip
5 Between 1950 and 1960 hellip Giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1960 hellip
6 In the period from 1960 to 1990 hellip Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 hellip
7 In the period between 1950 and 1960 hellip Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 vagrave 1990 hellip
8 From that time on Từ thời gian đoacute trở đi
9 Over a ten-year period hellip Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10 Throughout the nineteenth century Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11 Unlike hellip Khocircng giống với hellip
12 In contrast to hellip so với hellip tương phản với hellip
13 In comparison with hellip so saacutenh với hellip
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22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
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23
Types of Trend
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24
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
25
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
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32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
22
E Nouns and noun phrases
1 overview caacutei nhigraven khaacutei quaacutet caacutei nhigraven tổng quan
2 a large number percentage of hellip một số lớn một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của hellip
3 the wholetotal amountquantity of hellip tổng lượng của hellip
4 the total number of hellip tổng số của hellip 5 An increase of hellip sự tăng lecircn hellip
6 trend khuynh hướng 7 correlation mối liecircn hệ
8 a drop of hellip sự giảm hellip 9 an increase in hellip sự tăng về hellip
10 a slight increase sự tăng nhẹ 11 a drop in hellip giảm về hellip
F Comparison
1 Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 hellip So saacutenh caacutec con số của năm 1990 vagrave năm 2000 hellip
2 Compared towith x y is hellip So với x y thigrave hellip
3 Comparing with x y is more hellip so với x y thigrave hơnhellip
4 Comparing X with Y we find that hellip So saacutenh X với Y chuacuteng ta nhận thấy hellip
5 Comparing x with y it can be seen by us that hellip So saacutenh x với y chuacuteng ta coacute thể thấy rằng hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
23
Types of Trend
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
24
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
25
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27
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
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32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
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35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
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45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
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59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
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68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
23
Types of Trend
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
24
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
25
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
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45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
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49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
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50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
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51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
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54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
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55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
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56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
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59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
24
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
25
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
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68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
25
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
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54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
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55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
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56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
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59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
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68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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27
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28
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29
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30
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
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32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
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41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
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45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
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59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
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68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
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47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
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48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
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49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
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50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
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51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
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56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
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59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
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54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
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55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
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56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
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59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
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65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
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67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
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31
THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01 Avoid using contractions or abbreviations (Ex Use can not instead of canrsquot)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives These are very common in informal speech and writing but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing
Non-academic I donrsquot think that Irsquom working hard
Academic I do not think that I am working hard
For example canrsquot couldnrsquot wouldnrsquot didnrsquot Irsquoll Irsquove Irsquod wonrsquot etchellip
Note that ldquocannotrdquo is one word
Do not use abbreviations or symbols
Spell the words out Ex amp = and dept = department
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
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43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
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44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
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49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
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51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
32
Rule 02 Use third person voice or impersonal language
(Ex One can interpretinstead of You can interpret)
In other words the impersonal language should be used Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality an air with which the personal pronouns I me and my seem inconsistent In truth
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective Moreover some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work objectively as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is unbiased) researcher So one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun I This can be difficult as lecturers often say tell me what you think Well they do want
to know what you think but presented as a rational objective argument For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language instead we let the facts - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us
It is important to note that while the avoidance of I has long been part of the academic tradition these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable So you may encounter different views about the use of I over
the course of your degree In any case you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
personal element Your lecturer Cathi Lewis for example has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of I in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturers Advice section of this tutorial) Regardless of your
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
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34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
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35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
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36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
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37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
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39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
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42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
33
particular lecturers views you will need to learn how to use I sparingly So lets look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun
Avoid personal I you and we except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above except for the thesis statement So instead of As I mentioned
above write As was mentioned above
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun I
One way is to let the assignment speak for itself for example
I show becomes The report shows
I interpret the results as becomes The results indicate
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction
Instead of write
We administered the questionnaire
(active voice)
The questionnaire was administered
(passive voice)
I surveyed the literature
(active voice)
The literature was surveyed
(passive voice)
I took a sample A sample was taken
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
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54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
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56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
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59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
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62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
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63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
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64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
34
(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE for further help with using the passive voice go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual Consider the following sentence
You eat peas with a fork not with a knife
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like Peas should be eaten with a fork not with a knife This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing Since your reader too is you the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
readers space for the maintenance of an impersonal air
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
35
Rule 03 Be sure to use transitions between points within a paragraph
Use appropriate linking wordsphrases to show the links between paragraph as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs Do not use simple linking words (eg and but so) except for variety
Conjunctions avoid weak conjunctions such as but This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence Look in the thesaurus for others such as however moreover nevertheless nonetheless
regardless etc Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with And ldquoOrrdquo and Because you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and but or yet so)
Put a comma before these conjunctions (Dont use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing)
example The movie has already started but my friend has not arrived yet
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts either or)
Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences)
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but he is also a gourmet cook
You dont need a comma if it only connects words or phrases
example Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook
- Transitional Words and Phrases
Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence
example I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
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38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
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40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
36
Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences
example I like to travel specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Use a comma before and after the transitional wordphrase in the middle of a clause
example I like to travel and specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice and now we want to see it again
Not only did my brother break his leg but he also bruised his rib
My friend speaks Korean and English She also speaks Chinese
Cheating is dishonest Moreover it hinders students from learning
Students should be on time Furthermore they must be prepared
You must complete this essay by 5 pm In addition you must do the exercises on page 47
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second another etc)
examplereason is
Examples
I have been to many countries For example I have been to Russia Canada Mexico and
Spain
He often eats strange foods For instance he once ate cow brains
I like to travel Specifically I enjoy places with old cathedrals
I love fruit In particular I like bananas pineapple and berries
My friend hates skiing for several reasons The first reason is that she dislikes being cold
Another reason is that she often falls
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay but Susan got a B
We wanted to leave at 800 However Mike arrived too late
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
37
on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning On the other hand she doesnt mind cooking
Students should attend class Otherwise they may lose their status
I am not going out tonight Instead I will stay home and watch a video
Women usually enjoy shopping In contrast men often dislike it
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework yet he never does it
I need to wear reading glasses Nevertheless I hate how I look in them
I know you dont like to study Even so you must pass your exam
There are many benefits to exercising However you must take some precautions to avoid
injury
Even though the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Although the book is difficult to read it is very interesting
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis she lost the match
Despite Kates skill at tennis she lost the match
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school Likewise it is hard in college
Houseplants require much care and attention Similarly outdoor plants must be cared for
properly
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill In the same way learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam so she is very happy
Tim was late As a result we could not go to the concert
James is not feeling well Therefore he will not be here today
The committee voted against the proposal Thus we must consider another idea
I forgot that the cake was in the oven As a consequence it burned
Tina lost her keys Consequently she could not drive home
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
38
Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First I think that she is studying hard
Second I believe that she is a bright student
Finally I know that she has great potential
In conclusion I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship
In summary we should offer her some financial help
Jeff was working hard to clean the house Meanwhile his brother was watching television
Showing a Condition
or
whether or
if (then)
Examples
I must study hard or I will fail my exam
Whether you are coming or not I am still going to Amys party
If you want to get good grades then you must do your homework
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards In fact they have the best cards around
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa
He was late to class again In other words he didnt wake up on time
The plan needed only two things to succeedmdashnamely time and money
Giving an Alternative
or
either or
neither nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach or we can go to the mountains
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment
I like neither that person nor his brother
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
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55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
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58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
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66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
39
Rule 04 Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used
Ex The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away
NOT The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away
DO When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley he feels pain in his stomach
DONrsquoT When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man he felt pain in his stomach
In English the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events and those that are usually
true It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that
something is true in general As shown in the following examples
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 orsquoclock
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals
Moreoverit is used to express facts For example the planets go round the sun In the present simple the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns I you they and we However in the third person
singular (he she and it) the verb ends with ldquosrdquo or ldquoesrdquo as in the following examples
- I usually goaway at weekends
- Sarah catchesthe early train
More precisely in academic writing the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used For example in linguisticsessays it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true
- A child acquires language during the critical period
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
40
- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies
Tense-shifting NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays Although the
past tense is acceptable (as long as there is no switching to other tenses) try to always use the present tense
Even though the novelshort storyplaypoem etc obviously has been written in the past writingdiscussion of
texts should be in present tense
Rule 05 Avoid using colloquialisms (slang)
For example kids dude gal guy homies etchellip
Dont use slang This is the time to show off the best English you know Find the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas without resorting to slang Be aware that certain expressions such as kids
instead of children and guys or gals instead of men or women also fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided
Rule 06 Use gender neutral language (replace he she with they the character or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use he when referring to both men and women it is no longer
acceptable to do so now Why Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act If pronouns are always he and certain professions are always fireman policeman chairman
congressmen etc then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions and that women will feel that they do not belong in them Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
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53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
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57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
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60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
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61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
41
Even if you disagree with the above theory using he only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use they or their when referring back to
that subject Or you can choose he or she but if you need to write he or she more than twice in the sentence
you might give your reader a headache Try to avoid she or heshe simply because it is unsightly Really the
best solution is pluralization (When implementing the plural solution remember the principle of agreement
Everyone needs their umbrella is not grammatical because everyone is a singular subject)
o Sexist If a medical student wants to succeed he has to learn to budget his time wisely
o Liberated If medical students want to succeed they have to learn to budget his time wisely
o Sexist If one wants to become a DJ he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Liberated If one wants to become a DJ he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow
o Sexist A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience
o Liberated Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience
Use non-sexist language Avoid the word man and hehishim when referring to general phenomena
When writing sentences there are two ways to do this
A) Make it plural
Sexist Language Good Alternative
Give each student his paper Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished as soon as they are finished
The average student is The average student is
worried about his grade worried about grades
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
42
B) If necessary use ONE HESHE
Sexist Language Good Alternative
If a student got an A he did not Anyone who got an A did not
have to do the extra work have to do the extra work
Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow shehe
his money should bring money
C) Also see this table
Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives
mankind humanity people human beings
manbullfs achievements human achievements
man-made synthetic manufactured machine-made
the common man the average person ordinary people
man the ship staff the ship
six man-hours six staff-hours
chairman coordinator (of a committee or department) moderator (of a meeting) presiding officer
head chair
businessman business executive
fireman firefighter
mailman mailcarrier
steward and stewardess flight attendant
policeman and policewoman police officer
congressman congressional representative
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
43
Rule 07 Avoid repetition
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated
For example in this section the phrase ldquolexical cohesionrdquo is repeated more than twice In addition repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms However the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous ie it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence
Use rich vocabulary You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as good or bad Instead use more dramatic expressive words such
as excellent wonderful superb or adverse horrible terrible etc Choose the more precise word over the more
general one This will make your language come alive in speech or in writing and earn you higher marks
Rule 08 Avoid using imperative language
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now) Eg do not say Recall that Of course an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (eg (see Walker 1996 for more details))
Rule 09 Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework but I understand itrsquos important
- I wish I studied more however I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test however this will give me more time to study
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
44
But and however are not interchangeable The words but and however have similar meanings but they are not interchangeable If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing but and replace it with however or vice versa the result will almost
always be incorrect mainly because of comma punctuation
Correct examples
I like oranges but I do not like tangerines
I like oranges However I do not like tangerines
I like oranges however I do not like tangerines
I however do not like grapefruits
I like oranges however they have been prepared
If you exchange any of these buts and howevers then the sentences would become incorrect and in
some cases meaningless
Rule 10 Avoid using lsquoitrsquo and lsquothisrsquo at the start of a sentence
If necessary however join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon See examples below Use It as
a subject eg It is impossible to
Incorrect I love the snow It is fun to play in
Correct I love the snow it is fun to play in
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
45
1 It goes without saying that hellip Of course hellip
2 It is quite clear that hellip Obviously hellip
3 It is worth pointing out that hellip Another point is hellip
4 It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that hellip In my opinion hellip
5 It is often argued that hellip People say that hellip
6 It is sometimes suggested that People say that hellip
7 It is particularly significant that hellip Importantly hellip
8 It could be argued that hellip Perhapshellip
9 It is likely that hellip Probably hellip
Rule 11 Avoid very strong language
Eg I know I am surehellip
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty Medium certaintyHedging High certainty
seldom rarely never
improbable impossible
unattainable
probably perhaps likely occasionally sometimes
generally may might can could appears to be
seems to be tends to be suggests considers
undoubtedly absolutely certainly definitely
incredible amazing unbelievable particularly
very vitally totally wholly often must would
should
In addition to a formal voice you should also maintain a cool-headed objective tone Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion for example or cultural values
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea avoid getting emotional in your expression Avoid seeming angry
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
46
or condescending or rude Keep your calm and remain scholarly and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation
Emotional We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage For the sake of equality the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential Dont let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats
Objective Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individuals freedom was vitally important and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society the actions should not be decriminalized
Rule 12 Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences
Eg Many people think so They are wrong
Rule 13 You should NOT
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks () in your essay
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
47
Rule 14 Avoid very emotional language
eg I absolutely detest people whohellip
Rule 15 Do not express personal opinions too strongly
eg I knowhellip instead use milder expressions (eg It seems to me thathellip Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (eg It seems that I therefore feel etc)
Rule 16 Do not use over-generalisation (eg All politicians arehellip)
Avoid
Everyone knows thathellip
What goes around comes aroundhellip
Rule 17 Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source
eg A recent study showedhellip - which study)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
48
Rule 18 Do not use cliches
eg Rome was not built in a day
Clicheacutes are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing
Examples Donrsquot count your chickens before they have hatched
Let sleeping dogs lie
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech however in
writing they appear to be substitutes for clear thought
We cannot build a new school at this point in time
Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age
The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated
Some more examples of clicheacutes are
Raining like cats and dogs
Like a pig in mud
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
49
Over the hill
In the dog house
Back against the wall
Under the gun
My two cents
Stubborn as a mule
Bite your tongue
Dyed in the wool
Wrong side of the bed
The calm before the storm
Hair of the dog
On thin ice
Eye for an eye
Tongue-in-cheek
The third time is the charm
Rule 19 Do not use personal examples
eg In my schoolhellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
50
Rule 20 Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang
Examples - Letrsquos do lunch
- Irsquom going to get back at him
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations and in written English
Rule 21 Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example a glaring error the heart of the matter pillar of the community wave of terrorism and so on
Rule 22 Do not use similes
A simile compares a person action or object with something else - for example fly like an eagle solid as
a rock as happy as Larry pleased as Punch and so on
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
51
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power Once a metaphor or
simile has become a clicheacute it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader Consequently instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say
Rule 23 Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clicheacutes Like metaphors and similes figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing
The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else
Management has been on a steep learning curve
It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack
Rule 24 Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey
Examples - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
52
Euphemisms are good if they spare someonersquos feelings but they are bad if they obscure meaning or give a
positive connotation to something illegal immoral or otherwise unacceptable
Rule 25 Do not talk about parts of the paragraph
Do not write
this paragraph showshellip
The topic sentence ishellip
A quote that proves this ishellip
Rule 26 Do not begin a sentence with numerals
For example instead of writing 400 people write Four hundred people
Spell out all numbers less than 10 Ex 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out
Ex 15 studentshellip = Fifteen students hellip
Use numerals 10 or above Instead of writing There were 9 people write There were nine people
Rule 27 Do not use non-specific words
For example stuff things lots etchellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
53
Rule 28 Do not use ambiguous words
For example this these his it they there is there are etchellip
These words have no meaning in themselves but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context
In written text however the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader because there are many
possible interpretations of it and this
Notes
1 It is aceptable to use lsquothisrsquo lsquothatrsquo lsquothesersquo and lsquothosersquo when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun
Eg ldquoThis character traits helliprdquo
2 It is aceptable to use lsquoitrsquo as a preparatory subject (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
54
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem In the
sentences overleaf the subject of appear and seem is it As you can see they are followed by that-clauses
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai
3 It is aceptable to use lsquothere isrsquo as a preparatory subject (See Rule 44)
Rule 29 Do not ask rhetorical questions
Readers want answers So instead of Do you know where the origin of tea is Write Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement You should not risk your point being
misunderstood make your point clear and up front for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
55
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution so why do we still use them
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites given
their vast pollution production still remains
What is a team A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more
A team can include one person but usually involves many more
The question is however does the Design School
Model provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy
It is questionable whether the Design School Model provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation
Rule 30 Write most peoplerdquo instead of the incorrect most of people
Likewise most women most animals etc But most of the people is OK
Rule 31 Do not use the expressions and so on or etc
Instead use such as
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing Thus instead of the informal Japan imports
potatoes corn wheat and so on write Japan imports food such as potatoes corn and wheat
Run on expressions include phrases such as and so forth and so on or etc Try to complete the sentence
properly do not use these if you can avoid them for example
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
56
Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication medical conditions
and so on
Nurses must take into
consideration patients dietary
needs resulting from allergies
medication and medical
conditions
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads
airways waterways etc
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use such as buses
trains and aeroplanes
Rule 32 Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions In informal English
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences for example
Informal Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded
The solution can then be
discarded
The blood is withdrawn slowly The blood is slowly withdrawn
Rule 33 Avoid phrases such as I believe I feel and I think
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb such as I strongly believe Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
57
Rule 34 Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence
Unnecessary words like Actually Really or Basically can be omitted 8
Rule 35 Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay
For example instead of writing Will you come You should write He asked me if I would come
Rule 36 Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word ldquowhomrdquo instead of the word ldquowhordquo in certain situations
Formal Whom did they elect
Informal Who did they elect
Formal - Use whom as an object Whom have they chosen for the position
Informal - Use who as an object Who have they chosen for the position
Formal With whom did you study
Informal Who did you study with
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
58
Formal To which nation does he belong
Informal Which nation does he belong to
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language
In informal language we often leave out some words
Formal She said that she would come
Informal She said she would come
Formal Have you seen Annie
Informal Seen Annie
Rule 37 Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases Using better English
1 it would appear that 1 apparently
2 with the exception of 2 except
3 in connection with 3 about
4 are found to be in agreement with 4 agree
5 a large majority of 5 most
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
59
6 in the event that 6 if
7 a disproportionate number 7 few
8 arrive at a decision 8 decide
9 for a further period of ten years 9 for another ten years
10 such is by no means the case 10 this is not so
11 in the field of education 11 in education
12 they are without legal representation whatsoever 12 they have no legal representation
13 in the case of the third question 13 in the third question
14 at the present time overseas companies are 14 overseas companies are now
15 there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health 15 the Department of Health is obliged
Rule 38 Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each every either and neither are singular They should be followed by singular verbs Of
course in an informal style you can put plural verbs after them but if you do that in your IELTS essay the
examiner will not be too happy with you
Non-academic Neither of us like him
Academic Neither of us likes him
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
60
Rule 39 Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic
writing Of course it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either You can use some idioms but
you must avoid the more lsquocolourfulrsquo ones like lsquoraining cats and dogsrsquo lsquohit the nail on the headrsquo or lsquothrow the baby
out with the bathwaterrsquo Some idioms on the other hand are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing
Rule 40 Do not start sentences with lsquoAndrsquo lsquoAlsorsquo lsquoSorsquo lsquoOrrsquo lsquoEven sorsquo and lsquoButrsquo
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions However the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them
You must however make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side
Instead of these use `In addition `However `Hence `Consequently `Alternatively `Nevertheless at the
beginninge of the sentence
Rule 41 Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing It is not necessary either Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay (See Table 01 p2)
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
61
Rule 42 Use passives
Passives without lsquoagentsrsquo are common in academic and scientific writing By using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about
an action but are not interested in saying who or what did does it
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English It is contrasting with active voice In the passive the
object of the active voice becomes the subject and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples
- In recent years researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence)
- In recent years several analyses of survey data have been published
Furthermore the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English So passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language Moreover the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writerrsquos objectivity This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said thathellip he is said to) as shown in the following examples
- The child acquires the language in short period of time
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
62
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time
Similarly using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43 Employ tentative rather than assertive language
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases eg This is possibly caused by or This is probably the most important factor
- using the modal verbs may and might eg This may be the most important factor
- using appears to + V and seems to + V eg This appears to be the most important factor
- avoiding always and every and replacing them with often and manymuch
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
63
Tentative expression Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved
Modal verbs such as could may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to as well as adverbs of
probability perhaps possibly probably likely unlikely
Of course depending on viewpoint and the available evidence a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty Look at the examples in the table below
1 Positive and assertive Clearly then Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
2 Suggesting likelihood The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
3 Expressing less likelihood It maymightcould be the case that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written
Chinese is declining
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
64
4 Negative It is unlikely that Hong Kong studentrsquos standard of written Chinese is declining
Rule 44 Use One and lsquoTherersquo as a subject
eg One may ask whether (One is a formal version of You [plural] in general) and Use There as a subject
eg There is a serious risk of
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that hellip Perhaps hellip
- One could draw the conclusion that hellip In conclusion hellip
- As one might expect hellip Naturally hellip
- There is not a shadow of doubt that hellip Certainly hellip
There is the possibility that hellip Possibly hellip
There can be no doubt that hellip I am sure hellip
There are those who maintain that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a school of thoughts that hellip Some people say hellip
There is a strong likelihood that hellip Probably hellip
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
65
Rule 45 Use It is because and This is because correctly
Language Analysis
It is because is used in the following situations
1 To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living
Structure
It is because + cause + lsquothatrsquo + effect
Grammar
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + lsquothatrsquo+ effect (clause)
eg It is because of your smile that I feel happy
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + lsquothatrsquo + effect (clause)
eg It is because you smiled that I feel happy
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
66
2 To refer back to a cause then give an effect use it is because of this
These countriesrsquo economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem
I know you I understand you and it is because of this that I love you
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones
Structures
Cause + lsquoandrsquo + lsquoit is because of this thatrsquo + effect
Cause + lsquorsquo + lsquoIt is because of this thatrsquo + effect
3 To give an effect first then explain the cause use this is because
Examples
- Out in space the sky looks black instead of blue This is because there is no atmosphere
- As the sun begins to set the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you More of
the light is reflected and scattered As less reaches you directly the sun appears less bright The colour of the sun
itself appears to change first to orange and then to red This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
67
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week They must often work in the evenings or on weekends This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times
4 To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- How can it be that an ldquoawesomerdquo God knows me by name and loves me without reservation It is because He
created me
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear as evidenced by the popularity of shocker gross-out supernatural
and altogether scary books Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
- To answer questions use it is because this is because or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye is just too much for the eye to stand
- ldquoWhy are you doing thatrdquo ldquoBecause I like itrdquo
5 In if and when sentences use it is because
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
68
- If I look confused it is because I am thinking
- If we have no peace it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are
Rule 46 Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures The woman thought that it was important to be on time
Informal - Drop certain relative structures The woman thought it was important to be on time
Rule 47 Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones
For example instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned
Write
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police
In general academic writing tends to be fairly dense with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses Remember however that your main aim is clarity so donrsquot be too ambitious particularly
when yoursquore starting to write
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung ndash Hong Duc University ndash Thanh Hoa
69
Rule 48 Use some sort of ldquohedgingrdquo language and to qualify statements that you make
HEDGINGAVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what yoursquore writing and yourself as writer to be cautious rather than
assertive you should
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine suggest claim suppose
- use lsquoattitudinal signalsrsquo such as apparently arguably ideally strangely unexpectedly
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language
- use verbs such as would could may might which lsquosoftenrsquo what yoursquore saying
- use qualifying adverbs such as some several a minority of a few many to avoid making overgeneralisations
Rule 49 Do not start a sentence with lsquoThereforersquo
Instead write for example lsquoThey therefore rsquo
Rule 50 Use full names when citing
The first time you mention the authorrsquos or someonersquos name use hisher entire name For the rest of the essay
use only hisher last name
Thanh Hoa City 122012