The Basics: Physical Science

Student Objectives

Watch the segments "Friction" and "Constant Speed" inDiscovery Science Library: The Basics: Physical Science

Write a paragraph explaining how friction and gravity affect four sports.

Draw a picture illustrating the effect of friction and gravity on these sports.

Materials

Discovery Science Library: The Basics: Physical Science video

Newsprint and markers

Computer with Internet access

Paper and pencils

Markers and colored pencils

Procedures

1. Begin the lesson by asking students if they are familiar with the terms "friction""and "gravity." Write their ideas on a sheet of newsprint. Then explain to students that gravity is a force that keeps objects in motion, and friction works in opposition to gravity to help objects stop. Together these forces affect the way almost everything moves on Earth.

2. Tell students that they will explore how friction and gravity affect the way sports are played. Working with a partner, have students focus on the following sports:

auto racing

skiing

skating

bicycling

3. To begin their research, have students watch the segments "Friction" and "Constant Speed." In addition, the following Web sites have information on this topic:

http://www.fearofphysics.com/Friction/frintro.html http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_constant_speed

4. After students have finished watching the program and completed their research, ask them to write a paragraph describing how friction and gravity affect the way these sports are played. Make sure students include an illustration showing the effect of the forces on each sport.

5. To help students organize their paragraphs, have them use the following points as a guide:

Name of the sport

Factors in the sport: For example, to go fast, to stop quickly, to travel consistently for a long period of time, or a combination

How friction and gravity affect the sport

How people control the forces

6. During the next class period, ask students to share their ideas. Make sure they understand that in a sport such as skating, athletes want to decrease friction so that they will go faster. In biking, however,

athletes control how fast they go by pedaling faster or pedaling slower. Reiterate that the forces of friction and gravity affect all sports.

7. Conclude the lesson by asking students what they learned about forces and sports. How will this knowledge affect they way they participate in sports? Can it help them become better athletes?

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AssessmentUse the following three-point rubric to evaluate students' work during this lesson.

3 points:  Students were highly engaged in class and small-group discussions and produced clear and accurate paragraphs and illustrations, with all the requested components.

2 points:  Students participated in class and small-group discussions and produced adequate paragraphs and illustrations, with most of the requested components.

1 point:  Students participated minimally in class and small-group discussions and produced incomplete paragraphs and illustrations, with little or none of the requested components.

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VocabularyaccelerationDefinition: The rate at which an object increases speedContext:  In a bicycle race, riders pedal faster for greater acceleration.air resistanceDefinition: The force on an object pulling it upward; the greater the surface area of an object, the greater the air resistanceContext: The surface area of a leaf is greater than that of an acorn, so air resistance is greater, and the leaf falls more slowly than the acorn.forceDefinition: A push or pull working on an objectContext: Kicking a soccer ball is an example of a force.frictionDefinition: The force between two substances rubbing against each otherContext:  Ice skaters add a thin layer of water to the ice to decrease friction and move faster.gravityDefinition: The force working on objects that pulls them toward each otherContext: The force of gravity keeps roller coasters moving down a steep hill.

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Academic StandardsMid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL)McREL's Content Knowledge: A Compendium of Standards and Benchmarks for K–12 Education addresses 14 content areas. To view the standards and benchmarks, visitwww.mcrel.org.This lesson plan addresses the following national standards:

Physical Science ? Understands forces and motions

Language Arts ? Viewing: Uses a range of strategies to interpret visual mediaNational Academy of SciencesThe National Academy of Sciences provides guidelines for teaching science in grades K–12 to promote scientific literacy. To view the standards, visit this Web site:books.nap.edu/html/nses/html/overview.html#content.This lesson plan addresses the following science standards:

Grades 5-8

Physical Science: Motions and forces

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 Back to the Science Lesson Plan Index

he Electromagnetic Spectrum: Waves Of Energy Subject: Physical Science | Grade(s): 6-8 | Duration: Two or three class periods

Lesson Plan Sections Objectives |

Materials |

Procedures |

Adaptations |

Discussion Questions |

Evaluation |

Extensions |

Links |

Academic Standards |

Credit

ObjectiveStudents will

Understand that the sun's energy is transferred to Earth by electromagnetic waves, which are transverse waves.

Understand that there are eight main types of electromagnetic waves, classified on the electromagnetic spectrum according to their wavelengths.

Understand how each of the types of electromagnetic radiation is used or found in our everyday lives.

Materials

For this lesson, you will need:

Computer with Internet access

Research materials on the electromagnetic spectrum (articles, books, textbook readings)

Poster/picture of the electromagnetic spectrum

Overhead projector, transparencies, and markers

Chart paper

Construction paper

Magazines

Scissors

Bulletin board space in the classroom

The Electromagnetic Spectrum Tutorial!

Procedures

1. Prior to this lesson, students should have an understanding of the two kinds of waves that exist in nature: compressional and transverse waves. They should be able to identify the characteristics of each wave and how they differ. Here are some important facts to know: 

Compressional waves - such as sound waves - require a medium to transfer energy.

Transverse waves - such as light waves - can transfer energy in a vacuum, without a medium.

Both types of waves are initiated by something that vibrates, but compressional waves travel slower than transverse waves.

The sun's energy reaches the Earth in transverse waves.

The frequency and wavelength of a wave determines how much energy a wave has. Frequency is the number of wave crests that pass a point during one second. Wavelength is the distance between two identical points on two adjacent waves. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy the wave has. But as wavelength increases, frequency decreases.

Begin by asking students what they know about transverse waves and compressional waves. Work with students to create a t-chart on the board and compare and contrast the two types of waves. Identify key concepts associated with each wave. It may be helpful to create this chart on a transparency or chart paper for later reference and reinforcement. 

2. Now draw a picture of the sun and the Earth. Ask students to describe how energy from the sun reaches the Earth. Draw transverse waves showing how electromagnetic energy is transferred from the Earth to the sun. Tell students that energy from the sun is called radiation. Write this term next to the word transverse waves on the illustration. Ask students in what context they have heard that word before. (For example, a radiator gives off heat, or radiation therapy is used to treat cancer.) Encourage students to use mnemonic devices to remember the concept of radiation as it relates to the sun's energy. For example, students can use the sound "ray" in "radiation" to remind them of the sun's rays warming their skin on a sunny day. 

3. Explain to students that transverse waves that transfer radiation or energy are called electromagnetic waves. These waves are created by electrically charged particles that move. The terms "electromagnetic waves" and "electromagnetic radiation" are used interchangeably because the waves carry the sun's radiation, which is composed of electrically charged particles. Refer back to the chart created at the beginning of class and ask students to come up with a list of possible characteristics of electromagnetic waves. Because they are transverse waves - and can travel in a vacuum — they can travel through space. 

4. Explain to students that there are different types of electromagnetic radiation existing in the universe. One type of electromagnetic radiation is visible light. The electromagnetic spectrum is something scientists use to classify the different types of electromagnetic radiation. Show students a picture of

the electromagnetic spectrum. Explain that, like the periodic table where elements are classified according to their structure, electromagnetic radiation is classified according to wavelengths and frequencies. Although there are different types of electromagnetic radiation, they all travel at the same speed - the speed of light or 186,000 miles per second. Humans are only able to see one small portion of the spectrum — visible light. 

5. Send students to the Electromagnetic Spectrum Tutorial. Students will learn facts about each area of the spectrum, including where areas of the spectrum are found in the natural world and how areas are used in science, space exploration, communications, and medicine. 

6. When students have returned from the tutorial, recap what they have learned. Explain that electromagnetic radiation is arranged in the spectrum from the longest wavelength to the shortest. Ask students to identify the waves with the longest and shortest wavelengths. (It may be helpful to draw wavelengths decreasing from left to right above a labeled diagram of the spectrum.) Based on what they have learned about frequency as it relates to wavelength (the longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency), ask students which waves have the lowest frequency and which have the highest frequency. It may be necessary to prompt them with some clues — the longer the wavelength, the lower number waves in a given space; the shorter the wavelength, the more waves there are in a given amount of space. One easy way for students to remember the relationship between frequency and wavelength is to consider that the longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency, emphasizing the 'l' at the beginning of each word. And the shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency, emphasizing the 'h' in each word. (Again, it may be helpful to reinforce this relationship by labeling lower frequency by the radio waves on the spectrum and higher frequency by the gamma rays.) 

7. Now explain to students that they will taking a closer look at one of the eight types of electromagnetic energy in the spectrum —radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet light, x rays, gamma rays, and cosmic waves. 

8. Divide the class into eight groups. Each group will focus on a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum assigned to them. Students should use traditional forms of research, for example reference books or class texts, as well as Internet links and the electromagnetic spectrum tutorial. Explain to students that groups must work together to research the following information about their form of radiation: 

1. What are the characteristics of this type of radiation (wavelength, frequency, key facts)?2. Where is this type of radiation located on the electromagnetic spectrum in relation to other kinds of

radiation? What properties of the wave define why it is found within this area of the spectrum?3. How is it used or found in our everyday lives or in certain industries? Identify and explain at least two

uses. 

4. Each member of the expert group must have the necessary information and materials to make a class presentation on their area of the spectrum. Encourage students to be creative in their presentations. Have a variety of materials for students to use for their presentations including construction paper, chart paper, markers, overheads, chalk board, colored chalk, and magazines. Tell students that the key to a successful and interesting presentation is to use visuals, such as labeled diagrams. 

5. As students watch the presentations, have them complete a learning chart with important facts and questions about each type of radiation. Student learning charts may look like this: Type of Radiation

Characteristic (wavelength, energy,

Example of where

My own question

frequency)

it's found or used

 6. As a final step, have students chose one question from their learning chart and research the answer.

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Adaptations

Have students debate whether the federal government should be allowed to control the frequency bandwidths for communication. In the United States, radio and television stations emit two types of frequencies. In order for people to hear broadcasts, radio and television stations need to transmit along an audio frequency (AF) within the range of human hearing, which is 20 — 20,000 Hz. This audio frequency is transmitted along with a radio frequency that has been designated by the government. Radio frequencies distinguish each station. Some of the radio ranges designated by the Federal Communications Committee are:

AM radio: 530 — 1600 kHzFM radio: 88-108 MHzTV: 54-88 MHz (channels 2-6)TV: 174-216 MHz (channels 7-13)TV: ultra-high frequency (UHF), 470-890 MHzCellular telephones: 824 — 894 MHz. 

The FCC also assigns ranges within radio and TV waves for use by airplanes, ships, police, military, cellular phone and amateur ham radio users The federal government restricts usage of specific bandwidths within radio frequency for military use only. Before you begin the debate, have students familiarize themselves with frequency ranges currently in use. Students can access the US Frequency Allocation Charthttp://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.htmland the Federal Communications Committee Web site Charthttp://www.fcc.gov/ to aid in their research. They should also research how other countries divide their "air wave" space. Students should consider any international implications of

these designated ranges and find out what happens at the border between two different countries where the signals emitted by radio and television stations overlap. Once all students have completed this preliminary work, divide the class into two debate groups. It is nice to let students choose their "side." however, if the numbers are uneven, it may be necessary to split students evenly between both sides of the debate. Debate teams should present salient points to support their opinions. After the debate, ask the class as a whole to come to an agreement on whether it is better for the government or for private industry to "divvy up" the frequency ranges within the electromagnetic spectrum. 

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Discussion Questions

Use the following three-point rubric to evaluate students' work during this lesson.

 1. Compare and contrast electromagnetic waves with other kinds of waves.2. If radio waves are not compressional waves, like sound waves, explain what their role is in enabling

us to hear music on our favorite radio station?3. Thermograms are infrared photographs that show emission of infrared radiation emitted from objects.

If you lived in a cold climate, how could a thermogram taken of your home be helpful to you as a homeowner?

4. Discuss why visible light is arranged into colors in the following order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

5. Debate what we could do to prevent exposure to ultraviolet radiation if the ozone layer continues to deteriorate.

6. Defend the importance of gamma rays in treating cancer, even though many patients suffer serious side effects to such treatment.

7. What type of electromagnetic radiation does a flame emit?Back to Top

Evaluation

Visit each group as they research and create their presentations. Each student should help in the discussion and preparation. A 3-point rubric may be used to evaluate the content of the presentation.

  Three points: Students accurately and thoroughly address each of the three

presentation questions. Visuals enhance the presentation. Two points: Students attempt to address each of the three questions with minor

misunderstandings. Visuals are used, but may not enhance the presentation. One point: Students do not address all three questions. Those attempted are

inaccurate with major misunderstandings.Back to Top

Extensions

Our Electromagnetic LivesHave students explore how their lives are affected by electromagnetic radiation by keeping an "electromagnetic journal" for one week. Ask them to record each time they observe or come in contact with electromagnetic radiation each day — such as listening to the radio, talking on their cordless

phone, going through security at the airport, or getting a sunburn. Students should record the date, time, and a one-sentence explanation of the incident, including what type of electromagnetic radiation they observed. Have students share their encounters with electromagnetic radiation and create a class tally to find out the most popular daily activity involving exposure to electromagnetic radiation.

Back to TopLinks What is the Near-Earth Rendezvous Mission? [PDF]   Find information and additional activities on this topic at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Lab website.

An Exploration of the Planet Mercury [PDF]   Find information and additional activities on this topic at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Lab website.

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Standards

Grade level: 6-8, 9-12Subject area: ScienceStandard: Understands energy types, sources, and conversions, and their relationship to heat and temperature.Benchmarks: Knows how the Sun acts as a major source of energy for changes on the Earth's surface (i.e., the Sun loses energy by emitting light; some of this light is transferred to the Earth in a range of wavelengths including visible light, infrared radiation, and ultraviolet radiation)Benchmark 9-12: Knows that all energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy (energy of motion), potential energy (depends on relative position), or energy contained by a field (electromagnetic waves)

Grade level: 6-8, 9-12Subject area: ScienceStandard: Understands motion and the principles that explain it.Benchmarks: Knows that only a narrow range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation can be seen by the human eye; differences in wavelength within that range of visible light are perceived as differences in colorBenchmark 9-12: Knows the range of the electromagnetic spectrum (e.g., radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, gamma rays); electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated, and the energy of the electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength

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Credit

Tracy L. Coulson, a middle school learning disabilities teacher for Fairfax County Schools, Fairfax, Virginia; Karen Kennedy, former chemistry and physics teacher, now educational consultant.

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Latitude, Angle of Sun and Solar EnergySubject:

Science  

Grades:

6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12  

Title – Latitude, Angle of Sun and Solar Energy By – Mark Wenning Primary Subject – Science (Astronomy & Physics)Grade Level – 6-12Description:

Students massage spreadsheet data by using sorts to tease out the relationships between latitude, angle of the sun, surface area of light beam and temperature.

Also introduces possible confounding variable of elevation and the need to control for elevation.

Uses data in a spreadsheet and a flashlight beam lab or Sketchup file to see light surface area increase or decrease with angle change.

The student lab worksheet and teacher guide are included (below).

Download the Latitude/Angle of the Sun Spreadsheet here or when asked to do so below.8th Grade Science Standards:California Earth Sciences Standards – Earth in the Solar System:

4. The structure and composition of the universe can be learned from studying stars and galaxies and their evolution.

e.   As a basis for understanding this concept, students know the appearance, general composition, relative position and size, and motion of objects in the solar system, including planets, planetary satellites, comets, and asteroids.

The ISTE National Educational Technology Standards:

1. Creativity and Innovation:Students demonstrate creative thinking, construct knowledge, and develop innovative products and processes using technology.a.   Students apply existing knowledge to generate new ideas, products, or processes.

3. Research and Information Fluency:Students apply digital tools to gather, evaluate, and use information.d.   Students process data and report results.

6. Technology Operations and Concepts:Students demonstrate a sound understanding of technology concepts, systems, and operations.a.   Students understand and use technology systems.

b.   Students select and use applications effectively and productively.

c.   Students troubleshoot systems and applications.

Worksheet and Lab: Latitude, Angle of Sun and Solar EnergyNames:Partner 1 ___________________          Partner 2 ___________________

Why is it hot in the summer (select the best answer)?1. Because it’s summer.

2. Because the earth is closer to the sun.

3. Because the solar energy is stronger.

4. Because the solar energy is concentrated over a smaller surface area.

5. Because the winter snow melted.

Hold on to your answer. We’ll come back to it later?

Let’s try an experiment.

Lab protocol:1. Each lab team will use a flashlight that has been taped to one end of a meter stick.

2. Hold the meter stick perpendicular to the floor with the flashlight pointing down.

3. Turn the flashlight on and focus the beam so that you get a nicely defined small circle of light projecting on the floor.

4. Measure and record the diameter of the circle.

5. Then tilt the meter stick so that it is at a 45° angle to the floor.

6. Measure and record the longest distance across the oval.

7. Estimate and record how much more surface area the 45° angle circle covers versus the 90° angle circle (2x, 3x, 3.5x?).

8. Now compare the brightness of the light where it hits the floor surface by shining the light at 45° and 90°.

Record which setting had a brighter area of light?

Gathering and analyzing data:Let’s look at some data to try to see patterns that might relate to the question as to why it’s hotter in the summer. Open the file Latitude/Angle of the Sun Spreadsheet. There are six columns of data: City, State,Latitude, Angle of the Sun (at noon on Spring Equinox day), Surface Area covered by a square meter of light energy and Elevation.Science is often driven by data. Huge amounts a data. Data that can look like this – messy and unwieldy. Let’s try to organize it to see if any patterns emerge that might help us answer the question why it’s hot in the summer.

There are a number of different data points associated with every city. We are interested in factors (there may be more than one) that might influence temperature. How can we organize the spreadsheet so that a pattern or patterns might emerge. Well, since we’re interested in temperature, let’s organize the data by temperature.

Click on any cell (box) in the spreadsheet and hold the command key (apple key for Macs) and push “A” to select all.

Go to the Data menu and pull down to Sort. Pull down the Sort by options menu and choose Avg. Annual Temp. and then select

descending radio button and click OK.It looks like there is somewhat of a relationship between temperature and latitude and angle of the sun. Let’s explore more.

Click on any cell (box) in the spreadsheet and hold the command key (apple key for Macs) and push “A” to select all.

Go to the Data menu and pull down to Sort. Pull down the Sort by options menu and choose Angle of the Sun and then select ascending

radio button and click OK.

There does seem to be a direct inverse relationship between angle of the sun and latitude. At noon on Spring Equinox day at 71.3° latitude of Barrow, Alaska, the sun is at an 18.7° angle in relation to the surface of the earth.

1. What is the mathematical relationship between angle of the sun and latitude  (hint: scroll down to Quito, Ecuador at 0° on the equator? _________________________________________________________________When you go outside on a sunny day it is usually hotter than on a cloudy day. As you may have guessed, the heat is due to the sunlight… but it is not heat energy that travels here from the sun. Do you know why? ____________________________________________

What does travel from the sun to Earth is light energy, in the form of photons that hit the planet surface. That light energy is then converted to thermal energy.

2. Beside clouds, what else might influence how much light energy hits a specific area of the planet (hint: think about the little lab we just did)? ______________________________________________________________________________Look at your spreadsheet. There also seems to be another direct inverse relationship between angle of the sun and something else besides latitude.

3. As the angle of the sun increases, what decreases? ______________________________________

4. If the same amount of energy (1 square meter) is distributed over either 3 square meters of earth surface or ……. 1 square meter, which surface receives a more intense or concentrated amount of energy, say in just one of its square centimeters? _______________________________________

For the most part, the closer to the equator as city is the higher the angle of the sun AND the less surface area a square meter of sunlight is distributed over AND the higher average annual temperature. There are some exceptions. You may have noticed the average annual temperature of Quito, Ecuador is only 15° Celsius and yet, it’s on the Equator! There might be some other factor or factors at work.

5. Can you see any data in our spreadsheet about Quito, Ecuador that might be different than most other cities? ____________________________________________________________________

6. In California it rains over most of the state during the winter months, but on the very same day, high in the Sierra mountains, it will be snowing. Can anyone guess why it’s colder in the mountains? _______________________________________________________________________________If we suspect the higher altitude might be why Quito has a colder climate than expected, how might we check to see if altitude has an effect on average annual temperature? ___________________________________________________________________________________Now let’s get back to the original question…… Why is it hot in the summer?

7. Does a city’s latitude change as summer solstice approaches?______

8. What does change? _______

Why is it hot in the summer (select the best answer)?

1. Because it’s summer.

2. Because the earth is closer to the sun.

3. Because the solar energy is stronger.

4. Because the solar energy is concentrated over a smaller surface area.

5. Because the winter snow melted.

Due to the tilt of the Earth, which always points the same way, as the earth revolves around the sun, the angle of the sun changes no matter where one is located. As summer solstice approaches, the sun beam at 90° angle (at noon) is positioned a little more north each day, until the solstice when it is at latitude 23.5° N. From then on, until to winter solstice, the 90° angle moves further southward with each day.

9. If the angle of the sun is at 50° in Columbus, Ohio on March equinox (when it is 90° at the equator), what will the angle be in Columbus on summer solstice when 90° is at 23.5° N? ______

10. How did you figure that out? ________________________________________________________

11. What will the approximate surface area be for 1 square meter of light (hint: you have a large dataset to pick the answer from)?_____

12. If the surface area for 1 square meter of light is smaller, will the energy be more concentrated?_____

13. If the surface area is smaller and the energy more concentrated, how will that affect temperature? _______

14. What will the sun’s angle be in Columbus on winter solstice (it’s 90° at 23.5° S)? ______

15. What will the approximate surface area be for 1 square meter of light?_____

16. If the surface area for 1 square meter of light is larger, will the energy be more concentrated?______

17. If the surface area is larger and the energy less concentrated, how will that affect temperature? ______

Applying what we have learned:Science is about learning about the world. One of the ways scientists study the world is to collect data. The data can then be organized and sometimes it falls into patterns. Scientists often use patterns to make predictions.

18. Rochester, NY is at 43.12° latitude and Fort Worth, TX is at 32.83 (they’re both at about the same elevation). Predict which of these two cities might have the higher average temperature? ________________________________________________________________________________

19. If we suspect that latitude/angle of the sun/surface area (they are all directly related) might effect average annual temperature, why is it better to look just at cities of the similar elevation? ________________________________________________________________________________

20. Denver, CO is at the same latitude as Atlantic City, NJ. However, Denver is at 5,280 ft. elevation and Atlantic City is at 66 ft. Predict which of these two cities might have the higher average temperature? _____________________________________________________________________

Teacher Worksheet and Lab: Latitude, Angle of Sun and Solar EnergyNames:

Partner 1 ___________________          Partner 2 ___________________

Why is it hot in the summer (select the best answer)?

1. Because it’s summer.

2. Because the earth is closer to the sun.

3. Because the solar energy is stronger.

4. Because the solar energy is concentrated over a smaller surface area.

5. Because the winter snow melted.

Hold on to your answer. We’ll come back to it later?

Let’s try an experiment.

NOTE: Teachers should try the lab ahead of time to make sure you can darken the room AND (very important) the flashlights you will use can be focused to exhibit defined edges to the circles of light.Lab protocol:

1. Each lab team will use a flashlight that has been taped to one end of a meter stick.

2. Hold the meter stick perpendicular to the floor with the flashlight pointing down.

3. Turn the flashlight on and focus the beam so that you get a nicely defined small circle of light projecting on the floor.

4. Measure and record the diameter of the circle.

5. Then tilt the meter stick so that it is at a 45° angle to the floor.

6. Measure and record the longest distance across the oval.

7. Estimate and record how much more surface area the 45° angle circle covers versus the 90° angle circle (2x, 3x, 3.5x?).

8. Now compare the brightness of the light where it hits the floor surface by shining the light at 45° and 90°.

Record which setting had a brighter area of light?

NOTE: Teachers should become familiar with the spreadsheet ahead of time to make sure you can do the sorts. The spreadsheet should initially be set to a sort by city names A – Z.Gathering and analyzing data:Let’s look at some data to try to see patterns that might relate to the question as to why it’s hotter in the summer. Open the file Latitude/Angle of the Sun Spreadsheet. There are six columns of data: City, State,Latitude, Angle of the Sun (at noon on Spring Equinox day), Surface Area covered by a square meter of light energy and Elevation.Science is often driven by data. Huge amounts a data. Data that can look like this – messy and unwieldy. Let’s try to organize it to see if any patterns emerge that might help us answer the question why it’s hot in the summer.

There are a number of different data points associated with every city. We are interested in factors (there may be more than one) that might influence temperature. How can we organize the spreadsheet so that a pattern or patterns might emerge. Well, since we’re interested in temperature, let’s organize the data by temperature.

Click on any cell (box) in the spreadsheet and hold the command key (apple key for Macs) and push “A” to select all.

Go to the Data menu and pull down to Sort. Pull down the Sort by options menu and choose Avg. Annual Temp. and then select

descending radio button and click OK.It looks like there is somewhat of a relationship between temperature and latitude and angle of the sun. Let’s explore more.

Click on any cell (box) in the spreadsheet and hold the command key (apple key for Macs) and push “A” to select all.

Go to the Data menu and pull down to Sort. Pull down the Sort by options menu and choose Angle of the Sun and then select ascending

radio button and click OK.

There does seem to be a direct inverse relationship between angle of the sun and latitude. At noon on Spring Equinox day at 71.3° latitude of Barrow, Alaska, the sun is at an 18.7° angle in relation to the surface of the earth.

1. What is the mathematical relationship between angle of the sun and latitude  (hint: scroll down to Quito, Ecuador at 0° on the equator?At noon on the equinox days the angle of the sun added to its specific latitude always totals 90. NOTE: This is only true at noon on equinoxes.

When you go outside on a sunny day it is usually hotter than on a cloudy day. As you may have guessed, the heat is due to the sunlight… but it is not heat energy that travels here from the sun. Do you know why?

Heat cannot travel through a vacuum (not many will know this).

What does travel from the sun to Earth is light energy, in the form of photons that hit the planet surface. That light energy is then converted to thermal energy.

2. Beside clouds, what else might influence how much light energy hits a specific area of the planet (hint: think about the little lab we just did)?

Angle of the sun

Look at your spreadsheet. There also seems to be another direct inverse relationship between angle of the sun and something else besides latitude.

3. As the angle of the sun increases, what decreases?

Surface area hit by a specific beam of light

4. If the same amount of energy (1 square meter) is distributed over either 3 square meters of earth surface or ……. 1 square meter, which surface receives a more intense or concentrated amount of energy, say in just one of its square centimeters?

1 square meter

For the most part, the closer to the equator as city is the higher the angle of the sun AND the less surface area a square meter of sunlight is distributed over AND the higher average annual temperature. There are some exceptions. You may have noticed the average annual temperature of Quito, Ecuador is only 15° Celsius and yet, it’s on the Equator! There might be some other factor or factors at work.

5. Can you see any data in our spreadsheet about Quito, Ecuador that might be different than most other cities?

It’s at 9350 feet.

6. In California it rains over most of the state during the winter months, but on the very same day, high in the Sierra mountains, it will be snowing. Can anyone guess why it’s colder in the mountains?

Air is less dense and traps less reflected heat.

If we suspect the higher altitude might be why Quito has a colder climate than expected, how might we check to see if altitude has an effect on average annual temperature?

Check other high altitude cities and compare with cities at lower altitude BUT at the same latitude NOTE: Cities on coast are often cooler as well.

Now let’s get back to the original question…… Why is it hot in the summer?

7. Does a city’s latitude change as summer solstice approaches? No.

8. What does change? Angle of the sun.

Why is it hot in the summer (select the best answer)?

1. Because it’s summer.

2. Because the earth is closer to the sun.

3. Because the solar energy is stronger.

4. Because the solar energy is concentrated over a smaller surface area.

5. Because the winter snow melted.

Due to the tilt of the Earth, which always points the same way, as the earth revolves around the sun, the angle of the sun changes no matter where one is located. As summer solstice approaches, the sun beam at 90° angle (at noon) is positioned a little more north each day, until the solstice when it is at latitude 23.5° N. From then on, until to winter solstice, the 90° angle moves further southward with each day.

9. If the angle of the sun is at 50° in Columbus, Ohio on March equinox (when it is 90° at the equator), what will the angle be in Columbus on summer solstice when 90° is at 23.5° N? 73.5°

10. How did you figure that out?

Since the perpendicular angle moved 23.5 north, add 23.5 to 90 and then subtract the latitude.

11. What will the approximate surface area be for 1 square meter of light (hint: you have a large dataset to pick the answer from)? 1.042948913 or approx.

12. If the surface area for 1 square meter of light is smaller, will the energy be more concentrated? Yes.

13. If the surface area is smaller and the energy more concentrated, how will that affect temperature? Hotter.

14. What will the sun’s angle be in Columbus on winter solstice (it’s 90° at 23.5° S)? 26.5°

15. What will the approximate surface area be for 1 square meter of light? 2.241158452 or approx.

16. If the surface area for 1 square meter of light is larger, will the energy be more concentrated? Less.

17. If the surface area is larger and the energy less concentrated, how will that affect temperature? Cooler.

Applying what we have learned:Science is about learning about the world. One of the ways scientists study the world is to collect data. The data can then be organized and sometimes it falls into patterns. Scientists often use patterns to make predictions.

They can check the spreadsheet after making predictions.18. Rochester, NY is at 43.12° latitude and Fort Worth, TX is at 32.83 (they’re both at

about the same elevation). Predict which of these two cities might have the higher average temperature? Fort Worth, TX

19. If we suspect that latitude/angle of the sun/surface area (they are all directly related) might effect average annual temperature, why is it better to look just at cities of the similar elevation?

To eliminate the possible effect of elevation (control)

20. Denver, CO is at the same latitude as Atlantic City, NJ. However, Denver is at 5,280 ft. elevation and Atlantic City is at 66 ft. Predict which of these two cities might have the higher average temperature?

Atlantic City, NJ

More Data Discovery Lessons:Download this lesson   and more Mark Wenning Data Discovery science lessons   designed to engage students with real-world data relevant to content taught in middle and high school science courses at: http://www.searchingspot.com/datadiscovery/la.htmE-Mail Mark Wenning!Related Lesson Plans

Phenomenal Woman: Lesson Plans to Explore the Work of Maya Angelou Increase Reading Engagement: How to Use Self-Directed Reading in Your Lesson Plans The Multicultural Classroom: Tips for Adding Diversity to History Lessons Add Creative Writing to Your Lesson Plans: Five Engaging Strategies Lesson Plan Modifications: Teaching Diverse Learners in Your Classroom

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  6-12

 physical science

  physics, space science

 two class periods

 Students will�

 

1. discuss and understand the importance of the scientific method and experimental controls and then put those ideas into practice;

 

2. conduct experiments in the classroom to determine whether length, mass, or starting angle has any effect on the rate of a pendulum�s swing;

 

3. conduct an experiment using an online Moon Pendulumto determine whether gravitational force has any effect on the rate of a pendulum�s swing;

 4. create graphs to illustrate the results of their experiments; and

 5. draw conclusions from the graphs they have created.

 �one pendulum apparatus for each lab group�each apparatus

should include strings of 40, 60, 80, and 100 centimeters and bobs with masses of approximately 25, 50, and 75 grams

 �copies of thePendulums on the Moon worksheetand the Pendulums on the Moon worksheet answers

 �copies of thePendulums on the Moon data sheet �graph paper

 �computers with Internet access

 

This activity consists of two phases. In phase 1, students will recreate Galileo�s famous pendulum experiments in the classroom. In phase 2, students will take Galileo one step further�into outer space�by using an online Moon Pendulum!

 

1. To introduce this activity, begin by leading a class discussion about the scientific method. Review with your students the concepts of observation and collecting and recording data. You might also want to review the termsdependent variable,independent variable,andconstant variablewith your students, as these will be crucial for an understanding of this activity. In addition, your students will need to be familiar withG,the gravitational constant (9.8 m/s2). This will be important for phase 2 of the activity, in which students will use the online Moon Pendulum.

 

2. Ask your students the following question: What variables affect the rate of a pendulum�s swing? Students may come up with a variety of answers, but the four that they will be testing in the following experiment are the length of the pendulum, the starting angle of the pendulum, the mass of the bob at the end of the pendulum, and the force of gravity. As you make a list of students� answers to the question, make sure that those four are included. Give them a chance to debate and discuss their answers before continuing.

 

3. Distribute copies of the Pendulums on the Moon worksheet; then explain to your students that they will need to conduct experiments to determine whether each of the four variables has an effect on the rate of a pendulum�s swing. Before they conduct their experiments, however, they will need to determine the dependent, independent, and constant variables for each one. Divide your class into lab groups and ask each group to work together to fill out the chart on the worksheet as best it can. Then bring the class back together and discuss the groups� answers. Make sure that students explain the reasoning behind their decisions. When the discussion is complete, distribute copies of the Pendulums on the Moon worksheet answers and discuss the various variables with the class.

 4. Your students are now ready to begin phase 1 of their experiments, in which they will use the pendulum apparatus

you have provided to test the effects of length, starting angle, and mass on the pendulum�s rate of swing. Make sure that the groups understand that by changing the value of only one of these variables at a time, they can determine the effect that it has on the rate of the pendulum�s swing. For instance, to determine the effect of length on the pendulum�s rate of swing, they will need to use the same mass, the same starting angle, and the same gravitational force (obviously) as they test different lengths.

 

5. Distribute copies of the Pendulums on the Moon data sheet to your students. Make sure that students understand how to use the data sheet. Explain that before each experiment, the group needs to state a hypothesis: What effect, if any, will the independent variable have on the rate of the pendulum�s swing? Encourage them to make careful measurements and record their data neatly and clearly.

 

6. When phase 1 is complete, ask the groups to use the data they have collected to create three graphs, one for each experiment. On each graph, the independent variable should be placed on the x-axis, and the dependent variable should be placed on the y-axis.

 

7. Next, your students are ready to begin phase 2 of their experiments, in which they will use the online Moon Pendulum. Explain to students that this online pendulum is designed to simulate the swinging of a pendulum on the moon. Make sure they understand that the moon�s gravitational force is 1/6 that of the Earth.

 

8. Explain to students that in phase 2, they are going to repeat experiment 3 from phase 1�this time, using the online pendulum. Make sure that, as before, groups state a hypothesis about the effect of the independent variable (gravitational force) on the rate of the pendulum�s swing before conducting the experiment.

 

9. When phase 2 is complete, ask students to use the data they have collected to create three small bar graphs of their results�one for each of the three masses they used in the experiment. The independent variable (gravitational force) should be placed on the x-axis as before, and the dependent variable should be placed on the y-axis.

 When their final graphs are complete, bring the class together to discuss the groups� results. What did their experiments reveal?

(In phase 1, students should have observed that length has the greatest effect on the rate of the pendulum�s swing. The starting angle also has some effect, but it is often not observable. If the experiments were done carefully, the mass should have no effect at all. In phase 2, students should have observed that gravitational force does indeed have an effect on the rate of the pendulum�s swing.) If students did not observe the expected results, what explanations can they offer for why that may have occurred? Conclude with a discussion on the significance of isolating variables. Why is this an essential feature of a useful scientific experiment?

 

1. One way to extend this activity is to have your students research the significance of pendulums as they are used in various technological efforts. Students should begin to understand where pendulums are commonly utilized and the practical functions they serve. Each student can choose a machine in which a pendulum is used, research it, then give a brief presentation to the class.

 

Galileo�s Pendulum Experimentshttp://es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/Student_Work/Experiment95/galileo_pendulum.html

The Simple Pendulum http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/shm/node5.html

The Foucault Pendulum http://www.calacademy.org/products/pendulum.html 

 

Ray Ann De Prisco Havasy, professor of education at the New York Institute Of Technology, and Eric Patysiak, research fellow at the New York Institute of Technology and high school science teacher.

10.7 The First Days of School

The First Day

The first day's lesson should be planned to establish interest in the course, but perhaps more importantly to plan activities that will help you establish contact with the students, and establish you as the leader of the class. One way to begin is to Greet students at the door, and hand them a one or two page syllabus of the course, and tell them that today they can sit anywhere they wish. If you were going to do a small group activity on day one, you could give each student a color coded card which would be used later to form groups. This procedure helps to establish the teacher as being in charge as soon as the students pass through the door.

Contact with the students is an important aspect of day one. As soon as the students are seated and the bell has rung, effective teachers begin with roll, and then introduce students to the room. Some teachers take a few minutes for students to introduce themselves to each other.

What should the lesson structure for day one consist of? Figure 1 compares the lesson plans of three junior high teachers. Look the lesson plans over. Which lesson is that of an effective classroom manager? What are your reasons? Study the lesson plans, then read the section that follows the chart to get more insight into these three patterns.

 

Figure 1

First Day Activities in Three Classes

Teacher A Teacher B Teacher CIntroduction of 5 minutes

teacher and roll

Presentation of 21 minutes

Filling out 9 minutes

information cards

Introduction of 2 minutes

teacher and roll

call

of rules and

procedures

Election of 2 minutes

class officers

Preview of 7 minutes

week's activities

Seatwork 18 minutes

Closing 1 minute

and roll call

Presentation of 8 minutes

of rules and

supply requirements

Diagnostic test 21 minutes

Oral review of 2 minutes

of rules and

supply requirements

Free time: 16 minutes

students talking

or waiting

Presentation of 12 minutes

rules and

procedures

Filling out 7 minutes

information cards

Seatwork 33 minutes

According to Julie Sanford and Carolyn Evertson, teacher A was very effective in terms of student on-task behavior, and student disruptive behavior, teacher B was less effective, and Teacher C was effective at the beginning of the year, but then problems began to escalate during the year. On the first day teachers A and C had cooperative classes, while B had disruptive problems, especially at the end of the period.

Teacher A reinforced the rules on a fairly consistent basis over the next three weeks; whereas B and C did not. Although disruptive behavior was very little for C at the beginning, it increased as the year went on. Teacher A maintained a constant leadership role, and provided no dead time during lessons. B continued to allow free time, and also had the most misbehaviors.

Effective teachers prepare first day lessons that:

• Establish the teacher as the leader of the class

• Provide as much opportunity for teacher-student contact.

• Present the class rules, consequences and reward system

• Involve the students in an interesting activity

• Establish appropriate opening and closing lesson routines

Let's look a couple of first day science lessons, and then examine a two week schedule put into place at the beginning of the year.

First Lessons

Getting off to a good start requires careful planning not only of the first lesson, but the first two or three weeks of school. First lessons is a section in which several first day lessons are presented. Notice the management practices that are included in each, and how the teachers establish themselves as classroom leaders, engage the students, and have the students leave the class knowing that this teacher is-with-it!

Physical Science: Day One. This lesson could serve as an example of a lesson in either an eighth grade physical science class, or first year chemistry or physics.

Greeting Students As students enter the classroom, Mrs. Broadway greets the students at the door and tells them to take a seat near the front of the room, and answers students' questions.

Introduction (1 minute)

When the bell rings Mrs. Broadway moves to the front of the demonstration table and sprays a mist on a piece of newsprint. The words, Chemistry I appear in a vivid orange color. She tells the class that this is first year chemistry and to check their schedules to make sure they are in the right room. She extends a warm welcome to the class and tells them that she hopes they will like chemistry.

Roll Call (3 minutes)

She explains that when she calls a name, she wants the student to raise his or her hand, and to tell them the name

they wished to be called. After roll call, she records the names of the two students not present.

Course Syllabus and Overview (6 minutes)

Mrs. Broadway distributes copies of the course syllabus which contains the title of the course, rationale, a few course objectives, and the topics for the quarter. She has on her demonstration table about eight household items (baking soda, bleach, mineral water) and says that chemistry is all around them, and in this course she hopes that they come to appreciate the world of chemistry. She uses an overhead transparency which lists the first two topics that will be studies: "how chemists find out about the world," and "atoms, building blocks of the world." She goes over the syllabus, and answers a few questions.

 

Presentation of Class Rules and Procedures (12 Minutes)

Mrs. Broadway distributes a mimeographed sheet that summarizes the rules and requirements for Chemistry I. The sheet lists five rules, a section on the method of grading and evaluation, and information on keeping all their work in a three-ring notebook, which Mrs. Broadway calls a portfolio. She tells them to put their name and the date on this sheet, and to place it as the first page (behind the cover sheet) of their portfolio. She explains that the classroom rules are very important. They are in chemistry I and they will be doing experiments that require safety precautions and she must have their cooperation at all times. She then describes the grading system, and then shows the students an example of a completed portfolio.

She then takes a few minutes to go back over the rules and the consequences for not following the rules. She ask the students if they have any questions about the rules. One student asks about rule 1 which is "Bring all needed materials to class." He says,"What materials are needed?" Mrs. Broadway smiles, and says to the class, let's make a list of the things that are needed." The class makes this list:

textbook, notebook, pencil. Mrs. Broadway explains that there will be additional procedures, especially when they start doing activities. She will teach these procedures when they are needed. She also tells the students that she will review the rules again and again.

 

Figure 10.13a

Burning Candle Demonstration

Activity: Burning Candle (20 minutes)

Mrs. Broadway presents a very large candle to the class (its about 15 inches tall). She walks around the room so that the students can observe it closely. She gives each student a sheet of paper and asks them to write their name and date and period on the top of the paper, and ask each student to write at least ten things about the candle. So the students can observe it more easily, she mounts the candle on the demonstration table for all to see. After two minutes she say stop writing. Now she lights the candle, and asks the students to observe the candle, and to write five more observations of the burning candle. After two minutes, she tells the students to stop writing and she blows the candle out. She then goes to the board, and asks for one student to give at least three observations. A student raises her hand; Mrs. Broadway calls on her. She continues this, until she has written about 25 observations of the candle on the board. Mrs. Broadway explains to the class that this chemistry activity is important because this where chemistry begins---with observing things in the natural world. She collects the papers, and tells the students that during the course, they will do a variety of activities.

End-of-Class (4 minutes)

After collecting all the papers, Mrs. Broadway tells the students that she would like them to find pictures of examples of chemicals in magazines, newspapers and bring at least one into class tomorrow. She also explains that they should write ten observations of the "chemical" that they

find. Mrs. Broadway explains that it is her procedure to dismiss the students and they are not to leave even if the bell rings. She tells them that before they leave, she expects that the lab (if they used it) or if they did a hands-on activity at their desk, must be clean before dismissal. She compliments the class on their behavior, and says she looks forward to seeing them tomorrow.

 

Life Science: Day One. This day one activity could be used in a middle school life science class or in Biology I.

Greeting Students Mr. Rose greets the students standing outside the door of his life science classroom. The students are coming from across the hall where they have been in math. He smiles and says hello to the students as they enter the classroom.

Introduction (4 minutes)

Mr. Rose introduces himself at the front of the room. He says that he enjoys teaching life science and was greatly influenced by where she grew up---in the Colorado Rockies, and as a result has always loved the outdoors. He tells the students that this course is called Life Science, and they should be sure they are in the correct room.

 

Routines (6 minutes)

Mr. Rose tells the students to raise their hands when he calls out their name and to tell him if they should be called by a different name. He then passes out 4x6 cards by giving the person at the head of each row cards for the row and tells them to take one and pass the rest back. He asks the students to fill out the card as shown on the overhead projector, which shows a sample card with this information: name, address, telephone number, pets, how many brothers/sisters, favorite animal and plant.

 

Presentation of Rules and Course Requirements (20 minutes)

Mr. Rose has four rules: be prompt, polite, productive, and prepared and they are listed on a sheet of paper which he gives to each student. Some examples of behaviors for each rule are listed and Mr. Rose uses these to help the students understand the rules. He encourages questions and a few students ask him about the rules. Mr. Rose points out the plants, aquaria, and terraria in the room. He explains that these are there for the classes' enjoyment, but also to help them learn about life science. He tells the students that they will be using the computer center during this class, but he will explain the rules for its use when they begin using it in three days. Mr. Rose explains that the students should obtain a three-ring notebook like the one he shows them, and they should bring it to class tomorrow, and they should purchase a set of dividers (which he shows them) for the notebook. They will be keeping their work in these notebooks. He gives them a handout describing the objectives and activities for the first unit (entitled Ecology) of the course, and goes over the handout with the class. Mr. Rose collects the cards.

 

Activity (12 minutes)

Mr. Rose gives each student a small brown paper bag containing one object (pencils, erasers, marbles, rocks, leaves, pine cones). He also gives each student a sheet of paper, and tells them to put their name, date and period on the paper. He tells the students to lift the bag up, and move it about, but not to look in the bag. He asks the students to write at least three things about the object in the bag. Now he tells the students to open the bag and look inside, but do not touch the object. Without naming the object, he tells them to write three more things about the object. Finally, he tells them to take the object out of the bag, and write three more observations of the object. Mr. Rose tells the students

to compare their observations with the person sitting near them with the sameobject. Finally, Mr. Rose tells the students to put the objects back in the bag and to place them on the desks. Mr. Rose asks for student volunteers to describe some of their observations. He makes the point that learning about biology begins with careful observations. He asks one student in each row to collect the bags and bring them to the demonstration table.

End-of-Class

Mr. Rose gives each student a handout containing pictures of animals and plants. He explains that he wants the students to look around their environment, on the way home, and at home, and check off each animal or plant that they can observe. They should put their name and date on the paper, and bring them to class tomorrow. Finally, the bell rings, and Mr. Rose dismisses them.

Beyond Day One

If we assume that the "beginning of the year" includes the first two or three weeks or perhaps even a month of the course, then it is important that you carefully plan these weeks to establish routines that will help your classes run smoothly. In the first day cases we presented above, both teachers established a routine, but more importantly established themselves as the leader in charge of the class. They also involved the students in an interesting learning activity and extended it by giving them an "activity" oriented homework assignment to continue the approach. Here is what each of them did on day two.

Mrs Broadway: On day two, Mrs. Broadway started class by taking roll. She then used the pictures the students brought from home to discuss chemistry in the environment. She distributed the text books, and spent some time showing the students the sections of the book, the glossary, and some tips on using the book. She introduced an activity that will take two days (chemical observations), and assigned a homework reading and problems for each student to complete.

Mr. Rose on day two, began by reviewing the rules, then followed this with an activity in which students in pairs observed

sea shells. They measured the shells, and drew diagrams showing the shapes and the environment in which the shells live. He then distributed the textbooks, and had the students look over the first chapter: Life in the Sea. Mr. Rose read (rather dramatically) the first section of the book, and then asked the students to study the first chapter and come in with three questions about the first chapter, each written on a card.

For the next two weeks, both teachers set in place the character of their course that would continue throughout the year. The following chart shows the first two weeks of Mrs. Broadway's chemistry class, highlighting the activities and procedures. Notice that she introduced the students to different aspects of her chemistry course (lab, small group work, use of the computer, the textbook) over the two week period of time. She took the time to teach and reteach the rules and routines in a proactive approach to class management

Figure 2

The First Two Weeks of Chemistry Class

 

Monday Tuesday Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Introduction

Rules

Burning candle

Go over homework

Chemical Observation Activity I

Textbook:

 

ChemCom

Chemical Activity Part II

Introduce Ch. 1:Quality of Water: Role Play of Water Emergency in Riverwood

Pre-lab procedures

Lab: Foul Water

Post-lab discussion

 

Monday Tuesday Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

         

Cooperative Learning Activity: (rules for group work):

Students in teams study chapter 1 and answer worksheet problems

Introduce survey activity: "Water use in your home"

Presentation on earth's water: the water cycle

No-risk pop quiz

Pre-lab

Lab: Classifying mixtures

Post-lab (mixtures)

Introduction to using symbols and formulas: student practice in teams

Introduction to use of Computer center in class: student will use program on symbols and formulas.

Each team will have 10 minutes today in center.