The Basic Requirements for Personnel Monitoring Safety Standards/Safety... · 2012. 11. 1. · The...

S A F E T Y S E R I E S

No. 14

The Basic Requirementsfor

Personnel Monitoring

I N T E R N A T I O N A L A T O M I C E N E R G Y A G E N C Y

V I E N N A , 1965

This publication is not longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

THE BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR PERSONNEL MONITORING


The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency:

AFGHANISTAN FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIAALBANIA GERMANY NORWAYALGERIA GABON PAKISTANARGENTINA GHANA PARAGUAYAUSTRALIA GREECE PERUAUSTRIA GUATEMALA PHILIPPINESBELGIUM HAITI POLANDBOLIVIA HOLY SEE PORTUGALBRAZIL HONDURAS ROMANIABULGARIA HUNGARY SAUDI ARABIABURMA ICELAND SENEGALBYELORUSSIAN SOVIET INDIA SOUTH AFRICA

SOCIALIST REPUBLIC INDONESIA SPAINCAMBODIA IRAN SUDANCAMEROON IRAQ SWEDENCANADA ISRAEL SWITZERLANDCEYLON ITALY SYRIACHILE IVORY COAST THAILANDCHINA JAPAN TUNISIACOLOMBIA REPUBLIC OF KOREA TURKEYCONGO, DEMOCRATIC KUWAIT UKRAINIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST

REPUBLIC OF LEBANON REPUBLICCOSTA RICA LIBERIA UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALISTCUBA LIBYA REPUBLICSCZECHOSLOVAK SOCIALIST LUXEMBOURG UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC

REPUBLIC MADAGASCAR UNITED KINGDOM OF GREATDENMARK MALI BRITAIN AND NORTHERNDOMINICAN REPUBLIC MEXICO IRELANDECUADOR MONACO UNITED STATES OF AMERICAEL SALVADOR MOROCCO URUGUAYETHIOPIA NETHERLANDS VENEZUELAFINLAND NEW ZEALAND VIET-NAMFRANCE NICARAGUA YUGOSLAVIA

The Agency's Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute o f the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered Into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is "to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world".

© IAEA, 1965

Permission to reproduce or translate the information contained in this publication may be obtained by writing to the International Atomic Energy Agency, K&rntner Ring 11, Vienna I, Austria.

Printed by the IAEA in Austria April 1965


SAFETY SERIES No. 14


A CODE OF PRACTICE BASED ON THE REPORT OF A PANEL OF EXPERTS

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 1965


International Atomic Energy Agency.The basic requirements for personnel moni

toring. Report of a panel of experts. Vienna, the Agency, 1965.

43 p. (IAEA, Safety series no. 14)

614 .876 5 3 9 .1 2 .0 8

THIS CODE IS ALSO PUBLISHED IN FRENCH, RUSSIAN AND SPANISH


IAEA, VIENNA, 1965

S T I/P U B /95


FOREWORD

The code of practice presented here as part of the Agency's Safety Standards deals with the problem of personnel monitoring in establishments in which, or in part of which, work is primarily with radiation sources. It is a development of the fundamental requirements on the subject contained in the Agency's Basic Safety Standards.

The code has been prepared by the Secretariat of the Agency on the basis of the work of a panel of experts drawn from a number of Member States. In addition, representatives of several interested international organizations participated in the work of the panel.

The Board of Governors of the Agency considered this code of practice in September 1964 and authorized its application to Agency and Agency-assisted operations and recommended to Member States that it be taken into account in the formulation of national regulations or recommendations.


CONTENTS

LIST OF PANEL MEMBERS.............................................................. 9

1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... 11

1.1. General............................................................................................ 111.2. Purpose and sco p e ................................................... ............... 111.3. Explanation of terms used ..................................................... 12

2. BASIC CONCEPTS AND ORGANIZATION................................ , 13

2.1. Objectives ............................................... .................................... 132.2. Requirements ............................................................................ 132.3. Responsibilities and allocation of tasks......................... 14

3. METHODS.......................... ....................................................................... 16

3.1. Individual monitoring ............................................................ 163.2. Area monitoring........................................................................ 18

4. E X T E N T .............................. .................................................................... 20

4.1 . General ........................................................................................ 204.2 . Requirements related to the individual

radiation status.......................................................................... 204.3 . Requirements related to the area radiation

situation........................................................................................ 214.4 . Requirements related to the job radiation

situation....................................................................................... 244 .5 . Choice of devices, methods and frequency

of assessm ent............................................................................ 24


5. IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N 27

5.1. Selection of instruments ....................................................... 275.2. Instruments for emergency u s e ......................................... 295.3. Testing of instruments ......................................................... 295.4. Calibration procedures ......................................................... 30

6. DOSE ASSESSMENT ............................................................................ 31

6.1. G eneral......................................................................................... 316.2. Low-level exposure ................................................................ 316.3. Significant levels of exposure............................................. 316.4. Over-exposure........................................................................... 32

7. RECO RDS.................................................................................................. 33

7.1. G eneral......................................................................................... 337.2. Individual radiation h istories............................................. 337.3. Records of environmental radiation levels .................. 347.4. Calibration and maintenance re co rd s............................. 34

8. TRAINING.................................................................................................. 35

9. REPORTING............................................................................................. 36

ANNEX I BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................. 37

ANNEX II DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL TERMS 39


LIST OF PANEL MEMBERS

G. Cowper (Chairman) Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. ,Chalk River, Ont . , Canada

F . P . Cowan* *

Y. Feige

V. V. Frolov

J . W. H ealy*

J . M. Lavie

assisted by M. Dousset

B . A . J . L ister

T . Musialowicz

S.D . Soman

E. Stedje

A . R . Wilson

Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York, United States of Am erica

Israel Atomic Energy Com m ission, Rehovoth, Israel

State Committee for Atom ic Energy, Moscow, USSR

General E lectric C o . , Schenectedy, New York, United States of Am erica

Com m issariat &. l'E nergie atomique,B . P . 307, P aris, France

Com m issariat k l'Energie atomique, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France

Atom ic Energy Research Establishment, Harwell, Berks . , England

Central Radiological Protection Laboratory, W arsaw, Poland

Atom ic Energy Establishment Trom bay, Bombay, India

Institutt f^r Atomenergi, K jeller, Norway

Australian Atom ic Energy Comm ission , N. S . W. , Australia

* Participated in the first meeting only.

* ■* Participated in the second meeting only.

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OBSERVERS

W. G. P. Hiibner**

Y. Nishiwaki * *

F. Devik*

L. E. Larsson**

E. Hellen *

J. Nehemias**

M iss E. Rhem**

F.D. Sowby*

C. Polvani * *

E. Wallauschek

SCIENTIFIC SECRETARY

J. Mehl

Physikalisch-Technische Bundes- anstalt, Braunschweig, Federal Republic of Germany

Tokyo Institute of Technology, O-Okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan

World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

International Labour Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland

International Labour Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland International Organization for Standardization, Paris, France

International Commission on Radiological Protection, Sutton, Surrey, England

International Commission on Radiological Protection, CNEN, Rome, ItalyOrganization for Economic Cooperation and Development/European Nuclear Energy Agency, Paris, France

Division of Health, Safety and Waste Disposal, IAEA

* Participated in the first meeting only.

* * Participated in the second meeting only.

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1. INTRODUCTION

This manual sets forth the objectives and requirements of an adequate system of personnel monitoring in a radiation protection programme, and describes the responsibilities inherent therein. In addition to a classification of the monitoring methods, the manual presents rules that govern their application as well as a choice of techniques and instruments. Reference is made also to the management and use of exposure data, and of personnel monitoring records. Annex I contains a bibliography of manuals, reports and handbooks to supplement the contents of this manual.

1 . 1 . G E N E R A L

1. 2 . PURPOSE AND SCOPE

1 . 2 . 1 . This code of practice for the establishment of adequatesystems of personnel monitoring is part of the Agency's Safety Standards. It elaborates in detail the requirements of the Agency's Basic Safety Standards1) with respect to the assessment of exposure of individuals to ionizing radiation within establishments where radiation sources are used.

1 . 2 . 2 . The code is provided for the guidance of those personsand authorities who are responsible for protection against ionizing radiation and for those concerned with the planning and management of personnel monitoring systems.

1 . 2 . 3 . Based on practices found satisfactory in establishmentswhich have considerable experience, the code is particularly intended to be useful in situations where little or no previous experience exists.

>)

(1962).Basic Safety Standards for Radiation Protection, Safety Series No. 9, IAEA, Vienna

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1 . 3 . E X P L A N A T IO N OF T E R M S USED

1 . 3 . 1 . The term "personnel monitoring" commonly refers only to activities whose purpose is the direct evaluation of individual doses and body burdens. For the purposes of this code, however, the term also includes activities (such as measurements of concentrations of radioactive material in air and measurements of area radiation levels) which contribute indirect information useful in evaluating individual doses and body burdens. Thus, in this context, personnel monitoring encompasses individual monitoring and some aspects of area monitoring."Shall" and "m ust" are used when the provision specifies a minimum standard of performance. "Should" is used where the provision is recognized as good practice which should be applied wherever feasible.Where the term "significant" is used, no particular numerical limits are to be understood; the expert, from his own training and experience, will understand from the context the degree of qualification intended.

1 . 3 . 2 . Where reference is made to radiological quantities and units, the definitions are in accordance with those given in the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU) report on radiation quantities and units2) .

1 . 3 . 3 . Definitions of other technical terms are to be found in Annex II. - If no definition is given, the term is understood to be used in its normally accepted scientific sense.

2) INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS. Report No. 10a, National Bureau o f Standards Handbook 84, Washington D. C. (1962).


2. BASIC CONCEPTS AND ORGANIZATION

2.1. OBJECTIVES

The principal objectives of a personnel monitoring system are to prevent over-exposure and avoid unnecessary exposure of personnel working with various sources of radiation. Within this general framework the system can be used for the following:(i) To give early indication of significant exposure so

that the need for improved supervision, instruction, training and/or protective measures can be assessed;

(ii) To give prompt notice of accidental over-exposure so that appropriate, action may be taken;

(iii) To a ssess the radiation safety of working areas;(iv) To observe the trends of exposure histories of indi

viduals or groups of workers, in order to assess ithe need for improved standards of radiation protection; and

(v) To provide a record of information which may be needed for legal purposes.

2.2. REQUIREMENTS

2. 2 . 1 . An adequate system of personnel monitoring must provide for the measurement, evaluation and recording of significant doses accumulated by individuals together with a recording of the conditions under which these doses were received.The monitoring methods which may be required are:

(i) Individual monitoring, including:(a) external radiation monitoring, for which radi

ation measuring devices are worn by the worker (see 3 .1 . 1 . ) ;

(b) internal contamination monitoring, by apparatus designed to measure radiation emitted from the

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body (whole-body monitors or partial-body monitors) or by bioassay procedures (see 3 . 1 . 2 . ) ; and

(c) measurements of skin and clothing contamination (see 3 . 1 . 3 . ) ; and

(ii) Area monitoring,including the determination of radiation levels, air contamination and surface contamination in the working area. This is done by:(a) measurements with radiation measuring instru

ments and devices; and(b) calculations based on the amount of radioactive

material present, its form and the nature of the processes in which the workers are exposed.

2 . 2 . 2 . An adequate system of personnel monitoring therefore requires:

(i) Specification of the type and extent of personnel monitoring to be done;

(ii) Selection, testing, calibration, maintenance and issue of suitable instruments;

(iii) Monitoring and sample collection;(iv) Processing and interpretation of personnel moni

toring data;(v) Interpretation of area monitoring data; and

(vi) Maintenance of adequate records, and provision of ■ the means to report such records.

The functions described in (ii) and(iv) above may be carried out by a centralized service outside the particular installation.

2 .3. RESPONSIBILITIES AND ALLOCATION OF TASKS

2. 3 . 1 . In conformity with paragraph 5. 1 . 2 . of the Agency's Basic Safety Standards the authority in charge shall, as part of its responsibility of ensuring protection against the effects of ionizing radiation, establish an adequate system of personnel monitoring and provide for the required services.

2 . 3 . 2 . When the personnel monitoring system is put into operation, the duties it entails should be distributed throughout the organization, from the authority in charge down to the individual, to the extent appropriate at each level.

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2 . 3 . 3 . The authority in charge shall:(i) Designate a technically qualified person to advise

on the establishment of an appropriate personnel monitoring system within the establishment, to supervise its performance, and to report to the authority in charge the doses received by individuals. The same person shall also advise on improvements to protection measures and on the action to be taken if permissible exposure levels have been or are likely to be exceeded; and

(ii) Ensure that department heads arrange for local supervision of the personnel monitoring system.

2 . 3 . 4 . Individual workers, after receiving appropriate instructions, shall be responsible for the correct wearing of physical indicators and for following the prescribed steps for internal dose determinations.

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3. METHODS

The purpose of this section is to define and classify the methods of personnel monitoring discussed in subsequent sections. A brief description is given of the purpose of each method, how the method is applied, and what its limitations are.

3.1. INDIVIDUAL MONITORING

3 . 1 . 1 . Monitoring of external exposure

3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . Monitoring of external exposure is used:(i) To assess the whole-body dose and the doses received

by parts of the body if there is any likelihood of their being significantly in excess of the whole-body dose. In cases of accidental over-exposure, such additional inf ormation may be particularly useful in deciding on subsequent action; and

(ii) To analyse the types and qualities of radiation to which the individual has been exposed.

3 . 1 . 1 . 2. Monitoring by physical indicatorsExternal exposure is usually monitored with physical indicators. Physical indicators of small weight and size(film badges, pocket chambers, activation detectors, etc.) make it possible to estimate the dose equivalent for the region of the body where they are placed (see 4. 4 . 1 . 1 . ) , provided that the conversion factors required to calculate the dose equivalent from measured quantities can be determined.

3 . 1.1. 3 . Monitoring by biological indicatorsIf acute accidental over-exposure is suspected, additional data for the estimation of the individual dose may be obtained from biological indicators, such as the whole body, body tissue and fluids, or excreta. The most suitable indicator is selected after a study of any other information available about the exposure. In general the accuracy with

16


which the conversion factors required to estimate the dose equivalent from the response of the biological indicators can be determined is limited, so that the monitoring by biological indicators, in general, gives only an order of magnitude of the dose equivalent.

3. 1 . 2. Monitoring of internal contamination

3.1. 2.1. Monitoring of internal contamination is used for the identification of contaminants and the quantitative assessment of internally deposited radioactive materials. In all cases where the quantity is significant, the determination of the whole-body burden, the distribution within the body and the excretion pattern should be attempted to enable the best possible assessm ent of the dose equivalent.

3.1. 2. 2. Internal contamination can be monitored by bioassay and/or by whole-body or partial-body in vivo measurements. In the former case, the method is valid only to the extent that the relationship between the activity of the sample and the whole-body burden is known. In the latter case, the photon radiation from the radioactive substance taken into the body must be sufficiently energetic to allow a reasonable estimate of the body burden from the observed activity. It follows that such determinations will be seriously upset by the presence of superficial contamination on the body. The estimation of the dose equivalent from body burden values depends upon many parameters (e. g. macroscopic and microscopic distribution of the contaminant in the body, its retention in body tissues, etc . ) and is limited by the accuracy with which these parameters are known.

3 . 1 . 3 . Monitoring o f skin and clothing contamination

3 . 1 . 3 . 1 . Normally, monitoring of the skin and clothing is used to detect any potential risk of incorporation of radioactive material. For that purpose it is enough to employ a contamination detector which will indicate whether the contamination is below an acceptable limit. A contamination detector which gives a quantitative response is useful in indicating the progress of decontamination and, in severe cases, the level of contamination.

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3.1. 3. 2. Skin and clothing contamination may be monitored by anydetector of adequate sensitivity to the radiation in question, which is calibrated in accordance with the monitoring geometry used so that its response can be interpreted in terms of the surface contamination. Special hand monitors or hand/foot monitors maybe convenient if frequent monitoring of hands or feet is required.

3.1. 3. 3. It must be appreciated that the accuracy of skin contamination measurements is limited by the accuracy with which the manv variable parameters (e. g. self absorption, geometry, etc.) entering into the calculation are known. While: it is reasonable to lay down acceptable levels of surface contamination, the relationship between surface activity and detector output is sufficiently uncertain that the discovery of any contamination should be treated with proper caution.

3.2. AREA MONITORING

3. 2 . 1 . Some indication of the dose received by a person may be obtained by monitoring his environment. In order to apply the results of such monitoring to the individual one must know how long he has been in the area, details of his movements therein, and changes in environmental conditions with time. Unless these additional factors are accurately known, complete reliance can be placed on area monitoring only where the hazard is trivial and where the monitoring devices give adequate warning of any deterioration in exposure conditions.

3 . 2 . 2 . The object of area monitoring is to provide an adequate assessment of the following:

(i) External radiation;(ii) Concentrations of radioactive aerosols and gases

in the air. A discussion of the details of instrumentation and techniques applicable to area monitoring

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will be found in the manuals of the IAEA Safety Series3),-and

(iii) Surface contamination.3 . 2 . 3 . When the purpose is to provide an assessment of individual

exposure, area monitoring is carried out in the specific working area of the individual concerned. It is aimed at determining the type, energy, level and uniformity of the radiation. Radiation levels are determined by instruments (portable or semi-portable) designed to indicate directly the rate of external radiation exposure.

3 .2.4. Area monitoring for the assessment of individual exposure is carried out in such a manner that the results are typical of the radiation intensity during the working period. Care must be taken to account for spatial and temporal variations in the working area, as otherwise the results will be of value only so long as the radiation conditions remain unchanged.

3 . 2 . 5 . Air sampling procedures are based on the assumption that the activity of the sampled air is representative of the activity in the inhaled air. Since the concentration of activity in the air an individual breathes may be substantially different from that in the working space as a whole, it is preferable to sample the air directly in his zone, using portable or semi-portable devices. It should be noted that the activity retained by the individual may not be equal to the activity in the air inhaled.

3)' Safe Handling of Radioisotopes, Safety Series No. 1, pp. 20-23.Safe Handling of Radioisotopes, Safety Series No. 2 - Health Physics Addendum, p. 43.Safe Handling of Radioisotopes, Safety Series No. 3 ■ Medical Addendum, p. 35.Safe Operation of Critical Assemblies and Research Reactors, Safety Series No. 4,pp. 23,

35-36.Basic Safety Standards for Radiation Protection, Safety Series No. 9, pp. 24*26, 28.

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4. EXTENT

4.1. GENERAL

4 . 1 . 1 . The extent of personnel monitoring required in any situation will depend upon the following:

(i) The radiation status of the individual,i.e . the dose limitation which must be applied to his work or activity during a given surveillance period as a consequence of his radiation category4', his exposure history or for other reasons;

(ii) The over-all radiation situation in the area concerned, i . e. the exposure potentials in that area; and

(iii) The radiation situation associated with the job in hand, i.e. the exposure potentials related to the particular work performed.

4. 1 . 2 . An adequate system of personnel monitoring, while meeting all the technical objectives, should be designed to operate within reasonable cost limits.

4 .2 . REQUIREMENTS RELATED TO THE INDIVIDUAL RADIATION STATUS

4 . 2 . 1 . Workers directly engaged in radiation work

4. 2 . 1 . 1 . Depending upon the area radiation situation every worker directly engaged in radiation work shall be subject to personal exposure evaluation for:

(i) External radiation only; or(ii) Internal contamination only; or

(iii) Both external radiation and internal contamination.

See IAEA Safety Series No. 9, paragraph 2. 3.4 )

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4. 2 . 1 . 2. The radiation status of these workers shall be checked periodically, and adequate records of all occupational radiation exposure must be kept in accordance with chapter 7.

4. 2 .1 . 3. If a person considered for employment has already been a radiation worker, individual monitoring of internal contamination may be considered before his employment. This process will be useful only in connection with certain radionuclides. The results of such analyses may have a bearing on the suitability of applicants for employment.

4. 2 . 1 . 4 . When the accumulated dose equivalent of a worker is near the accepted limits, or when some special restriction of exposure is advisable for other reasons, and it is not practicable to change his work to avoid subsequent exposure, it would be prudent to increase the extent of individual monitoring in that particular case.

4 . 2 . 2 . W orkers not directly engaged in radiation work

4. 2. 2 . 1 . Normally, it will be sufficient to monitor the conditions under which a worker not directly engaged in radiation work is exposed in a controlled area by area monitoring techniques.

4. 2. 2. 2. However, it may be advisable to apply individual monitoring methods if the worker could receive a significant radiation dose as a result of unexpected acts or occurrences in the area (see 4. 3.1. 3 and 4. 3. 2.1).

4. 2. 3. Visitors

Visitors shall be treated as workers not directly engaged in radiation work.

4 .3. REQUIREMENTS RELATED TO THE AREA RADIATIONSITUATION

4 . 3 . 1 . Normal working conditions

4. 3 . 1 . 1 . Working areas should be classified to indicate whether, under normal operating conditions, personnel risk being exposed:

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(i) To external radiation only;(ii) To loose surface and/or air contamination only,- or

(iii) To both (i) and (ii). A further classification according to the level of the risk might be desirable to determine whether special control and supervision are required to keep radiation exposures within the recommended limits.

4. 3 .1 . 2. Individual monitoring shall be provided for each person working in a controlled area who could be exposed to external radiation or to internal contamination resulting in annual doses in excess of those given in paragraph 3.2 of IAEA Safety Series No. 9.

(i) The doses received from external radiation shall be evaluated by the use of one or more individual radiation detectors carried continuously on the person while in the controlled area.

(ii) The doses received from internal radiation shall be evaluated where necessary by in vivo measurements or bioassay techniques which enable the intake or body burden of radioactive materials to be evaluated. The frequency of assessments shall be such that compliance with the Basic Safety Standards is ensured.

4. 3.1. 3. The case of each individual who occasionally enters a controlled area shall be reviewed in the light of area surveys and personal contamination surveys to decide whether he shall be subject to individual monitoring.

4. 3 . 1 . 4 . Where significant contamination may occur, monitoring of skin and clothing contamination shall be carried out on all persons leaving the area; as a minimum, hands and shoes shall be monitored.

4. 3.1. 5. Area monitoring shall be done in all areas where exposure conditions cannot be predicted or could be subject to unexpected and significant changes. The use of installed instruments with recording and alarm facilities may be a convenience in installations where many areas have to be kept under scrutiny. Where area monitoring is done by manual methods, the frequency of monitoring should be related to the operations in progress and should be higher during any period when significant changes in radiation levels are possible.

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4. 3. 2 . Emergency conditions

4. 3. 2.1. Qualified experts should define areas in which serious radiation hazards could arise in the event of an accident. Where such areas exist it is necessary to plan the monitoring systems required under emergency conditions. The extent of such planning and the provision of facilities for dose evaluation under emergency conditions will depend on both the probability and the seriousness of the potential emergency situation. Where a very serious accident is at all likely to occur, planning should include:

(i) The establishment of an emergency monitoring programme, including detailed guidance as to the sequence of operations to be performed, the monitoring methods which must be applied, the processing and evaluation of monitoring data, and subsequent actions;

(ii) The training of monitoring and rescue personnel in the proper execution of the monitoring programme under emergency conditions;

(iii) Arrangements for help from dosimetry experts outside the establishment if the capability of the establishments's own staff is insufficient;

(iv) The installation of monitoring devices adequate to measure foreseeable radiation hazards. An essential feature of these devices is an alarm which gives an unambiguous indication to everyone in the hazard area that a serious situation has arisen; and

(v) The provision of high range portable monitoring devices, which should be kept in working order at all tim es.

4. 3. 2. 2. Personnel working in areas of potentially high radiation hazard should be supplied with dosimeters enabling the rapid identification of highly exposed persons who may need medical care, and covering a dose range relevant to clinical treatment.

4. 3. 2. 3. Disaster dosimeter stations containing neutron detectors should be designed so that it is possible to extract the dosimeters for evaluation after the event without excessive additional exposure of workers.

4. 3 . 2 . 4 . Bioassay services should be adequate to handle, without unreasonable delay, the number of people who may be in

23


volved in a serious contamination emergency. This may require arrangements for assistance from outside the establishment.

4 . 4 . REQUIREMENTS RELATED TO THE JOB RADIATIONSITUATION

The characteristics of each job should be examined to determine the risk of radiation exposure associated with it.

4 . 4 . 1 . The following items may be relevant in assessing the job radiation situation. Some of these can be anticipated with greater certainty than others, and the gradual acquisition of experience will lead to improved assessments.

4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . For external radiation:(i) The types and energies of external radiation;

(ii) The spatial distribution of radiation sources and their associated radiation fields; and

(iii) Predictions of close rates associated with the detailed operations to be performed and their likely variations with time.

4 . 4 . 1 . 2. For internal contamination:(i) The nature and quantity of the radioactive materials

handled;(ii) The degree of containment (e.g. glove boxes, manipu

lation chambers, etc.);(iii) The nature of the operation (e. g. wet chemistry, dry

operations, etc.);(iv) The laboratory conditions (e. g. ventilation rates);

and(v) The existence of associated dangers (e. g. spontane

ous combustion or explosion).

4 .5 . CHOICE OF DEVICES, METHODS AND FREQUENCY OFASSESSMENT

4 . 5 . 1 . External radiation

4. 5 . 1 . 1 . A proper assessment of the individual, area and job radiation situations should make it possible to select adequate

24


personnel monitoring devices and methods, and the proper frequency of exposure assessments.

4. 5.1. 2. In simple cases it will be sufficient if the individual wears a single dosimeter on the trunk of the body; the readings provided by this dosimeter are accepted as representing the whole body exposure to external radiation.

4. 5.1. 3. In situations made complex by the presence of several types of radiation it will be necessary to wear a dosimeter sensitive to all types of radiation likely to be encountered. In situations where the radiation distribution is not uniform it may be necessary to wear dosimeters in several places on the body, so that an adequate assessment of the exposure can be made.

4. 5 . 1 . 4 . Individual dosimeters should be read as frequently as the nature of the work demands. Where estimates of the radiation hazard can be made with confidence, it will be sufficient to take readings once every few weeks. In special cases where radiation levels can change unpredictably, it is advisable for individuals to wear warning dosimeters which sound an alarm when a predetermined level has been reached, so that exposures can be minimized.

4. 5.1. 5. Area surveys are an essential procedure in assessing the job radiation situation. The frequency and extent of such surveys will depend upon the work in hand, and previous experience may be useful. However, the possibility of the unexpected happening should never be overlooked, and in particular during the early stages of new processes frequent monitoring will be advisable.

4. 5. 2. Internal contamination

4. 5. 2.1. The choice of monitoring methods and frequency of monitoring will depend on one's knowledge of the radioactive materials and conditions of work found in the particular job and working area; the decision must be left to the discretion of an expert. However, in the event of an unpredicted change in the radiation situation of the job or working area involving the possibility of internal contamination, the authority on the spot (or when necessary, the individual worker) should clearly understand it is his duty to report the situation and follow instructions concerning

25


sampling procedures. In such a situation the results of routine air and surface monitoring will be useful in indicating when internal contamination should be investigated.


5. INSTRUMENTATION

5.1. SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS

5. 1 . 1 . Equipment for each monitoring method should be selected with the following points in mind:

(i) In stru m en ts sh ou ld y ie ld v a lid and r e p ro d u c ib le data and shou ld not e x ce e d re a so n a b le lim its with re g a rd to in itia l c o s t o r the c o s t o f op era tion and m ain ten an ce ; and

(ii) The limitations of each instrument should be clearly understood by the users. No single instrument can be expected to perform all the monitoring functions required, and for any particular function its performance may not measure up to the desired standards. The user should also realize that even the best instrument may easily give incorrect information when incorrectly operated.

5 . 1 . 2 . The adequacy o f an instrum ent used fo r quantitative m ea su re m ents should be a s se s se d by the extent to which

(i) Its response to the quantity measured can be calibrated and interpreted;

(ii) It maintains its calibration;(iii) Its sensitivity suits the intended application;(iv) Its response is directional;(v) Its response is affected by variations in environ

mental conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity, dust, vapour, wind, light, electric or magnetic fields) and operational conditions (e. g. rough treatment, voltage and frequency fluctuations of the mains, etc . ).

5 . 1 . 3 . If an instrument is to be used for personnel dosimetry of external radiation, it must either respond to radiations of different qualities and types with enough sensitivity to give a true indication of the dose equivalent, or alternatively it must contain sufficient components sensitive mainly to radiations of different types that a proper estimate of the dose equivalent can be computed from the

27


responses of the components. The detector of an instrument used for individual monitoring of external radiation must also be of sufficiently small size to permit it to be worn by the individual without inconvenience.

5 . 1 . 4 . Desirable characteristics of survey (dose-rate, flux density, contamination) meters are:

(i) An adequate range of response;(ii) A short response time;

(iii) Full scale readings for levels above the range of the instrument;

(iv) A built-in performance check;(v) A detachable detector head so that remote oper

ation is possible;(vi) An audible output in the case of contamination meters;

and(vii) Background compensation.

5 . 1 . 5 . In vivo measurements can be made with the following:(i) A whole-body counter which should possess the cha

racteristics outlined below:(a) Its response should be independent of the distri

bution of activity within: the body;(b) Its output should indicate by the spectrum of the

radiation emitted the probable identity of the internal contamination; and

(c) Its background activity should be low and constant;

(ii) A partial-body counter for the external measurement of radiation from particular organs; and

(iii) Probes of small dimensions for the detection of radioactive materials in wounds.

Whilst sensitive whole-body counters are generally expensive, less sensitive ones adequate for emergency personnel monitoring can be obtained at relatively low cost.

5 . 1 . 6 . For internal contamination the application of proper bioassay techniques is probably more important than the detailed characteristics of the analytical instrumentation used. It is not possible to make a generalized statement about this aspect of monitoring.

5 . 1 . 7 . Air sampling, sample-processing and sample-monitoring techniques should be adapted to the nature of the contaminant (the particular radionuclide, particle size, etc.) and

28


to the area for which the sample is intended to be representative (e. g. general area or breathing zone). Therefore, it is hard to generalize about the characteristics a good instrument should have. Its merits must be determined by the extent to which it meets the specific requirements of each particular monitoring method.

5.2. INSTRUMENTS FOR EMERGENCY USE

5 . 2 . 1 . Rate meters should have the following characteristics:(i) A practical range;

(ii) A high degree of reliability rather than high accuracy;(iii) Adequate ruggedness;(iv) Simple operating convenience, including a single

logarithmic scale and provision for remote handling and remote readings; and

(v) Good shelf life to permit use at any time.5 . 2 . 2 . Dosimeters (non-alarm) should have the two character

istics listed below:(i) A range of response covering doses of clinical inte

rest; and(ii) Provision for rapid reading.

5 . 2 . 3 . Dosimeters (alarm) should give an unambiguous audible indication when a preselected dose is reached.

5 . 2 . 4 . The characteristics of installed high-range area monitors are:

(i) Fail-safe devices such as low-reading indicators and the possibility to show a small positive reading at all times;

(ii) Alarm signals which cannot be confused with any other audible signals in use;

(iii) Additional indicators which can be read outside the region of actual hazard; and

(iv) Reliable power sources.

5.3. TESTING OF INSTRUMENTS

5. 3 . 1 . Before issue, and after each maintenance procedure, instruments must be given an adequate test.

29


5. 3 .3 .

5 . 3 . 4 .

5 . 4 .

5 . 3 . 2 . Each type of instrument will require a test procedure to be applied during use. The frequency and extent of testing will depend on its particular characteristics and the manner in which'it is used.Functional testing by users should be arranged in a manner sufficiently convenient to encourage its application.Users should realize the importance of returning any apparently defective instrument for maintenance.

CALIBRATION PROCEDURES

The calibration of instruments should be verified at regular intervals, the actual interval depending upon the instrument type. In selecting acceptable limits of performance, the user should bear in mind the overall accuracy required and demand no more than the performance which is necessary and reasonable.

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6. DOSE ASSESSMENT

6.1. GENERAL

The relative accuracy of dose assessment should be appropriate to the level of exposure. These levels may be classified as follows:

(i) L o w - le v e l e x p o su re , at w h ich the d o se a ccu m u la ted o v e r an exten ded p e r io d w ill be b e low the a p p ro p r ia te re co m m e n d e d lim its ;

(ii) Significant exposure, i.e. exposure which if continued would lead to an accumulated dose beyond the recommended lim its. Such exposure may require investigation so that similar occurrences can afterwards be avoided;

(iii) Over-exposure, which requires immediate investigation and which, above a certain level, may require medical examination or treatment.

6.2. LOW -LEVEL EXPOSURE

6. 2 . 1 . In the case of low-level exposure, where the only purposeof assessment is to accumulate lifetime radiation history,the external dose distribution over the whole body is oftrivial importance. The data provided by a personnel dosimeter at one point on the body are adequate. In cases of very slight internal contamination, it is adequate if the assessment merely confirms that "insignificant" contamination has occurred.

6.3. SIGNIFICANT LEVELS OF EXPOSURE

6. 3.1. At the significant level, it may be necessary to assess thedose to particular organs when non-uniform exposure to external radiation has occurred. For the purposes of con-

31


trol, the dose to the portable dosimeter on the trunk of the body may be reported as the dose received by the whole body.Where there has been significant internal contamination, it is important to express the amount quantitatively if possible. If the dose equivalent is thought to be appreciable, every effort should be made to assess the internal dose contribution.The level of internal contamination may be indicated by any of the following:

(i) Specific activity of a bioassay sample;(ii) Activity of the whole body;

(iii) Activity of the critical organ; or(iv) Dose equivalent of the dose received by the critical

organ.In assessing the dose equivalent, the quality and distribution factors must be applied if the relevant information is available.

OVER-EXPOSURE

When an over-exposure has taken place, it is important to determine its severity as soon as possible. A more exact estimate can be made after the emergency. The early estimates should be aimed at identifying the seriously exposed workers.In severe cases of skin contamination or internal contamination, the time spent on the measurement of known contamination should be balanced against the urgency of decontamination.In cases of severe over-exposure, all available dosimetry information should be gathered, in view of the fact that these data may be of great importance to the individual's welfare and also, because such incidents are comparatively rare, that they are likely to be of considerable value in furthering knowledge of radiation effects upon humans. It may be necessary to simulate the radiation incident with proper precautions to gather such data.


7. RECORDS

7.1.

7 . 1 . 1 .

7.1.2.

7. 2.

7 . 2 . 1 .

7 . 2 . 2 .

7 . 2 . 3 .

GENERAL

Personal exposure records must be kept to permit periodic evaluation of the effectiveness of radiation protection within the organization, and to enable the occupational radiation exposure history of any individual covered by personnel monitoring systems to be presented in sufficient detail.Individual exposure records should include details of monitoring procedures so that the validity of the data can be assessed. In addition, records of environmental radiation conditions should also be kept. Records of the calibration and maintenance of monitoring devices are of transitory significance and therefore le ss important.

I N D IV ID U A L R A D IA T IO N H IS T O R IE S

Individual radiation histories should include:(i) Details of external radiation exposure based on

routine dosimetry methods and equivalent data from internal contamination measurements;

(ii) Adequate descriptions - including descriptions of doses received - of particular incidents involving out-of-the-ordinary exposures; and

(iii) Other pertinent details where appropriate.Records of the assessm ent of individual doses shall be preserved during the lifetime of the person concerned, and in any case for at least 30 years after he has ceased to do work involving exposure to ionizing radiation.The method of storing data will depend on the size of the organization and the frequency with which access to the records is needed. There should always be sufficient information stored with the exposure data to ensure clear identification of the individual concerned. It should be

33


noted, in this regard, that the storage of data concerning temporary workers and visitors may present particular problems.

7 .3. RECORDS OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION LEVELS

7 . 3 . 1 . It may be desirable for several reasons to keep recordsshowing the radiation conditions of working areas as well as areas in proximity to the installation which are frequented by the general public.

7. 3 .2 . Information obtained from properly identified recordingmeter data will have greater significance than the listing of isolated measurements. However, for unusual occurrences involving significant radiation exposure only the latter may be available. In these cases, care should be taken to ensure, that the record of the incident is as complete and reliable as possible.

7 . 3 . 3 . Except where significant exposure to an individual is involved, records of survey meter readings are in general only of transitory interest and serve principally to guide operators in the improvement of radiation working conditions.

7 . 4 . CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE RECORDS

7.4. 1. The calibration record of a monitoring device is of interest only during the period between calibrations. The record should indicate the primary standard against which the calibration has been made and should also identify any secondary standards used to provide a link between the device and the primary standard.

7 .4. 2 . The maintenance record of an instrument should establish:(i) The types of instrument that are sufficiently reliable;

(ii) The confidence in a particular instrument or model; and

(iii) The performance requirements for improved instruments for particular tasks.

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8. TRAINING

8.1. All persons, before entering controlled areas for the first time or taking up radiation work, shall be given general information sufficient to acquaint them with personal monitoring devices and with the radiation protection policies and practices that are in effect within the installation.

8 . 2 . A ll workers should be adequately informed as to how to proceed in the event of an alarm indicating a serious radiation emergency.

35


9. REPORTING

9. 1 . Radiation exposure data should be available to the individual concerned. It is considered good practice to inform workers of the dose they have received. The frequency with which such information is made known will depend on local factors.

9.2. Whenever an individual is involved in a radiation incident of any kind requiring investigation (whether over-exposure is involved or not) he should be so advised. His viewpoint of the incident may assist in avoiding a recurrence and should be given appropriate consideration by the authority in charge.

9 . 3 . When it is felt desirable, the supervisor, the radiation p r o te c t io n s ta ff o r the m e d ica l s ta ff - depending on lo c a lpractice - may discuss an individual's radiation status with him.

36


A N N E X I

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. STANDARDS AND CODES OF PRACTICE

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY[1] Basic Safety Standards for Radiation Protection, Safety Series No. 9, IAEA, Vienna (1962).[2] Code of Practice for the Provision of Radiological Protection Services, Safety Series No. 13,

IAEA, Vienna (1964).[3] Safe Handling of Radioisotopes, 1st Ed., Appendix I, Rev., Safety Series No. 1, IAEA, Vienna

(1962).[4] Safe Handling of Radioisotopes, Health Pfiysits Addendum, Safety Series No. 2, IAEA, Vienna

(1960).[5] Safe Handling of Radioisotopes, Medical Addendum, Safety Series No. 3, IAEA, Vienna (1960).[6] Safe Operation-of Critical Assemblies and Research Reactors, Safety Series No. 4, IAEA, Vienna

(1961).

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION[7] Manual of Industrial Radiation Protection, Part I: Convention and Recommendation con

cerning the Protection of Workers against Ionizing Radiations, ILO, Geneva (1960).[8] Manual of Industrial Radiation Protection, Part II: Model Code of Safety Regulations (Ionizing

Radiations), ILO, Geneva (1959).[9] Manual on Industrial Radiation Protection, Part III; General Guide on Protection against Ioni

zing Radiation, ILO, Geneva (1963).

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION[10] Public Health Responsibilities in Radiation Protection, Technical Report Series No. 254, WHO,

Geneva (1963).[11] Medical Supervision in Radiation Work, Technical Report Series No. 196, WHO, Geneva (I960).

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS [12] Radiation Quantities and Units, ICRU Report No. 10 a, National Bureau of Standards, Hand

book 84, Washington D. C. (1962).

2. TECHNICAL REPORTS, PROCEEDINGS, etc.

2. 1. MONITORING OF EXTERNAL RADIATION

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY[1] The Use of Film Badges for Personnel Monitoring, Safety Series No. 8, IAEA, Vienna (1962).[2] Selected Topics in Radiation Dosimetry, Proc. Symp. , Vienna (June 1960) IAEA, Vienna

(1961).

37


EUROPEAN NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY[3] Personnel Dosimetry Techniques for External Radiation, Proc. Symp. Madrid, ENEA, Paris

(1963).

UNITED KINGDOM ATOMIC ENERGY AUTHORITY[4] Film Badge Dosimetry. Proc, Symp. Harwell, (Oct. 1961) UKAEA, Harwell (1962).

2. 2. MONITORING OF CONTAMINATION (internal, skin and clothing)

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY[1] Directory of Whole-Body Monitors, IAEA, Vienna (1964).[2] Whole-Body Counting, Proc. Symp. Vienna (June 1961) IAEA, Vienna (1962).[3] Assessment of Radioactive Body Burdens in Man, Proc. Symp. Heidelberg (May 1964) IAEA,

Vienna _I, H (1964).[4] Diagnosis and Treatment of Radioactive Poisoning, Proc. Scientific Meeting, Vienna

(Oct. 1962) IAEA, Vienna (1962).[5] Radiological Health and Safety in Mining and Milling o f Nuclear Materials, Proc. Symp.

Vienna (Aug. 1963) IAEA, Vienna II (1964), pp. 363-508.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION[6] Methods of Radiochemicai Analysis, Technical Report Series No. 173, WHO, Geneva (1959).

EURATOM[7] Radioactive Contamination of Workers, Proc. Symp. Munich (Oct. 1962) EURATOM, Brussels

(1964).

38


A N N E X II

DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Authority, competent A governmental or international authority having jurisdiction in respect of the activities under consideration.

Authority in charge

Area, controlled

Bioassay

Contamination,radioactive

Contamination,internal

Expert

Exposure

The official of an installation held responsible by the competent authority.

An area scheduled as such for the purpose of controlling individual exposure, and under the supervision of a person who has the knowledge and responsibility to apply appropriate radiation protection regulations. •

The word "bioassay" refers to the analysis of biological material with a view to assessing the body's content of toxic substances.

Radioactive contamination is the presence in or on a material of radioactive substances, in concentrations greater than those which occur naturally, so that either a technical inconvenience or a radiation hazard is caused. Radioactive contamination of surfaces is referred to as surface contamination. Surface contamination may be in loose or fixed form. The former is easily removed by normal cleaning methods whereas removal of the latter may result in damage to the contaminated surface.Radioactive contamination of air is referred to as air contamination. Air contamination may be caused by radioactive gases, vapours or solids in air.

The presence of foreign radioactive substances within the body.

An expert is a person having the knowledge and training required to give advice on protective measures and operating procedures which will ensure effective radiation protection of persons exposed to ionizing radiation.

Ln general, for the purposes of this manual, the term exposure is used in its more general sense with reference to objects or bodies exposed to external and/or internal radiation. Where the term is used as a physical quantity it is underlined (e. g. exposure, exposure rate).

Exposure, planned A planned emergency exposure is a planned exceptional exposure requiredemergency by compelling or overwhelming necessity.

Over-exposure, An accidental over-exposure is an unforeseen exposure resulting in a radi-accidental ation dose or in the intake of radioactive materials, in excess of the maxi

mum permissible values.

39


Radiation, external

SourceSource, sealed

Source, unsealed

External radiation is ionizing radiation reaching the body from external sources.

A source is an apparatus or substance emitting ionizing radiation.A sealed source is comprised of encapsulated or bonded radioactive materials used to provide an external radiation field but so constructed as to prevent the escape of any radioactive materials under all foreseeable conditions of use.

An u n se a led so u rc e is an y r a d io a c t iv e so u rc e w h ich is not a s e a le d so u rc e .

40


O T H E R A G E N C Y P U B L IC A T IO N S IN T H E S A F E T Y SERIES

No. 1 - SAFE HANDLING OF RADIOISOTOPES - STI/PUB/l/REV. 1 120 p. (14.8x 21 cm) - US $1.50; S 31.50; 9/-stg.

This Manual, prepared by an international group of experts in consultation with other international agencies, and originally published in 1958, covers medical, technical and organizational aspects of safety practices and deals with maximum permissible levels for exposure to radiation, organization of safety, medical supervision of workers, monitoring and records, use, storage and transportation of sealed and unsealed sources, accidents, decontamination and waste disposal. The current edition (published 1962) has a revised Appendix I incorporating the latest ICRP recommendations.Available in English, French, Russian and Spanish.

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The Health Physics Addendum is one of two supplements to the Manual on "Safe Handling of Radioisotopes", which the IAEA published in 1958. It contains technical information needed by health physicists in implementing the controls recommended in the Manual and was compiled by the Agency’s Secretariat on the basis of material prepared by two of the expert members of the Panel whose recommendations form the text of the Manual itself.A valuable feature of the Addendum is the Annex of useful health physics data in the form of tables, diagrams and illustrations of instruments.Available in English, French, Russian and Spanish.

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This Manual was prepared by the Agency’s Secretariat, after careful consideration of existing national safety practices, with the assistance of an international panel of experts and in

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consultation with other international bodies concerned, in order to meet an urgent need for a manual of practices in the safe operation of critical assemblies and research reactors. Many suggestions are included which also concern the organizational and administrative side of reactor operation. The Manual, therefore, is a useful guide not only for technical men but also for various authorities and persons otherwise responsible for the use of such equipment. Available in English, French, Russian and Spanish.

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value to transporters of radioactive materials who are called upon to comply with the Regulations.Available in English, French, Russian and Spanish.

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Contents: Introduction; selection o f required measurements and sampling; survey; monitoring; analytical procedures for radionuclides of interest; measurement of radioactivity; natural radionuclides in marine material; sampling procedures with reference to size of sample; examples of survey and monitoring practices and facilities.The text also includes numerous references and bibliographical data.Available in English, French, Russian and Spanish.

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