The Asian City: Processes of Development, Characteristics and Planning

The GeoJournal Library

Volume 30

Series Editor: Wolf Tietze, Helmstedt, Germany

Editorial Board: Paul Claval, France R. G. Crane, U.S.A. Yehuda Gradus, Israel Risto Laulajainen, Sweden Gerd Lüttig, Germany Walther Manshard, Germany Osamu Nishikawa, Japan Peter Tyson, South Africa

The Asian City: Processes of Development, Characteristics and Planning edited by

ASHOK K. DUTT Department of Geography and Planning, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, U.S.A.

FRANK J . COSTA Department of Geography and Planning, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, U.S.A.

SURINDER AGGARWAL Department of Geography, Delhi University, Delhi, India

and

ALLEN G. NOBLE Department of Geography and Planning, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, U.S.A.

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The A s i a n c i t y : p r o c e s s e s of development, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and p l a n n i n g / e d i t e d by Ashok K. D u t t ... [ e t 'a 1. ] .

p. cm. — ( G e o J o u r n a l l i b r a r y ; v. 30) ISBN 978-94-010-4435-6 ISBN 978-94-011-1002-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-1002-0 1. U r b a n i z a t i o n — A s i a . 2. C i t i e s and t o w n s — A s i a — G r o w t h .

3. C i t y p l a n n i n g — A s i a . I . D u t t , Ashok K. I I . S e r i e s . HT384.A78A82 1994 3 0 7 . 7 6 * 0 9 5 — d c 2 0 94-31375

ISBN 978-94-010-4435-6

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved © 1994Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1994 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.

v

Preface

The Asian City is the first comprehensive book on urbanization in the 1990s that not onl y covers four Asian realms-East, Southeast, South, and West- but which deals with environ­mental, demographic, cultural and economic aspects of urbanization. It also traces the evolution of city forms and growth patterns in an historical perspective. The book provides an understanding of many facets of urbanization with a view to unraveling the nature, characteristics, process and emerging patterns of Asian urban landscapes. Most importantly, the book lays out Asia's unique nature of urbanization and places it in a global context. It reveals discrete urban characteristics by selected regions, countries and cities, and discusses urban planning problems. Finally, the book explores the conditions and spatial patterns of the urban poor, with a special reference to India.

The idea of compiling a book of this nature has its roots in the organization, Asian Urban ResearchAssociation (headquartered atthe University of Akron, in which the four Executive Committee members- Frank J. Costa, Ashok K. Dutt, Lawrence lC. Ma and Allen G. Noble­are housed) which organizes an international Asian Urbanization Conference every three years or so. Based on the papers presented at the first conference held in Akron, Ohio, USA in 1985, the Executive Committee members edited two earlier books- Asian Urbanization, Berlin: Borntraeger, 1988 and Urbanization in Asia: Honolulu: Hawaii University Press, 1989. The present book is the most recent endeavor. One paper, (Chapter 7) of this book, presented at the second Asian Urbanization Conference, held in Nanjing, China in 1988, twelve papers (chapters 4, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, and 21) presented atthe third Conference, held in Delhi, India in 1991 and two papers (chapters 1 and 3) presented at the fourth Conference held in Taipei, Taiwan, in 1994, have been included in this book, while the others are invited papers.

The twenty four chapters written by 31 authors represent a number of different disciplines: demography, economics, geography, history, planning, and public administra­tion. This book, therefore, looks at the Asian city from a multi-disciplinary perspective. Eleven chapters are single authored, while the remaining 13 are multi-authored. Scholars from 11 different countries representing both old and new worlds, and reflecting a wide variety of viewpoints have contributed chapters for this book. Two-thirds of the authors are native born Asians. Except for two (chapters 14 and 16), all other chapters have been authored or coauthored by Asians. This book, is, therefore, essentially the work of scholars who have a first hand knowledge of the Asian urban scene.

As the 21st century unfolds, the analysis and perspectives provided in this book about Asian urbanization will be extremely valuable for all those who are interested not only in urban geography, sociology, economics and history, but also in planning and administration of cities.

Ashok K. Dutt. Frank J. Costa. Surinder Aggarwal. and Allen O. Noble Editors

vii

Acknowledgements

It is the organization of the Asian Urbanizational Conferences over the years that spurred the inspiration for compiling this book. As two-thirds of the chapters included in this Asian City book have been selected from the presentations and submissions in three of these conferences their organizers deserve thanks; Professors Gonghao Cui of the Department of Geography, Nanjing University and Lawrence J.C. Maofthe University of Akron for Second Asian Urbanization Conference in Nanjing in 1988; Dr. Surinder Aggarwal, Associate Professor of Geography, Delhi University, Professors Baleswar Thakur of the Department of Geography, Delhi University and Sudesh Nangia of the Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi for the Third Conference in Delhi in 1991; Professors Lan-Hung Nora Chaing and Chang-Yi David Chang of the Department of Geography, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan and Jack Williams, Director of the Asian Studies Center of the Michigan State University for the Fourth Conference in Taipei in 1994.

Several graduate students of the Department of Geography/Planning and Public Admin­istration/Urban Studies of the University of Akron have helped in organization, formatting, editing, and computerization in the Word Perfect setting of chapters. Ms. Anupa Mukhopadhyay, a Ph.D. student (and staff at AIDS Administration, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, since September 20, 1994), has provided most of the help, while the assistance provided by Ms. Anindita Parai, Susan Babcock, Thomas Murphy and Aruna Mayavaram, all graduate students of the University of Akron, are also acknowledged.

Though most maps and diagrams have been provided by the chapter authors, some needed reformatting and improvements. Ms. Claudia James and Miss Margaret Geib (retired), Cartographers of the Department of Geography /Planning, The University of Akron, are thanked for making these changes. Ms. James has drawn several new maps and diagrams as well, while her help in formatting the manuscript in Macintosh PageMaker is also gratefully acknowledged. Ms. Adrian Humphreys, a Ph.D. student of the Department of Public Administration and Urban Studies, is thanked for preparing the Harvard graphics­based diagrams for the introductory chapter. We are grateful to Dr. Sunil Dutta, Program Manager for Small Disadvantaged Businesses, NASA-Lewis Center, Cleveland, Ohio for permitting us to reproduce his Tokyo and Seoul photographs that he took while he was a visiting professor at the University of Tokyo and on his visits to East Asia.

Ashok K. Dutt, Frank J. Costa, Surinder Aggarwal, and Allen G. Noble Editors

Preface Acknowledgements

Contents

Part I URBANIZATION IN AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT

v vii

1. An Introduction to the Asian City 1 Ashok K. Dutt, Frank J. Costa, Allen G. Noble, and Surinder Aggarwal

ABOUT THE BOOK 6 Asian Urbanization in a Global Context 6 Comparative Urban Setting 7 Urban Features by Countries 8 Urban Planning 9 The Urban Poor 9 General Perspectives On Asian Urbanization 10

2. Asian Urban Growth Since 1950: Demographic Components, Including Transnational Redistribution 13 Brian J. L. Berry and Hak-Min Kim

CONCLUSIONS 16

3. City Forms of China and India in Global Perspective 25 Ashok K. Dutt, Yichun Xie, Frank J. Costa, and Zhengmao Yang

EVOLUTION OF CITY FORM 25 Pre-industrial Cities 26 The Industrial City 27 The Colonial City 27 The Post-Industrial City 27 The Post-Independence City 28 The Socialist City 28

SIX EVOLUTIONARY PATHS 28 • West European Model 29 • East European Model 30 • Oil Rich Middle Eastern Model 30 • Chinese Socialist Model 30 • Market-based Developing Country Model 30 • Specific Features of City Evolution 30

EARLY URBAN FORM IN CHINA AND INDIA 31 Early China's Urban Form 31 Early India's Urban Form 33 Comparison of Early City Form in China and India 38

COLONIAL URBAN FORM IN.CHINA AND INDIA 42 The Concession City Form in China 42 Colonial City Form in India 43 Contrasts Between Chinese Concession and Indian Colonial Cities 45

x

POST COLONIAL URBAN FORM IN CHINA AND INDIA Socialist City Form in China Post-independence Cities in India Contrasting China's Socialist and India's Post-independence Cities

CONCLUSIONS

Part II COMPARATIVE URBAN SETTING

46 46 47 47 48

4. The Distribution of City Sizes in Asian Countries 53 P. P. Karan

THE NATURE OF URBANIZATION IN ASIA 54 RANK-SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF CITIES IN ASIA 55 PRIMACY OF THE PRIMATE CITY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH

MEDIUM AND SMALL CITIES 65 Proeesses Linking Urbanization, Economic Development and City-Size 66

CONCLUSION 68

5. The Concept of Sacred Cities in Asia with Special Reference to India 71 Surinder M. Bhardwaj

SACRED ROOTS OF URBANISM: FROM CITIES AS SACRED PLACES TO SOME PLACES AS SACRED CITIES 71

CHARACTERISTICS SHARED BY SACRED CITIES: TOWARD A CLASSIFICATION OF SACRED CITIES 72

TYPOLOGY OF INDIAN SACRED CITIES 74 CONCLUSIONS 78

6. A Comparative Study of Rank-Size Distributions in China and India 81 Ashok K. Dutt, Yichun Xie, Raju J. Das, and Anindita Parai

METHODOLOGY 82 RANK-SIZE DISTRIBUTION AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL 85 ROOTS OF CHINA'S URBANIZATION 86 ROOTS OF INDIA'S URBANIZATION 87 RANK-SIZE DISTRIBUTION AT THE REGIONAL LEVEL 89 CONCLUSIONS 95

7. Spatial Pattern of Commercial Establishments in Two South Asian City Centers: Rajshahi and Madurai 99 Ashok K. Dutt, Allen G. Noble, and Zeenat Hasan

METHODOLOGY 101 Standard Distance Analysis 102 Results of Nearest Neighbor Analysis for Rajshahi 102 Nearest Neighbor Analysis for Madurai 103

DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICAL RESULTS 106 Rajshahi 106 Madurai 109

MODEL AND CONCLUSION 114

xi

Part III URBANIZATION CHARACTERISTICS BY COUNTRIES 8. Metropolitization in Densely Populated Asia: The Case of Tokyo 119

Yasuo Masai POPULATION DENSITY AND URBANIZATION 119 URBAN LIFE AND ENVIRONMENT 123 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS 124 CONCLUSION 124

9. The Nature of Urbanization in South Korea 127 Naghun Song, Ashok K. Dutt, and Frank J. Costa

URBANIZATION PROCESS 128 URBANIZATION CHARACTERISTICS 130 PROBLEMS OF METROPOLITAN GROWTH 134 URBAN DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY 135

The Strategies of the 1960s 135 The Strategies of the 1970s 136 The Strategies of the 1980s 136 Consequence of a Three-Decade Strategy 137

URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN THE FUTURE 138 CONCLUSION 139

10. Indian Urbanization: Proliferation of Mega Cities and Urban Corridors 145 B. K. Roy MEASURE OF URBANIZATION 145 URBAN POPULATION AND CHANGE 148 DILUTION IN URBANIZATION - A CASE OF COCHlN (KOCHl) URBAN

AGGLOMERATION 153 THE MEGA-CITIES AND EXPLOSION OF URBANIZATION 153 THE SOLUTION - URBAN CORRIDORS 155

11. Urbanization in Southeast Asia 159 Ashok K. Dutt and Naghun Song URBAN HISTORY 160 PROSPECTS FOR URBANIZATION 164 CURRENTPATIERNS OF CITIES 168 URBAN PRIMACY 169 NATURE OF URBANIZATION 171 URBAN PROBLEMS AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY 174 FUTURE URBAN MANAGEMENT AND POLICY DIRECTION 176 CONCLUSION 177

12. Small Town Growth and Development Policy in Pakistan 181 Ahktar Husain Siddiqi THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN URBANIZATION 181 DEVELOPMENT POLICIES 183 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 184 SMALL TOWN GROWTH 188

xii

THE PROCESS OF SMALL TOWN URBANIZATION REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF SMALL URBAN CENTERS REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL TOWNS CONCLUSION

Part IV URBAN PLANNING

191 193 197 200 200

13. Water Supply in Selected Mega Cities of Asia 205 Anindita Parai, John E. Benhart, and William C. Rense WATER SUPPLY IN MEGA CITIES OF ASIA 206

Bangkok 206 Manila 207 Jakarta 208 Seoul 209 Dhaka 209 Karachi 209 Delhi 210 Calcutta 210 Bombay 211

CONCLUSION 211

14. The Impact of the Growth of Township Enterprises on Rural-Urban Transformation in China, 1978-1990 213 Stephen L. Morgan CHINESE URBANIZATION AND URBAN STATISTICS 214 SUMMARY OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1949-1990 219 WHAT ARE RURAL TOWNSHIP ENTERPRISES IN CHINA? 221 TOWNSHIP ENTERPRISES IN EAST CHINA 224 THE CRISIS OF 1989 AND BEYOND 229 CONCLUSION 230

15. New Small Towns of Israel: Successes and Failures 237 Elisha Efrat WHY WERE NEW TOWNS ESTABLISHED IN ISRAEL? 238 HOW MANY SMALL TOWNS WERE BUILT IN ISRAEL AND WHERE? 238 HOW WERE THE SMALL TOWNS ENCOURAGED TO GROW? 240 WHAT WERE THE RESULTS IN THE SMALL DEVELOPMENT TOWNS? 243 WHAT ARE THE GEOGRAPHICAL CONSEQUENCES FROM ISRAEL'S CASES? 245 CONCLUSION 246

16. Exporting Planning: The Work of Thomas Karsten in Colonial Indonesia 249 James L. Cobban CITY EXPANSION AND THE NEED FOR PLANNING 249 THE CONTENT OF TOWN PLANNING 250 AESTHETICS 251 THE REORGANIZATION OF SOCIAL LIFE 252 BUILDINGS AND CITY SECTORS 252 BASIC PLANNING CONCEPTS 253

xiii

Transportation and the Comprehensive Plan 254 Natural versus Purposeful Expansion 254

KARSTEN IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN PLANNING 255 British Planning Concepts 255 German Planning Concepts 256 Dutch Planning Concepts 258

EUROPEAN CONCEPTS AND NATIVE CONDITIONS 258 CONCLUSION 259

17. Planning in a Rapid Growth Center: The Case of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 265 Saud Al-Oteibi, Allen G. Noble, and Frank J. Costa GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN RIYADH - 1919 TO PRESENT 267 HOUSING PATIERNS AND POPULATION DISTRIBUTION 268 ACTION AREA PLANS 269 PUBLIC SERVICE FACILITIES 271

Health Facilities 272 Religious Facilities 272 Educational Facilities 273 Recreational and Cultural Facilities 274

COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY 275 SUMMARY 277

Part V THE URBAN POOR 18. Children in the Urban Informal Sector: A Tragedy of the Developing

Countries in Asia 279 Parveen Nangia CHILD WORKERS IN SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 280 NATURE OF WORK AND EXPLOITATION IN THE URBAN

INFORMAL SECTOR 285 Philippines 285 Nepal 285 Indonesia 286 Mal~~ ~6 Iran 286 Pakistan 286 Thailand 286 Sri Lanka 286 India 286

CAUSES AND CORRELATES 288 CONSEQUENCES 289 COMBATING THE PROBLEM 290

International Action 290 International Cooperation 291 Role of National Governments 291

CONCLUSION 292

xiv

19. Poverty in the Metropolitan Cities of India 295 V.Nath DEFINITION AND INCIDENCE OF POVERTY 295 ERADICATION OR ALLEVIATION OF POVERTY AND REDUCING

DISPARITIES IN INCOME AND CONSUMPTION 299 SOCIAL AND SPATIAL DIMENSIONS OF POVERTY 300

The Rural Poor 300 THE METROPOLITAN POOR: SLUM AND PAVEMENT DWELLERS 300 THE EIGHTH FIVE YEAR PLAN, 1992-97 303 DEFICIENCY OF DATA 303 PROSPECT AND RECCOMMENDATIONS 304

Prospect 304 Recommendations 305

20. Spatial Spread of Daily Activity Patterns of Slum Dwellers in Calcutta and Delhi 309 Ashok K. Dutt, Suprabha Tripathi, and Anupa Mukhopadhyay DEVELOPMENT OF SLUMS 310 CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUMS IN INDIA 310 SLUMS IN CALCUTTA AND DELHI 311 CASE STUDIES IN CALCUTT A AND DELHI 311

Location of the Two Slums 312 Survey Data and Methodology 312 General Findings of the Two Slums 313

ANALYSIS OF DAILY ACTIVITY PATTERN 314 Spatial Pattern Related to Work Activity 315 Spatial Pattern Related to Educational Activity 315 Spatial Pattern Related to Shopping for Perishable Goods 316 Spatial Pattern Related to Shopping for Non-Perishable Goods 317 Spatial Pattern Related to Medical Visits 318 Spatial Pattern Related to Recreational Visits 318

MODELLING THE SPATIAL ACTIVITIES 320 CONCLUSION 325

21. Bombay Urban Development Project: A Solution for the Shelter Problem of the Urban Poor? 327 Swapna Banerjee- Guha BOMBAY URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (BUDP): SALIENT

CHARACTERISTICS 327 Implementation Aspects 328 Sites and Services Programs 329

SITE AND SERVICE PROJECT AT AIROLI 332 A Critical Analysis of the Salient Features of the Project 333

SITE AND SERVICE PROJECT AT AIROLI 332 CONCLUDING REMARKS 334

22. Sidewalk Dwellers of Calcutta Anupa Mukhopadhyay, Ashok K. Dutt, and Animesh Halder EMERGENCE OF THE SIDEWALK DWELLER SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A SIDEWALK DWELLER DATA PROCESSING AND METHODS EMPLOYED INTERPRETATION OF THE STATISTICAL RESULTS CONCLUSION

Part VI PERSPECTIVES ON URBANIZATION

xv

337

338 341 342 342 349

23. Trends and Implications of Urbanization in India During the 20th Century 353 Ashish Bose PUSH-BACK FACTOR 353 INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER 354

The Decade of 1951-61 354 The Decade of 1961-71 354 The Decade of 1971-81 354 Highlights of 1991 Census Results and the 1981-91 Decade 355 Role of Million-Plus Cities 357

URBAN POPULATION IN 2001 360 SEVENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN, 1985-90 362

Environmental Improvement of Slums (EIS) 362 Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT) 362 Special Allocation for Development Projects in the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Area (CMDA) 362

Special allocation for the National Capital Region (NCR) around Delhi 362 City and Urban Infrastructure Development Corporation and a National Housing Bank 362

EIGHTH FIVE YEAR PLAN 362 RECOMMENDATION OF THE NCU 363 ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION 365

24. Perspectives on Asian Urbanization: An East-West Comparison 369 Anindita Parai and Ashok K. Dutt NINETEENTH CENTURY URBANIZATION OF EUROPE AND AMERICA 371 TWENTIETH CENTURY ASIAN URBANIZATION 374 DISSIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY WESTERN AND

TWENTIETH CENTURY ASIAN URBANIZATION 383 CONCLUSION 389