The Age of Pax Mongolica

The Mongols: Rise to Power & Legacy

Perhaps no empire in history has risen so spectacularly as that of the Mongols. In less than 80

years, a band of warriors originally comprised of several men grew to an empire that extended from the Pacific Ocean in eastern Asia to the borders of

eastern Europe.

It is a story of the most dramatic series of conquests in history and how it was the Mongols themselves

who shattered their own invincibility.

Mongol Empire was the biggest contiguous land empire in history—almost five times greater than that of Alexander

the Great.

An Empire of Change

1100 A.D. China divided into Northern Sung and Southern Sung. Muslim oust the Franks from the Levant. Genghis Khan unites Mongols. Expansion of Mongol

Empire begins. Silk production and weaving established in Italy. Paper money, first developed in China.

1200 A.D. Death of Genghis Khan. Mongols continue their onslaught invading Russia,

Poland, and Hungary. The Europe's first envoy to the East, Friar Giovanni

Carpini leaves Rome for Mongol capital at Karakorum. Friar William Rubruck sent to Karakorum by the King of

France. Seventh, and last, Crusade. Mongol control central and western Asia. Silk road trade prospers again under the “Pax

Mongolica.” Kublai Khan defeats China and establishes the Yuan

dynasty. Paper money introduced to Central Asia and Iran by

Mongols. Marco Polo leaves for the East.

A Century of Dominion

Genghis Khan taking oath of unconditional loyalty from his son.

Power Tactics China divided into Northern Sung and Southern

Sung. Genghis Kahn influenced Mongols in occupying

majority of Asia Mongols became educated on art of siege warfare,

gunpowder in battles toward Chinese, Turks At Genghis Khan’s death, 1227, Mongols

monopolized majority of northern China, Central Asia

Sons, grandsons took on the very challenging task of the world conquest

KHANATES Genghis Khan’s empire split up into four distinct

khanates, heir ran each region; new Great Khan monopolized and took over the whole empire

Grandsons proceeded in efforts to achieve conquests of China, Korea, Persia

1236, Golden Horde, or Tartars, began conquering Russia, Poland, Hungary

Leader and Commanders:Discussion of battle strategy in an ongoing siege

campaign.

Mongols clash with European Knights around the Levant region

Using captured Chinese technology of Gunpowder and Muslim technology of making propellant rockets, Mongol

warriors built war machines like this early rocket launcher to blast off any resistance.

Pax Mongolica OR The Mongol Peace Mongols formed and built an empire with

brutality, but ruled serenely Accepted local belief systems, lifestyle,

approved local rulers to remain in power however they have to always pay tribute to the Mongols

Some Mongols took on and adopted elements of more polished cultures; Mongols in Central Asia, Persia, adopted Islam

Stability in Asia Mongol Empire instilled peace, and stability

across Asia Several historians call period Pax Mongolica,

“Mongol Peace” Protected trade routes all along Asia,

approved trade to escalate; people, goods, concepts stream across Asia

Pax Mongolica

Eurasia on the eve of Mongol invasion c. 1200

Mongolian ConquestsFirst Period - 1206

Mongolian ConquestsSecond Period 1206 - 1219

Mongolian ConquestsThird Period 1219 - 1223

Mongolian ConquestsFourth Period 1223 – 1227

Death of Chinggis Khan

Mongolian ConquestsFifth Period 1227 - 1237

Mongolian ConquestsSixth Period 1237 - 1259

Mongolian ConquestsSeventh Period 1259 - 1279

Timeline

Birth name Temujin (iron, iron man) At age 9 engaged to Borte Temujin’s father dies on the way back from

engagement. Temujin and his brothers loose everything

and have to survive on their own. 1182 Temujin is captured and held by

Tayichi’ud (a rival warlord). He runs away with help of Sorgan-Shire.

Temujin marries his fiancé Borte. In couple month Borte gets kidnapped by

Merkit (another warlord). With a help of a few loyal supporters, Temujin

independently launches an attack and rescues his wife from Merkit against all odds, after almost 8 months of preparing.

By 1206 Temujin becomes generalissimos due to his leadership charisma and skills.

Genghis Khan (1167-1227 A.D.)

The Onon River in present-day Mongolia. Barren steppes where Temujin was born and raised.

In 1206 Temujin becomes generalissimos or the leader of the entire Mongol army.

The “Kurultai” or the council of regional leaders unanimously give him the

befitting name: “Genghis-Khan”

Genghis is from Tatar, which roughly means

“Universal Ruler” He began to unify and organize the

scattered Mongol and other nomadic tribes into a superior fighting force.

Genghis Khan was shrewd, ruthless, ambitious, and a strict disciplinarian. After he became the undisputed master of Mongolia he set out on a spectacular career of conquest.

Genghis Khan aimed to train the best-disciplined and most effective army of his time.

As part of his military strategy, he formed an officer corps from Mongols who were trained in military tactics. These men were then stationed with various tribes as a training force. The Mongol tribes specialized in the art of siege.

From Temujin to Genghis Khan

In 1226 Genghis Khan falls of the

horse and spends a long time in bed.

Is treated by a monk names Chang-Chun.

In 1227 he dies after defeating the Tangut people.

His burial place is not historically proven yet.

BIGGEST LEGACY: Principal laws (Yassa) created by

Genghis Khan Everyone in the Empire has to

follow Yassa which makes it very safe/stable.

Land boundaries are redrawn & dynasties toppled

This resulted in the swift unification of Eurasian lands and people and boosted traded to new levels of prosperity.

Silk Road trading reaches Peak success.

227 Genghis Khan dies after defeating

Death & Legacy of Genghis Khan

Was the short-lived but ruthless reign

of the Mongols beneficial or destructive for Eurasia and its conquered people?

The Argument

vs.

Disadvantages?

Advantages?

Was the short-lived but ruthless reign of the Mongols beneficial

or destructive for Eurasia and its conquered people?

The Argument

The Answer:

Few subjects provoke a more heated debate than the impact of the Mongols. Were they primarily a destructive force, leaving a swath of ashes and barren earth, or did

they create conditions for the flourishing of cities, trade and cultural exchange across Eurasia?

OR

Were the atrocities they committed a necessary act for the greater good?

The answer, in fact, is not quite so simple, since it very much depends on when and where we look. Riazan's tragedy at the hands of the Mongols in 1237 is no more "typical" than is

prosperity of Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, at the time of Ibn Battuta's visit nearly a century later.

Too much has been written about the Mongol campaigns and atrocities, but not enough about their insatiable curiosity and penchant for knowledge. They were not particularly original, but their effect in broadening and spreading knowledge and skills equaled, or perhaps surpassed, the spread of Hellenic civilization, which has been attributed to the conqueror, Alexander the

Great. SO

For argument’s sake we will look at the “advantages” & “disadvantages” of their invasions so as to better judge for ourselves.

Disadvantages Although the Mongol invasions were

characterized by incurring swift death and destruction to long established kingdoms, the carnage & misery was short-lived, since the tyranny usually subsided as soon as all threat of resistance, corruption & treason was eliminated.

This entailed going to any lengths even if it meant open massacre of common people as a fear factor.

The Destroyer of Dynasties: Biggest loss incurred in the Mid-East:

Persian and Arab Caliphates were brought to ruins.

Genocides at many of the ancient and developed centers of human civilization, like the city of Baghdad & Aleppo, eradicated entire generations.

Defeated masses along with soldiers/politicians were also brutally slaughtered.

Destruction of academic, scientific, philosophical, religious and astronomical centers resulted in irreparable damages.

Disadvantages Invasion of Russia:

Led by Genghis Khan’s grandson “Batu Khan.”

Invasion heralded by the Battle of Kalka River.

Later In 1237 with a force of 120,000 men, crossed a frozen Volga River into Russia.

Heavy catapult bombardment and intense siege, resulted in utter destruction of major cities like Riazan, Kolumna, Moscow, Kolzelsk and Kiev.

Kiev was considered the golden jewel of Eastern Europe; Even Mongols wanted to take it undamaged, but continued resistance angered them to such an extent that with the exception of St. Sophia Cathedral and a fraction of population, everything was decimated.

Although Mongols emerged victorious, Russian cities laid in ruins never recovering from the initial attack

St. Sophia Cathedral, Kiev

Batu Khan’s Russian Onslaught

Mongol siege of the city of Kiev. Pictured: Heavy Artillery and Catapult Battalions wreaking havoc.

Disadvantages Invasion of Europe

Two separate Expeditions led by Batu Khan (50,000 men) and Subedei Khan (20,000 men) launched two-pronged attack.

Continuing the winning streak, the larger armies of Poland and Hungary were separately defeated merely days apart by the two Mongolian regiments.

As was expected, widespread bloodshed ensued, hereby resulting in massive losses of both life and property.

Similar fate followed for Lithuania, Bulgaria and Serbia, Kingdom of Croatia and Romania.

Population of Europe declined steeply.

Mongols assumed total control of these regions for sometime.

Mongol clashing with Hungarian Knights in Europe

Mongol Tribes United

The comprehensive laws of Yassa brought sweeping reform and united the variety of Mongol tribes under one legal system by eliminating friction and internal wars. Thanks to the Yassa almost all kinds of crime was eradicated as well.

Turkic Nomads are also united with Mongols in a mutual and strategic alliance.

Transforms Mongols from barbaric nomads to ruling elite.

Brutally conquered lands, BUT mostly assimilated afterwards absorbing the higher and more polished cultures for good (in Persia for instance).

Effectively administered conquered people often by importing foreign officials and scholars.

Patronized academics, sciences, philosophy and religion of their choice.

Advantages

SECURITY & ADMINISTRATION: Unprecedented security as a result of a united

Eurasia under the Mongols. Strict enforcement of Yassa code of laws.

Maintenance of the “Fear Factor” by prescribing extreme punishments—most often beheading.

Dedicated law enforcement forces. Use of advanced weaponry, provided a

stronger hold over their subjects. They readily adopted the system of

administration of the conquered states, placing a handful of Mongols in the top positions but allowing former local officials to run everyday affairs. This clever system allowed them to control each city and province but also to be in touch with the population through their administrators.

Superb system of levying government taxes on trade and subjects—allowed for stable economies.

Flourishing administration and wealth resulted in undertaking ambitious public projects, like reconstruction of the Grand Canal under the Yuang Dynasty.

Advantages

Exotic Golden Silk: Exclusive Color of

the Khan

ROADS & COMMUNICATION: This is second most important

achievement after security. Built a vast array of roads across the

empire through the different Khanates to facilitate official communications and trade—the like of which that were never seen before.

Super-fast Postal Service called “Yam,” was organized where a messenger would typically travel 25 miles from one station to the next, and he would either receive a fresh, rested horse or relay the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery.

The Mongol riders regularly covered 125 miles per day, which is faster than the fastest record set by the Pony Express some 600 years later.

Legend has it that an unprotected young female could take a sack of gold safely from the Don River to Khanbaligh, the city of the Khans.

A letter sent by the emperor in Beijing and carried by an envoy wearing his passport, could reach the Ilkhanid capital Tabriz, some 5,000 miles away, in about a month –an exceptional feat.

Advantages

Rapid Postal System - Carriers

SILK ROAD REVITALIZED: Boost of Trade & information The political unification of Asia under the Mongols resulted

in active trade and the transfer and resettlement of artists and craftsmen along the main routes. New influences were thus integrated with established local artistic traditions.

The Mongols reopened four major trade routes that had been closed, or disrupted by wars and bandits, for centuries:1. The old Silk Road, going from West China, through the

Tarim Basin, West Turkestan and on into Iran;2. an alternate route from the lower Volga River, to west

China. 3. a sea route from China to the Persian Gulf; and4. a Siberian route, that began in the Volga-Kama region,

ran through southern Siberia to Lake Baikal, through Karakorum and on into Peking

Merchants dispatched their caravans over these roads carrying new and useful things to Europe. This relinking of Europe and the Orient resulted in an increased cultural exchange, and a greater knowledge of world geography.

Advantages

SILK ROAD REVITALIZED: Boost of Trade & information Mongol rule in Asia opened that continent to European

missionaries and traders, of whom the best known was Marco Polo.

Sparked Europe's interest in a water route to China for access to the enormous trade possibilities, and in an alternate route to replace the difficult and dangerous overland route. The search for a water route to China set off a wave of exploration, leading to a sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope, and the accidental discovery of the New World.

Genghis Khan and his successors actively promoted the growth of trade and travelers by protecting the caravans that made their way across the ancient Asian silk routes and by establishing rest stations for weary merchants and fortified outposts for those harassed by bandits.

Secure trade routes made for prosperous merchants and wealthy, cosmopolitan cities.

They also facilitated the spread of foods such as sorghum, sugar, citrus fruits, and grapes; inventions such as firearms/ballistics, printing, and windmills; and techniques ranging from those involving papermaking to those for improving irrigation from one civilization to another.

IN EFFECT, THE SILK ROAD REACHED A LEVEL OF PORSPERITY THAT HAD NEVER BEEN SEEN BEFORE.

Advantages

The Mongol Empire did not last long, because

it was too big and had lost any remaining unity of culture or identity.

Actually, it has begun to disintegrate shortly after it reached its peak of expansion in the late 1200's.

The Mongols were dauntless fighters, but had little experience in administration. They relied upon other people (foreigners) to look after their affairs.

They had very much assimilated into their conquered cultures hence weakening the original Mongolian connection.

FALL OF THE

EMPIRE

Paradoxically, Mongol expansion, which began

as a "barbarian" mania of violence and destruction, had become a major force for economic and social development and the enhancement of civilized life.

In the end, civilization was rebuilt and benefited greatly from the newly established global economy. In any case, the Mongols should be remembered as a significant player in world history. The significance of their conquests surpasses what any history article will ever be able to describe...

Mongols: Legacy

http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/index.html

http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/

http://www.indiana.edu/~iaunrc/site/our_region/mongolia.html

http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Mongol_Empire

http://history-world.org/mongol_empire.htm

Morgan, David. The Mongols. Basil Blackwell, 1986.

A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Vol 1, (Blackwell Pub.:1998), by David Christian.

Carboni, Stefano, and Qamar Adamjee. "The Legacy of Genghis Khan". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/khan1/hd_khan1.htm (October 2003)

Rossabi, Morris. "Genghis Khan." In The Encyclopedia of Asian History, vol. 1, pp. 496–98. New York: Scribner, 1988

A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Vol 1, (Blackwell Pub.:1998), by David Christian.

References