TEXTUAL ANALYSIS RESEARCH

CRITICAL ANALYSIS

CRITICAL ANALYSISI. DEFINITIONS A. The analysis, interpretation, and/or

evaluation of a text, using some type of method of analysis (can be drawn from theory or emerge from data).

1. Descriptions focus on meanings, functions, themes, patterns, etc.

2. Interpretations extend the descriptions into logically-deduced inferences (may be about effects of the message or some other inference).

CRITICAL ANALYSIS DEFINITIONS, CON’T. 3. Evaluation uses standards or criteria to assess

message. a. Drawn from theory, emerge from data, or from

society, or the critic’s own values: 1) Effectiveness of message 2) Aesthetic quality of message 3) Social-cultural worth of message 4). Truth quantities of message

b. Critics should justify why standard is appropriate for a particular message.

4. Burden of proof is on the critic for making an argument as to the validity of his/her interpretations & evaluations.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS, DEFINITIONS, CON’T. 5. Qualities of the “ideal critic”:

a. Skepticism ("taking a second look"). b. Discernment ("paying attention“--able to

concentrate on less obvious details). c. Imagination (able to ask non-obvious

questions about a message). d. Objectivity (follows structured

procedures for critical interpretations; able to “bracket out” biases, etc.).

e. Familiar with multiple methodologies (or ways to analyze artifacts).

CRITICAL ANALYSIS:II. BASIC PROCEDURES A. Formulate tentative RQ(s) for analysis. [May select artifact first, then derive RQ(s) from it—

may be implicit rather than explicitly stated] B. Select an artifact (or artifacts):

1. Constitutes basic data for the analysis. 2. Should be appropriate for the RQs. 3. Artifact(s) usually a symbolic text of some type

(written, oral, visual, mediated, etc.) 4. Can examine whole artifact (or a set of

artifacts) or a part of an artifact.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS, BASIC PROCEDURES, CON’T. 5. Assumes that technology influences both form of

artifact(s) & its reception. 6. Unobtrusive & relatively fixed--some type of

source (or sources) produced the text & receivers react to it.

7. Differs from Content Analysis 1) Limited focus. 2) Does not use coders. 3) Does not aim to generalize its results. 4) Usually does not make hypotheses or test

relationships between variables. 5) Usually descriptive & interpretive in approach.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS BASIC PROCEDURES, CON’T. C. Select unit of analysis (or a method)--what

aspects of artifact will be used to answer the RQ? 1. Should illuminate significant features of the

artifact. 2. Should be appropriate to artifact & RQ. 3. May be broad (e.g. strategies, values, etc.) or

relatively narrow (e.g. metaphors, non-verbal actions, etc.)

4. Can also select units from theory or theories (e.g. the Burkean pentad; psychoanalysis defense mechanisms, feminist film theory, etc.).

CRITICAL ANALYSIS BASIC PROCEDURES, CON’T. D. Analysis of the artifact--usually in detail,

based on units (or method). 1. Aim for “objectivity” (not making a priori

assumptions & conclusions about what will be discovered)

2. Stance is one of “informed innocence” (Fisher), or “letting the text speak to you” (permits serendipitous outcomes).

3. Includes descriptions & preliminary interpretations of the artifact.

4. Usually interpretive, but may use statistics.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS, BASIC PROCEDURES, CON’T. E. Interpretations of artifact--two basic types:

1. Intrinsic--focus on content. a. Manifest content—surface or explicit

meanings in a text, including style, structure, apparent meanings, themes, etc.

b. Latent content—deconstructing the text, or “reading between the lines,” to find more hidden, or implicit, messages.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS, BASIC PROCEDURES, CON’T.

2. Extrinsic interpretation--focus on context or other external phenomenon

a. Social, cultural, or political issues b. May analyze message effects.

F. Evaluate message–Hart’s "incomplete" list of potential standards for critics: 1. Utilitarian (did the message do what it

intended to do?) 2. Artistic (was the message well-formed?)

CRITICAL ANALYSIS DEFINITIONS, CON’T. 3. Scientific (did the message accurately

represent reality?) 4. Moral/ethical (did the message advance

'the good' & encourage public virtue?) 5. Historical (will the message endure?) 6. Psychological (did the message engage

the emotions of the listeners, reassuring, motivating, and/or renewing such listeners?)

7. Political (did the message advance the goals of social groups studied)?

CRITICAL ANALYSIS--III. TYPES A. RHETORICAL CRITICISM

1. Definitions of rhetoric a. Traditionally defined as the study of

all available means of persuasion. b. More current--any use of symbols for

the purpose of communicating with each other.

c. Assumes reality created through rhetoric (communication).

CRITICAL ANALYSIS, TYPES, CON’T. 2. Definitions of rhetorical criticism:

a. “Illuminating & evaluating the products of human activity“ (Andrews).

b. No universal criteria, but some accepted methodologies.

c. As much analytical as it is evaluative, with several goals:

1) To inform us about the state of discourse. 2) To ascertain the social worth of discourse. 3) To discover the limits of knowledge (to

understand ourselves).

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T. 3. Dimensions of rhetorical criticism:

a. Systematic analysis (using a set of procedures to guide the analysis).

b. Studying symbolic acts & artifacts (to describe qualities, characteristics, etc.).

c. Understanding rhetorical processes (how particular symbols operate & what they mean in a broader socio-cultural sense.

d. Understanding the nature of rhetoric.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS, TYPES, CON’T. 4. Procedures

a. Description comes before interpretation & evaluation (explain a message prior to drawing inferences & assessing it).

b. After developing RQ, consider focus of your criticism (foci can be combined):

1) Source-centered focus [e.g. Neo-Aristotelian]

a) Could be historical/biographical. b) Examine personal ethos or credibility of

the source. c) Examine psychology of the source.

CRITICAL ANALYSISTYPES, CON’T. 2) Message (or discourse)-centered

a) Examines text & its meaning. b) Looks at structures, patterns, symbols, etc.; e.g.

metaphoric criticism, archetypal criticism. c). Also may consider channels of discourse (e.g.

TV, film, speech, etc.). 3) Situation (context)-centered

a) Might examine the rhetorical situation (Bitzer), or the exigencies producing the message.

c) Might examine general social-cultural-political environment (as in many social movement studies)

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T. 4) Audience-centered

a) Can do directly, through interviews with an audience, but usually inferred from the text

b) Examine message effects—need not relate to intentions of the source.

c) May be a type of social-cultural criticism; can be combined with critical theory to examine issues of power, ideology, etc. (e.g. neo-Marxist criticism, feminist criticism).

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T. 5. Four Rhetorical Criticism approaches:

a. Traditional/Neo-Aristotelian criticism. 1) Concentrates on source & his/her

persuasive response to rhetorical problems. 2) Usually involves a deductive analysis of the

message, speaker, & situation, which can be historical or current.

b. Burkean Dramatism. 1) Focuses on psychological components of

rhetoric (audience & situation focused). 2) Includes concepts of identification, form, the

pentad, etc.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T. c. Bormann’s Fantasy Theme Approach.

1) Focuses on common rhetorical visions acting as coping mechanisms "for those who participate in the drama."

2) Situational & audience focused. d. Feminist rhetorical criticism.

1) Many diverse approaches, not limited to rhetorical criticism.

2) Seeks to understand rhetorical construction of gender (to resist oppression), as well as the recovery of significant female rhetors, etc.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T. B. MEDIA CRITICISM [including film, TV, etc.]

1. Analysis of media texts, controversial issues related to the media, and/or the structure & operation of media institutions.

2. Not the same as media reviewing, but an interpretative & evaluative process.

a. Attempts to answer one or more RQ(s). b. Documentation/evidence is from the media

text/artifact itself. c. Methodology usually derived from theory

(sometimes called a model).

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T 3. Assumptions of critical media theory.

a. Assumes reality is constructed. b. Assumes a relationship between artifacts &

their historical contexts. c. People are not passive "cultural dopes”;

instead are active participants in creating & understanding meaning.

d. Mass media is the "literature" of the people as well as the expression of a particular society.

f. Thus often critique "low" or popular culture (e.g. advertising, movies, TV shows, comic books, etc.).

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T. g. Major goal is to enhance media literacy in

the general population (criticism is both pragmatic as well as theoretical).

h. Most media critics freely admit their subjectivity in dealing with social texts, believing that it is impossible to be completely "objective.“

i. May focus on issues of meaning & representation; subjectivity & identity; and/or society, culture, & power, as these issues affect the communication process.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS

5. General types of media criticism (may be combined): a. Aesthetic--an analysis of the artistic

qualities of the media text/artifact. b. Audience-centered--how messages are

interpreted by audiences; also analyzes possible effects on audiences (may be rhetorical)

c. Pragmatic--how might media texts/artifacts, institutions, policies, etc. function to attain specific professional goals?

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T. d. Ethical--analyzing the ethical & moral

implications of media texts/artifacts, institutions, policies, etc.

e. Archetypal (or Mythic) Analysis--examine influence, effects, etc. of shared cultural stories & universal symbols in media.

f. Psychoanalytic (or Poststructuralist) Analysis--explores how symbolic aspects of media express our unconscious, repressed desires, especially our desires for sex, violence, etc. (often applied to film).

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T. g. Semiotics & structuralism--Looks at how

representation of signs & story structures establish meaning for particular groups.

h. Sociological—uses cultural theory to analyze how media texts & institutions reflect, reinforce, and/or shape social values, human behavior, & social-cultural institutions.

i. Ideological/neo-Marxist Analysis--understand how media reinforce dominant power structures & social ideologies, etc. Often looks at an entire media industry, esp. with the rise of media conglomeration.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS TYPES, CON’T. j. Feminist media criticism. Very diverse, but

usually focus in one of three areas: 1) Rediscovering media made by women. 2) Analyzing media genres targeted to

women (e.g. soap operas, the “chick flick,” fashion magazines, etc.).

3) Evaluating stereotyped images of both women & men in media, especially how such images denigrate & oppress both sexes.

C. Specific types of analysis

1.  Mythic/archetypal analysis a. Myth involves a shared narrative or story

1)  Operates at an unconscious level. 2)  Themes of myths are probably universal. 3)  Involves ultimate truths about life and death,

fate and nature, God & humans. b.  Film in particular is receptive to myth

1) Means of modern mythmaking. 2)  Film "speaks the same language"

(picture/image) 3)   As Suzanne Langer observed, both are

associated with dreams.

c. Media also uses archetypes

1) Symbolic representations highly valued by societies  a) Have common characteristics b) Powerful appeal, esp. to the unconscious c) Often have universal meanings, that is

understood within a cultural context 2) Films use both universal & cultural

archetypes, & universal & cultural myths 3) Types include character archetypes, story

archetypes, and symbols

2. Semiotics Analysis

1. The study of the social production of meaning from signs

a) The science of signs which investigates “the nature of signs" & their social impact, so as to create laws (Griffin 98)

b) Derived from linguistics (C. Pierce, F. Saussure, R. Barthes)

2. The study of signs (both verbal and non-verbal) & how they mean in a culture

Semiotics, continued

3. Central focus of semiotics--"the relationship between a sign and its meaning; and the way signs are combined into codes" (Fiske and Hartley 34).

4. Looks at how signs function, "how meaning is generated and conveyed" (Berger 17); communication is within "socially shared discourse" (Trenholm, 47).

5. Looks at how the representation of signs & story structures establish meaning for particular groups, via discourse and texts

Semiotics, con’t.

5. Textual analysis articulates how this struggle between discourses is engaged. a) Texts is how discursive knowledge is circulated,

established, or suppressed. b) A text is a signifying structure composed of signs

& codes. c) Usually refers to a message that has a physical

existence beyond the sender & receiver, composed of representational codes.

d) Also is a network of codes working at a number of levels, capable of producing a variety of meanings.

Semiotics, con’t.

6. Codes--A code is a system of signs, governed by rules agreed upon (explicitly and implicitly) by a culture.  a) There are behavioral codes (e.g. law, rules of

football, etc.) & signifying codes. b) Signifying codes have these characteristics:

1) convey meaning which is shared, conventional, & learned; and

2) transmittable through appropriate media of communication

Semiotics, con’t.

c) Codes can be digital or analogic (think of particle/wave idea)

d) Presentational codes use the body as a transmitter & are indexical (indicate a subject's internal or social state)

e) Representational codes are free standing signs isolated from the sender--abstract, generalizable, iconic or symbolic.

f) Language depends on verbal codes, which are primarily representational & digital

g) Non-verbal codes may be digital or analogic, presentational or representational (more ambiguous)

Semiotics, con’t.

7. A sign is something which designates something other than itself. a) Signs are arbitrary & learned through culture b) Do not stand alone, but are part of a system of

classification (or codes) c) Have 3 characteristics:

1) physical form 2) reference to something other than itself 3) recognizable as a sign

d) have 2 elements—signified & signifier

Semiotics, con’t.

c. Types of signs (Peirce): 1) icon--signifies through a marked physical or

perceptual resemblance between signifier and signified

2) index--signifies through a connection to its object

a) usually causal (but can also be existential); e.g smoke/fire, spots/measles, footprint/person, snarl/anger

b) Tend to operate metonymically (e.g. a cowboy hat for the whole cowboy)

Semiotics, con’t.

3) Symbols--signifies through conventions or rules; arbitrary, conventional signs which stand for something other than itself a) Have to learn the meanings of symbols b) All words are symbolic; other images may be a

mixture of types c) Tend to be metaphoric or abstract (e.g. a gold

coin symbolizes wealth) d) Symbols can be archetypal or stereotypical, as

well as cultural or individual

Semiotics, con’t.

d. Orders of signification (Barthes): 1) Denotation, simple

a) simple or literal relationship of a sign to its referent

b) assumed to be "objective" & "value-free” 2) Connotative, 2nd order--meaning extended to

the realm of values, associative, expressive, attitudinal, evaluative meaning

3) Ideological, 3rd order--the connotations & myths of a culture are manifest signs of its ideology

Semiotics, con’t.

e. Signs can also be metaphoric or metonymic 1) A metaphor is a sign used so as to

stand for something else than original--creates images & myths

2) Metonymy refers to when part of a sign stands for the whole, e.g. a city street for the city, 2 or 3 pickets for an entire union trade strike, a soldier for Army etc. (news often works with metonyms