Testing & Quality Control

8/13/2019 Testing & Quality Control

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't means 6Calcium Chelation 7alue!8 This value of a chemical gives an understanding of the

amount of Calcium that $ill be 6chelated8 as calcium carbonate by a (no$n $eight of that

chemical 2the chelating agent3!

Chelating agents are very important in tetile processing and they are also used in some testing

methods!

"! The chelation value can be calculated by volumetric titration of a (no$n $eight of chelating

agent $ith a Calcium solution, $hose concentration is (no$n before the titration! 1n /alate,

2C&/3-&ion should be present in the conical flas( throughout the titration, because Ca 4& ions

react $ith this /alate ion to form a precipitate!

The formation of this /alate precipitate, is the end-point of this titration!

&! %o$ever, even a (no$n $eight of chelating agent $ill be present in the conical flas(, and this

$ill also react $ith Calcium ions! #ut the resulting comple molecule is $ater-soluble and

hence no formation of precipitate ta(es place because of this reaction!

)! Ca4&ions added from the burette $ill prefer to react $ith chelating agent molecules first! *o

this reaction continues to happen, till the 6limited8 number of chelating agent molecules react

and form $ater-soluble comple molecules! Ca4&ions added from the burette $ill react $ith

/alate anions only $hen there are no unreacted chelating agent molecules remaining in the

conical flas(!

! 9hen all chelating agent molecules have reacted $ith Ca4& ions that $ere added from the

butette, then any etra Ca4&ions added after this, $ill form a precipitate in the conical flas( by

reacting $ith 2C&/3-&anions and, this is the end-point of the titration!

5. Reagent solution

:!&.M CaC/) in burette

&:g;l


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Wetting Agents1 substance that reduces the surface tension of a liquid, because of $hich the liquid spreads

across and also enters inside the surface of a solid material 2e!g tetile3 is called a wetting

agent!

%oo( 1nchor Cylinder $ith released, $et, anchored s(ein in solution

The efficiency of commercial $etting agents can be tested and measured using simple

apparatus!

a3 1 $eighted cotton test s(ein 2han(3 is dropped into a tall cylinder containing a $ater solutionof a $etting agent! The time required the s(ein to rela is recorded as the sin(ing time!

*toc( solutions of the $etting agents to be tested are prepared to contain .:!:g of agent per

litre unless the solubility is so poor that less $etting agent must be used! The $etting agent is

first thoroughly dissolved in about a quarter of the necessary distilled $ater at a temperatureabove :C! 't is then diluted to the final volume $ith cold distilled $ater!

Portions of .,D,":,".,&.,).,.:,D. and ":: mL of the .= stoc( solution are ta(en $ith pipettes

and diluted $ith suitable $ater, to "::: mL! These portions must correspond2match3, to

concentrations of :!&., :!)., :!.:, :!D., "!&., "!D., &!.:, )!D. and .!:: grams of $etting agent

per litre! This range of concentrations is enough for the study of any commercial product!

b3 The diluted solution for the test is poured from the "-litre volumetric flas( into a "!. litre

bea(er to ensure miing! The solution in the bea(er is then divided equally bet$een t$o .::

mL graduated cylinders! 'f the more diluted solutions are tested first, the miing bea(er andcylinders need not be rinsed out and dried each time! The test-operator must $ait after the

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

cylinders have been filled until all bubbles belowthe surface of the solution have risen to the

top before the sin(ing tests are made!

c3 The operator may advantageously prepare solutions for 0 more cylinders $hile he is $aitingfor the bubbles to rise! 1ny foam on the surface of the solution is removed $ith a ":: mL bulb

pipette! 9here there is little tendency for ehaustion of the $etting agent on the test s(eins2han(s3 as found in the case for cotton @ it is permissible to use the same diluted solution overagain many times rather than to ma(e a ne$ diluted solution for each ne$ s(ein! 'n this case

only one .:: mL cylinder can be filled repeatedly from one litre of solution of a certain

concentration!

d3 Temperature greatly affects $etting action, standard temperatures of &.C, .:C, D:C and :Chave been chosen for testing so as to include the complete commercially useful range! 't is

most convenient to obtain a temperature of &.FC 2DDF3 merely by using $ater $hich has been

brought to the correct temperature in a large buc(et! or tests at higher temperatures, heat thediluted solution in the miing bea(er to a temperature some$hat above that requiredA pour the

solution into the cylinder and then allo$ it to cool bac( to the testing temperature!

e3 or a determination, a .!:: gram s(ein of yarn is folded2looped3 enough times to form a loop

of around .!D cm! The hoo( $ith its anchor is tied at one end of the looped s(ein and thes(ein is dra$n through the fingers $hen testing $etting agents in order to ma(e it more

compact!

f3 The s(ein is held in one hand $ith the anchor dangling into the $etting solution contained in

the .:: mL graduated cylinder! 1 stop $atch held in the other hand is started Gust as the s(einis released into the solution and it is stopped $hen the floating s(ein definitely starts to sin( to

the bottom of the cylinder! The s(ein, before sin(ing must be entirely covered $ith solution

and yet it must possess enough floatability from the air $ithin the yarn to (eep the linen threadstiff bet$een the anchor and the hoo(!

1n average of at least four determinations of sin(ing time should be obtained for each

concentration of $etting agent!

Rewetting agent@ is a chemical in tetile preparation, dyeing and finishing, that is a surfactant

$hich, after application and drying onto tetiles, promotes rapid $etting on subsequenteposure to an aqueous solution!

Wetting agent! @ a chemical $hich $hen added to $ater, lo$ers both the surface tension ofthe liquid and its interfacial tension against the solid tetile material!

The effectiveness of commercial re$etting agents on cotton fabrics can be tested andmeasured!

! 1 test specimen is padded in a $ater solution of a re$etting agent and dried! 1 drop of $ater is

then carefully deposited on the taut 2tensioned3 surface of the specimen and the time requiredfor the specular reflection of the $ater is recorded as re$etting time!

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Application of Rewetting Agent@ a solution of the re$etting agent is prepared by pouring

":: mL of hot $ater over the required amount of the product in a small bea(er! This solution is

heated above DC for a moment and then it is diluted $ith hot $ater to a final volume of onelitre! The temperature of the solution in the padder bo for application should be D:C!

The padder is adGusted to a uniformly firm squee+e from side to side! 1 strip of the selectedcotton goods is padded three times through the solution of the re$etting agent! Three times

through ensures thorough and uniform penetration of the cloth! The pic(up should be from 0:

@ :=!

The padded cloth is dried in air at approimately &C for ): minutes!

our strips of padded cotton are prepared for each re$etting agent representing, respectively,four concentrations for each product to be tested! Concentrations generally sitable are &!.:, .!:,

":!: and &:!: g of re$etting agent per litre!

Rewetting@ a square of the padded, dried and conditioned cloth is mounted in the embroidery

hoop! The burette containing either distilled $ater or tap $ater, $hichever is desired for the

test, is adGusted so that it delivers one drop of $ater at &"C approimately every . seconds! Thesurface of the tight cloth is held about " cm belo$ the tip of the burette and the stop$atch is

started Gust as the drop falls on the cloth! The $atch is stopped $hen the liquid on the surface

of the cloth loses its specular reflective po$er! This point is determined by placing the hoopbet$een the observer and a source of light @ such as a $indo$ @ at such an angle that the

specular of the flattened drop can be plainly seen! 1s the drop is slo$ly absorbed, the area of

this tiny mirror on the drop diminishes and finally disappears entirely, leaving only a dull $et

spot behind! 't is at this moment that the $atch is stopped!

!

Evaluation

Readings of re$etting time are done so easily and quic(ly that ten are ta(en for eachconcentration! The average times of disappearance of a drop for &!., .!:, ":!: and &:!: g of

re$etting agent per litre of pad liquor are then plotted on log-log coordinate paper $ith

concentration as the H-ais! 1 straight line is dra$n approimately through, or Goining the four

points as nearly as possible!

rom this line, by relating disappearance time to concentration, one can find the concentration

$hich $ould give a disappearance time of ": seconds! This is called the re$ettingconcentration for the product!

1 corresponding value is then determined for the second re$etting agent! #y using s simpleproportion $ith these figures it becomes possible to calculate ho$ many parts of the second

product are equivalent to ":: parts of the first product 2or *tandard3, for re$etting!

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Surfactants & etergents1 substance that helps in the removal of oily dirt is called a detergent! 5etergents act mainly

on the oily films that trap dirt particles! The molecules of any detergent or a soap, have a

hydrocarbon part that is easily soluble in oil, and an ionic part that is easily soluble in $ater!

The detergent acts as an emulsifier! 1n emulsifying action reduces the repulsion bet$een the

$atery 2aqueous3 and the oily 2non-aqueous3 substances! Every detergent has an ability to

emulsifyA $hich means that it brea(s the oil into tiny droplets that get suspended in $ater!

hydrophilic, ionic, electrovalent, $ater-loving

hydrophobic, organic, $ater-hating

oil stain, dirt

$ater

/il droplet 2bro(en by detergent3

1n anionic detergent is a chemical $hich can ionise into a negatively charged, organic,

hydrophobic 2$ater-hating3 ion! 1ll soaps and many synthetic detergents are anionic! *odium

al(ylben+ene sulphonate is an eample of an anionic surfactant;detergent!

1ny cationic detergent can ionise into a positively charged, organic, hydrophobic ion! Theammonium compounds are eamples of this type of detergents! E!g quarternary ammonium

compounds!

1 nonionic detergent is different from the other t$o types of detergents because its molecules

do not ioni+e li(e the ionic detergents! %o$ever, it has an ability of lo$ering the surfacetension of $ater! The lo$ered surface tension emulsifies $ater $ith oil and this gives the

nonionic detergent its cleaning action! E!g Polyoyethylenes!

!ils!ils are use" in #anufacturing of te$tile au$iliaries while oil% substances te$tile

au$iliaries' are use" in te$tile wet(processing for their h%"rophilicit% an" oleophilicit% (

as wetting agents.

a3 Ranci"it%@ is the decay of oils and fats because of their reaction $ith /ygen in the presence

light! Rancidification of stored oils can be decreased, but it can not be completely stopped!Reduction in the decay of stored fats and oils can be done by placing them in areas that have

minimum eposure to /ygen or free radicals, $arm temperatures and lightA because light and

heat increase the speed of rancidification of oils and fats $ith /ygen!

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Rancid oils cannot be used $ithout epecting a change in the resulting quality of print pasteviscosity during printing operations! *uch oils have an unpleasant smell and they should not be

used in any processing or manufacturing activity!

b' Sulphonation

't is the chemical reaction by $hich aliphatic or aromatic compounds of the type RI*: )%,

$here R is an al(yl or an aryl 2IC 0%., IR3 group! They are colourless oils or crystalline solids

$hich are etremely hygroscopic and very soluble in 9ater! Benerally, for manufacturingtetile auiliaries, long chain fatty acid aliphatic al(anes are used having carbon atoms similar

in number to *tearic 1cid, C"D%).C//%, to obtain a balance of hydrophilicity and

hydrophobicity in the resulting $etting agent or tetile auiliary! *ulphonation of long chainal(anes gives hydrophilicity to the hydrophobic al(ane and therefore detergency becomes a

property of the resulting molecule!

Sulphation and Sulphonation are the most widely used processes for theproduction of synthetic anionic surface active agents. Generally, Sulphuric Acidis used as a reactant in Sulphonation reactions.

c3 The iene value is one of the more important factors for determining the quality of oils! The

presence of carbon-carbon double bonds in oils, decreases the quality of the product because oftheir easy polymerisation!

#ecause of the conGugation of a double bond $ith the aromatic 21ryl3 system, they also ehibit

a strong tendency to$ards polymerisation! The conGugated diene content, is usually epressed

as the diene value, $hich is defined as the number of grams of 'odine required, to add to theconGugated double bonds contained in ":: g of sample! This indirect $ay to epress the results

is related to the total diene content assessment, $hich is directly determined by 'odine addition

to the double bonds and epressed as the )o"ine value! This is done by an iodometric2volumetric3 titration of the sample using starch indicator!

Che#ical Anal%sis

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JCKCJCKCJCKCJCKCJ

ConGugation of double bonds


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Most tetile auiliaries are organic chemicals $hile some inorganic chemicals are also used as

supporting chemicals in various $et-processes! Benerally, chemical analysis methods are oft$o types each $ith a different purpose! ualitative analysis determines the composition of the

chemical being analysed, $hile quantitative analysis determines the purity of the chemical that

is being analysed!

a' *ualitative Anal%sis +

The sample being analysed is first tested for identifying the group to $hich it belongs,depending upon the products it forms $hen it is reacted $ith a series of chemicals, in separate

reactions!

The particular group tests are then separately done 2reacted $ith different chemicals than those

reacted in earlier tests and the elements 2e!g! and


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1 dispersing agent is generally added to dye-baths during batch dyeing 2i!e ehaust dyeing3 of

polyester and its presence is not essential in %T%P dyeing! The follo$ing factors influence the

efficiency of dispersing agents for dyeing polyester @

Benerally, dispersing agents for the 5isperse dyeing of polyester by ehaust dyeing at less

strong conditions than %T%P, are simple non(ionic surfactants! The above factors clearly tellus the importance of testing a combination of dispersing agent and a dye for achieving the

required quality of dyed polyester samples in the laboratory, before underta(ing bul(

production! *uch trial dyeing should be planned from the point of vie$ of testing for @

,rin"ing the large dye-particles to a suitable smaller si+e becomes necessary and this is

achieved by the dye manufacturer, by adding dispersing agent2s3, during 2or before3 the

grinding process itself! 'mportantly, the dispersing agent must remain stable during the dyeingconditions, including %T%P!

Benerally, after their synthesis 5isperse dyes get formed in solid crystalline form! Crystallinesubstances ta(e up different forms, depending on the crystallisation method 2quic( or slo$

cooling3 and the solvent that is used! These crystalline forms have a direct effect on the dyeing

properties of 5isperse dyes!

"! 'f a part of a disperse dyestuff po$der lot, produces a particular depth of shade on polyester

suiting, then another part from the same lot, may not produce the same depth, say, a year later!*uch an effect happens because the crystalline form has changed structurally, during its

storage!

&! Therefore it is necessary for the manufacturer to minimi+e crystal gro$th for the prevention offormation of larger groups of dye molecules! This is done by grinding the dye crystals!

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The ionic nature of the di!ering agent

It ta"i#it$ in the d$eing #i%uor

condition

ull-colour value reali+ation!

Oniform and trouble-free dyeing $ith

maimum colour valuefrothe dye presentin the dye-bath


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)! Brinding is done to reduce dye-particle si+e belo$ :!:::::m 2i!e microns3! 't can be done in

simple -

-ebble #ills or

Roller interfaces!

! *ome surfactants used as dispersing agents are -

" *oap Po$ders

& Tur(ey Red /il

) 1l(yl *ulphates

1l(yl 1ryl *ulphonates

. Lignin *ulphonates

0 atty alcohol-ethylene oide condensates

D Condensation product of Cresol;ormaldehyde in the

presence of *odium *ulphite and further condensation

$ith -naphthol-0-sulphonic acid

5ye molecules are crystalline molecules that gro$ to large sie" cr%stals! %o$ever for

efficient dyeing to happen, it is important that the dye-particles get bro(en do$n to their single

molecule level in the dye-bath! This brea(ing up of particle to molecular level is called

dissolution! #ut, 7at, 5isperse and *ulphur dyes are $ater-insoluble $hereas Reactive, 5irect,1cid and Metal Comple dyes are $ater-soluble!

unctions of 5ispersing 1gents Q 2'n 9ater 'nsoluble 5yes3

"! 'ncrease solubility of dye in 9ater!

&! 1ssist the process of particle si+e reduction!

)! *upport the large dye crystals to be po$derised!

! 'n dyebath, reconvert the po$der into a dispersion!

.! Maintain dye in fine dispersed phase in the dyebath 2%ere, it is helped by an additional

dispersing agent, that is generally added to the dyebath, by the dyer!3

5ye *olubility v;s 5yeing Rate Q

5yeing rate increases $ith increasing solubility of the dye, but only up to a certain value! The

dyeing rate actually decreases $ith any further increase in solubility! Actuall%/ if the solubilit%

is ver% high/ as in the case of the "irect "%es/ practicall% no "%eing results.

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't is common practice to apply 5isperse dyes to hydrophobic fiber, #asic 2Cationic3 dyes to

acrylic, and 1cid dyes to $ool, sil( and nylon!

1 less-used method for applying 5isperse dyes to $ool, sil( and nylon eists! This method is

based on the solubili+ation of certain dyes by anionic surfactants, the surfactant-enhanced

penetration of the bath into the fiber and, in some cases, the mordanting of the dye in the fiberby the surfactant is used advantageously in this method!

*uch surfactant containing baths can be used for dyeing $ool, sil(, nylon, acetate, triacetate,vinyl or polyurethanesA or cationic dyeable polyester, acrylic and polyolefins $ith either

Cationic or 5isperse dyes! 'n the case of cationic dyes, the surfactant $hich dissolves in the

fiber, acts to mordant the dye in the fiber and to increase lightfastness!

'n the case of protonated 5isperse dyes, the 5isperse dye may be deprotonated after dyeing by

rinsing or treating $ith a $ea( base to achieve $ash-fast 5isperse dyeing!

5yeing $ith *urfactant-Enhanced 5yeing Methods

Complete solubility of the dye in the bath is achieved in the bath $hen lo$ molecular $eightsurfactant materials are used, but in some cases the bath remains cloudy 2non-transparent3!

Benerally, ecess retarding agents li(e 5#*1 retard the rate of dyeing but yield more levelresults! Therefore the dyer has a convenient technique, to control leveling and the rate of

dyeing! 1s p% is adGusted up$ard $ith a protonatable dye, the character of the dye $ill change,

from one that rapidly dyes cationic dyeable materials to one suitable for hydrophobic materials!

Benerally the lo$er p% systems more readily dissolve a given dye!

or most common dyeing, the procedure used by the dyer is simple and straightfor$ard! 1

dispersion of the dye is placed in the dyebath at a level, depending upon the shade desired!

*urfactant is added and the dye goes into solution and then rapidly 2quic(ly3 dyes the tetilegoods! 'f the surfactant is (ept at a relatively lo$ level, ehaustion is ecellent! Leveling is

helped;aided by ecess surfactant!

*ynthetic fibers generally benefit from dyebath temperatures that tend to open their molecular

structure for penetration by the bath!

isperse "%es are $ater insoluble colourants having affinity for polyester, polyamide and

some other manufactured polymeric 2synthetic3 fibres, only if they are properly dispersed!

ispersibilit%can be described as the limit to $hich particles can be bro(en do$n to some

minimum si+e, so that they $ill pass through the pores of a standard filter paper!

What#ann filter papers +

These standard filter papers are of different pore si+e! The no! & filter paper, filters particles

that are larger than microns, $hile the 9hatmann no! filter paper, filters particles that are

larger than &. microns!

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The stabilit% of "%e "ispersions means the resistance of the dye-dispersion to chemical

decomposition, physical disintegration, agglomeration or any combination of these! Evaluation

of the dispersion stability of dyes at high temperatures can be used to determine the effect of

various dyebath additives 2auiliaries3 on the high temperature-stability of the dye dispersion!

1n effective test method can provide a laboratory procedure for evaluating the performance of

5isperse dyes at temperatures above "::FC! *uch methods give values $hich can help the dyer

to obtain uniform and level dyeing results $hen dyeing at temperatures above 6boil8!

The dispersibility of 5isperse dyes can be evaluated by measuring the filtering ti#eand the

filter resi"ueof disperse dyes under standard aqueous conditions!

-rinciple (

1 quantity of 5isperse dye is first diluted, then it is heated and then it is passed through filter

papers of specified micron si+e li(e 9hatmann filter paper no! & or , depending upon the

method $ith $hich the 5isperse dye is to be applied on tetiles! The time of passage and

retention 2holding $ithin filter paper3 of dye is then evaluated! The follo$ing table lists )

different test methods for evaluating the dispersibility of 5isperse dyes @

0est What#an 1ilter

-aper

Co#bination

%e application p2 of

ispersion

"


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b3 9eigh out &!: g of dye po$der 2or !: g of its .:= aqueous form3 that is to be tested! 'f t$o

dyes are to be tested, that are of equal shade but of different tinctorial strength, then $eigh out

an equal quantity of one of these t$o dyes as the standard dye in the test!

c3 1dd the $eighed dye slo$ly to &:: mL of the strongly agitated specially stabilised $ater at )

to FC in a :: ml bea(er! 1dGust p% $ith 1cetic 1cid for test methods " & or $ith a $ea(

al(ali for test method )!

d3 %eat for . @ ": min to D"FC and stir continuously by means of a magnetic stirrer to prevent

locali+ed heating!

e3 Pour &:: @ ):: ml of D"FC 9ater through an "" cm #uchner funnel $ithout any filter paper!

9ait for &. sec and turn vacuum on until the 9ater has passed through the funnel! 'nsert

stainless steel ring in the funnel over filter papers, turn on vacuum! 'mmediately pour dye

dispersion $hich has been heated to D"FC into funnel and begin timing $ith *top-9atch $ithin

a cell-phone! Record time only up to "&: sec! The end point is reached $hen the appearance of

the filter paper changes fro# a wet to a "r% appearance !

f3 Record and report time for filtration as follo$s Q

Class 1 @ :-& sec

Class # @ &.- sec

Class C @ .:-D sec

Class 5 @ D.-"&: sec

Class E @S "&: sec

Eamine the residue on filter paper versus the ilter Residue *cale 2standard photographic

replicas of 11TCC3 1lso eamine the paper for any visible coarse or granular particles 'f

present the test is automatically rated as Class '! 'f none is present, rate as follo$sQ

Class . @ Ecellent

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Class

Class ) @ 'ntermediate values are interpolated

Class &

Class " @ Poor

'mportantly, also report the Test


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TCPT

The quality differences that a dyer might face, may be listed as follo$s Q

The dye may not be the same generic product!

'f it is the 6same8 generic dye, there can be variation in manufacture, from t$o suppliers, or

from batch to batch of one manufacturer!

*ometimes quality differences arise in the dyehouse, but manufacturers are unfairly blamed for

these differencesA for eample the moisture content of dyes and the possibility of accidental

contamination should be considered! The standard $ith $hich the incoming dye is beingcompared may also be the cause 2(ar


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a! 5ye strength determinations by eperienced personnel doing only single measurements are

reliable to $ithin about &= error, and that repeat testings can result in measurements that arereliable due to errors of even less than "=!

b! 1queous 2or non-aqueous, if necessary3 dilute solutions of the dyes are prepared and a blan(

solution of := dye is also prepared!

c! Each of these ) dye-solutions 2*tandard dye, sample dye and := dye3 is transferred to glass

vessels and the absorbance at different $avelengths is determined by using thespectrophotometer! E!g @

Solution 77 57 577 55

7

677 657 877 Re#ar9s

:= dye . . . . . . . #lan( solution, requiredby spectrophotometric

computer, for correction

of absorbance

5= *td! )) . 0" :; D" 0) .: U ma> .::nm

5= *mp"! )0 ." 0 ;7 D& 0. .) *tronger than *td! dye

5= *mp&! .. D. :< D 0" .) U ma> ..:nm, either

different generic type

than *td! or impure dye

rom the above table it is clear that the dye *mp& is contaminated 2either it is a miture of &

generically different dyes or it is impure3! *uch a dye $ill not be a safe replacement for the dye

named *td! The dye *mp" is a safer replacement for the dye *td!, because its $avelength ofmaimum absorption is equal to that of dye *td!

d! 7ariations in sulphonation reactions during dye-manufacture, can cause solubility differences

and may interfere $ith spectrophotometric absorbance measurements! Reactive dyes present

special problems because even 6factory fresh8 dye has some percentage of hydroly+ed material$hich is colored but $hich $ill not be fied during the dyeing process!

Reflectance easure#ents +

5ye strength determinations can also be done by carrying out actual dyeing in the laboratory!

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TCPT

a! 'n this case the dye is dyed to the tetile material, and the strength is assessed by comparing the

depth obtained $ith that from dyeing the standard dye, under identical conditions as the sample

dye! The results can be compared $ithout using instrumental 2spectrophotometric3 methods,and ma(es use of the fact that the human eye is a very good Gudge of t$o shades being equal in

depth!

%o$ever the human eye is poor at quantifying the strength 2depth3 difference!

b! 'f a standard is dyed at a (no$n = o$f, and the sample is dyed at a range of H= o$fNs aboveand belo$ that of the standardNs = o$f, then, the dyer has simply to find the sample dyeing

that is the same as the standard, from all the dyeing tested for various depths! *(illed and

eperienced laboratory chemists can do this quite accurately, to around )-= error!

'''

(atne E)a#uation

Eplain the terms 6fastness8, 6running8 and 6fading8 in relation to coloured tetilesV

Colour fastness can be defined as -

WThat property of a pigment or dye, or the leather, cloth, paper, in(, etc!, containing the

coloring matter, to retain its original hue, especially $ithout fading, running, or changing $hen

$etted, $ashed, cleanedA or stored under normal conditions $hen eposed to light, heat, or

other influences!W

'mportantly, this means that different dyes $ill have different fastnesses on different materials!

or eample, linen is much harder to dye than sil( or cotton 2although indigo can dye ; colour,both cotton and linen $ell3! 1 dye that $or(s $ell on leather $ill probably not be suitable for

$ool!

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Running

Running occurs principally during $ashing and eposure to detergents and solvents - 9e (no$

$hat happens if a red soc( or blue pants are accidentally put in a $ash bath having $hite

tetiles!

Benerally, it ta(es many $ashes for an article of clothing to stop leaching dye during the $ash,

but by that time, it may be so faded that $e $ould not $ant to $ear itX

1 dye $ill runif it has a $ea( affinity for the material it is attached to, or it may run even if it

has a much stronger affinity 2Aa*Sa+na3 for a non-aqueous solvent! 5etergents may causerunningbecause they help to stabilise the hydrophobic regions of dye molecules due to their

ability to form micelles!


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TCPT

,re% scalesare calibrated against photographic films that have been eposed to specified periods

to obtain contrasting pieces of Brey photographic prints!

The calibration of any light fastness tester 2instrument3 is done by determining the time 2period3

required to fade a coloured Tetile *pecimen after eposure to light in that 'nstrument! %o$ever,

only #lue dyed 9ool fabric to a specified depth and having a specified reflectance character isused to determine the eposure periods for the fading!

The #lue 9ool *cale is a set of eight such dyed 9ool fabric specimens of different depthsobtainable from the AA0CC! The most deep fabric of this set $ill require the longest eposure

period for fading it to the depth of the least deep fabic of this same set!

Thus seven different eposure periods are determined by eposing the deepest #lue 9ool ofthis set and fading it to the depth of each of the other seven #lue 9ool fabrics! This gives a set

of eight eposure periods beginning $ith +ero eposure time through to increasing D period

values corresponding to each fabric of the set of eight #lue 9ool abric *cale calibration

standards!

'n some Test methods for measuring light fastness, all the eight fabric specimens are eposed

together, along $ith the Test *pecimen, by progressively eposing a different fabric of the setafter a periodic eamination of fading of the Test *pecimen in comparison to the earlier

eposed #lue 9ool *tandard, during the same test!

=ight fastness gra"es

a! Onli(e grey-scales, the light-fastness grades are YeightN instead of YfiveN!

b! 'n grey-scales, Y.N is the highest grade, $hile in the light fastness grades YN is the highest grade

indicating good light fastness!

c! These eight light-fastness standards are eight stan"ar" "%e" wool speci#ens $hich havedecreasing fadebility in daylight under YspecifiedN conditions, $here standard Y"N is the most

fadeable specimens, $hile standard NN is the least fadeable specimen! /ther standards bet$een" and being intermediately fadeable! The standard $hich has faded after the same time as the

specimen and that is the having same contrast is used to give the fastness rating to the Test

*pecimen!

-hotochro#is#is very different from light-fading of tetiles!

E$planation@ 9hen the shade of a dyed material changes on eposure to sunlight but it alsoregains this shade after it is removed from sunlight eposure and is stored in the dar(A then this

property is termed as photochromism of the dyed tetile material!

*uch a dyed tetile material, may loo( faded until it is eposed to sunlight and continues to

loo( faded only for a short time after it is removed from sunlight!

The follo$ing instruments used for finding light fastnessQ-

a! Carbon 1rc ade-o-meter!

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b! Henon 1rc lamp ade-o-meter!

c! Eposure rac(, ventilator and


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TCPT

fastness value and it is matched $ith a similarly faded standard, $hich too has been eposed

for the same duration!

Comparison of faded and unfaded test specimen pair using grey scales Q-

!nl% the uncovere" part of the test sa#ple will be sub>ect to an% fa"ing. Co##on

e$posure ti#e is


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-erspiration 1astness

The human s(in drains out un$anted salts from the body in the form of dissolved liquids

(no$n as perspiration! These liquids along $ith the body-heat and the dissolved salts in them,

react $ith the dyes of the tetile material $hen it comes in prolonged contact $ith the body!This may cause the dye to change in colour or it may form degradation products, $hich may be

harmful to the consumer! Thus, it is necessary for tetile dyed material to have high

Perspiration fastness, if it is to be sold as an undergarment or net-to-s(in cloth!

The ingredients used in the determination of perspiration fastness are @

"! L-histidine mono-hydrochloride monohydrate

&! *odium Chloride)! *odium dihydrogen /rthophosphate

! *odium %ydroide

The & types of perspiration are vi+ acidic 2p% .!.3 and al(aline 2p% !:3

etho"

The -erspiro#eteris used to determine colorfastness of tetiles to $ater and perspiration!

This device applies pressure to samples that have been $etted $ith a simulated perspiration

solution, sea $ater, or plain $ater as its heated! Results are visually or instrumentally evaluated

for color change!

or determining the resistance of the colour fastness of tetile against human perspiration on

dyed fabric is determine by eposing the fabric sample in al(aline and acidic reagents, $hile in

contact $ith grey adGacent fabric! The test specimen along $ith adGacent fabric is placedbet$een the acrylic plates under a fied load and (ept inside the incubator oven for a specified

time!The apparatus use for the purpose is called Perspirometer ; PER*P'RE


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TCPT

&! 1dGust the p% of this solution to .!. to obtain acidic perspiration and to a p% !: to obtain

al(aline perspiration, by using *odium %ydroide!

)! Prepare a composite specimen of the dyed tetile material by se$ing it $ith another undyedand unli(e tetile material!

! Treat t$o such composite specimens in the t$o perspiration solutions at a liquor ratio of &:Q"

at room temperature for ): minutes, pour off the solution after this and place the compositesample bet$een blac( Acr%lic plates under a

$eight of !.B!

.! 'n this $eighted condition place the specimen in theoven for hours at )D4&:C! *eparate the specimen

from the udyed tetile material and dry at 0::C!

The change in colour of the dyed material and thestained but undyed tetile material, are both

assessed by the grey-scales for contrast and the

appropriate rating is assigned!

1crylic plates to be placed here

Co#parison

"! /ther methods use glass-plates $eighing .:B and hence are not as severe as the one described

above! 'n the above method, the apparatus used is called the perspirender! 't can be placedinside the oven at )D:C $ith the sand$iched composite specimen under $eighted 2!.B3

condition!

&! The other method uses glass plates and the air bubbles in the $et specimens are removedmanually by finger pressing them! %ence it is not considered accurate not precise!

Washing 1astness

"! The Launder-o-meter is a sort of a $ashing machine, used to determine the $ash fastness of

dyed specimens!&! The machine has stainless cylinders $hich the test specimen can be immersed in the $ash-

liquor and the cylinders can be clamped and placed on a rotateable $heel! The $heel rotates in

a bath that can be heated and the $heel rotates in opposite directions, after a fied no! ofrotations!

)! The test specimens are se$n as a sand$ich bet$een t$o unli(e tetile material-containing

pieces of fabric and immersed in the $ash-liquor containing sodium carbonate, sodium

hydroide and . BPL of soap at :^&:C for ): mins and then it is assessed on the grey-scalesfor contrast!

-rinciple of assessing wash fastness

"! 1ny dyed material may have some loosely bonded or entrapped dye-molecules on and $ithin

the fibre! *uch dye-molecules can be loosened and removed from the fibre molecule by the

$ashing or agitating action of surfactants and soap! The attachment of such loose dye-molecules is as the dirt and other stains on fibre-surfaces!

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&! 'f such fabrics are $ashed at a definite temperature for a definite time, then the dye-molecules

loosen up and they can go and get attached on undyed adGacent tetile material, therebystaining it!

Specifications an" Con"itions

The test-specimen and one of the t$o colourless sand$iching pieces $ill be of the samematerial, ho$ever the other sand$iching piece $ill be unli(e this material, in '*/ Tests and ",

& or )!

! Test specimen si+e is ":cm cm for all five '*/ Tests! The *pecimen Q Liquor ratio is "Q.:for all . tests!

or '*/ tests and ., the second sand$iching cloth piece is differently specified as -

Page 26of 66

)". 0est Speci#en Secon" cloth piece

a! Cotton, 7iscose 9ool

b! Polyester, 1crylic 9ool or cotton

c! 9ool, *il( or Linen Cotton

d! Polyamide 9ool or 7iscose

e! Cellulose 1cetate 7iscose

)" )S! )S! 5

0est speci#en Secon" cloth

piece

0est speci#en Secon" cloth

piece

1 Cellulose 1cetate,

Polyamide, Polyester

1crylic, Linen

7iscose or

Cotton

Polyamide,

Polyester,

1crylic, Linen

7iscose or

Cotton

# 7iscose Cotton 7iscose Cotton

C Cotton 7iscose Cotton 7iscose

5 *il( Cotton


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TCPT

Asses#ent 1fter $ashing in launderometer, follo$ed by rinsing and drying, they are

assessed for contrast and staining on the grey-scales!

,re%(Scales A"vantages uic( and simple assessment method!

isa"vantages 1ssessment depends upon lighting of the surroundings and also on line ofvision of vie$er!

5uring the life of any finishing fabric, it is li(ely to be rubbed against or rubbed by some othersurface! Rubbing produces heat and friction and this might degrade the dye-molecules thereby

producing a fading effect or staining of adGacent materials! This gives the fabric a $orn-out

and old appearance! %ence, finished fabrics $hich are coloured must have good rubbingfastness!

Rubbing fastness is measured on the Croc(meter! Benerally, printed areas on fabrics may havelo$er rubbing fastness than dyed areas on fabrics!

The instrument that is used to test rubbing fastnessis called the Croc(meter!AA0CC etho" (

"! 1 finger of $ood about "!0cm diameter moving to and fro in a straight line, over a ":cm trac(

on the test-specimen!&! 1 rubbing cloth, starch free, bleached cotton cloth, &8&8 is fastened $ith a $ire clip on the

finger, $ith $eaves oblique direction of rub!

)! &8.8 specimens are cut $ith long dimension oblique to $arp and $ett!

! Rubbing is done t$enty times at speed of &: turns per seconds!.! r% #etho"Q dry testing squares are used to $rap the finger!

Wet #etho"Q The testing squares are $et in distilled $ater, squee+ed $ith hand sand$iched

bet$een t$o fillers paper sheets and passed through a $ringer!0! EvaluationQ-

a! /nly by rating colour-transference on rubbing cloth 2not by colour loss on Test *pecimen3

b! 5ry and $et test squares are air-dried, bac(ed by ) layers of $hite squares! 5ry and $et testare classified separately!

Page 27of 66

Wash li3uor Wash(

te#perature

Wash(ti#e )S!

0est

@o.

.BPL *oap, :!)=


28/66


c! Class " > Poor > Ro$ " on 11TCC chart

Class & > Poor > Ro$ & on 11TCC chartClass ) > Poor > Ro$ ) on 11TCC chart

Class > Poor > Ro$ on 11TCC chart

Class . > Ecellent > Ro$ on 11TCC chart

2


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1 multifibre stitched fabric in the undyed condition may be used in the testing of fastness to

bleaching of any tetile Test *pecimen!


30/66


Page 30of 66

ngredient ! Parameter "ool

(#est$)

Sil%

(#est&)

'otton

(#est)

'otton

(#est)

1eight in gra2 un#e !ecified in

L3

4$drogen Pero5ide2

/06

.7-0 .8-8 .8-8 .8-8

Sodiu Si#icate2

9:;dou"#e u#!honated

cator oi#?

+ + :-8L +

Initia# !4

>ad@uted ,ith NaO4?

-: .8-0 .8-0 .8-0

Contact Tie >hour? : . .

Te!erature >;C? 9 B: BB .88

LR .D/8 .D/8 .D/8 .D.


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TCPT

The 11TCC recommends different procedures for different severity of bleaching in its

Test Method ":" @ " as @

The 11TCC Test Method for evaluating fastness to dry cleaning recommends testing for

fastness of tetiles to by dry cleaning $ith a consideration to organic solvents li(e petroleum

solvents, perchloroethylene and fluorocarbons that are used in dry cleaning of garments andtetiles!

.- PrincipleThe test specimen in contact $ith cotton fabric, a multifibre s$atch and non-corrodible steeldiscs is agitated at ):FC for ): minutes in Perchloroethylene and it is then dried in air!1ny

change in colour of the Test *pecimen is then assessed $ith the standard Brey *cale for Colour

Change!

:- Procedure

or each Test *pecimen, a bag of si+e ":cm H ":cm of the undyed cotton t$ill fabric is preparedby se$ing together t$o square pieces of this cloth, around ) sides! The Test *pecimen and "&

*teel discs are placed inside this bag and the thend is also se$ed up!

To ":mL of a detergent in a "L volumetric flas(, Perchloroethylene is added to ma(e up the final

volume of "L Perchloroethylene;detergent solution! This :!0mL of 9ater is added! This solution

is stirred until its cloudiness reduces to clarity! 1dd &::mL of this Perchloroethylene;detergent

solution into a .::mL *teer container!

'mmerse se$ed bag having the Test *pecimen and the *teel discs in this *teel container! Close

the container and agitate it at ):FC for ): minutes in a launderometer or any other similar

equipment! 1fter this 6spoiling treatment8, place the *teel container in a $ell-ventilated hood

$here the temperature does not increase above 0:FC and air-dry the Test *pecimen by unse$ing

the bag and sand$iching it bet$een layers of absorbent cloth or paper!

/-/- Evaluation careEvaluation care

Page 31of 66


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Conditioning of 6spoiled8 Test *pecimens at 0.=R%, &:FC for " hour before rating!

them must be done! Trimming and brushing of yarn must be done if felt necessary for

simplifying evaluation! Perchloroethylene is toic by inhalation, is toic by repeated contact $ith

s(in and is toic also by ingestion!

2ot -ressingis any process for shaping tetile products or ma(ing them plain and smoothby applying mechanical pressure $ith heat! The pressure can be in dry or moist conditions! This

is also called )roning! The heating device can be a hot press 6iron8 - the Test *pecimen should

be pressed at specified temperature, time and pressure!1 Pressing pad of a &0:g;m& $oolfabric

is used $ith its & layers being )mm thic(! The Test *pecimen is (ept pressed for ". minutes!

5etails for the testing of fastness of tetiles to sublimation

Osually cellulose acetate tetiles dyed $ith 5isperse dyes, sublime on storage! *ublimation

means the conversion of a chemical from its solid state, directly into its vapour 2gas3 state!

"! %ot Pressing and sublimation fastness of tetiles are related to each other because in both, the

spoiling agency is %eat!

&! %o$ever, the eposure time to heat in the measurement of fastness to %ot Pressing is shorterthan the time of eposure to measure fastness to sublimation!

%ot Plate for placing covered Test *pecimen

Page 32of 66

Wet -ressing @ The $et Test

*pecimen is covered $ith a $et,

undyed cotton cloth and is

pressed!


33/66

TCPT

for testing %ot Pressing

)! The 11TCC recommends a 8 H 8 Test *pecimen that is rolled $ith an undyed celluloseacetate fabric specimen and is inserted into a test tube!

! The test tube is then placed in an oven at "&:FC for hours, after $hich the Test *pecimen is

evaluated and graded for both, loss in colour on the Test *pecimen and colour

transference2staining3 on the undyed specimen!

The function of the 3ualit% control "epart#ent of any tetile unit, is tomaintain high and consistent quality of the tetile goods produced by it!

!b>ectives

"! To maintain strict production norms consistent $ith minimum cost of production!

&! uality and productivity of any tetile unit are dependent upon the entire sequence ofoperations from $inding to $eaving to finishing! The quality control department closely

eamines each process, not separately, but from the point of vie$ of its effect on subsequent

processes!)! To modify the process conditions suitably $henever the quality is significantly belo$ or a$ay

the prescribed minimum!

! To fi tolerance limits, so that quality al$ays lies $ithin these limits!

/nly Colour 1astness gra"ing cabinetsprovide perfect conditions for the grading and

assessment of samples for Colour astness to different spoiling agencies! These colour vie$ing

cabinets should be according to )S!


34/66


&! The lamps are housed $ith a specially selected $hite reflector, and controlled $ith membrane

s$itching and electronic ballasts! 1 time elapsed meter is fitted for scheduling the replacementof lamps!

/- 'n addition to Colour astness grading, some applications also require the facility for full colourmatching and assessment, $hich needs additional or alternative light sources, for eample, -ointof Sale )llu#inant 0=:!'''

Page 34of 66


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TCPT

*A=)0 A@A,EE@0 SS0ES

'*/ 2correctly called as 'nternational /rgani+ation for *tandardi+ation3 is the $orld_s largestdeveloper and publisher of 'nternational *tandards!

1ctually, every country may have its o$n standardisation processes and norms for manufacturing

activities or service-oriented activities! 'ndia, for eample has its )S methods prescribed by the

Bureau of )n"ian Stan"ar"s/ B)S.The importance of standards are more popularly understood $hen

any product being sold in the 'ndian Mar(et gains general acceptability if it has the )S) ar9on it!

'*/ is a net$or( of the national standards institutes of ".D countries li(e the B)S2#ureau of 'ndian

*tandards3 of 'ndia, $ith only one member per country allo$ed to be its member! 'ts headquarters or

Central *ecretariat is located in Beneva, *$it+erland! This *ecretariat, coordinates quality

management and also the process of standardi+ation of business and production processes bet$een all

its member countries!

'*/ is a non-governmental organi+ation that forms a bridge bet$een the public an" private sectors

of various countries! /n the one hand, many of its member institutes are part of the governmental

structure of their o$n country, or are mandated by their government - the #'* is also a member of the

'*/! /n the other hand, other members may be li(e @ *1*M'R1, #TR1,


36/66


)! *urely, $e care, $hen products turn out to be of poor and unepected quality, they do

not fit or are mismatched $ith equipment that $e already have, they are unreliable or they aredangerous! 'f there $ere no standards then all goods $ould not be reliable for use!

! *ignificantly, standards ensure desirable characteristics of products and services such asquality, environmental friendliness, safety, reliability, efficiency and interchangeability - and at aneconomical cost! 9hen products, systems, machinery and devices $or( $ell and safely, it happens

because they qualify, and therefore they also meet epected or (no$n standards! 1nd theorganiation that is responsiblefor many thousands of these standards benefitting global society is

the )S!!

The '*/ ::: series of international quality management standards and guidelines has earned a global

reputation as the basis for establishing quality management systems! '*/ ::: is a general system that

specifies, in very broad terms, the necessary parts of a quality management system! 'nstead of being

specific to any one industry, the '*/ ::: details the basic requirement of the quality function for allindustries! 5eveloped and issued in "D, by a Technical Committee of the '*/, '*/ ::: is a series

of voluntary international standards that serve as a method for establishing and maintaining a quality

management system 2M*3 for organisations involved in manufacturing products or providing

services!

The series is revised every five years to ensure that standards (eep pace $ith management practices

and technological advances! The last revision came out in the year &:::! The standard is called '*/

::"Q&:::!

The family of &: standards in the '*/ ::: series $as reduced to uality Management systems

during 5ecember &::: by revision! They areQ

)S! ;777 undamentals and vocabulary

)S! ;77


37/66

TCPT

'*/ ::"Q&::: is a 3ualit% #anage#ent s%ste#.

This quality management system specifies requirements for any organi+ation that needs to demonstrate

its ability to consistentl% provi"e pro"ucts that meets customer and applicable regulatoryrequirements and aims to enhance customer satisfaction! '*/ ::"Q&::: has been organised in a user-

friendly format $ith terms that are easily recognised by all business sectors! The standard is used forcertification;registration and contractual purposes by organisations that $ant recognition of their

quality management system! '*/ ::"Q &::: is based on the follo$ing eight uality ManagementprinciplesQ

These eight principles are seen through the four main clausesQ

Management Responsibility @ defining requirements

Resource Management @ determine and establish necessary resources

Product Reali+ation @ establish and implement processes

Measurement, 1nalysis 1nd 'mprovement @ of results

0hese #ain clauses are built aroun" the plan("o(chec9(act c%cle. This cycle is also popularly

(no$n as the -CAcycle!

Most ne$ users obtain measurable benefits early in the process of deploying the standard requirements

in their operations! These initial benefits are generally due to improvements in their organi+ation and

internal communication! The benefits must be strengthened through effective internal auditing and

Page 37of 66

Customer focussed organi+ation Leadership

'nvolvement of people Process approach

*ystem approach to management Continual improvement

actual approach to decision Mutually beneficial supplierrelationships


38/66


management revie$ of system performance! Li(e all systems, it either improves or becomes less

effective! 't does not remain static for long! 9hen '*/ ::"Q&::: is accepted and adopted, the

adopting organisation struggles for the satisfaction of its customers and the continual improvement of

its quality management system! Continual improvement is a process of increasing the effectiveness of

an organi+ation to fulfill its quality policy and its quality obGectives!

)S! ;77


39/66

TCPT

; !perations beco#e #ore efficient.

": Customer satisfaction gro$s, increasing Gob security for your employees and

profitability for your company!

The '*/ ::" and the '*/ "::" are quality management systems $hich struggle to regulate the $ay

products conform to pre-set standards!

These systems are applicable to both types of entities @ vi+! processes and products

The vast maGority of '*/ standards are highly specific to a particular product, material, or process!

%o$ever, )S! ;77< 3ualit%' an" )S!


40/66


'f all companies in a Country have and follo$ an Environmental Management *ystem then life $ill be

easier, safer and healthier for the population because @

/f the increased


41/66

TCPT

'*/ ":""- Buidelines for quality and ;or environmental management system auditing

. Currently, it is not compulsory to implement and follo$ '*/ "::: according to international la$!Even there is no compulsion to implement an 'ndian environment management system, ho$ever, there

are *tate Pollution Control #oards 2li(e MPC# in Maharashtra3 for controlling the $aste thro$n outby companies!

The '*/ "::: is an international standard $hich helps environtal regulation by insisting that-

Co#panies shoul" follow )S!


42/66


Co#our Counication

Scales for easuring Colour

'n ":., artist 1lbert %! Munsell developed a Colour ordering system @ or Colour scale $hich is still

used today! The Munsell *ystem of Colour


43/66

TCPT

rom the commissionNs $or( $as also

derived, the concept of a 6standard

observer8, based on the average

perception of the human population $ith

normal Colour vision! 'n short, it

represents specific numerical values for

the responses of the average human to

different $avelengths of light! The

standard observer also provides a means

for converting any spectral curve into

three numbers, (no$n as tri-stimulus

values H,?, and that represent the

spectrum of the primary colours Red,

Breen and #lue respectively, to identify

any colour!

Chro#aticit% values

The tristimulus values, unfortunately, have limited

use as Colour specifications in day-to-day business

because they correlate poorly $ith visual attributes!

9hile ? relates to 7alue 2lightness3, H and do not

correlate $ith %ue and Chroma!

1s a result, $hen the ")" C'E *tandard /bserver

$as established, the commission recommended using

the chromaticity coordinates y+! These coordinates

are used to form the chromaticity diagram sho$n

here! The notation $% specifies Colour by

identifying value 2?3 and the Colour as vie$ed in the

C'E ")" chromaticity diagram 2,y3!

%ue is represented at all points around the perimeter of the chromaticity diagram! *aturation, or

Chroma, is represented by movement from the central $hite 2neutral3 area out to$ards the diagramNs

perimeter, $here "::= saturation represents pure hue!

Page 43of 66

CIE ./.

Unifor

Chroaticit$

:; and .8; fie#d of)iion "$ the o"er)er


44/66


The C'E "D0 Oniform Chromaticity *cale diagram

is illustrated here in Brey, #lac( and 9hite! #ut the

actual diagram is useful only if it is in Colour! The

advantage of the uN, vN diagram over the ,y

diagram is that, it reduces the effect of non-uniform

distribution @ when equal perceptual differences are

not xrepresented by equal distances on the

diagram.The uN, vN diagram also correlates much

better $ith C'ELO7, or LO7, as described

ahead!

Each point on the "D0 Chromaticity 5iagramNs

perimeter represents a pure hue @ that is, "::=

saturation of the colour! Each hueNs saturation is

decreased by moving to$ard the diagramNs neutral centre $here, Red, Breen and #lue mi into 9hite!

E$pressing Colours @u#ericall%

Colour difference in materials is no$ obGectively measured using spectrophotometry and is computed

mathematically using one of the many equations that have been developed over the last half century!

The C'EL1#, C'ELO7 and the C'ELC% although not the best, have been used by the tetile business

to ma(e a maGority of decisions! *till ne$er equations have been developed in the recent past, $hich

give fe$er $rong decisions in shade-matching e!g! the ZPCD, CMC, #5 etc!

C)E=AB an" C)E=V

To overcome the limitations of chromaticity diagrams

li(e ,y and u_,v_, the C'E recommended t$o alternative,

uniform colour scalesQ C'E "D0 2Lab3 or C'EL1#

and the C'E "D0 2Luv3 or C'ELO7 2pronounced L-

star, a-star, b-star and L-star, u-star, v-star,

respectively3!These colour scales are based on the

opponent-colours theory of Colour vision that statesQ a

Colour cannot be both Breen and Red at the same time,

nor #lue and ?ello$ at the same time! 1s a result,

single values can be used to describe the Red;Breen andthe ?ello$;#lue attributes!

9hen a Colour is epressed in C'EL1#, L defines

lightness, a denotes the Red;Breen value and b

represents the ?ello$;#lue respectively! The same system is follo$ed by the C'ELO7 $here the u

and v values correspond to a and b of the C'EL1# system $hile L is lightness!

Page 44of 66

CIE .7=

Unifor

Chroaticit$

CIELA colour c!art


45/66

TCPT

The adGacent figures illustrate the colour plotting diagrams for Lab! The a ais runs from left to

right! 1 Colour measurement movement, in the @a direction indicates a shift to$ards the Breen

periphery and a 4a movement depicts a shift to$ards the Red periphery! *imilarly, along the b ais a

@b movement represents a shift to$ards #lue $hile the 4b movement sho$s a shift to$ards the

?ello$ periphery of the C'EL1# Colour chart! The centre L ais sho$s L>":: 29hite or total

reflection3 at the top and L>: 2indicates #lac( or total absorption of light3 at the bottom, of this L

ais! The centre of this plane is reserved for the neutral or Brey perception of light!

To understand ho$ the Lab values represent

the specific colours of flo$ers 1 #, their values

have been plotted on the C'EL1# Colour chart!

The a and b values for these t$o flo$ers

intersect at Colour spaces identified as points 1

and # respectively!

?ello$ flo$er 1 - L > .&!, a > :!&, b >.!.)

Red flo$er # - L > &!::, a > .&!,

b > "!&)

These points specify each flo$erNs hue 2Colour3 and chroma 2vividness or dullness3 only! The final

colour of each flo$er can be obtained $hen their L values 2lightness3 are added as sho$n in the other

figure! The lightness value cannot be sho$n in the C'EL1# colour chart but it can be represented in

this other figure!

Colour ifferences

elta C)E=AB an" elta C)E=V

1ssessment of Colour is more complicated than a simple numeric epression! Benerally, it is an

assessment of either the Colour-match or the Colour-difference from a (no$n third standard! C'EL1#

and C'ELO7 are intended to be used for comparing the colours against a common YthirdN Colour vi+

the YstandardN specimen! C'EL1# and C'ELO7 have been developed for comparing the colours of

t$o obGects! The epressions for the differing aspects of this Colour difference are - L, a, b and

u, v $here is pronounced as YdeltaN, it symbolises YdifferenceN!

1 given Colour difference say L, a, b bet$een t$o colours can also be epressed in only one

single numerical value, E, that represents the total difference on the C'EL1# or C'ELO7 Colour

chart, unli(e the partial difference epressed by L, a, b respectively!

Page 45of 66


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Eab> [2L3&4 2a3&4 2b3&\";&

Euv> [2L3&4 2u3&4 2v3&\";&

'f t$o ?ello$ Coloured roses have the follo$ing Colour co-ordinates in the C'EL1# system, then the

follo$ing comparison $ill help understand the numerical epression of Colour difference!

?ello$ flo$er 1 - L > .&!, a > !&, b > .!.)

?ello$ flo$er C - L > 0!:, a > &!D&, b > !&

Colour 5ifference of flo$er C from that of flo$er 1 Q

L > 4""!", a > -0!", b > -.!&.

*o flo$er C is lighter, less redder and less yello$er 2i!e! paler3 than flo$er 1, although both have the

same hue - ?ello$! Their total Colour difference is @

Eac> [24""!"3&4 2-0!"3&4 2-.!&.3&\";&

> ")!D"

1 C'EL1# Colour difference of this magnitude cannot be missed by any human being having normal

Colour vision! 'n general, $hen deciding $hich Colour difference calculation to use, the user must go

by the follo$ing guidelines -

"! *elect a single system for calculation and use it as often as possible! E!g choose bet$een eitherof the C'EL1# and the C'ELO7 systems or equations! 't is important to remember that most

Colour communication in 'ndia, relies on the C'EL1# system!&! 1l$ays specify ho$ the calculations are made, eactly!

)!


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!ther Colour E$pressions

C)E=C2 =H CH hI'

This Colour epression can be derived from either C'EL1# or the C'ELO7 epressions! The L

defines lightness, C specifies chroma $hile the hF denotes hue angle, an angular measurement! Thisepression is advantageous over the C'EL1# and the C'ELO7 because it becomes easier to relate

$ith the earlier systems that are based on real, physical Colour samples li(e the Munsell Colour *cale!

Colour )n"ices

White an" ellow in"ices

Certain industries li(e paint manufacturing, paper and tetile manufacturing, evaluate their ra$

materials and products using certain standards of $hiteness! 'n general, the $hiteness of plastics or

photographic and printing paper or even $hite tetile goods is Gudged preferentially by follo$ing some

rating system!

'n some cases a manufacturer or a buyer may need to (no$ the yello$ness or tint $ithin a apparent

9hite or non-9hite obGect! This is done to determine ho$ far that obGectNs Colour departs from a

preferred 9hite to$ards an un$anted ?ello$, or to$ards a bluish tint! The effect of $hiteness or

yello$ness can be significant, e!g, $hen printing in( or dyes onto paper!

1 #lue Colourant, dyed on a highly-rated 9hite tetile material $ill appear as a different Coloured

#lue, compared to the same #lue Colourant dyed on another lo$ly-rated 9hite tetile material! Here,

the highly-rated White material must be understood as being whiter than the lowly-rated White

material! The 1merican *tandards Test Methods 21*TM3 has defined $hiteness and yello$ness

indices! The EF


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easure#ent of Colour b% Reflectance etho"s

The tric( to successful computer colour matching and colour communication is to perform

measurements $hich are consistent, reliable and meaningful reflectance results! This can be achieved

only by using proper equipment and its settings, its standardisation and proper presentation of the

specimens to the instrument during their colour measurement!

Principle

Materials that are opaque, nearly opaque or translucent are measured measured by reflectance methods

to obtain a numerical representation of the colour of the specimen! The calculation of the colourimetric

values that are required for evaluating the results or for further quality control etc must be performed

suitably using the soft$are as required!

Limitations

Reliable and useful measurements cannot be obtained from any specimen of any dimension! There are

restrictions, limits and it is important to carry out proper sampling of the specimens before they arepresented to the spectrophotometer for measurements! 1ll the precaution mentioned in the earlier

section on sampling need to be follo$ed according to the type of the material to be tested!

Apparatus and Materials

'n reflectance spectrophotometers a specimen is illuminated $ith light and the spectrophotometer

measures the amount of reflected light from the surface of the illuminated specimen! The illumination

is done in a polychromatic manner 2i!e $ith $hite light3! Monochromatic light can be used in cases

$here measured specimens are not fluorescent!

)llu#ination an" collection-

of reflected light from reflectance spectrophotometers involves t$o types of geometries vi+! *phere

2i!e d;: or :;d3 and .;: 2or :;.3! The first alphabet or number i!e d, . or : in each type of

geometry refers to the method of illumination, say diffusion or the angle of illumination vi+! :F

or .F! The second term describes the angle at $hich the instrument measures the reflection

from the illuminated specimen!

*ome sphere instruments that have an angle of collection of reflected light greater than :F also include

a specular option to enable the inclusion or eclusion of specular reflectance from the illuminated

specimen!

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White calibrate" stan"ar" is required to standardise the instrument! The colourimetric values

required for this calibration standard are stored in the soft$are or in some cases even in

instruments themselves! Therefore only the specific standard needs to be used for calibration!

The correct $hite standard is generally a $hite tile and is usually identified $ith a serial

number!

Standardisation

Benerally, a clean $hite surface of (no$n reflectance factors is measured during standardisation!

These reflectance factors are $ith reference to a perfect reflecting diffuser! The measured reflectance

of this $hite surface is then used to correct all future reflectance values measured from specimens in

subsequent measurements! This correction is done by the soft$are itself by calculating Ycorrection

factorsN at each measured $avelength and applying correction factors!

Some instruments may require the use of a Black tile (or a light trap) and also a

Grey tile! Each of these obects must be maintained in its original clean and

unscratched form following the instructions from the manufacturer.

1re3uenc% of stan"ar"isation of the instrument depends upon the type of the instrument, the

environmental conditions in $hich the instrument is operated and also the required accuracy of

the results! 1s a general practice, an interval of & to hours bet$een each standardisation

should be maintained!

Verification of stan"ar"isation and obtaining the colourimetric values by measuring verification

standards and then comparing these values $ith their original values must be done! The

original values $ill be available $ith the verification standards for comparison in printed form!

'f these measured values do not fall $ithin an accepted range from their original values, then

the standardisation is considered as invalid! The number of verification standards and the

acceptability limits depend on ser requirements! %o$ever, there should be one to three

standards available and their colourimetric values must lie $ithin an acceptance limit of :!&:

5Ecmc2&Q"3 units in 50.;":F conditions!

Specimen preparation and sampling

1 specimen may be representing the sample of an obGect $hich may be a garment, roll, a

carpet, fibre, yarn, fabric, plastic etc! The type of the sample $ill play an important role in

influencing the reproducibility of measurements! Therefore correct sampling follo$ed by

appropriate specimen preparation is very important! /ther factors $hich must be carefully

controlled or selected to achieve meaningful and useful results are vi+! the area-of-vie$, the

difficulty of presenting the specimen to the area of vie$, the number of presentations 2and

scans3 to the area-of-vie$

'''

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P"LL#TI"$ %&"' ()EI$* +IT, &EACTI-E

()E.

I$T&"(#CTI"$

'n 'ndia, cellulosic fibres are preferentially dyed $ith reactive dyes because they have bright

colours, have good $et fastness properties and a reasonable light fastness besides being

comparatively cheap! These dyes are applied to slivers, yarns and fabrics by the ehaustprocess! The primary difference, in ehaust dyeing and in pad-batch or pad-steam method of

dyeing, is in the generation of dissolved solids 2T5*3 in the effluent! 'n ehaust dyeing, a very

high quantity of salt must be used to transfer dye into the fibre from the aqueous dye-bath!Presence of salt 2


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The latest generation of reactive dyes have more than t$o functional 2reactive3 groups! The

fiation of these dyes is much higher at around .= in comparison to the earlier generation of

dyes!

+ 1< 1< + + 1D 1< + + 1< 1 + + 1

2Monofunctional3 2%eterobifunctional3 2%omobifunctional31

2Multi-functional3

S!E REAC0)VE ,R!-S SE )@ REAC0)VE ES

@!0E [ " \ > Monochlorotria+ine [ & \ > 5ichlorotria+ine

[ ) \ > 7inyl *ulphone [ \ > 5ichloropyrimidine

[ . \ > Trichloropyrimidine [ 0 \ > 5ichloroquinoaline

5 > 5ye to $hich this reactive group is attached

H > % or 1l(yl group e!g! C%)

1 simplified representation of ho$ reactive dyes react $ith cellulose fibre is sho$n here -

Cell + !2 J Cl + R + Cell + ! + R + J 2Cl

2Cellulose3 2Reactive 5ye3 2covalently bonded 5ye3

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*imultaneously, the follo$ing reaction also ta(es place!

2D! J Cl + R + 2! + R + J 2Cl

2%ydrolysed 5ye3

$here is dye and Ris the reactive group!

5uring the dyeing process, the reactive dye is first pushed from its dissolved anionic state in

the dyebath, into the polymeric macromolecular cellulose fibre system! *uch dye moleculesthat have penetrated the fibre system, are then fied 2covalently bonded3 to the fibre, by adding

sufficient al(ali into the dye-bath! 'f there is Gust one fibre-reactive functional group in the dye

as in the monofunctional dyes, then a significant amount of this monofunctional reactive dyereact chemically $ith 9ater in the dye-bath 2gets hydrolysed3 $hile only about 0:= of this

dye gets fied by reacting $ith cellulose by forming a covalent bond $ith the fibre in al(aline

conditions!

Eff#uent ean the ued ,et+!roce #i%uor ,hich need to "e dicarded2 after

e!aration of the te5ti#e+ateria# fro the #i%uor- The dio#)ed and undio#)ed

cheica# ued in the ,et+!roce #i*e d$e and te5ti#e au5i#iarie2 reain

!reent in the eff#uent- Thee cheica# can caue 1ater !o##ution if the eff#uent

i dicharged in the urrounding region >Aaa!aa *a F#aa*a?-

The a)erage 1ater conu!tion2 !er *g of !roceed fa"ric2 )arie fro B8+.08

#itre- Treatent "ecoe eentia# "efore dicharging it outide the factor$-

4o,e)er2 the a## and ediu t$!e of !roceing unit cannot ado!t ore

o!hiticated techni%ue #i*e Re)ere Ooi a it re%uire huge in)etent

and treatent cot are too high- Neutra#iation of d$eing #i%uor i a uch

chea!er o!tion for e!erating d$e fro eff#uent-

'ndian cotton process houses may be classified broadly into the follo$ing three categories

a! Large organi+ed process houses of the composite mills $ell equipped $ith effluent

treatment plants!

b! Medium si+ed process houses usually functioning as commission processors

$ithout space for elaborate effluent treatment set up!c! *mall si+ed process houses mostly functioning independently and $ithout effluent

treatment facility!

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Wastewater fro# S#all -rocess 2ouses((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((

)@,RE)E@0S g4l'

)n E$haust %e li3uor' )n Wash =i3uor'

Left-over 5ye :!" @ "!& :!:. @ :!D.*alt &. @ : ": - ".

1l(ali as


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c? Genera##$2 the reacti)e d$e o#ecu#e do not contain an$ to5icit$2 their co#ourcaue on#$ !$cho#ogica# trou"#e- 4o,e)er2 the firt generation 4EH range d$eor e)en the "i+functiona# d$e conidera"#$ har !#ant #ife if the eff#uent idicharged o)er #and- Thi i on#$ "ecaue of the )er$ hea)$ %uantit$ of a#t!reent in the e5haut d$e #i%uor2 EL-

The IS? ha foru#ated a co!reheni)e tandard>IS+:98? for the dicharging #iit of )ariou e#eent in the eff#uent dicharge-

The tandard ta*e into conideration the nature and area of dicharge-

E//luent Treatent

&elevant .tandard /or Liuid E//luent I.2490

$o

E//luent

C!aracteritic'a

(ic!are

d on land/or

irriation

(ic!are

d in pulice:er

(ic!are

d intoinland

ur/ace

:ater

'a!ara!t

a oarddipoal in

aline

:ater

. TSS2 gJ# >a5? :88 =88 .88 .88

: TS2 gJ# >a5? :.88 :.88 :.88 +

/ Te!- ;C >a5? + 90 98 +

9 !4 0-0+-8 0-0+-8 0-0+-8 0-0+-8

0 a5? .88 /08 /8 .88

= CO2 gJ# >a5? + + :08 :08

(or efficient contro# of 1ater !o##ution2 it i uggeted to ta*e the fo##o,ing

necear$ te! in the fo##o,ing order D

.- Reduction in ,ate,ater )o#ue-:- Reduction in concentration of d$e and cheica# ued and there"$ reduction in

their harfu# effect-/- Reduction in ,ate concentration "$ reco)er$ and reue-9- Reduction in ,ate concentration "$ cheica# u"titution-0- Reduction in ,ate concentration "$ !roce odification-=- Inta##ing a uita"#e eff#uent treatent !#ant-

If the eff#uent di!oa# i into !u"#ic e,er2 then in addition to !re#iinar$

treatent >i-e- creening2 grit reo)a# and e%ua#iation?2 !riar$ treatent ,ith

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uita"#e cheica# #i*e coagu#ation2 f#occu#ation and edientation "ecoe

necear$ to eet the re%uireent-

If the di!oa# i direct#$ into trea or #a*e2 !riar$ treatent fo##o,ed "$

econdar$ treatent "ecoe eentia#- If di!oa# i on agricu#tura# #and2 !riar$treatent fo##o,ed "$ G$!u treatent for reduction of Sodiu "ecoe

necear$-

1hi#e de)iing eff#uent treatent2 eeting the re%uired tandard hou#d "e of

!rie conideration2 and !oi"i#it$ of reue of treated eff#uent hou#d a#o "e

e5!#ored-

!4 correction i necear$ for the efficienc$ of u"e%uent treatent- (or

coagu#ation "$ A#u2 o!tiu !4 i B to 2 for coagu#ation ,ith (errou

Su#!hate o!tiu !4 i to -0 and for "io#ogica# treatent o!tiu !4 range

i = to - e!ending u!on the !4 of ,ate 1ater2 doing of inera# acid or Lie

o#ution can "e ade to get the deired !4- A $teatic a!!roach >!o#ic$2

naItI2? to hift a)erage !roduction to,ard c#ean techno#og$ hou#d "e fo##o,eda !er the e%uence K

Avoid > Reduce > Reuse > Recycle >Biodegrade

Total (iolved .olid T(.

1ater ha the !o,er to dio#)e an$ inorganic a ,e## a oe organic

cheica#- The dio#)ed organic cheica# ha)e ato of C2 42 O2 N etc in the-

The$ can "e "urnt >ignited? eai#$ and after getting ignited the$ con)ert into their

o5ide- Thee o5ide of C2 42 N & O are gaeou >)o#ati#e?- The dio#)ed organiccheica# are therefore ca##ed )o#ati#e dio#)ed o#id-

The inorganic cheica# that are dio#)ed in 1ater do not "urn co!#ete#$2 "ut

#ea)e "ehind a reidue >ah? of co!ound ha)ing Na2 2 Ca and other eta##ic

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ato in the- Thee non+)o#ati#e dio#)ed o#id are therefore ca##ed fi5ed

dio#)ed o#id-

(eterination o/ diolved olid; particularl< o/ t!e /ied diolved

olid; i ue/ul in decidin t!e ineral etallic atter content in

+ater or tetile :etprocein e//luent

Centrifuge or fi#ter a uita"#e )o#ue of the a!#e through a g#a icro+fi"re

fi#ter !a!er- E)a!orate the fi#trate >or centrifugate? in a tared !orce#ain dih- >The

!orce#ain dih hou#d ha)e "een !re+heated at .80;C and then to 008;C2 coo#ed

and "rought to contant ,eight?- ee! the dih at .80;C for a"out . hour2 coo#

and ,eigh- The increae in the ,eight denote the tota# dio#)ed o#id content-

E5!re the reu#t a MgH tota# dio#)ed o#id !er #itre of a!#e-

%ied (iolved .olid

Ignite the reidue o"tained fro TS "$ *ee!ing it in a uff#e furnace at 008;C

for . hour- Coo# and ,eigh- E5!re the reu#t a MgH fi5ed o#id !er #itre of

a!#e- The )a#ue re!reent the inorganic inera# atter content of the eff#uent-

-olatile (iolved .olid

MgJ#H )o#ati#e dio#)ed o#id FMgJ#H TS K FMgJ#H fi5ed dio#)ed o#id

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1n installed de-salination plant

*ea+ater Desa"ination p"ant +ith comp"ete pretreatment and fi"tration for a chemica"

process industr#. 2. mgd 789 m/%hr: of pure +ater for boi"er and process.

"! 9ater obtained from natural sources such as Rivers, *eas, etc has many inorganic salts dissolved in it!

&! *ome inorganic salts li(e Ca2%C/)3&, Mg2%C/)3&, CaC/), MgC/), Ca*/, Mg*/, CaCl& MgCl&

are harmful! They cause boiler-scaling corrosion of metallic parts if 9ater containing them, comes

in contact $ith metals li(e in the parts of $et-processing machinery!

)! 9ater $hich contains .!. ppm of CaC/)in it, is called as %ard 9ater! 'n such 9ater, the above

mentioned other D inorganic salts $ill also be present so this 9ater is not good to be used in $et-

processing of tetiles! *o, this type of $ater is called %ard-9ater!

! 9ater $hich does not contain the above mentioned inorganics salts 2also called hard salts3 is called

*oft-9ater! 'mportantly, if the concentration of CaC/ )in any 9ater-sample is less than .!. ppm,

even then it is not called %ard-9ater!

#oiler feed 9ater needs proper treatment because under certain conditions there is ecessive foaming

in boilers! %igh al(alinity, high concentration of dissolved solids and certain impurities in 9ater

cause such trouble! 'ndian *tandard *pecification


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2Ref Q '* Q "0:-"0:3

@o. Characteristic pto


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c. CaCl& 4


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&Ca2C/)3 4 &%&/ Ca2%C/)3& 4 Ca2/%3&

"! These *alts are present in the soil 2mud3 interior of the earthNs surface! The follo$ing are the

disadvantages of using %ard $ater!

&! The hard salts present in %ard 9ater damages metallic parts of machines! This reduces the life of $et-

processing machinery!

%ard 9ater causes boiler-scaling!

%ard 9ater reduces the lather-forming action of *oaps!

Osing hard 9ater reduces the efficiency of tetile $et-processing also increases the cost of

$et- processing!

%ard 9ater is formed $hen salts li(e Carbonates, #icarbonates, *ulphates Chlorides of Calcium

Magnesium are dissolved in 9ater in ecessive amounts!

Any Water sample having a Calcium Carbonate concentration o !"#" ppm is called Hard Water#

9ater flo$s belo$ the earthNs surface $hen it comes into contact $ith roc(s li(e limestone $hich

have Ca Mg salts, then these salts dissolve in 9ater! *uch 9ater can develop Ca Mg hardness in

it!

*team is the gas form of 9ater or %&/! 9ater changes from its liquid form to its gas form at "::FC in

normal conditions of pressure! 'f this pressure does not increase or decrease, then the temperature of

boiling-9ater does not rise above or fall belo$ "::FC even if heat is continuously provided to it! Thisheat is used by the liquid 9ater to convert itself into *team 29ater-7apour3!

Tetile $et-processing activities require large quantities of heat for different purposes li(e ageing,

heat-setting, curing, dye-fiation, scouring, bleaching etc! *team 29ater-7apour3 is the main provider

of heat in $et-processing units! 'n some $et-processes, *team is required only to provide an

environment of 9ater-7apours around the yarn or fabric!

*team is produced in equipment called as boilers, by burning either Coal, /il or


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r% saturate" Stea# Wet Stea# Super(heate" Stea#

Contains no liquid 9ater

droplets and its

temperature is never

more than the boiling

point of 9ater at the

corresponding *team

pressure!

Contains liquid

9ater droplets!

9hen dry saturated *team is further heated by

preventing its pressure from increasing, then th

*team-temperature increases above the boiling

point of the *team-pressure and so it stores the

most heat as compared to the other t$o types o

*team!

b. Stea# is ver% useful because@

't has a very high %eat content

't transfers its %eat $ithout affecting its temperature

't is produced from 9ater $hich is cheap and plentiful 'ts %eat can be re-used!

'n a $et-processing unit, *team is generally produced at one place in the boiler-plant, and it is then

distributed to various *team-consuming machines! The average approimate *team-consumption

patterns of important $et-processing machines is given belo$ @

@a#e of the #achine Stea# consu#ption 9g4hr' Stea#(pressure 9g4c#D g'

Cone ; Cheese dyeing

Cylinder drying

2&: cylinders, :!.D m dia3

*tenter

Ziggers 2about ":3

*creen printing tables

":: to ).:

:: to "&::

.:: to ".::

: to &::

: to &::

"!: to D!::! to &!.

"!: to ")!:

"!: to 0!:

)!:

The fuel bill of a $et-processing unit is generally found to be around = of the units total ependiture

and this represents a very huge amount of money every year! Certain machines li(e stenters and

dryers account for such a high amount of *team, that it 2*team3 accounts for nearly := of the $et-

processing cost! Therefore %eat and its provider, i!e *team, must be conserved and used very

efficiently in a $et-processing cost!

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"! The presence of #icarbonates Carbonates of Calcium 2Ca3 Magnesium 2Mg3 in 9ater, ma(es

the 9ater very harmful for use in $et-processing operations li(e *couring, #leaching, Mercerising,

5yeing etc!

&! *o these *alts vi+ CaC/), Ca2/%)3&, MgC/), Mg2%C/)3& i!e! Calcium Calcium #icarbonate,

Magnesium Carbonate Magnesium #icarbonate3 must be removed or their concentration must be

reduced in 9ater, before using it in any processing operation!

/ther$ise, these salts $ill cause the boilers to scale rust! This is harmful to machinery! *uch $ater

is called Temporarily %ard 9ater!

)1!5issolved Calcium Carbonate forms Calcium #icarbonate in 9ater in the presence of Carbon

5ioide 9ater as sho$n belo$ @

5issolved

i! CaC/) 4 %&/ 4 C/& Ca2%C/)3&

Testing & Quality Control

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