test · 2020. 1. 3. · Page 3 Titus Burckhardt: An Outline of his Life and Works TITUS BURCKHARDT,...

title: MirroroftheIntellect:EssaysOnTraditionalScience&SacredArtSUNYSeriesinIslam

author: Burckhardt,Titus.;Stoddart,William.publisher: StateUniversityofNewYorkPress

isbn10|asin: 0887066836printisbn13: 9780887066832

ebookisbn13: 9780585063621language: English

subject Cosmology,Theology,Symbolism,Mythology,Islam.

publicationdate: 1987lcc: BD523.B871987ebddc: 113

subject: Cosmology,Theology,Symbolism,Mythology,Islam.

MirroroftheIntellectESSAYSONTRADITIONALSCIENCE&SACREDART

BYTITUSBURCKHARDT

TranslatedandeditedbyWilliamStoddart

STATEUNIVERSITYOFNEWYORKPRESS

FirstpublishedintheUSAbyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress,Albany,1987

©copyrightQuintaEssentia1987Allrightsreserved

Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutpermission.

Forinformationaddress:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,StateUniversityPlazaAlbany,NY12246

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationDataBurckhardt,TitusMirroroftheintellect(SUNYSeriesinIslam)PosthumouscollectionofwritingscomposedmainlyofarticlesoriginallypublishedinavarietyofFrenchandGermanperiodicals.Bibliography:p.Includesindex.1.Cosmology.2.Theology.3.Symbolism.4.Mythology.5.Islam.I.Stoddart,William.II.Title.III.SeriesBD523.B87 1987 113 87-10103ISBN0-88706-683-6ISBN0-88706-684-4(pbk.)PrintedintheUnitedKingdom

NowdoIseethatnevercanourIntellectbesated,unlessthatTruthdoshineuponit.Dante

BeautyisthesplendouroftheTruth.Plato

CONTENTSIntroduction

TitusBurckhardt:AnOutlineofhisLifeandWorks 3

ITraditionalCosmology&TheModernWorld

1.TheCosmologicalPerspective 13

2.TraditionalCosmologyandModernScience

(I)CosmologiaPerennis 17

(II)ModernPhysics 26

(III)TraditionalSymbolismandModernEmpiricism 30

(IV)Evolutionism 32

(V)ModernPsychology 45

3.'RidingtheTiger' 68

IIChristianThemes

4.TheSevenLiberalArtsandtheWestDoorofChartresCathedral 77

5.BecauseDanteisRight 82

6.ContraTeilharddeChardin 98

7.TheHeavenlyJerusalemandtheParadiseofVaikuntha 102

8.TwoExamplesofChristianSymbolism 110

9.TheTheologicalMessageofRussianIcons 112

IIISymbolismandMythology

10.TheSymbolismoftheMirror 117

11.TheSymbolismofWater 124

12.InsightintoAlchemy 132

13.TheSymbolismofChess 142

14.TheSacredMask 149

15.TheReturnofUlysses 156

16.TheSunDance 164

IVIslamicThemes

17.TheTraditionalSciencesinFez 173

18.ThePrayerofIbnMashîsh 183

19.Concerningthe'Barzakh' 193

20.CommentaryontheDivineNamesbyImamGhazâlî 200

21.TheRoleoftheFineArtsinMoslemEducation 210

22.PerennialValuesinIslamicArt 219

23.TheVoidinIslamicArt 231

24.TheImpactoftheArabicLanguageontheVisualArtsofIslam 236

VEnvoi

25.ALetteronSpiritualMethod 251

Appendix

BibliographyofTitusBurckhardt 255

Index 263

ILLUSTRATIONSTitlepage:Thedesignonthetitle-pageisthatofarose-windowfromLausanneCathedral.Likethespider'sweb,theHinduchakra,andtheRedIndianleatheredsun,themedievalrose-windowsymbolizeswhatthemirrorthatistheIntellectreflects,namely(atthecosmologicallevel)thetotalityofthecosmosand(atthemetaphysicallevel)thetotalTruth.Theradiiandconcentriccircles(whetherexplicitlyrepresented,asinthespider'sweb,ormerelyimplicit,asinthepresentrose-window)symbolizerespectivelythemodesanddegreesofReality,(Translator'sNote).FromVillarddeHonnecourt'ssketchc.1125-50

Page103:TheHeavenlyJerusalemfromtheApocalypseofSaint-Séver,eleventhcentury,(courtesyoftheBibliothèqueNationale,Paris).

Page105:MandalaoftheParadiseofVaikuntha,thecelestialabodeofVishnu,(anonymousdrawing).

Page161:Cretandoubleaxe.

INTRODUCTION

TitusBurckhardt:AnOutlineofhisLifeandWorksTITUSBURCKHARDT,aGermanSwiss,wasborninFlorencein1908anddiedinLausannein1984.HedevotedallhislifetothestudyandexpositionofthedifferentaspectsofWisdomandTradition.

Intheageofmodernscienceandtechnocracy,TiresBurckhardtwasoneofthemostremarkableoftheexponentsofuniversaltruth,intherealmofmetaphysicsaswellasintherealmofcosmologyandoftraditionalart.Inaworldofexistentialism,psychoanalysis,andsociology,hewasamajorvoiceofthephilosophiaperennis,that'wisdomuncreate'thatisexpressedinPlatonism,Vedanta,Sufism,Taoism,andotherauthenticesotericorsapientialteachings.Inliteraryandphilosophicterms,hewasaneminentmemberofthe'traditionalistschool'oftwentieth-centuryauthors.

Thegreatforerunner-cum-originatorofthetraditionalistschoolwasRenéGuénon(1886-1951).GuénontracedtheoriginofwhathecalledtheModerndeviationtotheendingoftheMiddleAgesandthearrivaloftheRenaissance,thatcataclysmicinrushofsecularization,whennominalismvanquishedrealism,individualism(orhumanism)replaceduniversalism,andempiricismbanishedscholasticism.AnimportantpartofGuénon'sworkwasthereforehiscritiqueoftheModernworldfromanimplacably'Platonic'ormetaphysicalpointofview.ThiswasfullyexpoundedinhistwomasterlyvolumesTheCrisisoftheModernWormandTheReignofQuantity.ThepositivesideofGuénon'sworkwashisexpositionoftheimmutableprinciplesofuniversalmetaphysicsandtraditionalorthodoxy.HismainsourcewastheShankarandoctrineof'non-duality'(advaita),andhischiefworkinthisrespectisManandhisbecomingaccordingtotheVedanta.However,healsoturnedreadilytoothertraditionalsources,sinceheconsideredalltraditionalformstobevariousexpressionsoftheonesupra-formalTruth.Afinalaspect

ofGuénon'sworkwashisbrilliantexpositionoftheintellectualcontentoftraditionalsymbols,fromwhicheverreligiontheymightcome.SeeinthisconnectionhisSymbolesfondamentauxdelaSciencesacrée.

AnillustriousscholardeeplyinfluencedbyGuénonwasAnandaK.Coomaraswamy(1877-1947)who,whilebeingdistinguishedandgiftedinhisownright,hadthemerit,relativelylateinlife,ofmakingtheacquaintanceof,andbeingthoroughlyconvincedby,thetraditionalpointofviewasithadbeenexpounded,sofullyandsoprecisely,inGuénon'sbooks.

ItisimportanttonotethatGuénon'swritings,decisivelyimportantthoughtheywere,werepurely'theoretical'incharacter,andmadenopretenceofdealingwiththequestionofrealization.Inotherwords,theyweregenerallyconcernedwithintellectuality(ordoctrine)andnotdirectlywithspirituality(ormethod).

ThesunroseforthetraditionalistschoolwiththeappearanceoftheworkofFrithjofSchuon(borninBaslein1907).Thirtyyearsago,anEnglishThomistwroteofhim:'Hisworkhastheintrinsicauthorityofacontemplativeintelligence'.1Morerecently,aseniorAmericanacademicdeclared:'Indepthandbreadth,[heis]aparagonofourtime.Iknowofnolivingthinkerwhobeginstorivalhim'.2T.S.Eliot'sperceptionwassimilar.RegardingSchuon'sfirstbook,hewrotein1953:'IhavemetwithnomoreimpressiveworkinthecomparativestudyofOrientalandOccidentalreligion'.

Schuon'sworkbegantoappearduringthelatterpartofGuénon'slife.Untilhisdyingday,Guénonusedtorefertohim(forexampleinthepagesofEtudestraditionnelles)as'notreéminentcollaborateur'.Schuoncontinued,inevenmorenotablefashion,theperspicaciousandirrefutablecritiqueofthemodernworld,andreachedunsurpassableheightsinhisexpositionoftheessentialtruthilluminatingandsavingthatliesattheheartofeveryrevealedform.Schuoncalledthissupra-formaltruththereligioperennis.Thisterm,whichdoesnotimplyarejectionofthesimilartermsphilosophiaperennisandsophiaperennis,neverthelesscontainsahintofanadditionaldimensionwhichisunfailinglypresentinSchuon'swritings.Thisisthat

1BernardKelly,inDominicanStudies(London),Vol.7,1954.2EmeritusProfessorHustonSmith,1974.

intellectualunderstandingentailsaspiritualresponsibility,thatintelligencerequirestobecomplementedbysincerityandfaith,andthat'seeing'(inheight)implies'believing'(indepth).Inotherwords,thegreaterourperceptionofessentialandsavingtruth,thegreaterourobligationtowardsaneffortofinwardorspiritual'realization'.

Schuon'sworkbeganwithacomprehensivegeneralstudy,theveryrifleofwhichservestosetthescene:TheTranscendentUnityofReligions.Hisfurtherworksinclude:LanguageoftheSelf(onHinduism),IntheTracksofBuddhism,UnderstandingIslam,CastesandRaces,LogicandTranscendenceand,morerecently,awide-rangingcompendiumofphilosophicandspiritualenlightenmententitledEsoterismasprincipleandasWay.

WecannowreturntoTitusBurckhardt.AlthoughhefirstsawthelightofdayinFlorence,BurckhardtwasthescionofapatricianfamilyofBasle.Hewasthegreat-nephewofthefamousart-historianJacobBurckhardtandthesonofthesculptorCarlBurckhardt.TitusBurckhardtwasFrithjofSchuon'sjuniorbyoneyear,andtheyspenttheirearlyschooldaystogetherinBaslearoundthetimeoftheFirstWorldWar.Thiswasthebeginningofanintimatefriendshipandadeeplyharmoniousintellectualandspiritualrelationshipthatwastolastalifetime.

Burckhardt'schiefmetaphysicalexposition,beautifullycomplementingtheworkofSchuon,isAnIntroductiontoSufiDoctrine.Thisisanintellectualmasterpiecewhichanalyzescomprehensivelyandwithprecisionthenatureofesoterismassuch.Itbeginsbymakingclear,byaseriesoflucidandeconomicaldefinitions,whatesoterismisandwhatitisnot,goesontoexaminethedoctrinalfoundationsofIslamicesoterismorSufism,andendswithaninspireddescriptionof'spiritualalchemy',orthecontemplativepaththatleadstospiritualrealization.ThisworkclearlyestablishedBurckhardtastheleadingexponent,afterSchuon,ofintellectualdoctrineandspiritualmethod.

Burckhardtdevotedalargeportionofhiswritingstotraditionalcosmology,whichhesawinasenseasthe'handmaidofmetaphysics'.Heformallypresentedtheprinciplesatstakeinamasterlyandconcisearticle'TheCosmologicalPerspective',firstpublishedinFrenchin1948andRowconstitutingthefirstchapterinthepresentvolume.MuchlaterinaseriesofarticlespublishedinbothFrench

andGermanin1964hecoveredthecosmologicalgroundveryfullyindeed,andalsomademanydetailedreferencestothemainbranchesofmodernscience.Thesearticles,underthetitle'TraditionalCosmologyandModernScience'nowformthesecondchapterinthiscollection.TheywerealsoincludedinSwordofGnosis(ananthologyofarticlesfromtheEnglishjournalStudiesinComparativeReligion)editedbyJacobNeedlemanin1974,andreprintedin1986.

Notunconnectedwithhisinterestincosmology,Burckhardthadaparticularaffinitywithtraditionalartandcraftsmanshipandwasskilledintheevaluationoftraditionalarchitecture,iconography,andotherartsandcrafts.Inparticular,hedweltonhowtheyhadbeenandcouldbeturnedtoaccountspiritually,bothasmeaningfulactivitieswhichbyvirtueoftheirinherentsymbolismharbouradoctrinalmessage,andaboveallassupportsforspiritualrealizationandmeansofgrace.Arssinescientianihil.Hereofcourseitisacaseofscientiasacraandarssacra,thesebeingthetwosidesofthesamecoin.Thisistherealmofthecraftinitiationsofthevarioustraditionalcivilizations,andspecificallyofsuchthings,intheMiddleAges,asoperativemasonryandalchemy.IndeedBurckhardt'sprincipalworkinthefieldofcosmologywashisfull-lengthbookAlchemy:ScienceoftheCosmos,ScienceoftheSoul,abrilliantpresentationofalchemyastheexpressionofaspiritualpsychologyandasanintellectualandsymbolicsupportforcontemplationandrealization.

Burckhardt'smainworkinthefieldofartwashisSacredArtinEastandWest,whichcontainsmanywonderfulchaptersonthemetaphysicsandaestheticsofHinduism,Buddhism,Taoism,Christianity,andIslam,andendswithausefulandpracticalinsightintothecontemporarysituationentitled'TheDecadenceandRenewalofChristianArt'.AcomprehensivesummaryoftheessentialelementsofthisbookistobepublishedforthefirsttimeinTheUnanimousTradition,acompendiumofarticlesbytraditionalistauthorseditedbyRanjitFernando(InstituteofTraditionalStudies,Colombo,inpreparation).

DuringthefiftiesandsixtiesBurckhardtwastheartisticdirectoroftheUrsGrafPublishingHouseofLausanneandOlten.Hismainactivityduringtheseyearswastheproductionandpublicationofawholeseriesoffacsimilesofexquisiteilluminatedmedievalmanu-

scripts,especiallyearlyCelticmanuscriptsoftheGospels,suchastheBookofKellsandtheBookofDurrow(fromTrinityCollege,Dublin)andtheBookofLindisfarne(fromtheBritishLibrary,London).Thiswaspioneerworkofthehighestqualityandapublishingachievementwhichimmediatelyreceivedwideacclaimbothfromexpertsandthewiderpublic.

HisproductionofthemagnificentfacsimileoftheBookofKellsbroughthimaremarkableencounterwithPopePiusXII.TheUrsGrafPublishingHousewishedtopresentacopyoftheeditiontothesaintlyandprincelyPope,anditwasdecidedthattherecouldbenobetterpersontoeffectthepresentationthantheartisticdirectorBurckhardt.IntheeyesofthePope,BurckhardtwasostensiblyaProtestantgentlemanfromBasle.ThePopegrantedhimaprivateaudienceathissummerresidenceatCastelgandolfo.When,intheaudiencechamber,thewhite-cladfigureofthePopesuddenlyappeared,hewelcominglyapproachedhisvisitorandsaidtohiminGerman:'SiesindalsoHerrBurckhardt?'('SoyouareHerrBurckhardt?')Burckhardtbowedand,whenthePopeofferedhimhishandbearingtheFisherman'sRing,herespectfullytookitinhis.Asanon-Catholic,however,hekissed,notthering(asisthecustomamongstCatholics),butthePope'sfingers.'WhichthePopesmilinglypermitted,'Burckhardtadds.

TogethertheytalkedabouttheDarkAgesandaboutthesurpassinglybeautifulmanuscriptsoftheGospelsthathadbeensolovinglyandsofinelyproducedduringthem.AttheendoftheaudiencethePopegavehisblessing:'FrommyheartIblessyou,yourfamily,yourcolleagues,andyourfriends.'

ItwasduringtheseyearswiththeUrsGrafPublishingHousethatBurckhardtpresidedoveraninterestingseriesofpublicationswiththegeneraltitleofStättendesGeistes('HomesteadsoftheSpirit').Thesewerehistorical-cum-spiritualstudiesofcertainmanifestationsofsacredcivilization,andcoveredsuchthemesasMountAthos,CelticIreland,Sinai,Constantinople,andotherplaces.BurckhardthimselfcontributedthebooksSiena,CityoftheVirgin,ChartresandtheGenesisoftheGothicCathedral,andFez,CityofIslam.SienaisanenlighteningaccountoftheriseandfallofaChristiancitywhich,architecturallyspeaking,remainstothisdaysomethingofaGothicjewel.Mostinterestingofall,however,isthestoryofits

saints.BurckhardtdevotesmanyofhispagestoSt.CatherineofSiena(whoneverhesitatedtorebukethePopeofherday,whenshefeltthatitwasnecessary)andtoSt.BernardinoofSiena(whowasoneofthegreatestCatholicpractitionersandteachersofthesavingpoweroftheinvocationoftheHolyName).Chartresisthestoryofthereligious'idealism'(inthebestsenseoftheword)whichlaybehindtheconceptionandpracticalrealizationofthemedievalCathedralsthestillextantmonumentstoanageoffaith.InChartres,BurckhardtexpoundstheintellectualandspiritualcontentsofthedifferentarchitecturalstylesnotmerelydistinguishingbetweentheGothicandtheRomanesque,butevenbetweenthedifferentvarietiesoftheRomanesque.Itisadazzlingexampleofwhatismeantbyintellectualdiscrimination.

OneofBurckhardt'sseveralmasterpiecesisundoubtedlyhisFez,CityofIslam.Asayoungman,inthe1930's,hespentafewyearsinMorocco,whereheestablishedintimatefriendshipswithseveralremarkablerepresentativesoftheasyetintactspiritualheritageoftheMaghrib.ThiswasobviouslyaformativeperiodinBurckhardt'slife,andmuchofhissubsequentmessageandstyleoriginatesintheseearlyyears.Already,atthetimeconcerned,hehadcommittedmuchofhisexperiencetowriting(notimmediatelypublished),anditwasonlyinthelate1950'sthatthesewritingsandtheseexperiencesripenedintoadefinitiveandmasterlybook.InFez,CityofIslam,Burckhardtrelatesthehistoryofapeopleanditsreligionahistorythatwasoftenviolent,oftenheroic,andsometimesholy.ThroughoutitallrunsthethreadofIslamicpietyandcivilization.TheseBurckhardtexpoundswithasureandenlighteninghand,relatingmanyoftheteachings,parables,andmiraclesofthesaintsofmanycenturies,anddemonstratingnotonlytheartsandcraftsofIslamiccivilization,butalsoits'Aristotelian'sciencesanditsadministrativeskills.ThereisindeedmuchtobelearntaboutthegovernanceofmenandsocietiesfromBurckhardt'spenetratingpresentationoftheprinciplesbehinddynasticandtribalvicissitudeswiththeirfailuresandtheirsuccesses.

CloseinspirittoFezisanotherofBurckhardt'smatureworks,namelyMoorishCultureinSpain.Asalways,thisisabookoftruthandbeauty,ofscienceandart,ofpietyandtraditionalculture.Butinthis

book,perhapsmorethaninallothers,itisaquestionoftheromance,chivalry,andpoetryofpre-modernlife.

DuringhisearlyyearsinMorocco,BurckhardtimmersedhimselfintheArabiclanguageandassimilatedtheclassicsofSufismintheiroriginalform.Inlateryears,hewastosharethesetreasureswithawiderpublicthroughhistranslationsofIbn'Arabî3andJîlî4.Oneofhismostimportantworksoftranslationwasofthespirituallettersoftherenownedeighteenth-centuryMoroccanShaikhMulayal-'Arabîad-Darqâwî5.Theselettersconstituteaspiritualclassicandareapreciousdocumentofpracticalspiritualcounsel.

Burckhardt'slastmajorworkwashiswidelyacclaimedandimpressivemonographArtofIslam.HeretheintellectualprinciplesandthespiritualroleofartisticcreativityinitsIslamicformsarerichlyandgenerouslydisplayedbeforeus.Withthisnoblevolume,theuniqueBurckhardtianliterarycorpuscomestoitsend.

ThisposthumouscollectionofwritingsiscomposedmainlyofarticleswhichwereoriginallypublishedinavarietyofFrenchandGermanperiodicals,andhavenotpreviouslyappearedtogetherinbookform.Oneexceptionisthearticleentitled'TheSevenLiberalArtsandtheWestDoorofChartresCathedral',whichhasbeenextractedfromthebookChartresunddieGeburtderKathedrale.AfullEnglishtranslationofthisbookisincourseofpreparation.Attentionisdrawntothebibliography(containedintheappendixtothepresentvolume)inwhichdetailsofalltheoriginalpublicationsaregiven.

WilliamStoddart

3LaSagessedesProphètes(FusÛsal-Hikam),AlbinMichel,Paris,1955.4Del'HommeUniversal(al-Insânal-Kâmil),Derain,Lyons,1953.5LettersofaSufiMaster(Rasâ'il),PerennialBooks,Bedfont,England,1969.

ITRADITIONALCOSMOLOGYANDTHEMODERNWORLD

1TheCosmologicalPerspectiveTHESEVEN'liberalarts'oftheMiddleAgeshaveastheirobjectdisciplineswhichModernmanwouldautomaticallydescribeas'sciences',suchasmathematics,astronomy,dialectic,andgeometry.Thismedievalidentificationofsciencewithart,whollyinconformitywiththecontemplativestructureoftheTriviumandQuadrivium,clearlyindicatesthefundamentalnatureofthecosmologicalperspective.

Whenmodernhistorianslookattraditionalcosmologywhetherthisbethecosmologicaldoctrinesofancientandorientalcivilizations,orthecosmologyofthemedievalWesttheygenerallyseeinitmerelychildishandgropingattemptstoexplainthecausationofphenomena.Insodoing,theyareguiltyofanerrorintheirwayoflookingatthingswhichisanalogoustotheerrorofthosewho,witha'naturalistic'prejudice,judgemedievalworksofartaccordingtothecriteriaofthe'exact'observationofnatureandofartistic'ingeniosity'.Modernincomprehensionofsacredartandcontemplativecosmologythusarisesfromoneandthesameerror;andthisisnotgainsaidbythefactthatsomescholars(oftentheveryoneswholookonorientalormedievalcosmologywithacombinationofpityandirony)payhomagetotheartsinquestionandallowtheartistthefightto'exaggerate'somefeaturesofhisnaturalmodelsandtosuppressotherswithaviewtosuggestingrealitiesofamoreinwardnature.Thistoleranceonlyprovesthat,forModernman,artisticsymbolismhasnomorethananindividual,psychologicalorevenmerelysentimentalbearing.Modernscholarsareobviouslyunawarethattheartisticchoiceofforms,whenitpertainstoinspiredandregularlytransmittedprinciples,iscapableoftangiblyconveyingthepermanentandinexhaustiblepossibilitiesoftheSpirit,andthattraditionalartthusimpliesa'logic'intheuniversalsenseofthis

term.1Ontheonehand,Modernmentalityisblindedbyitsattachmenttothesentimentalaspectsofartforms(andonlytoooftenreactsasaresultofaveryparticularpsychicheredity);ontheother,itsstarting-pointistheprejudicethatartisticintuitionandsciencebelongtotworadicallydifferentdomains.Ifthiswerenotso,onewouldhaveinallfairnesstogranttocosmologywhatoneseemstogranttoart,namelythelicensetoexpressitselfbymeansofallusionsandtousesensibleformsasparables.

Formodernman,however,anysciencebecomessuspectifitleavestheplaneofphysicallyverifiablefacts,anditlosesitsplausibilityifitdetachesitselffromthetypeofreasoningthatiscompletelyrelianton,asitwere,aplasticcontinuityofthementalfaculty.Asifitcouldpossiblybejustifiabletosupposethatthewholecosmosweremadesoastoreflectmerelythe'material'orquantitativesidesofthehumanimagination.Suchanattitudemoreoverdoesnotdojusticetothefullhumanreality.Itrepresentsmoreamentallimitation(resultingfromanextremelyunilateralandartificialactivity)thanaphilosophicalposition,forallscience,howeverrelativeorprovisionalitmaybe,presupposesanecessarycorrespondencebetweentheorderthatisspontaneouslyinherentintheknowingmindandthecompossibilityofthings,otherwisetherewouldbenotruthofanykind.2Nowsincetheanalogybetweenthemacrocosmandthemicrocosmcannotbedenied,andsinceiteverywhereaffirmsprincipialunityaunitythatislikeanaxisinregardtowhichallthingsareordereditisimpossibletoseewhythescience(i.e.knowledge)of'nature',inthevastestpossiblesenseofthisterm,shouldnotrejectthecrutchesofamoreorlessquantitativeexperience,andwhyanyintellectualvision(possessedasitwereofa'bird'seyeview')shouldbeimmediatelydismissedasagratuitoushypothesis.ButModernscientistshaveaveritableaversiontoanythingthatgoesbeyondtheallegedlydown-to-earthnatureof'exactscience'.Intheireyes,tohaverecoursetothepoeticalquality

1SeeFrithjofSchuon:TheTranscendentUnityofReligions,Chapter4,'ConcerningFormsinArt'(PerennialBooks,Bedfont,Middx,1986).2SeeRenéGuénon:IntroductiontotheStudyoftheHinduDoctrines(Luzac,London,1945),chapteron'Nyaya':'...iftheidea,totheextentthatitistrueandadequate,sharesinthenatureofthething,itisbecause,conversely,thethingitselfalsosharesinthenatureoftheidea.'

ofadoctrine,istodiscreditthatdoctrineasscience.Thisheavy'scientistic'distrustofthegrandeurandbeautyofagivenconceptionshowsatotalincomprehensionofthenatureofprimordialartandofthenatureofthings.

Traditionalcosmologyalwayscomprisesanaspectof'art',intheprimordialsenseofthisword:whensciencegoesbeyondthehorizonofthecorporealworldorwhenthetraditionalcosmologistgiveshisattentiononlytothemanifestations,withinthisveryworld,oftranscendentqualifies,itbecomesimpossibleto'record'theobjectofknowledgeasonerecordsthecontoursanddetailsofasensoryphenomenon.Wearenotsayingthattheintellectionofrealitieshigherthanthecorporealworldisimperfect;wearereferringonlytoitsmentalandverbal'fixation'.Whatevercanbeconveyedoftheseperceptionsofrealityisinevitablyintheformofspeculativekeys,whichareanaidtorediscoveringthe'synthetic'visioninquestion.Theproperapplicationofthese'keys'totheendlessmultiplicityofthefacesofthecosmosisdependentonwhatmayindeedbecalledanart,inthesensethatitpresupposesacertainspiritualrealizationoratleastamasteryofcertain'conceptualdimensions'.3

AsforModernscience,notonlyisitrestricted,initsstudyofnature,toonlyoneofitsplanesofexistence(whenceits'horizontal'dispersioncontrarytothecontemplativespirit);italsodissectsasfaraspossiblethecontentsofnature,asifthemoretoemphasizethe'autonomousmateriality'ofthings;andthisfragmentationboththeoreticalandtechnologicalofrealityisradicallyopposedtothenatureofart;forartisnothingwithoutfullnessinunity,withoutrhythm,withoutproportion.

Inotherwords,Modernscienceisugly,withanuglinessthathasfinishedbytakingpossessionoftheverynotionof'reality'4andbyarrogatingtoitselftheprestigeofthe'objective'judgementofthings,5whencetheironyofModernmenwithregardtowhatever,in

3Anexampleofsuchaspeculative'key'isthediagramofahoroscope.Thissymbolicallysummarizesalltherelationshipsbetweenahumanmicrocosmandthemacrocosm.Theinterpretationofahoroscopecomprisesinnumerableapplications,which,however,canonlybeproperlydivinedbyvirtueoftheunique'form'ofthebeing,aformwhichthehoroscopebothrevealsandveils.4Whencetheuse,inmodernaesthetics,oftheterm'realism'.5Fortheoverwhelmingmajorityofmoderns,thesignsandcharacteristicsofsciencearecomplexpiecesofapparatus,endlessreportings,a'clinical'approach,etc.

thetraditionalsciences,mayrevealanaspectofartlessbeauty.Conversely,theuglinessofModernsciencedeprivesitofanyvaluefromthepointofviewofthecontemplativeandinspiredsciences,forthecentralobjectofthesesciencesistheunicityofeverythingthatexists,aunicitythatModernscientistscannotinfactdenysinceeverythingimplicitlyaffirmsitbutwhichitnevertheless,byitsdissectingapproach,preventsonefrom'tasting'.

2TraditionalCosmologyandModernScience

(I)CosmologiaPerennis

INWHATFOLLOWSattentionwillbedrawntocertainfissuresinModernscience,andthesewillbejudgedbymeansofthecriteriaprovidedbycosmologyinthetraditionalsenseofthisterm.WeknowthattheGreekwordcosmosmeans'order',implyingtheideasofunityandtotality.Cosmologyisthusthescienceoftheworldinasmuchasthisreflectsitsuniquecause,Being.Thisreflectionoftheuncreatedinthecreatednecessarilypresentsitselfunderdiverseaspects,andevenunderanindefinitevarietyofaspects,eachofwhichhasaboutitsomethingwholeandtotal,sothatthereareamultiplicityofvisionsofthecosmos,allequallypossibleandlegitimateandspringingfromthesameuniversalandimmutableprinciples.

Theseprinciples,byreasonoftheirveryuniversality,areessentiallyinherentinhumanintelligenceatitsmostprofound;butthispureintellectonlybecomes'disengaged',generallyspeakingandforthemanwhoispredisposedthereto,withtheaidofsupernaturalelementsthatanauthenticandcompletespiritualtraditionalonecansupply.Thismeansthatallgenuinecosmologyisattachedtoadivinerevelation,eveniftheobjectitconsidersandthemodeofitsexpressionapparentlylieoutsidethemessagethatthisrevelationbrings.

Suchisthecase,forinstance,withChristiancosmology,whoseoriginatfirstsightappearssomewhatheterogeneous,sinceontheonehanditreferstotheBiblicalaccountofcreation,whileontheotherhanditbasesitselfontheheritageoftheGreekcosmologists;ifthereseemstobeacertaineclecticismhere,itshouldbestressedthatthisisprovidential,sincethetwosourcesinquestioncomplementoneanotherinaharmoniousway,thefirstbeingpresentedinthe

formofamythandtheotherundertheformofadoctrineexpressedinmoreorlessrationalterms,andthusneutralfromthepointofviewofsymbolismandofaspiritualperspective.

Moreover,therecanonlybeaquestionofsyncretismwherethereisamixture,andhenceaconfusion,ofplanesandmodesofexpression.TheBiblicalmythofcreationandGreekcosmologydonotpresentanyformallyincompatibleperspectives,nordotheyduplicateoneanother,aswouldbethecase,forexample,ifoneattemptedtomingleBuddhistcosmologywiththefigurativeteachingoftheBible.TheBiblicalmythassumestheformofadrama,adivineactionthatseemstounfoldintime,distinguishingtheprincipialandtherelativebya'before'andan'after'.Greekcosmology,foritspart,correspondstoanessentiallystaticvisionofthings;itdepictsthestructureoftheworld,suchasitis'nowandalways',asahierarchyofdegreesofexistence,ofwhichthelowerareconditionedbytime,space,andnumber,whilethehigheraresituatedbeyondtemporalsuccessionandspatialorotherlimits.Thisdoctrinethuspresentsitselfquitenaturallyandprovidentiallyasascientificcommentaryonthescripturalsymbolism.

TheBiblicalmythisrevealed,butGreekcosmologyislikewisenotofpurelyhumanorigin;evenwithAristotle,thatdistantfounderofWesternrationalism,certainbasicideas,likehisdistinctionbetweenform(eidos)andmatter(hyle),forexample,undoubtedlyspringfromaknowledgethatissupra-rational,andthereforetimelessandsacred.Aristotletranslatesthiswisdomintoahomogeneousdialectic,andhisdialecticisvalidbecausethelawinherentinthoughtreflectsinitsownwaythelawofexistence.Atthesametime,hedemonstratesrealityonlytotheextentthatitcanbelogicallydefined.PlatoandPlotinusgomuchfurther;theytranscendthe'objectivized'cosmologyofAristotle,andrestoretosymbolismallitssupra-rationalsignificance.ChristiancosmologyborrowedtheanalyticalthoughtofAristotle,butitwasfromPlatothatitderivedthedoctrineofarchetypesthatjustifiessymbolismandconfirmstheprimacyofintellectualintuitionoverdiscursivethought.

ThekeystoneofallChristiancosmologyandtheelementthatrenderspossiblethelinkingoftheBiblicalmythwiththeGreekheritageistheevangelicaldoctrineoftheLogosassourceofbothexistenceandknowledge.Thisdoctrine,whichinitselftranscends

theplaneofcosmologytheGospelscontainhardlyanycosmologicalelementsconstitutesnonethelessitsspiritualaxis;itisthroughthisdoctrinethatthescienceofthecreatedisconnectedwiththeknowledgeoftheuncreated.ItisthusthroughitslinkwithmetaphysicscomprisedinthiscaseintheJohanninedoctrineoftheWordthatcosmologyisinagreementwiththeology.Itisfirstofallaprolongationofgnosis;thereafteranancillatheologiae.

ThesamecanbesaidofalltraditionalcosmologiesandinparticularofthosebelongingtoIslamandJudaism;theirimmutableaxisisalwaysarevealeddoctrineoftheSpiritorIntellect,whetherthisbeconceivedasuncreated(asinthecaseoftheWord)orascreated(aswiththefirstIntellect)orashavingtwoaspects,onecreatedandtheotheruncreated.1

WeknowthattherewerefrequentexchangesbetweentheChristian,Moslem,andJewishcosmologists,andthesamecertainlyoccurredbetweentheHellenisticcosmologistsandcertainAsiaticcivilizations;butitgoeswithoutsaying(asGuénonpointedout)thatthefamilyresemblancebetweenallthetraditionalcosmologieshadgenerallyspeakingnothingtodowithhistoricalborrowings,forinthefirstplacethereisthenatureofthingsand,afterthat,thereisintuitiveknowledge.Thisknowledge,aswehavesaid,mustbevivifiedbyasacredscience,thewrittenandoralrepositoryofadivinerevelation.Bethatasitmay,everythingisdefinitivelycontainedwithinourownsoul,whoselowerramificationsareidentifiedwiththedomainofthesenses,butwhoserootreachestopureBeingandthesupremeEssence,sothatmangraspswithinhimselftheaxisofthecosmos.Hecan'measure'thewholeofits'vertical'dimension,andinthisconnectionhisknowledgeoftheworldcanbeadequate,inspiteofthefactthathewillalwaysbeignorantofmuch,orevennearlyall,ofits'horizontal'extension.Itisthusperfectlypossiblefortraditionalcosmologytopossess,asitdoes,aknowledgethatisrealandincomparablymorevastandprofoundthanthatofferedbythemodernempiricalscienceswhileretainingchildlike(or,moreprecisely,'human')opinionsaboutrealitiesofthephysicalorder.

1Ibn'Arabîsaysthesameinspeakingofar-Rû,theUniversalSpirit,inaccordancewithcertainKoranicformulations.AsforthefirstIntellect(nous)ofPlotinus,itcanalsoberegardedunderthesetwoaspects;thePlotiniandoctrineofdivineemanationsdoesnotintroducethedistinctioncreated-uncreated.

WesterncosmologyfelloutoffavourthemomenttheancientgeocentricsystemoftheworldwasreplacedbytheheliocentricsystemofCopernicus.Forthattobepossible,cosmologyhadtobereducedtomerecosmography;thustheformwasconfusedwiththecontent,andtheonewasrejectedwiththeother.Inreality,themedievalconceptionofthephysicalworld,ofitsordonnanceandofitsextension,notonlycorrespondedtoanatural,andthereforerealisticvisionofthings,italsoexpressedaspiritualorderinwhichmanhadhisorganicplace.

Letuspauseforamomentatthisvisionoftheworld,knowntousespeciallythroughthepoeticworksofDante.2Theplanetaryheavensandtheheavenoffixedstarsthatsurroundsthemwerepresentedassomanyconcentricspheres'thevastertheyare,thegreatertheirvirtue',asDanteexplainedwhoseextremelimit,theinvisibleheavenoftheEmpyrean,isidentifiedbothwithuniversalspaceandpureduration.Spatially,itrepresentsasphereofunlimitedradius,andtemporally,itisthebackgroundofallmovement.Itscontinualrotationbearsalongwithitallinferiormovements,whicharemeasuredinrelationtoit,thoughitcannotitselfbemeasuredinanyabsoluteway,sincetimecannotbedividedexceptbyreferencetothemarkingoutofamovementinspace.

Thesespheressymbolizethehigherstatesofconsciousnessand,moreexactly,themodalitiesofthesoulwhich,whilestillcontainedwithintheintegralindividuality,aremoreandmoreirradiatedbytheDivineSpirit.ItistheEmpyrean,the'threshold'betweentimeandnon-time,thatrepresentstheextremelimitoftheindividualorformalworld.ItisincrossingthislimitthatDanteobtainsanewvision,onethatistosomeextentinversetothecosmicorder.Uptothatpointthehierarchyofexistence,whichgoesfromcorporealtospiritual,expressesitselfthroughagradualexpansionofspace,thecontainerbeingthecauseandmasterofthecontained.AtthispointtheDivineBeingrevealsitselfasthecentrearoundwhichtheangelsrevolveincloserandcloserchoirs.Inrealitythereisnosymmetry

2TherehasbeenmuchdiscussionastowhethertheDivineComedywasinfluencedbyanIslamicmodel;thoughpossibleinitself,itisnotnecessarilyso,giventhatthesymbolisminquestionresultedontheonehandfromthespiritualrealitiesthemselvesandontheotherfromthePtolemaicsystemthatwascommontobothChristianandMoslemcivilizationsintheMiddleAges.

betweenthetwoorders,planetaryandangelic,forGodisatoneandthesametimethecentreandcontainerofallthings.Itisthephysicalorderalone,thatofthestarryfirmament,thatrepresentsthereflectionofthesuperiororder.

Asforthecirclesofhell,whichDante3describesasapitsunkintotheearthasfarasthe'pointtowardwhichallheavinesstends',theyarenottheinversereflectionbuttheoppositeoftheheavenlyspheres.Theyare,asitwere,thesespheresoverturned,whereasthemountainofpurgatory,whichthepoettellsuswasformedfromtheearthcastupbyLuciferinthecourseofhisfalltowardsthecentreofgravity,isproperlyspeakingacompensationforhell.Bythislocalizationofhellandpurgatory,Dantedidnotintendtoestablishageography;hewasnotdeludedconcerningtheprovisionalcharacterofthesymbolism,althoughheobviouslybelievedinthegeocentricsystemofPtolemy.

Theheliocentricsystemitselfadmitsofanobvioussymbolism,sinceitidentifiesthecentreoftheworldwiththesourceoflight.ItsrediscoverybyCopernicus,4however,producednonewspiritualvisionoftheworld;ratheritwascomparabletothepopularizationofanesoterictruth.Theheliocentricsystemhadnocommonmeasurewiththesubjectiveexperiencesofpeople;initmanhadnoorganicplace.Insteadofhelpingthehumanmindtogobeyonditselfandtoconsiderthingsintermsoftheimmensityofthecosmos,itonlyencouragedamaterialisticPrometheanismwhich,farfrombeingsuperhuman,endedbybecominginhuman.

Strictlyspeaking,aModerncosmologydoesnotexist,inspiteofthemisuseoflanguagewherebytheModernscienceofthesensibleuniverseiscalledcosmology.Infact,theModernscienceofnatureexpresslylimitsitselftothecorporealdomainalone,whichitisolatesfromthetotalcosmoswhileconsideringthingsintheirpurelyspatialandtemporalphenomenality,asifsupra-sensiblerealitywithits

3Withregardtothesymbolicallocalizationofthehells,medievalauthorsdifferandseemtocontradictoneanother.ForDante,thehellsaresituatedbeneaththeearth,whichmeansthattheycorrespondtoinferiorstates;forothers,andespeciallyforcertainMoslemCosmologists,theyaretobefound'betweenheavenandearth',inotherwords,inthesubtleworld.4Foritisnotacaseofanunprecedenteddiscovery.CopernicushimselfreferstoNicetasofSyracuseasalsotocertainquotationsinPlutarch.

differinglevelswerenothingatallandasifthatrealitywerenotknowablebymeansoftheintellect,inwhichitisanalogicallyinherentbyvirtueofthecorrespondencebetweenthemacrocosmandthemicrocosm.Butthepointwewishtostresshereisthefollowing:scientismisanobjectivismwhichpurportstobemathematicalandexclusive.Becauseofthis,itbehavesasifthehumansubjectdidnotexist,orasifthissubjectwerenotthesubtlemirrorindispensableforthephenomenalappearanceoftheworld.Itisdeliberatelyignoredthatthesubjectistheguarantorofthelogicalcontinuityoftheworldand,initsintellectualessence,thewitnessofallobjectivereality.

Infact,aknowledgethatis'objective',andthusindependentofparticularsubjectivitiespresupposesimmutablecriteria,andthesecouldnotexistiftherewerenotintheindividualsubjectitselfanimpartialbackground,awitnesstranscendingtheindividual,inotherwordstheintellect.Afterall,knowledgeoftheworldpresupposestheunderlyingunityoftheknowingsubject,sothatonemightsayofavoluntarilyagnosticsciencewhatMeisterEckhartsaidaboutatheists:'ThemoretheyblasphemeGod,themoretheypraiseHim'.Themorescienceaffirmsanexclusively'objective'orderofthings,themoreitmanifeststheunderlyingunityoftheintellectorspirit;itdoesthisindirectly,unconsciously,andinspiteofitselfinotherwords,contrarilytoitsownthesisbutwhenallissaidanddone,itproclaimsinitsownwaywhatitpurportstodeny.Intheperspectiveofscientism,thetotalhumansubjectcomposedofsensibility,reason,andintellectisillusorilyreplacedbymathematicalthoughtalone.Accordingtoascientistofthepresentcentury,5'Alltrueprogressinnaturalscienceconsistsinitsdisengagingitselfmoreandmorefromsubjectivityandinbringingoutmoreandmoreclearlywhatexistsindependentlyofhumanconception,withouttroublingitselfwiththefactthattheresulthasnolongeranythingbutthemostdistantresemblancetowhattheoriginalperceptiontookforreal.'Accordingtothisdeclaration,whichisconsideredtobeauthoritative,thesubjectivityfromwhichoneistobreaklooseisnotreducibletotheintrusionofsensorialaccidentsandemotionalimpulsionsintotheorderofobjectiveknowledge;itisthecomplete'humanconception'ofthingsinotherwords,bothdirectsensory

5SirJamesJeans,TheNewBackgroundofScience(Cambridge,1933).

perceptionanditsspontaneousassimilationbytheimaginationwhichiscalledinquestion;onlymathematicalthoughtisallowedtobeobjectiveortrue.Mathematicalthoughtinfactallowsamaximumofgeneralizationwhileremainingboundtonumber,sothatitcanbeverifiedonthequantitativeplane;butitinnowiseincludesthewholeofrealityasitiscommunicatedtousbyoursenses.Itmakesaselectionfromoutofthistotalreality,andthescientificprejudiceofwhichwehavejustbeenspeakingregardsasunrealeverythingthatthisselectionleavesout.Thusitisthatthosesensiblequalifiescalled'secondary',suchascolours,odours,savours,andthesensationsofhotandcold,areconsideredtobesubjectiveimpressionsimplyingnoobjectivequality,andpossessingnootherrealitythanthatbelongingtotheirindirectphysicalcauses,asforexample,inthecaseofcolours,thevariousfrequenciesoflightwaves:'Onceitbeadmittedthatinprinciplethesensiblequalitiescannotautomaticallybelookedonasbeingqualifiesofthethingsthemselves,physicsoffersusanentirelyhomogeneousandcertainsystem,whichanswerseveryquestionastowhatreallyunderliesthosecolours,sounds,temperatures,etc'.6Whatisthishomogeneitybuttheresultofareductionofthequalitativeaspectsofnaturetoquantitativemodalities?Modernsciencethusasksustosacrificeagoodlypartofwhatconstitutesforustherealityoftheworld,andoffersusinexchangemathematicalformulaewhoseonlyadvantageistohelpustomanipulatematteronitsownplane,whichisthatofquantity.

Thismathematicalselectionfromoutoftotalrealitydoesnotonlyeliminatethe'secondary'qualifiesofperception,italsoremoveswhattheGreekphilosophersandtheScholasticscalled'form',inotherwords,thequalitative'seal'imprintedonmatterbytheuniqueessenceofabeingorathing.Formodernscience,theessentialformdoesnotexist:'SomerareAristotelians',writesatheoreticianofmodernscience,7'stillperhapsthinktheycanintuitivelyattain,throughsomeilluminationbytheactiveintellect,theessentialideasofthethingsofnature;butthisisnothingbutabeautifuldream...Theessencesofthingscannotbecontemplated,theymustbediscoveredbyexperience,bymeansofalaboriousworkofinvestiga-

6B.Bavink,HauptfragenderheutigenNaturphilosophie(Berlin,1928).7JosefGeiser,AllgemeinePhilosophiedesSeinsundderNatur(Münsteri.W.,1915).

tion'.TothisaPlotinus,anAvicenna,oraSt.AlberttheGreatwouldreplythatinnaturethereisnothingmoreevidentthantheessencesofthings,sincethesemanifestthemselvesinthe'forms'themselves.Only,theycannotbediscoveredbya'laboriousworkofinvestigation'normeasuredquantitatively;infacttheintuitionthatgraspsthemreliesdirectlyonsensoryperceptionandimagination,inasmuchasthelattersynthesizestheimpressionsreceivedfromoutside.

Inanycase,whatisthishumanreasonthattriestograsptheessencesofthingsbya'laboriousworkofinvestigation'?Eitherthisfacultyofreasonistrulycapableofattainingitsobjects,oritisnot.Weknowthatreasonislimited,butwealsoknowthatitisabletoconceivetruthsthatareindependentofindividuals,andthatthereforeauniversallawismanifestedinit.Ifhumanintelligenceisnotmerely'organizedmatter'inwhichcaseitwouldnotbeintelligencethismeansthatitnecessarilyparticipatesinatranscendentprinciple.Withoutenteringintoaphilosophicaldiscussiononthenatureofreason,wecancomparetherelationshipbetweenitanditssupra-individualsource(whichmedievalcosmologycallsthe'activeintellect'and,inamoregeneralsense,the'firstintellect')totherelationshipbetweenareflectionanditsluminoussource,andthisimagewillbebothmoreampleandmoreaccuratethananyphilosophicaldefinition.Areflectionisalwayslimitedbythenatureofitsplaneofreflectioninthecaseofreason,thisplaneisthemindand,inamoregeneralsense,thehumanpsychebutthenatureoflightremainsessentiallythesame,initssourceasinitsreflection.Thesameappliestothespirit,whateverbetheformallimitsaparticularplaneofreflectionimposesonit.Nowspiritisessentiallyandwhollyknowledge;initselfitissubjecttonoexternalconstraint,andinprinciplenothingcanpreventitfromknowingitselfandatthesametimeknowingallthepossibilitiescontainedwithinitself.Thereinliesthemodeofaccess,nottothematerialstructureofthingsinparticularandindetail,buttotheirpermanentessences.

Alltruecosmologicalknowledgeisfoundedonthequalitativeaspectofthings,inotherwords,on'forms'inasmuchasthesearethemarkoftheessence.Becauseofthis,cosmologyisbothdirectandspeculative,foritgraspsthequalifiesofthingsinadirectway,anddoesnotcalltheminquestion,andatthesametimeitdisengagesthesequalitiesfromtheirparticularattachmentssoastobeableto

considerthemattheirdifferentlevelsofmanifestation.Inthisway,theuniverserevealsitsinternalunityandatthesametimeshowstheinexhaustiblespectrumofitsaspectsanddimensions.Thatthisvisionshouldoftenhavesomethingpoeticaboutitisobviouslynottoitsdetriment,sinceallgenuinepoetrycomprisesapresentimentoftheessentialharmonyoftheworld;itwasinthissensethatMohammedcouldsay:'Surelythereisapartofwisdominpoetry'.

Ifonecanreproachthisvisionoftheworldforbeingmorecontemplativethanpracticalandforneglectingthematerialconnectionsofthings(whichinrealityishardlyareproach),itcanontheotherhandbesaidaboutscientismthatitemptiestheworldofitsqualitativesap.Thetraditionalvisionofthingsisaboveall'static'and'vertical'.Itisstaticbecauseitreferstoconstantanduniversalqualities,anditisverticalinthesensethatitattachesthelowertothehigher,theephemeraltotheimperishable.Themodernvision,onthecontrary,isfundamentally'dynamic'and'horizontal';itisnotthesymbolismofthingsthatinterestsit,buttheirmaterialandhistoricalconnections.

Thegreatargumentinfavourofthemodernscienceofnatureanargumentthatcountsformuchintheeyesofthecrowd(whatevermaybethereservationsofmenofsciencethemselves)isitstechnicalapplication;this,itisbelieved,provesthevalidityofthescientificprinciples,8asifafragmentaryandinsomerespectsproblematicalefficacycouldbeaproofoftheirintrinsicandtotalvalue.Inreality,modernsciencedisplaysacertainnumberoffissuresthatareduetothefactthattheworldofphenomenaisindefiniteandthatthereforenosciencecaneverhopetoexhaustit;thesefissuresderiveaboveallfrommodernscience'ssystematicexclusionofallthenon-corporealdimensionsofreality.Theymanifestthemselvesrightdowntothefoundationsofmodernscience,andindomainsasseemingly'exact'asthatofphysics;theybecomegapingcrackswhenoneturnstothedisciplinesconnectedwiththestudyoflife,nottomentionpsychology,whereanempiricismthatisrelativelyvalidinthephysicalorderencroachesinbizarrefashiononaforeignfield.Thesefissures,whichdonotmerelyaffectthetheoreticaldomain,

8Itisafact,however,thatmostofthegreattechnicalinventionswereeffectedonthebasisofinadequateandevenfalsetheories.

arefarfromharmless;onthecontrary,intheirtechnicalconsequences,theyconstitutesomanyseedsofcatastrophe.

Becausethemathematicalconceptionofthingsinevitablyparticipatesintheschematicanddiscontinuouscharacterofnumber,itneglects,inthevastwebofnature,everythingthatconsistsofpurecontinuityandofrelationssubtlykeptinbalance.Now,continuityandequilibriumexistbeforediscontinuityandbeforecrisis;theyaremorerealthantheselatter,andincomparablymoreprecious.

(II)ModernPhysics

Inmodernphysicsthespaceinwhichtheheavenlybodiesmove,asalsothespacetraversedbythetrajectoriesoftheminutestbodiessuchaselectrons,isconceivedasavoid.Thepurelymathematicaldefinitionofthespatialandtemporalrelationshipsbetweenvariousbodiesgreatorsmallistherebyrenderedeasier.Inreality,acorporeal'point''suspended'inatotalvoidwouldhavenorelationshipwhateverwithanyothercorporeal'points';itwould,sotospeak,fallbackintonothingness.Oneblithelyspeaksof'fieldsofforce',butbywhatarethesefieldssupported?Atotallyemptyspacecannotexist;itisonlyanabstraction,anarbitraryideathatservesonlytoshowwheremathematicalthinkingcanleadwhenarbitrarilydetachedfromaconcreteintuitionofthings.

Accordingtotraditionalcosmology,etherfillsallspacewithoutdistinction.Weknowthatmodernphysicsdeniestheexistenceofether,sinceithasbeenestablishedthatitoffersnoresistancetotherotatorymovementoftheearth;butitisforgottenthatthisquintessentialelementwhichisatthebasisofallmaterialdifferentiations,isnotitselfdistinguishedbyanyparticularquality,sothatitoffersnooppositiontoanythingwhatsoever.Itrepresentsthecontinuousgroundwhenceallmaterialdiscontinuitiesdetachthemselves.

Ifmodernscienceacceptedtheexistenceofether,itmightperhapsfindananswertothequestionwhetherlightispropagatedasawaveorasacorpuscularemanation;mostprobablyitsmovementisneitheronenortheother,anditsapparentlycontradictorypropertiesareexplainablebythefactthatitismostdirectlyattachedtoetherandparticipatesintheindistinctlycontinuousnatureofthelatter.

Anindistinctcontinuumcannotbedividedintoaseriesoflikeunits;ifitdoesnotnecessarilyescapefromtimeorspace,itneverthelesseludesgraduatedmeasurements.Thisisespeciallytrueofthespeedoflight,whichalwaysappearsthesame,independentlyofthemovementofitsobserver,whetherthelattermovesinthesamedirectionorintheoppositedirection.Thespeedoflightthusrepresentsalimitvalue;itcanneitherbeovertakennorcaughtupwithbyanyothermovement,andthisislikethephysicalexpressionofthesimultaneitypropertotheactoftheintelligiblelight.

Weknowthatthediscoveryofthefactthatthespeedoflight,whenmeasuredbothinthedirectionoftherotationoftheearthandinthedirectionoppositetothatrotation,isinvariable,hasconfrontedmodernastronomerswiththealternativeeitherofacceptingtheimmobilityoftheearthorelseofrejectingtheusualnotionsoftimeandspace.ThusitwasthatEinsteinwasledintoconsideringspaceandtimeastworelativedimensions,variableinfunctionofthestateofmovementoftheobserver,theonlyconstantdimensionbeingthespeedoflight.Thelatterwouldeverywhereandalwaysbethesame,whereastimeandspacevaryinrelationtooneanother:itisasifspacecouldshrinkinfavouroftime,andinversely.

Ifitbeadmittedthatamovementisdefinableintermsofacertainrelationshipoftimeandspace,itiscontradictorytomaintainthatitisamovement,thatoflight,thatmeasuresspaceandtime.Itistruethatonaquitedifferentplanewhenitisaquestionoftheintelligiblelighttheimageoflight'measuring'thecosmosandrealizingittherebyisnotdevoidofdeepmeaning.Butwhatwehaveinviewhereisthephysicalorder,whichaloneisconsidered,andwithgoodcause,byEinstein'stheory;itisthereforeinthiscontextthatwewillputthefollowingquestion:whatisthisfamous'constantnumber'thatissupposedtoexpressthespeedoflight?Howcanmovementhavingadefinitespeedanditsdefinitionwillalwaysbearelationshipbetweenspaceandtimeitselfbeaquasi-'absolute'measureofthesetwoconditionsofthephysicalworld?Istherenothereaconfusionbetweentheprincipialandquantitativedomains?Thatthemovementoflightisthefundamental'measure'ofthecorporealworldwewillinglybelieve,butwhyshouldthismeasureitselfbeanumber,andevenadefinitenumber?Moreover,dotheexperimentswhicharesupposedtoprovetheconstantcharacterofthespeedof

lightreallygetbeyondtheearthlysphere,anddotheynotimplybothspaceandtimeasusuallyimaginedbyus?Thus'300,000kmpersecond'isstatedtobethespeedoflight,anditisheldthathereisavaluewhich,ifitbenotnecessarilyeverywhereexpressedinthismanner,doesnonethelessremainconstantthroughoutthephysicaluniverse.Theastronomerwhocounts,byreferringtothelinesofthespectrum,thelight-yearsseparatingusfromthenebulaofAndromeda,supposeswithoutmoreadothattheuniverseisevery-where'woven'inthesamemanner.Now,whatwouldhappeniftheconstantcharacterofthespeedoflightevercametobedoubtedandthereiseverylikelihoodthatitwillbesoonerorlatersothattheonlyfixedpivotofEinstein'stheorywouldfalldown?Thewholemodernconceptionoftheuniversewouldimmediatelydissolvelikeamirage.

Wearetoldthatrealitydoesnotnecessarilycorrespondwithourinbornconceptionsoftimeandspace;butatthesametimeitisneverdoubtedforamomentthatthephysicaluniverseconformswithcertainmathematicalformulaswhichnecessarilyproceedfromaxiomsthatarenolessinborn.

InthesameorderofideasmentionmustalsobemadeofthetheoryaccordingtowhichinterstellarspaceisnotthespaceofEuclid,butaspacethatdoesnotadmittheEuclideanaxiomregardingparallellines.Suchaspace,itissaid,flowsbackonitself,withoutitsbeingpossibletoassigntoitadefinitecurve.Onemightseeinthistheoryanexpressionofspatialindefinitude,sinceinfactspaceisneitherfinitenorinfinite,somethingwhichtheAncientsindicatedbycomparingspacetoaspherewhoseradiusexceedseverymeasure,andwhichitselfiscontainedintheUniversalSpirit.Butthisisnothowmoderntheoreticiansunderstandthings,fortheydeclarethatourimmediateconceptionofspaceisquitesimplyfalseandincomplete,andthatwemustthereforefamiliarizeourselveswithnon-Euclideanspace,which,theysay,isaccessibletoadisciplinedimagination.Nowthisissimplynottrue,fornon-Euclideanspaceisaccessibleonlyindirectly,namely,fromthestarting-pointofEuclideanspace,whichthusremainsthequalitativemodelforeveryconceivablekindofspace.Inthiscase,asinmanyothers,modernsciencetriesmathematicallytogobeyondthelogicinherentintheimagination,andthentoviolatethisbydintofmathematical

principles,asifeveryintellectualfacultyotherthanpurelymathematicalthoughtweresuspect.

Inconformitywiththismathematicalschematism,matteritselfisconceivedasbeingdiscontinuous,foratoms,andtheirconstituentparticles,aresupposedtobeevenmoreisolatedinspacethanarethestars.Whateverthecurrentconceptionoftheatomicordermaybeandtheoriesonthissubjectchangeatadisconcertingspeeditisalwaysacaseofgroupingsofcorporeal'points'.

Letushererecallthetraditionaldoctrineofmatter:9itisfromthestarting-pointof'firstmatter'thattheworldisconstituted,bysuccessivedifferentiation,underthe'non-acting'actionoftheform-bestowingEssence;butthismateriaprimaisnottangiblematter,itunderliesallfiniteexistence,andevenitsnearestmodality,materiasignataquantitate,whichisthebasisofthecorporealworld,isnotmanifestedassuch.AccordingtoamostjudiciousexpressionofBoethius,10itisbyits'form'inotherwords,itsqualitativeaspectthatathingisknown,'formbeinglikealightbymeansofwhichweknowwhatathingis'.Nowmateriaassuchispreciselythatwhichisnotyetformedandwhichbythatveryfacteludesalldistinctiveknowing.Theworldthatisaccessibletodistinctiveknowledgethusextendsbetweentwopolesthatareunmanifestedassuch(theform-bestowingEssenceandundifferentiatedmateria)justastherangeofcoloursinthespectrumunfoldsthroughtherefractionofwhiteandthereforecolourlesslightinamediumthatisalsocolourless.

Modernscience,whichdespiteitspragmatismisnotbehindhandinclaimingtoofferacompleteandcomprehensiveexplanationofthesensibleuniverse,strivestoreducethewholequalitativerichnessofthisuniversetoacertainstructureofmatter,conceivedasavariablegroupingofminutebodies,whetherthesebedefinedasgenuinebodiesorassimple'points'ofenergy.Thismeansthatallthe'bundles'ofsensiblequalities,everythingthatconstitutestheworldforus,exceptspaceandtime,havetobereduced,scientificallyspeaking,toaseriesofatomic'models'definableintermsofthe

9RenéGuénon,TheReignofQuantityandtheSignsoftheTimes(PenguinBooks,Baltimore,Maryland,1972),Chapter2,'MateriaSignataQuantitate'.10DeUnitateetUno.

number,mass,trajectories,andspeedsoftheminutebodiesconcerned.Itisobviousthatthisreductionisinvain,foralthoughthese'models'stillcomprisecertainqualitativeelementsifonlytheirimaginaryspatialformitisnonethelessaquestionofthereductionofqualitytoquantityandquantitycannevercomprehendquality.

Ontheotherhand,theeliminationofthequalitativeaspectsinfavourofatighterandtightermathematicaldefinitionofatomicstructuremustnecessarilyreachalimit,beyondwhichprecisiongiveswaytotheindeterminate.Thisisexactlywhatishappeningwithmodernatomistscience,inwhichmathematicalreflectionisbeingmoreandmorereplacedbystatisticsandcalculationsofprobability,andinwhichtheverylawsofcausalityseemtobefacingbankruptcy.Ifthe'forms'ofthingsare'lights',asBoethiussaid,thereductionofthequalitativetothequantitativecanbecomparedtotheactionofamanwhoputsoutallthelightsthebettertoscrutinizethenatureofdarkness.

Modernsciencecanneverreachthatmatterthatisatthebasisofthisworld.Butbetweenthequalitiativelydifferentiatedworldandundifferentiatedmatterliessomethinglikeanintermediatezoneandthisischaos.Thesinisterdangersofatomicfissionarebutonesignpostindicatingthefrontierofchaosanddissolution.

(III)TraditionalSymbolism&ModernEmpiricism

Iftheancientcosmogoniesseemchildishwhenonetakestheirsymbolismliterallyandthismeansnotunderstandingthemmoderntheoriesabouttheoriginoftheworldarefranklyabsurd.Theyareso,notsomuchintheirmathematicalformulations,butbecauseofthetotalunawarenesswithwhichtheirauthorssetthemselvesupassovereignwitnessesofcosmicbecoming,whileatthesametimeclaimingthatthehumanminditselfisaproductofthisbecoming.Whatconnectionistherebetweenthatprimordialnebulathatvortexofmatterwhencetheywishtoderiveearth,life,andmanandthislittlementalmirrorthatlosesitselfinconjectures(sinceforthescientistsintelligenceamountstonomorethanthis)andyetfeelssosureofdiscoveringthelogicofthingswithinitself?

Howcantheeffectmakejudgementsregardingitsowncause?Andifthereexistconstantlawsofnaturethoseofcausality,number,space,andtimeandsomethingwhich,withinourselves,hasthefighttosay'thisistrueandthisisfalse',whereistheguaranteeoftruth,eitherintheobjectorinthesubject?Isthenatureofourmindmerelyalittlefoamonthewavesofthecosmicocean,oristheretobefounddeepwithinitatimelesswitnessofreality?

Someprotagonistsofthetheoriesinquestionwillperhapssaythattheyareconcernedonlywiththephysicalandobjectivedomain,withoutseekingtoprejudgethedomainofthesubjective.TheycanperhapsciteDescartes,whodefinedspiritandmatterastworealities,coordinatedbyProvidence,butseparatedinfact.Inpointoffact,thisdivisionofrealityintowatertightcompartmentsservedtopreparepeople'smindstoleaveasideeverythingthatisnotofthephysicalorder,asifmanwerenothimselfproofofthecomplexityofthereal.

Themanofantiquity,whopicturedtheearthasanislandsurroundedbytheprimordialoceanandcoveredbythedomeofheaven,andthemedievalman,whosawtheheavensasconcentricspheresextendingfromtheearth(viewedasthecentre)tothelimitlesssphereoftheDivineSpirit,werenodoubtmistakenregardingthetruedispositionandproportionsofthesensibleuniverse.Ontheotherhand,theywerefullyconsciousofthefactinfinitelymoreimportantthatthiscorporealworldisnotthewholeofreality,andthatitisasifsurroundedandpervadedbyareality,bothgreaterandmoresubtle,thatinitsturniscontainedintheSpirit;andtheyknew,indirectlyordirectly,thattheworldinallitsextensiondisappearsinthefaceoftheInfinite.

Modernmanknowsthattheearthisonlyaballsuspendedinabottomlessabyssandcarriedalonginadizzyandcomplexmovement,andthatthismovementisgovernedbyothercelestialbodiesincomparablylargerthanthisearthandsituatedatimmensedistancesfromit.Heknowsthattheearthonwhichhelivesisbutagrainincomparisonwiththesun,whichitselfisbutagrainamidstotherincandescentstars,andthatallisinmotion.Anirregularityinthisassemblageofsiderealmovements,aninterferencefromastarforeigntoourplanetarysystem,adeviationofthesun'strajectory,oranyothercosmicaccident,wouldsufficetomaketheearthunsteadyinitsrotation,totroublethecourseoftheseasons,tochangethe

atmosphere,andtodestroymankind.Modernmanalsoknowsthatthesmallestatomcontainsforceswhich,ifunleashed,couldinvolvetheearthinanalmostinstantaneousconflagration.Allofthis,fromthe'infinitelysmall'tothe'infinitelygreat',presentsitself,fromthepointofviewofModernscience,asamechanismofunimaginablecomplexity,thefunctioningofwhichisonlyduetoblindforces.

Inspiteofthis,themanofourtimelivesandactsasifthenormalandhabitualoperationoftherhythmsofnatureweresomethingthatwasguaranteedtohim.Inactualpractice,hethinksneitheroftheabyssesofthestellarworldnoroftheterribleforceslatentineveryparticleofmatter.Heseestheskyabovehimlikeanychildseesit,withitssunanditsstars,buttheremembranceoftheastronomicaltheoriespreventshimfromrecognizingdivinesignsinthem.TheskyforhimisnolongerthenaturalexpressionoftheSpiritthatenfoldsandilluminatestheworld.Scientificknowledgehassubstituteditselfforthis'naive'andyetprofoundvision,notasanewconsciousnessofavastercosmicorder,anorderofwhichmanformspart,butasanestrangement,asanirremediabledisarraybeforeabyssesthatnolongerhaveanycommonmeasurewithhim.Fornothingnowremindshimthatinrealitythiswholeuniverseiscontainedwithinhimself,notofcourseinhisindividualbeing,butinthespiritorintellectthatiswithinhimandthatisbothgreaterthanhimselfandthewholephenomenaluniverse.

(IV)Evolutionism

Theleastphenomenonparticipatesinseveralcontinuitiesorcosmicdimensionsincommensurableinrelationtoeachother;thus,iceiswaterasregardsitssubstanceandinthisrespectitisindistinguishablefromliquidwaterorwatervapourbutasregardsitsstateitbelongstotheclassofsolidbodies.Similarly,whenathingisconstitutedbydiverseelements,itparticipatesintheirnatureswhilebeingdifferentfromthem.Cinnabar,forexample,isasynthesisofsulphurandmercury;itisthusinonesensethesumofthesetwoelements,butatthesametimeitpossessesqualitiesthatarenottobefoundineitherofthesetwosubstances.Quantitiescanbeaddedtooneanother,butaqualityisnevermerelythesumofotherqualities.

Bymixingthecoloursblueandyellow,greenisobtained;thisthirdcolouristhusasynthesisoftheothertwo,butitisnottheproductofasimpleaddition,foritrepresentsatthesametimeachromaticqualitythatisnewanduniqueinitself.

Thereisheresomethinglikea'discontinuouscontinuity',whichisevenmoremarkedinthebiologicalorder,wherethequalitativeunityofanorganismisplainlydistinguishablefromitsmaterialcomposition.Thebirdthatisbornfromtheeggismadefromthesameelementsastheegg,butitisnottheegg.Likewise,thebutterflythatemergesfromachrysalisisneitherthatchrysalisnorthecaterpillarthatproducedit.Akinshipexistsbetweenthesevariousorganisms,ageneticcontinuity,buttheyalsodisplayaqualitativediscontinuity,sincebetweenthecaterpillarandthebutterflythereissomethinglikearuptureoflevel.

Ateverypointinthecosmicwebthereisthusawarpandawoofthatintersectoneanother,andthisisindicatedbythetraditionalsymbolismofweaving,accordingtowhichthethreadsofthewarp,whichhangverticallyontheprimitiveloom,representthepermanentessencesofthingsandthusalsotheessentialqualitiesandformswhilethewoof,whichbindshorizontallythethreadsofthewarp,andatthesametimecoversthemwithitsalternatingwaves,correspondstothesubstantialor'material'continuityoftheworld.11

Thesamelawisexpressedbyclassicalhylomorphism,whichdistinguishesthe'form'ofathingorbeingthesealofitsessentialunityfromits'matter',namelytheplasticsubstancewhichreceivestiffssealandfurnishesitwithaconcreteandlimitedexistence.Nomoderntheoryhaseverbeenabletoreplacethisancienttheory,forthefactofreducingthewholeplenitudeoftherealtooneorotherofits'dimensions'hardlyamountstoanexplanationofit.ModernscienceisignorantaboveallofwhattheAncientsdesignatedbytheterm'form',preciselybecauseitishereaquestionofanon-quantitativeaspectofthings,andthisignoranceisnotunconnectedwiththefactthatmodernscienceseesnocriterioninthebeautyoruglinessofaphenomenon:thebeautyofathingisthesignofitsinternalunity,itsconformitywithanindivisibleessence,andthuswitharealitythatwillnotletitselfbecountedormeasured.

11RenéGuénon,TheSymbolismoftheCross,chapteronthesymbolismofweaving.

Itisnecessarytopointoutherethatthenotionof'form'necessarilyincludesatwofoldmeaning:ontheonehanditmeansthedelimitationofathing,andthisisitsmostusualmeaning;inthisconnection,formissituatedonthesideofmatteror,inamoregeneralsense,onthesideofplasticsubstance,whichlimitsandseparatesrealities.12Ontheotherhand,'form'understoodinthesensegiventoitbytheGreekphilosophersandfollowingthemtheScholastics,istheaggregateofqualitiespertainingtoabeingorathing,andthustheexpressionorthetraceofitsimmutableessence.

Theindividualworldisthe'formal'worldbecauseitisthedomainofthoserealitiesthatareconstitutedbytheconjunctionofa'form'anda'matter',whethersubtleorcorporeal.Itisonlyinconnectionwitha'matter',aplasticsubstance,that'form'playstheroleofaprincipleofindividuation;initself,initsontologicalbasis,itisnotanindividualrealitybutanarchetype,andassuchbeyondlimitationsandchange.Thusaspeciesisanarchetype,andifitisonlymanifestedbytheindividualsthatbelongtoit,itisneverthelessjustasreal,andevenincomparablymorereal,thanthey.Asfortherationalistobjectionthattriestoprovetheabsurdityofthedoctrineofarchetypesbyarguingthatamultiplicationofmentalnotionswouldimplyacorrespondingmultiplicationofarchetypesleadingtotheideaoftheideaoftheidea,andsoonitquitemissesthepoint,sincemultiplicitycaninnowisebetransposedontothelevelofthearchetypalroots.Thelatteraredistinguishedinaprincipialway,withinBeingandbyvirtueofBeing;inthisconnection,Beingcanbeenvisagedasauniqueandhomogeneouscrystalpotentiallycontainingallpossiblecrystallineforms.13Multiplicityandquantitythusonlyexistatthelevelofthe'material'reflectionsofthearchetypes.

Fromwhathasjustbeensaid,itfollowsthataspeciesisinitselfanimmutable'form';itcannotevolveandbetransformedintoanotherspecies,althoughitmayincludevariants,whicharediverse'projections'ofauniqueessentialform,fromwhichtheycanneverbe

12InHinduparlance,thedistinctionnâma-rupa,'nameandform',isrelatedtothisaspectofthenotionunderstudy,'name'herestandingfortheessenceofabeingorthing,and'form'foritslimitedandoutwardexistence.13Itisself-evidentthatalltheimagesthatonecanofferofthenon-separativedistinctionofthepossibilitiescontainedinBeingmustremainimperfectandparadoxical.

detached,anymorethanthebranchesofatreecanbedetachedfromthetrunk.

Ithasbeenjustlysaid14thatthewholethesisoftheevolutionofspecies,inauguratedbyDarwin,isfoundedonaconfusionbetweenspeciesandsimplevariation.Itsadvocatesputforwardasthe'bud'orthebeginningofanewspecieswhatinrealityisnomorethanavariantwithintheframeworkofadeterminatespecifictype.Thisfalseassimilationis,however,notenoughtofillthenumberlessgapsthatoccurinthepaleontologicalsuccessionofspecies;notonlyarerelatedspeciesseparatedbyprofoundgaps,buttheredonotevenexistanyformsthatwouldindicateanypossibleconnectionbetweendifferentorderssuchasfish,reptiles,birds,andmammals.Onecandoubtlessfindsomefishesthatusetheirfinstocrawlontoabank,butonewillseekinvaininthesefinsfortheslightestbeginningofthatarticulationwhichwouldrenderpossibletheformationofanarmorapaw.Likewise,iftherearecertainresemblancesbetweenreptilesandbirds,theirrespectiveskeletonsarenonethelessofafundamentallydifferentstructure.Thus,forexample,theverycomplexarticulationinthejawsofabird,andtherelatedorganizationofitshearingapparatus,pertaintoanentirelydifferentplanfromtheonefoundinreptiles;itisdifficulttoconceivehowonemighthavedevelopedfromtheother.15AsforthefamousfossilbirdArchaeopteryx,itisfairlyandsquarelyabird,despitetheclawsattheendofitswings,itsteeth,anditslongtail.16

Inordertoexplaintheabsenceofintermediateforms,thepartisansoftransformismhavesometimesarguedthattheseformsmusthavedisappearedbecauseoftheirveryimperfectionandprecariousness;butthisargumentisplainlyincontradictionwiththeprincipleofselectionthatissupposedtobetheoperativefactorintheevolutionofspecies:thetrialformsshouldbeincomparablymorenumerousthantheancestorshavingalreadyacquiredadefinitiveform.Besides,iftheevolutionofspeciesrepresents,asisdeclared,a

14DouglasDewar,TheTransformistIllusion(DehoffPublications,Murfreesboro,Tennessee,1957).SeealsoLouisBounoure,DéterminismeetFinalité(CollectionPhilosophie,Flammarion,Paris).15Dewar,TheTransformistIllusion.16Ibid.

gradualandcontinualprocess,allthereallinksinthechainthereforeallthosethataredestinedtobefollowedwillbebothendpointsandintermediaries,inwhichcaseitisdifficulttoseewhytheoneswouldbemuchmoreprecariousthantheothers.17

Themoreconscientiousamongmodernbiologistseitherrejectthetransformisttheory,orelsemaintainitasa'workinghypothesis',beingunabletoconceiveanygenesisofspeciesthatwouldnotbesituatedonthe'horizontalline'ofapurelyphysicalandtemporalbecoming.ForJeanRostand,

theworldpostulatedbytransformismisafairly-likeworld,phantasmagoric,surrealistic.Thechiefpoint,towhichonealwaysreturns,isthatwehaveneverbeenpresent,eveninasmallway,atoneauthenticphenomenonofevolution...wekeeptheimpressionthatnaturetodayhasnothingtoofferthatmightbecapableofreducingourembarrassmentbeforetheveritablyorganicmetamorphosesimpliedinthetransformistthesis.Wekeeptheimpressionthat,inthematterofthegenesisofspeciesasinthatofthegenesisoflife,theforcesthatconstructednaturearenowabsentfromnature...18

Evenso,thisbiologiststickstothetransformisttheory:

IfirmlybelievebecauseIseenomeansofdoingotherwisethatmammalshavecomefromlizards,andlizardsfromfish;butwhenIdeclareandwhenIthinksuchathing,ItrynottoavoidseeingitsindigestibleenormityandIprefertoleavevaguetheoriginofthesescandalousmetamorphosesratherthanaddtotheirimprobabilitythatofaludicrousinterpretation.19

17TeilharddeChardin(TheHumanPhenomenon,p.129)writesonthissubject:'Nothingisbynaturesodelicateandfugitiveasabeginning.Aslongasazoologicalgroupisyoung,itscharacteristicsremainundecided.Itsdimensionsareweak.Relativelyfewindividualscomposeit,andthesearerapidlychanging.Bothinspaceandduration,thepeduncle(orthebud,whichcomestothesamething)ofalivingbranchcorrespondstoaminimumofdifferentiation,expansion,andresistance.Howthenistimegoingtoactonthisweakzone?Inevitablybydestroyingitinitsvestiges.'Thisreasoning,whichabusivelyexploitsthepurelyexternalandconventionalanalogybetweenagenealogical'tree'andarealplant,isanexampleofthe'imaginativeabstraction'thatcharacterizesthisauthor'sthought.18LeFigaroLittéraire,April20,1957.19Ibid.

Allthatpaleontologyprovestousisthatthevariousanimalforms,suchasareshownbyfossilspreservedinsuccessiveearthlylayers,madetheirappearanceinavaguelyascendingorder,goingfromrelativelyundifferentiatedorganismsbutnotsimpleones20toevermorecomplexforms,withoutthisascensionrepresenting,however,anunequivocalandcontinuousline.Itseemstomoveinjumps;inotherwords,wholecategoriesofanimalsappearallatonce,withoutrealpredecessors.Whatdoesthisordermean?Simplythat,onthematerialplane,thesimpleorrelativelyundifferentiatedalwaysprecedesthecomplexanddifferentiated.All'matter'islikeamirrorthatreflectstheactivityoftheessences,whilealsoinvertingit;thisiswhytheseedcomesbeforethetreeandthebudbeforetheflower,whereasintheprincipialordertheperfect'forms'pre-exist.Thesuccessiveappearanceofanimalformsaccordingtoanascendinghierarchythereforeinnowiseprovestheircontinualandcumulativegenesis.21

Onthecontrary,whatlinksthevariousanimalformstooneanotherissomethinglikeacommonmodel,whichrevealsitselfmoreorlessthroughtheirstructuresandwhichismoreapparentinthecaseofanimalsendowedwithsuperiorconsciousnesssuchasbirdsandmammals.Thismodelisexpressedespeciallyinthesymmetricaldispositionofthebody,inthenumberofextremitiesandsensoryorgans,andalsointhegeneralformofthechiefinternalorgans.Itmightbesuggestedthatthedesignandnumberofcertainorgans,andespeciallythoseofsensation,simplycorrespondtotheterrestrialsurroundings;butthisargumentisreversible,becausethosesurroundingsarepreciselywhatthesensoryorgansgraspanddelimit.In

20Theelectronmicroscopehasrevealedthesurprisingcomplexityofthefunctionsatworkwithinaunicellularbeing.21ThemostcommonlymentionedexampleinfavourofthetransformistthesisisthehypotheticalgenealogyoftheEquidae.CharlesDepéretcriticizesitasfollows:'Geologicalobservationestablishesinaformalmannerthatnogradualpassagetookplacebetweenthesegenera;thelastPalaeotheriumhadforlongbeenextinct,withouthavingtransformeditself,whenthefirstArchitheriummadeitsappearance,andthelatterdisappearedinitsturn,withoutmodification,beforebeingsuddenlyreplacedbytheinvasionoftheHipparion.'(LesTransformationsduMondeanimal,p.107)Tothisitcanbeaddedthatthesupposedprimitiveformsofthehorsearehardlytobeobservedinequineembryology,thoughthedevelopmentoftheembryoiscommonlylookedonasarecapitulationofthegenesisofthespecies.

fact,themodelunderlyingallanimalformsestablishestheanalogybetweenthemicrocosmandthemacrocosm.Againstthebackgroundofthiscommoncosmicpatternthedifferencesbetweenspeciesandthegapsthatseparatethemareallthemoremarked.

Insteadof'missinglinks',whichthepartisansoftransformismseekinvain,natureoffersus,asifinirony,alargevarietyofanimalformswhich,withouttransgressingthepre-establishedframeworkofaspecies,imitatetheappearanceandhabitsofaspeciesororderforeigntothem.Thus,forexample,whalesaremammals,buttheyassumetheappearanceandbehaviouroffishes;hummingbirdshavetheappearance,iridescentcolours,flight,andmodeoffeedingofbutterflies;thearmadilloiscoveredwithscaleslikeareptile,althoughitisamammal;andsoon.Mostoftheseanimalswithimitativeformsarehigherspeciesthathavetakenontheformsofrelativelylowerspecies,afactwhichaprioriexcludesaninterpretationofthemasintermediarylinksinanevolution.Asfortheirinterpretationasformsofadaptationtoagivensetofsurroundings,thisseemsmorethandubious,forwhatcouldbe,forexample,theintermediateformsbetweensomelandmammalorotherandthedolphin?22Amongthese'imitative'forms,whichconstitutesomanyextremecases,wemustalsoincludethefossilbirdArchaeopteryxmentionedabove.

Sinceeachanimalorderrepresentsanarchetypethatincludesthearchetypesofthecorrespondingspecies,onemightwellaskoneselfwhethertheexistenceof'imitative'animalformsdoesnotcontradicttheimmutabilityoftheessentialforms;butthisisnotthecase,fortheexistenceoftheseformsdemonstrates,onthecontrary,thatveryimmutabilitybyalogicalexhaustingofallthepossibilitiesinherentinagiventypeoressentialform.Itisasifnature,afterbringingforthfishes,reptiles,birds,andmammals,withtheirdistinctivecharacteristics,wishedstilltoshowthatshewasabletoproduceananimallikethedolphinwhich,whilebeingatruemammal,atthesametimepossessesalmostallthefacultiesofafish,oracreaturelikethetortoise,whichpossessesaskeletoncoveredbyflesh,yetatthesame

22Onthesubjectofthehypotheticaltransformationofalandanimalintothewhale,DouglasDewarwrites:'Ihaveoftenchallengedtransformiststodescribeplausibleancestorssituatedintheintermediatephasesofthissupposedtransformation':(WhattheAnimalFossilstellus,Trans.Vict.Instit,vol.LXXIV)

timeisenclosedinanexteriorcarapaceafterthefashionofcertainmolluscs.23Thusdoesnaturemanifestherproteanpower,herinexhaustiblecapacityforgeneration,whileremainingfaithfultotheessentialforms,whichinfactareneverblurred.

Eachessentialformoreacharchetypeincludesafteritsfashionalltheothers,butwithoutconfusion;itislikeamirrorreflectingothermirrors,whichreflectitintheirturn.24InitsdeepestmeaningthemutualreflectionoftypesisanexpressionofthemetaphysicalhomogeneityofExistence,oroftheunityofBeing.

Somebiologists,whenconfrontedwiththediscontinuityinthepaleontologicalsuccessionofspecies,postulateanevolutionbyleapsand,inordertomakethistheoryplausible,refertothesuddenmutationsobservedinsomelivingspecies.Butthesemutationsneverexceedthelimitsofananomalyoradecadence,asforexamplethesuddenappearanceofalbinos,orofdwarfsorgiants;evenwhenthesecharacteristicsbecomehereditary,theyremainasanomaliesandneverconstitutenewspecificforms.25Forthistohappen,itwouldbenecessaryforthevitalsubstanceofanexistingspeciestoserveasthe'plasticmaterial'foranewlymanifestedspecificform;inpractice,thismeansthatoneorseveralfemalesofthisexistingspecieswouldsuddenlybearoffspringofanewspecies.Now,asthehermetistRichardtheEnglishmanwrites:

Nothingcanbeproducedfromathingthatisnotcontainedinit;forthisreason,everyspecies,everygenus,andeverynaturalorderdevelopswithinthelimitspropertoitandbearsfruitsaccordingtoitsownkindandnotaccordingtoanessentiallydifferentorder;everythingthatreceivesaseedmustbeofthesameseed.26

Fundamentally,theevolutionistthesisisanattempttoreplace,notsimplythe'miracleofcreation',butthecosmogonicprocesslargely

23Itissignificantthatthetortoise,whoseskeletonseemstoindicateanextravagantadaptationtoananimal'armoured'state,appearsallatonceamongthefossils,withoutevolution.Similarly,thespiderappearssimultaneouslywithitspreyandwithitsfacultyofweavingalreadydeveloped.24ThisistheimageusedbytheSufi'Abdal-Karîmal-Jîlîinhisbookal-Insânal-Kamil,chapteron'DivineUnicity'.25Bounoure,DéterminismeetFinalité.26QuotedintheGoldenTreatise,MuseumHermeticum(Frankfurt,1678).

suprasensoryofwhichtheBiblicalnarrativeisaScripturalsymbol;evolutionism,byabsurdlymakingthegreaterderivefromthelesser,istheoppositeofthisprocess,orthis'emanation'.(Thistermhasnothingtodowiththeemanationistheresy,sincethetranscendenceandimmutabilityoftheontologicalprinciplearehereinnowisecalledinquestion.)Inaword,evolutionismresultsfromanincapacitypeculiartoModernsciencetoconceive'dimensions'ofrealityotherthanpurelyphysicalones;tounderstandthe'vertical'genesisofspecies,itisworthrecallingwhatGuénonsaidabouttheprogressivesolidificationofthecorporealstatethroughthevariousterrestrialages.27Thissolidificationmustobviouslynotbetakentoimplythatthestonesoftheearliestagesweresoft,forthiswouldbetantamounttosayingthatcertainphysicalqualitiesandinparticularhardnessanddensitywerethenwanting;whathashardenedandbecomefixedwithtimeisthecorporealstatetakenasawhole,withtheresultthatitnolongerreceivesdirectlytheimprintofsubtleforms.Assuredly,itcannotbecomedetachedfromthesubtlestate,whichisitsontologicalrootandwhichdominatesitentirely,buttherelationshipbetweenthetwostatesofexistencenolongerhasthecreativecharacterthatitpossessedattheorigin;itisaswhenafruit,havingreachedmaturity,becomessurroundedbyaneverharderhuskandceasestoabsorbthesapofthetree.Inacyclicphaseinwhichcorporealexistencehadnotyetreachedthisdegreeofsolidification,anewspecificformcouldmanifestitselfdirectlyfromthestarting-pointofitsfirst'condensation'inthesubtleoranimicstate;28thismeansthatthedifferenttypesofanimalspre-existedatthelevelimmediatelysuperiortothecorporealworldasnon-spatialforms,butneverthelessclothedinacertain'matter',namelythatofthesubtleworld.Fromtheretheseforms'descended'intothecorporealstateeachtimethelatterwasreadytoreceivethem;this'descent'hadthenatureofasuddencoagulationandhencealsothe

27Guénon,TheReignofQuantityandtheSignsoftheTimes.28Concerningthecreationofspeciesinasubtle'proto-matter'inwhichtheystillpreserveanandrogynousform,comparabletoasphereandtheirsubsequentexteriorizationby'crystallization'insensiblematter(whichisheavy,opaque,andmortal),seeFrithjofSchuon,LightontheAncientWorlds(WorldWisdomBooks,Bloomington,Indiana,1984),ch.2,'IntheWakeoftheFall',andDimensionsofIslam(FernhillHouse,NewYork,1970),chap.2,'TheFiveDivinePresences'.

natureofalimitationandfragmentationoftheoriginalanimicform.

Indo-Tibetancosmologydescribesthisdescentwhichisalsoafallinthecaseofhumanbeingsundertheformofthemythologicalcombatofthedevasandasûras:thedevashavingcreatedmanwithabodythatwasfluid,protean,anddiaphanousinotherwords,inasubtleformtheasûrastrytodestroyitbyaprogressivepetrification;itbecomesopaque,getsfixed,anditsskeleton,affectedbythepetrification,isimmobilized.Thereuponthedevas,turningevilintogood,createjoints,afterhavingfracturedthebones,andtheyalsoopenthepathwaysofthesenses,bypiercingtheskull,whichthreatenstoimprisontheseatofthemind.Inthiswaytheprocessofsolidificationstopsbeforeitreachesitsextremelimit,andcertainorgansinman,suchastheeye,stillretainsomethingofthenatureofthenon-corporealstates.29

Inthisstory,thepictorialdescriptionofthesubtleworldmustnotbemisunderstood.However,itiscertainthattheprocessofmaterialization,fromthesupra-sensorytothesensory,hadtobereflectedwithinthematerialorcorporealstateitself,sothatonecansaywithoutriskoferror,thatthefirstgenerationsofanewspeciesdidnotleaveamarkinthegreatbookofearthlylayers;itisthereforevaintoseekinsensiblemattertheancestorsofaspecies,andespeciallythatofman.

Sincethetransformisttheoryisnotfoundedonanyrealproof,itscorollaryandconclusion,namelythetheoryoftheinfra-humanoriginofman,remainssuspendedinthevoid.Thefactsadducedinfavourofthisthesisarerestrictedtoafewgroupsofskeletonsofdisparatechronology:ithappensthatsomeskeletaltypesdeemedtobemore'evolved',suchas'Steinheimman',precedeothers,ofaseeminglymoreprimitivecharacter,suchas'Neanderthalman',eventhoughthelatterwasdoubtlessnotsoapelikeastendentiousreconstructionswouldhaveusbelieve.30

If,insteadofalwaysputtingthequestions:atwhatpointdoeshumankindbegin,andwhatisthedegreeofevolutionofsuchand

29SeeKrasinsky,TibetischeMedizin-Philosophie.30Ingeneral,thisdomainofsciencehasbeenalmostsmotheredbytendentioustheories,hoaxes,andimprudentlypopularizeddiscoveries.SeeDewar,TheTransformistIllusion.

suchatyperegardedasbeingpre-human,weweretoaskourselves:howfardoesthemonkeygo,thingsmightwellappearinaverydifferentlight,forafragmentfromaskeleton,evenonerelatedtothatofman,ishardlyenoughtoestablishthepresenceofthatwhichconstitutesman,namelyreason,whereasitispossibletoconceiveofagreatvarietyofanthropoidapeswhoseanatomiesaremoreorlessclosetothatofman.

Howeverparadoxicalthismayseem,theanatomicalresemblancebetweenmanandtheanthropoidapesisexplainablepreciselybythedifferencenotgradual,butessentialthatseparatesmanfromallotheranimals.Sincetheanthropoidformisabletoexistwithoutthat'central'elementthatcharacterizesmanthis'central'elementmanifestingitselfanatomicallybyhisverticalposition,amongstotherthingstheanthropoidformmustexist;inotherwords,therecannotbutbefound,atthepurelyanimallevel,aformthatrealizesinitsownwaythatistosay,accordingtothelawsofitsownleveltheveryplanofthehumananatomy;theapeisaprefigurationofman,notinthesenseofanevolutivephase,butbyvirtueofthelawthatdecreesthatateverylevelofexistenceanalogouspossibilitieswillbefound.

Afurtherquestionarisesinthecaseofthefossilsattributedtoprimitivemen:didsomeoftheseskeletonsbelongtomenwecanlookuponasbeingancestorsofmenpresentlyalive,ordotheybearwitnesstoafewgroupsthatsurvivedthecataclysmattheendofaterrestrialage,onlytodisappearintheirturnbeforethebeginningofourpresenthumanity?Insteadofprimitivemen,itmightwellbeacaseofdegeneratemen,whomayormaynothaveexistedalongsideourrealancestors.Weknowthatthefolkloreofmostpeoplesspeaksofgiantsordwarfswholivedlongago,inremotecountries;now,amongtheseskeletons,severalcasesofgigantismaretobefound.31

Finally,letitberecalledoncemorethatthebodiesofthemostancientmendidnotnecessarilyleavesolidtraces,eitherbecausetheirbodieswerenotyetatthatpointmaterializedor'solidified',orbecausethespiritualstateofthesemen,alongwiththecosmicconditionsoftheirtime,renderedpossiblearesorptionofthephysicalbodyintothesubtle'body'atthemomentofdeath.32

31LiketheMeganthropeofJavaandtheGigantopithecusofChina.32InsomeveryexceptionalcasessuchasEnoch,Elijah,andtheVirginMarysucharesorptiontookplaceeveninthepresentterrestrialage.

Wemustnowsayafewwordsaboutathesis,muchinvoguetoday,whichclaimstobesomethinglikeaspiritualintegrationofpaleontology,butwhichinrealityisnothingbutapurelymentalsublimationofthecrudestmaterialism,withalltheprejudicesthisincludes,frombeliefintheindefiniteprogressofhumanitytoalevellingandtotalitariancollectivism,withoutforgettingthecultofthemachinethatisatthecentreofallthis;itwillbeapparentthatweareherereferringtoTeilhardianevolutionism.33AccordingtoTeilharddeChardin,whoisnotgiventoworryingoverthegapsinherentintheevolutionistsystemandlargelyreliesontheclimatecreatedbytheprematurepopularizationofthetransformistthesis,manhimselfrepresentsonlyanintermediatestateinanevolutionthatstartswithunicellularorganismsandendsinasortofglobalcosmicentity,unitedtoGod.Thecrazefortryingtobringeverythingbacktoasingleunequivocalanduninterruptedgeneticlinehereexceedsthematerialplaneandlaunchesoutwildlyintoanirresponsibleandavid'mentalization'characterizedbyanabstractionclothedinartificialimageswhichtheirauthorendsupbytakingliterally,asifheweredealingwithconcreterealities.Wehavealreadymentionedtheimaginarygenealogicaltreeofspecies,whosesupposedunityisnomorethanasnare,beingcomposedofthehypotheticalconjunctionofmanydisjointedelements.Teilhardamplifiesthisnotiontohisheart'scontent,inamannerthatispurelygraphic,bycompletingitsbranchesor'scales',ashelikestocallthemandbyconstructingapinnacleinthedirectionofwhichhumankindissupposedtobesituated.Byasimilarslidingofthoughtfromtheabstracttothe

33Teilhard'smaterialismisrevealedinallitscrudity,andallitsperversity,whenthisphilosopheradvocatestheuseofsurgicalmeanstoaccelerate'collectivecerebralization'Man'sPlaceinNature,(Harper&Row,NewYork,1966).Letusalsoquotethefurtherhighlyrevealingwordsofthesameauthor:'ItisfinallyonthedazzlingnotionofProgressandonfaithinProgressthattoday'sdividedhumanitycanbereformed...ActIisover!Wehaveaccesstotheheartoftheatom!Nowcomethenextsteps,suchasthevitalizationofmatterbythebuildingofsupermolecules,themodellingofthehumanorganismbyhormones,thecontrolofheredityandofthesexesbytheplayofgenesandchromosomes,thereadjustmentandliberationbydirectactionofthespringslaidbarebypsychoanalysis,theawakeningandtakingholdofthestilldormantintellectualandemotionalforcesinthehumanmass!'(PlanèteIII,1944),p.30.Quitenaturally,Teilhardproposesthefashioningofmankindbyauniversalscientificgovernmentinshort,allthatisneededforthereignoftheAntichrist.

concrete,fromthemetaphoricaltothesupposedlyreal,heagglutinates,inoneandthesamepseudo-scientificoutburst,themostdiverserealities,suchasmechanicallaws,vitalforces,psychicelements,andspiritualentities.Letusquoteacharacteristicpassage:

WhatexplainsthebiologicalrevolutioncausedbytheappearanceofMan,isanexplosionofconsciousness;andwhat,initsturn,explainsthisexplosionofconsciousness,issimplythepassageofaprivilegedradiusof'corpusculization',inotherwords,ofazoologicalphylum,acrossthesurface,hithertoimpermeable,separatingthezoneofdirectPsychismfromthatofreflectivePsychism.Havingreached,followingthisparticularradius,acriticalpointofarrangement(or,aswesayhere,ofenrolment),Lifebecamehypercentredonitself,tothepointofbecomingcapableofforesightandinvention...34

Thus,'corpusculization'(whichisaphysicalprocess)wouldhaveasitseffectthata'zoologicalphylum'(whichisnomorethanafigure)shouldpassacrossthesurface(purelyhypothetical)separatingtwopsychiczones...ButwemustnotbesurprisedattheabsenceofdistinguosinTeilhard'sthinkingsince,accordingtohisowntheory,themindisbutametamorphosisofmatter!

Withoutstoppingtodiscussthestrangetheologyofthisauthor,forwhomGodhimselfevolvesalongwithmatter,andwithoutdaringtodefinewhathethinksoftheprophetsandsagesofantiquityandother'underdeveloped'beingsofthiskind,wewillsaythefollowing:ifman,inrespectofbothhisphysicalnatureandhisspiritualnature,werereallynothingbutaphaseofanevolutiongoingfromtheamoebatothesuperman,howcouldheknowobjectivelywherehestandsinallthis?Letussupposethatthisallegedevolutionformsacurve,oraspiral.Themanwhoisbutafragmentthereofandletitnotbeforgottenthata'fragment'ofamovementisnomorethanaphaseofthatmovementanthatmanstepoutofitandsaytohimself:Iamafragmentofaspiralwhichisdevelopinginsuchandsuchaway?NowitiscertainandmoreoverTeilharddeChardinhimselfrecognizesthisthatmanisabletojudgeofhisownstate.Indeedheknowshisownrankamongsttheotherearthlycreatures,

34Man'sPlaceinNature,pp.62-63.

andheiseventheonlyonetoknowobjectivelybothhimselfandtheworld.Farfrombeingamerephaseinanindefiniteevolution,manessentiallyrepresentsacentralpossibility,andonethatisthusunique,irreplaceable,anddefinitive.Ifthehumanspecieshadtoevolvetowardsanothermoreperfectandmore'spiritual'form,manwouldnotalreadynowbethe'pointofintersection'oftheDivineSpiritwiththeearthlyplane;hewouldneitherbecapableofsalvation,norableintellectuallytosurmountthefluxofbecoming.ToexpressthesethoughtsaccordingtotheperspectiveoftheGospels:wouldGodhavebecomemaniftheformofmanwerenotvirtually'godonearth',inotherwords,qualitativelycentralaswellasdefinitivewithregardtohisowncosmiclevel?

Asasymptomofourtime,Teilhardismiscomparabletooneofthosecracksthatareduetotheverysolidificationofthementalcarapace,35andthatdonotopenupward,towardtheheavenofrealandtranscendentunity,butdownwardtowardtherealmoflowerpsychism.Wearyofitsowndiscontinuousvisionoftheworld,thematerialistmindletsitselfslidetowardafalsecontinuityorunity,towardapseudo-spiritualintoxication,ofwhichthisfalsifiedandmaterializedfaithorthissublimatedmaterialismthatwehavejustdescribedmarksaphaseofparticularsignificance.

(V)ModernPsychology

'Theobjectofpsychologyisthepsychic;unfortunatelyitisalsoitssubject.'Thuswroteafamouspsychologistofourtime.36Accordingtothisopinion,everypsychologicaljudgementinevitablyparticipatesintheessentiallysubjective,nottosaypassionateandtendentious,natureofitsobject;for,accordingtothislogic,nooneunderstandsthesoulexceptbymeansofhisownsoul,andthelatter,forthepsychologist,is,precisely,purelypsychic,andnothingelse.Thusnopsychologist,whateverbehisclaimtoobjectivity,escapesthisdilemma,andthemorecategoricalandgeneralhisaffirmationsin

35Guénon,TheReignofQuantityandtheSignsoftheTimes,Chap.15'TheIllusionof''OrdinaryLife"'.36C.G.Jung,PsychologyandReligion(NewHaven,Yale,1938)p.62

thisrealmare,themoretheyaresuspect;suchistheverdictthatModernpsychologypronouncesinitsowncause,whenitisbeingsinceretowardsitself.Butwhetheritbesincereornot,therelativismexpressedinthewordsjustquotedisalwaysinherentinit.ThisrelativismisalsoakindofPrometheanismthatwouldmakeofthepsychicelementtheultimaterealityofman.Itistherootofthenumerousdivergenceswithinthisdiscipline,anditdominatesittothepointofcontaminatingeverythingthatittouches:history,philosophy,art,andreligion;allofthembecomepsychologicalatitstouch,andtherebyalsosubjective,andthusdevoidofobjectiveandimmutablecertainties.37

Butallapriorirelativismisinconsequentialtowardsitself.Despitetheadmittedprecariousnessofitspointofview,Modernpsychologybehaveslikeeveryotherscience:itpassesjudgementsandbelievesintheirvalidity,andinthisconnectionitleansunwittingly,andwithoutadmittingit,onaninnatecertainty:indeed,ifwecanobservethatthepsychicis'subjective',inthesenseofbeingdominatedbyacertainegocentricbiasthatimposesonitcertainlimits,orbyaparticular'colouring',thisisbecausethereissomethinginuswhichisnotsubjecttotheselimitsandtendencies,butwhichtranscendsthemandinprincipledominatesthem.Thissomethingistheintellect,anditistheintellectthatnormallyprovidesuswiththecriteriawhichalonecanshedlightonthefluctuatinganduncertainworldofthepsyché;thisisobvious,butitneverthelessremainstotallyoutsideModernscientificandphilosophicalthinking.

Itisimportantaboveallnottoconfuseintellectandreason:thelatterisindeedthementalreflectionofthetranscendentintellect,but

37'Icanfindnoreasontobesurprisedatseeingpsychologyexchangevisitswithphilosophy,forisnottheactofthinking,thefoundationofallphilosophy,apsychicactivitywhich,assuch,directlyconcernspsychology?Mustnotpsychologyembracethesoulinitstotalextension,whichincludesphilosophy,theology,andcountlessotherthings?Inthefaceofalltherichlydiversifiedreligions,thereriseup,asthesupremeinstanceperhapsoftruthorerror,theimmutabledataofthehumansoul.'(C.C.Jung,L'HommeàlaDécouvertedesondine[Paris,1962],p.238)Thisamountstoreplacingtruthbypsychology;itistotallyforgottenthatthereareno'immutabledata'outsideofthatwhichisimmutablebyitsownnature,namely,theintellect.Inanycase,ifthe'actofthinking'isnomorethana'psychicactivity',bywhatrightdoespsychologysetitselfupasthe'supremeinstance',sinceittooisbutone'psychicactivity'amongstothers?

inpracticeitisonlywhatonemakesofit,bywhichwemeanthat,inthecaseoftheModernsciences,itsfunctioningislimitedbytheempiricalmethoditself;atthelevelofthelatter,reasonisnotsomuchasourceoftruthasaprincipleofcoherence.ForModernpsychologyitisevenlessthanthat,forifscientificrationalismlendsarelativelystableframeworktoone'sobservationofthephysicalworld,itrevealsitselfasentirelyinsufficientwhenitcomestodescribingtheworldofthesoul;forsurfacepsychicmovements,thosewhosecausesandaimsaresituatedontheplaneofcurrentexperience,canhardlybetranslatedintorationalterms.Thewholechaosoflowerandmostlyunconsciouspsychicpossibilitiesescapesbothrationalityandwhattranscendsrationality,andthismeansthatboththemajorpartofthepsychicworldandthemetaphysicalrealmwillappear'irrational'accordingtothiswayofthinking.Henceacertaintendency,inherentinModernpsychology,torelativizereasonitself,atendencythatisself-contradictory,sincepsychologycannotdispensewithrationalmethods.PsychologyfindsitselfconfrontedwithadomainwhichonallsidesoverflowsthehorizonofasciencefoundedonempiricismandCartesianism.

Forthisreason,themajorityofModernpsychologistsensconcethemselvesinasortofpragmatism;itisin'committed'experience,togetherwithacoldlyclinicalattitude,thattheyseesomeguaranteeof'objectivity'.Inpointoffact,themovementsofthesoulcannotbestudiedfromtheoutside,asinthecaseofcorporealphenomena;toknowwhattheymean,theyhaveinasensetobelived,andthisinvolvesthesubjectoftheobserver,aswasjustlypointedoutbythepsychologistattheoutset.Asforthementalfacultythat'controls'theexperiment,whatisthisbutamoreorlessarbitrary'commonsense',oneinevitablycolouredbypreconceivedideas?Thusthewould-beobjectivityofthepsychicattitudechangesnothinginregardtotheuncertainnatureoftheexperiment,andso,intheabsenceofaprinciplethatisbothinwardandimmutable,onereturnstothedilemmaofthepsychicstrivingtograspthepsychic.

Thesoul,likeeveryotherdomainofreality,canonlybetrulyknownbywhattranscendsit.Moreover,thisisspontaneouslyandimplicitlyadmittedinpeople'srecognitionofthemoralprincipleofjustice,whichdemandsthatmenshouldovercometheirindividualsubjectivity.Nowwecouldnotovercomeit,iftheintelligence,which

guidesourwill,wereitselfnothingbutapsychicreality;andintelligencewouldnottranscendthepsychéif,initsessence,itdidnottranscendtheplaneofphenomena,bothinwardandoutward.Thisobservationsufficestoprovethenecessityandtheexistenceofapsychologyderivinginasensefromaboveandnotclaimingapriorianempiricalcharacter.Butalthoughthisorderofthingsisinscribedinourverynature,itwillneverberecognizedbyModernpsychology;despiteitsownreactionsagainsttherationalismofyesterday,itisnoclosertometaphysicsthananyotherempiricalscienceindeedquitethecontrary,sinceitsperspective,whichassimilatesthesuprarationaltotheirrational,predisposesittotheworstoferrors.

WhatModernpsychologylacksentirelyiscriteriaenablingittosituatetheaspectsortendenciesofthesoulintheircosmiccontext.Intraditionalpsychology,thesecriteriaareprovidedaccordingtotwoprincipal'dimensions':ontheonehand,accordingtoacosmologythat'situates'thesoulanditsmodalitiesinthehierarchyofstatesofexistence,and,ontheotherhand,accordingtoamoralitydirectedtowardaspiritualend.Thelattermayprovisionallyespousetheindividualhorizon;itnonethelesskeepsinviewtheuniversalprinciplesattachingthesoultoanordermorevastthanitself.Cosmologyinasensecircumscribesthesoul;spiritualmoralitysoundsitsdepths.Forjustasacurrentofwaterrevealsitsforceanddirectiononlywhenitbreaksagainstanobjectthatresistsit,sothesoulcanshowitstendenciesandfluctuationsonlyinrelationtoanimmutableprinciple;whoeverwishestoknowthenatureofthepsychémustresistit,andonetrulyresistsitonlywhenoneplacesoneselfatapointwhichcorresponds,ifnoteffectivelythenatleastvirtuallyorsymbolically,totheDivineSelf,ortotheintellectwhichislikearaythatemanatesfromthelatter.

Thustraditionalpsychologypossessesbothanimpersonaland'static'dimension(namely,cosmology),andapersonaland'opera-five'dimension(namely,moralityorthescienceofthevirtues),anditisnecessarilyso,becausegenuineknowledgeofthesoulresultsfromknowledgeofoneself.Hewho,bytheeyeofhisessence,isableto'objectivize'hisownpsychicform,bythatveryfactknowsallthepossibilitiesofthepsychicorsubtleworld;andthisintellectual'vision'isboththeoutcomeand,ifneedbe,theguarantorofeverysacredscienceofthesoul.

ForthemajorityofModernpsychologists,traditionalmoralitywhichtheyreadilyconfusewithapurelysocialorconventionalmoralityisnothingbutakindofpsychicdam,usefulonoccasionbutmoreoftenahindranceorevenharmfulforthe'normal'developmentoftheindividual.ThisopinionispropagatedespeciallybyFreudianpsychoanalysis,whichbecamewidelyappliedinsomecountries,whereithaspracticallyusurpedthefunctionthatelsewherebelongstothesacramentofconfession:thepsychiatristreplacesthepriest,andtheburstingofcomplexesthathadpreviouslybeenrepressedtakestheplaceofabsolution.InritualconfessionthepriestisbuttheimpersonalrepresentativenecessarilydiscreetoftheTruththatjudgesandpardons;thepenitent,byadmittinghissins,inasense'objectivizes'thepsychictendenciesthatthesesinsmanifest.Byrepenting,hedetacheshimselffromthem,andbyreceivingsacramentalabsolution,hissoulisvirtuallyreintegratedinitsprimitiveequilibriumandcentredonitsdivineessence.InthecaseofFreudianpsychoanalysis,38ontheotherhand,manlaysbarehispsychicentrails,notbeforeGod,buttohisfellow.Hedoesnotdistancehimselffromthechaoticandobscuredepthsofhissoul,whichtheanalystunveilsorstirsup,butonthecontrary,heacceptsthemashisown,forhemustsaytohimself:'ThisiswhatIamlikeinreality.'Andifhedoesnotovercome,withthehelpofsomesalutaryinstinct,thiskindofdisillusionmentfrombelow,hewillretainfromitsomethinglikeanintimatesullying;inmostcasesitwillbehisself-abandonmenttocollectivemediocritythatforhimwillplaythepartofabsolution,foritiseasiertoendureone'sowndegradationwhenitissharedwithothers.Whatevermaybetheoccasionalorpartialusefulnessofsuchananalysisincertaincases,thestatedescribedaboveisitsmoreusualresult,itspremisesbeingwhattheyare.39

Ifthemedicineofthetraditionalcivilizationsknowsnothing

38TheuseoftheadjectiveistomakeitclearthatitisindeedthemethodofFreudthatwearediscussinghere,forinourowndaysomeformsofpsychoanalysisaremoreneutralandlesspernicious,afactwhich,fromourpointofview,isinnowiseajustification.39RentGuénonhasobservedthattheprinciplewherebyeverypsychoanalystrequirestobepsychoanalyzedhimselfbeforebeingempoweredtoanalyzeothers,raisesthetroublesomequestionastowhooccupiedthefirstplaceinthequeue.

analogoustoModernpsychotherapy,thisisbecausethepsychiccannotbetreatedbythepsychic.Thepsychéistherealmofindefiniteactionsandreactions.Byitsownspecificnature,itisessentiallyunstableanddeceptive,sothatitcanbecuredonlybyresortingtosomethingsituated'outside'or'above'it.Insomecasesonewillactfavourablyuponitbyre-establishingthehumoralbalanceofthebody,commonlyupsetbypsychicaffections;40inothercasesitisonlybytheuseofspiritualmeans,suchasexorcism,41prayer,orasojourninholyplaces,thatthesoulcanberestoredtohealth.

EveryoneisawareofthefactthatModernpsychologytriestoexplainpsychologicallythespiritualmeansjustmentioned.Initseyes,theeffectofariteisonething,anditstheologicalormysticalinterpretationisanother.Theeffectofarite,arbitrarilylimitedtothepsychicandsubjectivedomainalone,isattributedtopsychicdispositionsofancestralorigin,whichtheformoftheriteissupposedtoactualize.Thereisnohintofthetimelessandsuperhumanmeaninginherentintheriteorsymbolasifthesoulcouldcureitselfthroughbelievingintheillusoryprojectionofitsownpreoccupations,whetherindividualorcollective.Thereisnothing,however,inthissuppositionthatwouldtroubleModernpsychology,sinceitisreadytogomuchfurtherthanthis,whenitasserts,forexample,thatthefundamentalformsofthought,thelawsoflogic,merelyrepresentaresidueofancestralhabits.42Thispathisonethatleadstotheoutrightdenialofintelligenceandtoitsreplacementbybiologicalfatalities,ifindeedpsychologycangothatfarwithoutencompassingitsownruin.

Inordertobeableto'situate'thesoulinrelationtoothercosmicrealitiesorrealms,onemustrefertothecosmologicalschemethatrepresentsthedegreesofexistenceintheformofconcentriccircles

40Usuallyaviciouscircleensues,withthepsychicimbalanceengenderingaphysicalintoxication,whichinitsturncausesthepsychicimbalancetoworsen.41Casesofdiabolicalpossession,suchasmanifestlycallfortheapplicationoftheritesofexorcism,seemtohavebecomerarernowadays,doubtlessbecausedemonicinfluencesarenolonger'compressed'bythedamoftradition,butareabletospreadmoreorlesseverywhereinformsthatareinafashion'diluted'.42Theywillsay,forexample,thatlogicismerelyanexpressionofthephysiologicalstructureofourbrain,andforgetthat,wereitso,thisstatementwouldalsobeanexpressionofthissamephysiologicalfatality.

orspheres.Thisscheme,whichmakessymbolicaluseofthegeocentricconceptionofthevisibleuniverse,symbolicallyidentifiesthecorporealworldwithourterrestrialsurroundings;aroundthiscentreextendsthesphereorspheresofthesubtleorpsychicworld,surroundedinturnbythesphereoftheworldofpureSpirit.Thisrepresentationisnaturallylimitedbyitsownspatialcharacter,butitneverthelessexpressesverywelltherelationshipthatexistsbetweenthesevariousstates.Eachofthespheres,consideredinitself,presentsitselfasacompleteandperfectlyhomogeneouswhole,whereasfromthe'pointofview'ofthesphereimmediatelyabove,itisbutacontentthereof.Thusthecorporealworld,envisagedatitsownlevel,doesnotknowthesubtleworld,justasthelatterdoesnotknowthesupra-formalworld,preciselybecauseitenclosesonlythatwhichhasaform.Furthermore,eachoftheseworldsisknownanddominatedbythatwhichexceedsandsurroundsit.ItisfromtheimmutableandformlessbackgroundoftheSpiritthatthesubtlerealitiesbecomedetachedasforms,anditisthesoulwhich,throughitssensoryfaculties,knowsthecorporeal.

Thisdoublerelationshipofthings,whichapriorihiddenfromourindividualvision,canbegraspedinallitsrealitywhenoneconsiderstheverynatureofsensibleperception.Ontheonehand,thistrulyreachesthecorporealworld,andnophilosophicalartificewillbeabletoconvinceusofthecontrary;ontheotherhand,thereisnodoubtthatallweperceiveoftheworldarebutthose'images'ofitthatourmentalfacultyisabletokeepholdof,andinthisrespectthewholefabricofimpressions,memories,andanticipationsinshort,everythingthatforusconstitutesthesensiblecontinuityandlogicalcoherenceoftheworldisofapsychicorsubtlenature.Itisinvainthatonewilltrytoknowwhattheworldis'outside'thissubtlecontinuity,sincethis'outside'doesnotexist:surroundedasitisbythesubtlestate,thecorporealworldisbutacontentthereof,eventhoughitappears,inthemirrorofthisstateitself,asamateriallyautonomousorder.43

Itisobviouslynottheindividualsoul,buttheentiresubtlestatethatcontainsthephysicalworld.Thelogicalcoherenceofthelatter

43Nothingismoreabsurdthanattemptstoexplaintheperceptionofthematerialworldinmaterialterms.

presupposestheunityoftheformer,andthisismanifestedindirectlybythefactthatthemultipleindividualvisionsofthesensibleworld,fragmentarythoughtheybe,substantiallycoincideandareintegratedinonecontinuouswhole.Theindividualsoulparticipatesinthisunitybothbythestructureofitscognitivefaculties,whichisinconformitywiththecosmicorder,andalsobyitsnatureassubject,containingthephysicalworldinitsownway;inotherwords,thephysicalworldisa'world'onlyinrelationtotheindividualsubject,byvirtueofthecleavingofconsciousnessintoobjectandsubject,acleavingthatresultspreciselyfromthe'egoic'polarizationofthesoul.Bythissamepolarization,thesoulisdistinguishedfromthetotalityofthesubtlestatethe'total'or'universalsoul'ofPlotinuswithout,however,beingseparatedfromitsubstantially.Forifitwereseparatedfromit,ourvisionoftheworldwouldnotbeadequatetoreality;butinfactitisso,inspiteofthelimitationsandtherelativityofallperception.

Itistruethatweordinarilyperceiveonlyafragmentofthesubtleworldthefragmentthatwe'are',andthatconstitutesour'myself'whereasthesensibleworldrevealsitselftousinitsmacrocosmiccontinuity,asawholethatseemstoincludeus.Thisisbecausethesubtleworldistheveryfieldofindividuation;inreality,weareplungedintheoceanofthesubtleworldasfishesareinwater,andlikethem,wedonotseethatwhichconstitutesourownelement.

Asfortheoppositionbetweenthe'inward'psychicworldandthe'outward'corporealworld,thisisactualizedonlyinrelationto,andinfunctionof,thelatter.Initself,thesubtleworldisneither'inward'nor'outward';itisatmost'non-outward',whereasthecorporealworldisoutwardassuch,whichfurthermoreprovesthatitdoesnotenjoyanautonomousexistence.

Thecorporealstateandthepsychicstatetogetherconstituteformalexistence;initstotalextension,thesubtlestateisnoneotherthanformalexistence,butonecallsit'subtle'inasmuchasitescapesthelawsofcorporeity.Accordingtooneofthemostancientandmostnaturalsymbolisms,thesubtlestatemaybecomparedtotheatmospheresurroundingtheearthwhichpervadesallporousbodiesandisthevehicleoflife.

Aphenomenoncanonlybetrulyunderstoodthroughitsrelations,both'horizontal'and'vertical',withtotalReality.Thistruthapplies

particularly,andinacertainsensepractically,topsychicphenomena.Thesamepsychic'event'cansimultaneouslybetheresponsetoasensoryimpulsion,themanifestationofawish,theconsequenceofapreviousaction,thetraceofthetypicalandancestralformoftheindividual,theexpressionofhisgenius,andthereflectionofasupra-individualreality.Itislegitimatetoconsiderthepsychicphenomenoninquestionunderoneorotheroftheseaspects,butitwouldbeunwarrantedtoseektoexplainthemovementsandpurposesofthesoulbyoneorevenbyseveraloftheseaspectsexclusively.Inthisconnectionletusquotethewordsofatherapistwhoisawareofthelimitationsofcontemporarypsychology:

ThereisanancientHindumaximwhosetruthisincontestable:'Whatamanthinks,thathebecomes'.Ifonesteadfastlythinksofgooddeeds,onewillendbybecomingagoodman;ifonealwaysthinksofweakness,onewillbecomeweak;ifonethinksofhowtodevelopone'sstrength(bodilyormental),onewillbecomestrong.Similarly,ifforyearsoneisengagedalmostdailyinstirringupHades,44inexplainingsystematicallythehigherintermsofthelower,andatthesametimeignoringeverythinginman'sculturalhistorywhich,despitelamentableerrorsandmisdeeds,hasbeenregardedasworthwhile,onecanscarcelyavoidtheriskoflosingalldiscernment,oflevellingdowntheimagination(asourceofourlife),andofseverelyreducingone'smentalhorizon.'45

Ordinaryconsciousnessilluminatesonlyarestrictedportionoftheindividualsoul,andthelatterrepresentsonlyatinypartofthepsychicworld.Nevertheless,thesoulisnotcutofffromtherestofthisworld;itssituationisnotthatofabodyrigorouslylimitedbyitsownextensionandseparatedfromotherbodies.Whatdistinguishesthesoulfromtherestofthevastsubtleworldisuniquelyitsownparticulartendencies,whichdefineitifonemayemployasimpli-

44AnallusiontothewordsofVirgilFlecteresinequeosuperos,Acherontamovebo('IfIcannotbendtheHeavens,Ishallstiruphell'),whichFreudquotedatthebeginningofhisInterpretationofDreams.45HansJacob,WesternPrychologyandHinduSâdhana(London,Allen&Unwin,1961).TheauthorofthisworkisaformerdiscipleofJung,wholaterdiscoveredthedoctrineandmethodimmeasurablygreateroftheHindusâdhana,whichenabledhimtosubjectWesternpsychologytoajustcriticism.

fiedimageasaspatialdirectiondefinestherayoflightthatfollowsit.Bytheseverytendencies,thesoulisincommunionwithallthecosmicpossibilitiesofanalogoustendenciesorqualities;itassimilatesthemandisassimilatedbythem.Forthisreason,thescienceofcosmictendenciesthegunasofHinducosmologyisfundamentalfortheknowledgeofthesoul.Inthisconnection,itisnottheoutwardcontextofapsychicphenomenontheaccidentaloccasionforitsmanifestationthatmattersessentially,butitsconnectionwithsattva,rajas,ortamasthe'upward','expansive',and'downward'tendencieswhichconfersonititsrankinthehierarchyofinwardvalues.

Sincethemotivesofthesoulareperceptibleonlythroughtheformsthatmanifestthem,itisontheseformsormanifestationsthatapsychologicalassessmentmustneedsbefounded.Now,thepartplayedbythegunasinanyformwhatsoevercanbemeasuredonlyinapurelyqualitativemanner,bymeansofpreciseanddecisivebutinnowisequantitativecriteria,suchasareentirelylackinginthewhollyprofanepsychologyofourtime.

Therearesomepsychic'events'whoserepercussionstraverseallthedegreesofthesubtleworld'vertically',sincetheytouchontheessences;otherstheseareordinarypsychicmovementsonlyobeythe'horizontal'comingandgoingofthepsyché;andfinally,therearethosethatcomefromthesubhumandepths.Thefirstmentionedarenotcapableofbeingexpressedentirelytheycompriseanelementofmysteryandyettheformswhichtheymayfromtimetotimeevokeintheimaginationareclearandprecise,likethosethatcharacterizeauthenticsacredarts.Thelastmentioned,namelydemonic'inspirations',areunintelligibleintheirveryforms;they'ape'thegenuinelymysteriousbythenebulous,obscure,andequivocalcharacteroftheirformalmanifestations;examplesofthisarereadilytobefoundincontemporaryart.

Whenstudyingtheformalmanifestationofthesoul,onemust,however,notforgetthatman'spsycho-physicalorganismcandisplaystrangecaesurasordiscontinuities.Thus,forinstance,inthecaseofthesomewhat'anarchical'categoryofcontemplativesknownas'foolsofGod',thespiritualstatesdonotmanifestthemselvesharmoniouslyandnormallyanddonotmakeuseofthereason;inversely,anintrinsicallypathologicalstateandassuchdominatedbyinfra-

humanandchaotictendenciesmayincidentallyandbyaccidentcompriseopeningsontosupra-terrestrialrealities;thisisbutsayingthatthehumansoulisofaninexhaustiblecomplexity.

Viewedasawhole,thesubtleworldisincomparablyvasterandmorevariedthanthecorporealworld.Danteexpressesthisbymakingtheentirehierarchyofplanetaryspherescorrespondtothesubtleworld,whereashemakesonlytheterrestrialdomaincorrespondtothecorporealworld.Thesubterraneanpositionofthehells,inhissystem,merelyindicatesthatthestatesinquestionaresituatedbelowthenormalhumanstate;inreality,theyarealsopartofthesubtlestate,andthisiswhysomemedievalcosmologistsplacethehellssymbolicallybetweenheavenandearth.46

Experienceofthesubtleworldissubjectiveexceptinthecaseofcertainsciencesquiteunknowntothemodernsbecauseconsciousness,inidentifyingitselfwithsubtleforms,isaffectedbytheirtendencies,justasarayoflightisturnedfromitscoursebytheformofawavethatithappenstotraverse.Thesubtleworldismadeupofforms;inotherwords,itcomprisesdiversityandcontrast;buttheseformsdonotpossess,inthemselvesoroutsideoftheirprojectioninthesensibleimagination,47spatialanddefinedcontoursasinthecaseofcorporealforms.Theyareentirelyactiveor,tobemoreexact,dynamic,pureactivitybelongingonlytotheessential'forms'orarchetypesthataretobefoundinthepureSpirit.Nowtheegoorindividualsoulisitselfoneoftheformsofthesubtleworld,andtheconsciousnessthatespousesthisformisnecessarilydynamicandexclusive;itrealizesothersubtleformsonlyinsofarasthesebecomemodalitiesofitsownegoicform.

Thusitisthatinthedreamstateindividualconsciousness,eventhoughreabsorbedintothesubtleworld,nonethelessremainsturnedbackonitself;alltheformsthatitexperiencesinthisstatepresentthemselvesassimpleprolongationsoftheindividualsubject,oratleasttheyappearsoinretrospectandinasmuchastheyvergeonthe

46InIslam,itissaidthatthethroneofthedevilislocatedbetweenearthandheaven,adoctrinewhichalsomakesclearthetemptationstowhichthosewhofollowthe'vertical'pathareexposed.47Ifsomemastershavecomparedthesubtleworldtotheimagination,itistheimaginativeactivity,andnottheimagesproducedbytheimagination,thattheyhadinview.

wakingstate.Forinitself,anddespitethissubjectivism,theconsciousnessofthedreamerisobviouslynotimpermeabletoinfluencescomingfromthemostdiverse'regions'ofthesubtleworld,asisproved,forexample,bypremonitoryortelepathicdreams,whichmanypeoplehaveexperienced.48Indeed,whiletheimageryofadreamiswovenfromthevery'substance'ofthesubjecta'substance'thatisnoneotherthantheprogressiveactualizationofhisownpsychicformitnonethelessmanifests,incidentallyandtodifferentdegrees,realitiesofacosmicorder.

Thecontentofadreamcanbeconsideredinmanydifferentways.Ifoneanalyzesthemateriaofwhichitiscomposedonewillfindthatitisconstitutedbyallsortsofmemories,andinthisrespectthecurrentpsychologicalexplanation,whichmakesthedreamtheexpressionofsubconsciousresidues,islargelyright.Itisnot,however,excludedthatadreammayalsocomprise'matters'thatinnowiseproceedfromthepersonalexperienceofthedreamerandthatareliketracesofapsychictransfusionfromoneindividualtoanother.Thereisalsotheeconomyofthedream,andinthisconnectionwecanquotethefollowingdescriptionbyC.G.Jung,whichisexactdespitetheradicallyfalsethesesoftheauthor:

Thedream,derivingfromtheactivityoftheunconscious,givesarepresentationofthecontentsthatslumberthere;notofallthecontentsthatfigureinit,butonlyofcertainofthemwhich,bywayofassociation,areactualized,crystallized,andselected,incorrelationwiththemomentarystateofconsciousness.49

Asforthehermeneuticsofdreams,thiseludesmodernpsychologyinspiteofthelatter'seffortsinthisdirection,becauseonecannotvalidlyinterpretimagesreflectedbythesoulwithoutknowingtowhichlevelofrealitytheyrefer.

Theimagesoneretainsonwakingfromadreamgenerallyrepresentonlyashadowofthepsychicformsexperiencedinthedreamstateitself.Onpassingintothewakingstate,asortofdecantationoccursonecanbeawareofthisandsomethingoftherealityinherentinthedreamevaporatesmoreorlessrapidly.There

48Empiricalpsychologynolongerdarestodenythisphenomenon.49L'HommeàlaDécourvertedesonAme,p.205.

exists,nevertheless,acertaincategoryofdreams,well-knowntotraditionaloneirocrisy,thememoryofwhichpersistswithanincisiveclarity,andthiscanhappeneveniftheprofoundcontentofthesedreamsappearstoconcealitself.Suchdreams,whichmostlyoccuratdawnandcontinueuntilwaking,areaccompaniedbyanirrefutablefeelingofobjectivity;otherwiseput,theycompriseamorethanmerelymentalcertainty.Butwhatcharacterizesthemaboveall,andindependentlyoftheirmoralinfluenceonthedreamer,isthehighqualityoftheirforms,disengagedfromeveryturbidorchaoticresidue.ThesearethedreamsthatcomefromtheAngel;inotherwords,fromtheEssencethatconnectsthesoultothesupra-formalstatesofthebeing.

Sincetherearedreamsofdivineorangelicinspiration,theiroppositemustalsoexist,andthesearedreamsofsatanicimpulsion,containingpalpablecaricaturesofsacredforms.Thesensationaccompanyingthemisnotoneofcoolandserenelucidity,butofobsessionandvertigo;itistheattractionofanabyss.Theinfernalinfluencessometimesridethewaveofanaturalpassion,whichopensthewayforthem,sotospeak.Theyare,however,distinguishablefromtheelementarycharacterofpassionbytheirpridefulandnegativetendency,accompaniedeitherbybitternessorelsebysadness.AsPascalsaid:'Hewhotriestoplaytheangelwillplaythebeast',andindeednothingissoapttoprovokecaricatures,bothindreamsandoutofthem,astheunconsciouslypretentiousattitudeofthemanwhomixesGodwithhisownhighlyparticularizedegotheclassicalcauseofmanyofthepsychosesstudiedbypost-Freudianpsychologism.50

ItwasstartingfromtheanalysisofdreamsthatC.G.Jungdevelopedhisfamoustheoryaboutthe'collectiveunconscious'.HisobservationofthefactthatacertaincategoryofdreamimagescouldnotbeexplainedsimplyonthebasisoftheirbeingresiduesofindividualexperiencesledJungtodistinguish,withintheunconsciousdomainwhencedreamsarefed,betweena'personal'zonewhosecontentsrepresentbasicallytheotherfaceofindividualpsychiclife,anda'collective'zonemadeupoflatentpsychic

50Inageneralway,contemporarypsychologydelvesintotheobservationofpathologicalcases,andviewsthesoulonlythroughthisclinicalperspective.

dispositionsofanimpersonalcharacter,suchasneverofferthemselvestodirectobservation,butmanifestthemselvesindirectlythrough'symbolic'dreamsand'irrational'impulsions.Atfirstsight,thistheoryhasnothingextravagantaboutit,exceptitsuseoftheterm'irrational'inconnectionwithsymbolism.Itiseasytounderstandthattheindividualconsciousnesscentredontheempiricalegoleavesonthemarginorevenoutsideitselfeverythingwhich,inthepsychicorder,isnoteffectivelyattachedtothatcentre,justasalightprojectedinagivendirectiondecreasestowardsthesurroundingdarkness.ButthisisnothowJungunderstandsthematter.Forhim,thenon-personalzoneofthesoulisunconsciousassuch;inotherwords,itscontentscanneverbecomethedirectobjectoftheintelligence,whateverbeitsmodalityorhowevergreatitsextension.

Justasthehumanbodydisplaysacommonanatomy,independentlyofracialdifferences,soalsothepsychépossesses,beyondallculturalandmentaldifferences,acommonsubstratum,whichIhavenamedthecollectiveunconscious.Thisunconsciouspsyché,whichiscommontoallmen,isnotmadeupofcontentscapableofbecomingconscious,butsolelyoflatentdispositionsgivingrisetocertainreactionsthatarealwaysidentical.51

Andtheauthorgoesontoinsinuatethatitishereaquestionofancestralstructuresthathavetheirorigininthephysicalorder:

Thefactthatthiscollectiveunconsciousexistsissimplythepsychicexpressionoftheidentityofcerebralstructuresbeyondallracialdifferences...thedifferentlinesofpsychicevolutionstartoutfromoneandthesametrunk,whoserootsplungethroughalltheages.Itisherethatthepsychicparallelwiththeanimalissituated.52

OnenoticestheplainlyDarwinianturnofthisthesis,thedisastrousconsequencesofwhichshowthemselvesinthefollowingpassage:'Itisthisthatexplainstheanalogy,indeedtheidentity,ofmythologicalmotivesandofsymbolsasmeansofhumancommunicationingeneral.'53Mythsandsymbolswouldthusbetheexpressionofan

51C.G.Jung,TheSecretoftheGoldenFlower(NewYork,1931),Introduction52Ibid.53Ibid.

ancestralpsychicfundthatbringsmanneartotheanimal!Theyhavenointellectualorspiritualfoundation,since

fromthepurelypsychologicalpointofview,itisaquestionofcommoninstinctsofimaginingandacting.Allconsciousimaginationandactionhaveevolvedonthebasisoftheseunconsciousprototypesandremainpermanentlyattachedtothem,andthisisespeciallysowhenconsciousnesshasnotyetattainedaveryhighdegreeoflucidity,inotherwords,aslongasitisstill,inallitsfunctions,moredependentoninstinctthanonconsciouswill,ormoreaffectivethanrational...'54

Thisquotationclearlyindicatesthat,forJung,the'collectiveunconscious'issituated'below',atthelevelofphysiologicalinstincts.Itisimportanttobearthisinmind,sincetheterm'collectiveunconscious'initselfcouldcarryawiderandinafashionmorespiritualmeaning,ascertainassimilationsmadebyJungseemtosuggest,especiallyhisuseorratherhisusurpationoftheterm'archetype'tosignifythelatent,andassuchinaccesible,contentsofthe'collectiveunconscious'.Forthoughthearchetypesdonotbelongtothepsychicrealm,buttotheworldofpureSpirit,theyareneverthelessreflectedatthepsychiclevelasvirtualitiesofimagesinthefirstplacebeforebecomingcrystallized,accordingtothecircumstances,inimagesproperlyso-called,sothatacertainpsychologicalapplicationoftheterm'archetype'couldatapinchbejustified.ButJungdefinesthe'archetype'asan'innatecomplex'55anddescribesitsactiononthesoulthus:'Possessionbyanarchetypemakesofamanapurelycollectivepersonage,akindofmask,underwhichhumannaturecannolongerdevelop,butdegeneratesprogressively.'56Asifanarchetype,whichisanimmediateandsupra-formaldeterminationofBeingandnon-limitativebythisveryfactcouldinsomewaycastaspellonandvampirizethesoul!WhatisreallyinquestioninthemoreorlesspathologicalcaseenvisagedbyJung?Simplyadissociationofthepossibilitiesinherentinthesubtleformofaman,aformthatincludesmultipleaspects,

54Ibid.55SeeL'HommeàlaDécourvertedesonAme,p.311.56SeeTwoEssaysonAnalyticalPsychology(Pantheon,NewYork,1966),p.234.

eachofwhichhassomethinguniqueandirreplaceableaboutit.Ineverynon-degeneratehumanindividualthereistobefoundinpotencyamanandawoman,afatherandamother,achildandanoldman,aswellasvariousqualitiesor'dignities'inseparablefromtheoriginalandontologicalpositionofman,suchaspriestlyandroyalqualities,thoseofacreativecraftsman,ofaservant,andsoforth.Normallyallthesepossibilitiescompleteoneanother;herethereisnoirrationalfundofthesoul,forthecoexistenceofthesediversepossibilitiesoraspectsofthehumanformisperfectlyintelligibleinitselfandcanbehiddenonlyfromtheeyesofamentalityorcivilizationthathasbecomeone-sidedandfalse.Anygenius-likedevelopmentofoneofthesemultiplepossibilitiesordispositionsinherentinthehumansoulrequires,moreover,theintegrationofthecomplementarypossibilities;thetruemanofgeniusisabalancedbeing,forwherethereisnobalancethereisnogreatnesseither.Theoppositeofsuchadevelopmentisabarrenandpathologicalexaggerationofoneofthesoul'spossibilitiesattheexpenseoftheothers,leadingtothatkindofmoralcaricaturecomparedbyJungtoamask;andletitbeaddedthatitisthecarnivalesquemaskonemustthinkofhere,andnotthesacredmaskwhich,foritspart,doesindeedexpressatruearchetypeandthereforeapossibilitythatdoesnotbewitchthesoulbutonthecontraryliberatesit.57

Psychicdissociationalwaysproducesafixationaswellasatearingapartbetweenopposingpoles,andthisisrenderedpossibleonlybythecloudingoverofthatwhich,inthesoul,correspondstothearchetype.Attheantipodesofthisimbalanceproductiveofhyper-trophies,perfectvirility,forexample,innowiseexcludesfemininity,butonthecontraryincludesandadaptsit,andtheinverseisalsotrue.Similarly,thegenuinearchetypes,whicharenotsituatedatthepsychiclevel,donotmutuallyexcludebutcompriseandimplyoneanother.AccordingtothePlatonicandhallowedmeaningoftheterm,thearchetypesarethesourceofbeingandknowledgeandnot,asJungconceivesthem,unconsciousdispositionstoactandimagine.Thefactthatthearchetypescannotbegraspedbydiscursivethoughthasnoconnectionwiththeirrationalandobscurecharacterofthesupposed'collectiveunconscious',whosecontentsaresaidtobe

57Seethechapter'TheSacredMask'inthepresentbook.

knownonlyindirectlythroughtheir'eruptions'onthesurface.Thereisnotonlydiscursivethought,thereisalsointellectualintuition,andthisattainstothearchetypesfromthestarting-pointoftheirsymbols.

Nodoubtthetheoryaccordingtowhichancestralstructuresconstitutethe'collectiveunconscious'imposesitselfonmodernthoughtallthemoreeasilyinthatitseemstobeinagreementwiththeevolutionistexplanationoftheinstinctofanimals.Accordingtothisview,instinctistheexpressionoftheheredityofaspecies,ofanaccumulationofanalogousexperiencesdowntheages.Thisishowtheyexplain,forexample,thefactthataflockofsheephastilygatherstogetheraroundthelambsthemomentitperceivestheshadowofabirdofprey,orthatakittenwhileplayingalreadyemploysallthetricksofahunter,orthatbirdsknowhowtobuildtheirnests.Infact,itisenoughtowatchanimalstoseethattheirinstincthasnothingofanautomatismaboutit.Theformationofsuchamechanismbyapurelycumulativeandconsequentlyvagueandproblematicalprocessishighlyimprobable,tosaytheleast.Instinctisanon-reflectivemodalityoftheintelligence;itisdetermined,notbyaseriesofautomaticreflexes,butbythe'form'thequalitativedeterminationofthespecies.Thisformislikeafilterthroughwhichtheuniversalintelligenceismanifested.Normustitbeforgottenthatthesubtleformofabeingisincomparablymorecomplexthanitsbodilyform.Thesameisalsotrueforman:hisintelligencetooisdeterminedbythesubtleformofhisspecies.Thisform,however,includesthereflectivefaculty,whichallowsofasingularizationoftheindividualsuchasdoesnotexistamongtheanimals.Manaloneisabletoobjectivizehimself.Hecansay:'Iamthisorthat.'Healonepossessesthistwo-edgedfaculty.Man,byvirtueofhisowncentralpositioninthecosmos,isabletotranscendhisspecificnorm;hecanalsobetrayit,andsinklower;corruptiooptimipessima.Anormalanimalremainstruetotheformandgeniusofitsspecies;ifitsintelligenceisnotreflectiveandobjectifying,butinsomesortexistential,itisnonethelessspontaneous;itisassuredlyaformoftheuniversalintelligenceevenifitisnotrecognizedassuchbymenwho,fromprejudiceorignorance,identifyintelligencewithdiscursivethoughtexclusively.

AsforJung'sthesisthatcertaindreams,whichcannotbeexplainedbypersonalreminiscencesandwhichseemtoarisefromanuncon-

sciousfundcommontoallmen,containmotivesandformsthatarealsotobefoundinmythsandintraditionalsymbolism,thethingispossibleinprinciple;notthatthereisinthesoularepertoryoftypesinheritedfromdistantancestorsandbearingwitnesstoaprimitivevisionoftheworld,butbecausetruesymbolsarealways'actual'inasmuchastheyexpressnon-temporalrealities.Infact,undercertainconditions,thesoulisabletotakeonthefunctionofamirrorthatreflects,inapurelypassiveandimaginativemanner,universaltruthscontainedintheintellect.Nevertheless,'inspirations'ofthisnatureremainfairlyrare;theydependoncircumstancesthatare,sotospeak,providential,asinthecaseofdreamscommunicatingtruthsorannouncingfutureevents,towhichallusionhaspreviouslybeenmade.Moreover,symbolicdreamsarenotclothedinjustanytraditional'style';theirformallanguageisnormallydeterminedbythetraditionorreligiontowhichtheindividualiseffectivelyorvirtuallyattached,forthereisnothingarbitraryinthisdomain.

Now,ifoneexaminesexamplesofsupposedlysymbolicaldreamsquotedbyJungandotherpsychologistsofhisschool,onenoticesthatinmostcasesitisamatteroffalsesymbolism,ofthekindcommonlymetwithinpseudo-spiritualcircles.Thesoulisnotonlyasacredmirror;moreoftenitisamagicmirrorthatdeceivestheonewhoviewshimselfinit.Jungshouldhaveknownthis,sincehehimselfspeaksofthetricksoftheanima,indicatingbythistermthefeminineaspectofthesoul;andsomeofhisownexperiences,asdescribedinhismemoirs,58shouldhavetoldhimthataninvestigatoroftheunconsciousdepthsofthepsychéexposeshimself,notmerelytothewilesoftheegocentricsoul,butalsotopsychicinfluencescomingfromelsewhere,fromunknownbeingsandentities,especiallywhenthemethodsofanalysisusedderivefromhypnosisormediumship.InthiscontextmustbeplacedcertaindesignsexecutedbysickpatientsofJungandwhichthelattertriestopalmoffasgenuinemandalas.59

58ThekindofintrospectionpractisedbyJungbywayofpsychologicalinvestigationandofwhichhespeaksinhismemoirs,aswellascertainparapsychologicalphenomenathatheprovokedbythismethod,takesoneintoafranklyspiritualisticambience.Thefactthattheauthorproposedtostudythesephenomena'scientifically'changesnothinginregardtotheinfluencetheyinfacthadonhistheoryof'archetypes'.59SeetheIntroductiontoTheSecretoftheGoldenFlower.

Overandaboveallthis,thereexistsasymbolism,verygeneralinnatureandinherentinlanguageitself,asforinstancewhenonecomparestruthtolightanderrortodarkness,orprogresstoanascentormoraldangertoanabyss,orwhenonerepresentsfidelitybyadogorcraftinessbyafox.Now,toexplaintheoccurrenceofasimilarsymbolismindreams,ofwhichthelanguageisnaturallyfigurativeandnotdiscursive,thereisnoneedtorefertoa'collectiveunconscious';itisenoughtonotethatrationalthoughtisnotthewholeofthoughtandthatconsciousnessinthewakingstatedoesnotcoverthewholedomainofmentalactivity.Ifthefigurativelanguageofdreamsisnotdiscursive,thisdoesnotnecessarilymakeitirrational,anditispossible,asindeedJunghasproperlyobserved,thatadreamermaybemoreintelligentinhisdreamsthaninthewakingstate.Itwouldevenseemthatthisdifferenceoflevelbetweenthetwostatesisfairlyfrequentamongmenofourowntime,doubtlessbecausetheframeworksimposedbymodernlifeareparticularlyunintelligentandincapableofvehiclinginanynormalmannertheessentialcontentsofhumanlife.

Thishasobviouslynothingtodowiththeroleofpurelysymbolicorsacreddreams,whetherthesebespontaneousorevokedthroughrites;wearethinkinghereoftheexampleoftheIndiansofNorthAmerica,whosewholetradition,aswellastheirvitalambience,favoursakindofoneiricprophetism.

Soastoneglectnoaspectofthisquestion,thefollowingshouldalsobesaid:Ineverycollectivitythathasbecomeunfaithfultoitsowntraditionalform,tothesacredframeworkofitslife,thereoccursacollapseorasortofmummificationofthesymbolsithadreceived,andthisprocesswillbereflectedinthepsychiclifeofeveryindividualbelongingtothatcollectivityandparticipatinginthatinfidelity.Toeverytruththerecorrespondsaformaltrace,andeveryspiritualformprojectsapsychicshadow;whentheseshadowsareallthatremains,theydoinfacttakeonthecharacterofancestralphantomsthathauntthesubconscious.Themostperniciousofpsychologicalerrorsistoreducethemeaningofsymbolismtosuchphantoms.

Asforthedefinitionof'unconscious',itmustneverbeforgottenthatthisiseminentlyrelativeandprovisional.Consciousnessiscapableofgradationlikelightandissimilarlyrefractedincontactwiththemediaitmeets.Theegoistheformofindividualconscious-

ness,notitsluminoussource.Thelattercoincideswiththesourceoftheintelligenceitself.Initsuniversalnature,consciousnessisinasenseanexistentialaspectoftheintellect,andthisamountstosayingthatbasicallynothingissituatedoutsideit.60Whenceitfollowsthatthe'unconscious'ofthepsychologistsisquitesimplyeverythingwhich,inthesoul,liesoutsideordinaryconsciousnessthatoftheempirical'I'orientedtowardsthecorporealworldinotherwords,this'unconscious'ismadetoincludebothlowerchaosandthehigherstates.Thelatter(whichtheHinduscomparetotheblissofdeepsleep,thestateofprajna)radiatefromtheluminoussourceoftheUniversalSpirit;thedefinitionofthe'unconscious'thusinnowisecorrespondstoaparticularconcretemodalityofthesoul.Manyoftheerrorsof'depthpsychology',ofwhichJungisoneofthechiefprotagonists,resultfromthefactthatitoperateswiththe'unconscious'asifitwereadefiniteentity.OneoftenhearsitsaidthatJung'spsychologyhas're-establishedtheautonomousrealityofthesoul'.Intruth,accordingtotheperspectiveinherentinthispsychology,thesoulisneitherindependentofthebodynorimmortal;itismerelyasortofirrationalfatalitysituatedoutsideanyintelligiblecosmicorder.Ifthemoralandmentalbehaviourofmanweredeterminedbehindthescenesbysomecollectionofancestral'types'issuingfromafundthatiscompletelyunconsciousandcompletelyinaccessibletotheintelligence,manwouldbeasifsuspendedbetweentwoirreconcilableanddivergentrealities,namelythatofthingsandthatofthesoul.

Forallmodernpsychology,theluminouspointofthesoul,oritsexistentialsummit,istheconsciousnessofthe'I',whichonlyexiststotheextentthatitcandisengageitselffromthedarknessofthe'unconscious'.Now,accordingtoJung,thisdarknesscontainsthevitalrootsoftheindividuality:the'collectiveunconscious'wouldthenbeendowedwitharegulatoryinstinct,akindofsomnambulantwisdom,nodoubtofabiologicalnature;fromthisfact,theconsciousemancipationoftheegowouldcomprisethedangerofavitaluprooting.AccordingtoJung,theidealisabalancebetweenthetwopolestheconsciousandtheunconsciousabalancethatcanbe

60LetushererecalltheVedanticternarySat-chit-ananda(Being,Consciousness,Bliss).

realizedonlybythehelpofathirdterm,asortofcentreofcrystallization,whichhecallsthe'self',atermborrowedfromthedoctrinesofHinduism.Hereiswhathehaswrittenonthesubject:

Withthesensationoftheselfasanirrationalandindefinableentity,towhichthe'I'isneitheropposednorsubordinated,buttowhichitadheresandroundwhichitmovesinsomesort,liketheeartharoundthesun,theaimofindividuationisattained.Iusethisterm'sensation'toexpresstheempiricalcharacteroftherelationshipbetweenthe'I'andtheself.Inthisrelationshipthereisnothingintelligible,foronecansaynothingaboutthecontentsoftheserf.The'I'istheonlycontentoftheselfthatweknow.Theindividualized'I'feelsitselftobetheobjectofasubjectunknownandsuperiortoitself.Itseemstomethatpsychologicalobservationheretouchesitsextremelimit,fortheideaofaselfisinitselfatranscendentpostulate,whichonecanadmittedlyjustifypsychologically,butcannotprovescientifically.Thestepbeyondscienceisanabsoluterequirementforthepsychologicalevolutiondescribedhere,forwithoutthepostulateinquestionIcouldnotsufficientlyformulatethepsychicprocessesobservedfromexperience.Becauseofthis,theideaofaselfatleastpossessesthevalueofahypothesislikethetheoriesaboutthestructureoftheatom.Andifitbetruethatheretooweareprisonersofanimage,itisinanycaseaverylivingimage,theinterpretationofwhichexceedsmycapacities.Iscarcelydoubtthatitisaquestionofanimage,butitisanimagethatcontainsus.61

Despiteaterminologytoomuchboundupwithcurrentscientism,onemightbetemptedtograntfullcredittothepresentimentsexpressedinthispassageandtofindinitanapproachtotraditionalmetaphysicaldoctrines,ifJung,inafurtherpassage,didnotrelativizethenotionoftheselfbytreatingitthistime,notasatranscendentprinciple,butastheoutcomeofapsychologicalprocess:

Onecoulddefinetheselfasasortofcompensationinreferencetothecontrastbetweeninwardandoutward.Suchadefinitioncouldwellbeappliedtotheselfinsofarasthelatterpossessesthe

61SeeTwoEssaysonAnalyticalPsychology,p.240.

characterofaresult,ofanaimtoreach,ofathingthathasonlybeenproducedlimebylimeandofwhichtheexperiencehascostmuchtravail.Thus,theselfisalsotheaimoflife,foritisthemostcompleteexpressionofthatcombinationofdestinywecallan'individual',andnotonlyofmaninthesingularbutalsoofawholegroup,wheretheoneisthecomplementoftheotherswithaviewtoaperfectimage.62

Therearesomerealmswheredilettantismisunforgivable.

Itisthebalancetoberealizedbetweentheunconsciousandtheconscious,ortheintegration,intheempirical'personality',ofcertainforcesorimpulsionsemanatingfromtheunconscious,thatJungparadoxicallylabelsas'individuation',usingatermbywhichwastraditionallydesignated,notsomepsychologicalprocessorother,butthedifferentiationofindividualsfromthestartingpointofthespecies.ButwhatJungunderstandsbythistermisakindofdefinitivepronunciationoftheindividualitywhichistakenasanendinitself.Insuchaperspective,thenotionof'self'plainlylosesallmetaphysicalmeaning,butthisisnottheonlytraditionalnotionthatJungappropriatesinordertodebaseittoapurelypsychologicalandevenclinicallevel;thushecomparespsycho-analysis,whichheusespreciselytopromotethis'individuation',toaninitiationintheproperandsacredmeaningoftheterm,andheevendeclaresthatpsychoanalysisrepresents'theonlyformofinitiationstillvalidintheModernage!'63Whenceproceedawholeseriesoffalseassimilations,andintrusionsintoarealmwherepsychologyisdevoidofcompetence.64

62Ibid.63SeepsychologicalcommentaryoftheTibetanBookoftheDead.64Jung'spsychologicalinterpretationofalchemyhasbeenexpresslyrefutedinmybookAlchemy:ScienceoftheCosmos,ScienceoftheSoul(ElementBooksShaftesbury,England,1986.FrithjofSchuon,afterreadingthepresentchapter,sentmethefollowingreflectionsinwriting:'PeoplegenerallyseeinJungism,ascomparedwithFreudism,asteptowardsreconciliationwiththetraditionalspiritualities,butthisisinnowisethecase.Fromthispointofview,theonlydifferenceisthat,whereasFreudboastedofbeinganirreconcilableenemyofreligion,Jungsympathizeswithitwhileemptyingitofitscontents,whichhereplacesbycollectivepsychism,thatistosaybysomethinginfra-intellectualandthereforeanti-spiritual.Inthisthereisanimmensedangerfortheancientspiritualities,whoserepresentatives,especiallyintheEast,are

(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

Hereitisnotacaseoftheinvoluntaryignoranceofsomeisolatedseeker,forJungcarefullyavoidedallcontactwiththerepresentativesoflivingtradition.DuringhisvisittoIndia,forexample,hedidnotwishtoseeSriRâmanaMahârishiallegingamotiveofinsolentfrivolity65doubtlessbecausehefearedinstinctivelyand'unconsciously'(itisacaseforsayingit)acontactwitharealitythatwouldgivethelietohistheories.Forhim,metaphysicswasbutaspeculationinthevoidor,tobemoreexact,anillusoryattemptbythepsychictoreachbeyonditself,comparabletothesenselessgestureofamanwhowouldpullhimselfoutofamudholebyhisownhair.ThisconceptionistypicalofModernpsychologism,andthisiswhywementionit.Totheabsurdargumentthatmetaphysicsisonlyaproductionofthepsychèonecanimmediatelyobjectthatthisjudgementitselfisbutasimilarproduction.Manlivesbytruth;toacceptanytruth,howeverrelativeitmaybe,istoacceptthatintellectusadequatiorei.Merelytosay'thisisthat'isautomaticallytoaffirmtheveryprincipleofadequation,andthereforethepresenceoftheabsoluteintherelative.

Jungbreachedcertainstrictlymaterialisticframeworksofmodernscience,butthisfactisofnousetoanyone,tosaytheleastonewishesonecouldhaverejoicedoveritbecausetheinfluencesthatfilterthroughthisbreachcomefromlowerpsychismandnotfromtheSpirit,whichaloneistrueandalonecansaveus.

(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

toooftenlackingincriticalsensewithregardtotheModernspirit,andthisbyreasonofacomplexof''rehabilitation";alsoitisnotwithmuchsurprise,thoughwithgravedisquiet,thatonehascomeacrossechoesofthiskindfromJapan,wherethepsychoanalyst's"equilibrium"hasbeencomparedtothesatoriofZen;andthereislittledoubtthatitwouldbeeasytomeetwithsimilarconfusionsinIndiaandelsewhere.Bethatasitmay,theconfusionsinquestionaregreatlyfavouredbythealmostuniversalrefusalofpeopletoseethedevilandtocallhimbyhisname,inotherwords,byakindoftacitconventioncompoundedofoptimismtoorder,tolerancethatinrealityhatestruth,andcompulsoryalignmentwithscientismandofficialtaste,withoutforgetting"culture",whichswallowseverythingandcommitsonetonothing,exceptcomplicityinitsneutralism;towhichmustbeaddedanolessuniversalandquasi-officialcontemptforwhateveris,wewillnotsayintellectualist,buttrulyintellectual,andthereforetainted,inpeople'sminds,withdogmatism,scholasticism,fanaticism,andprejudice.Allthisgoeshandinhandwiththepsychologismofourtimeandisinlargemeasureitsresult.'65SeetheprefacetoHeinrichZimmer'sbookonShriRâmanaMahârshi.

3'RidingtheTiger'INHISBOOKentitledCalvacarelaTigre,1JuliusEvolaseekstoshowhowthe'naturallytraditional'man,themanwhoisawareofaninnerrealitytranscendingtheplaneofindividualexperiences,maynotonlysurviveintheanti-traditionalambienceoftheModernworld,butmayevenuseitforhisownspiritualends,accordingtothewell-knownChinesemetaphorofthemantidingatiger:ifhedoesnotlethimselfbeunseated,hewillendbygainingtheadvantageoverit.

Thetiger,inthesenseenvisagedbyEvola,isthedissolvinganddestructiveforcethatcomesintoplaytowardstheendofeverycosmiccycle.Inthefaceofthis,theauthorsays,itwouldbevaintomaintaintheformsandstructureofacivilizationthatisalreadyplayedout;theonlythingtobedoneistocarrythenegationbeyonditsdeadpoint,sothat,byaconscioustransposition,itmayendup,notinnothingness,butina'newemptyspace,whichmayperhapsbethepremissofanewformativeactivity'.

Theworldthatistobenegatedbecauseitisdoomedtodestruction,isaboveallthe'materialisticandbourgeoiscivilization'whichinitselfalreadyrepresentsthenegationofanearlierandsuperiorworld.Onthispoint,weareinagreementwiththeauthor,butwenoteimmediatelythathedoesnotdistinguishbetweentheformspertainingtothis'bourgeois'civilizationandthesacredheritagewhichsurviveswithinitanddespiteit.Likewise,heseemstoincludeinthefateofthiscivilizationeverythingthatremainsoftheOrientalcivilizations,andheretoohemakesnodistinctionbetweentheirsocialstructuresandtheirspiritualkernel.Weshallreturntothislater.

Letusfirstrefertoanotheraspectofthisbook,withwhichwecanagreealmostwithoutreservation.Thisistheauthor'scritique,oftenmasterly,ofthevariouscurrentsofModernthought.Evoladoesnot

1Milan,Scheiwiller,1961.

placehimselfonthegroundofphilosophicaldiscussion,fortheModernphilosophyinquestionisnolongera'scienceofthetrue'itdoesnotevenclaimtobeso.Heconsidersitasasymptom,asthementalreflectionofavitalandexistentialsituation,essentiallydominatedbydespair:sincethedimensionoftranscendencehasbeendenied,therecanhenceforthonlybeimpasses;thereisnolongeranyexitfromtheviciouscircleofthementalelementlefttoitsowndevices;allthatremainsisadescriptionofone'sowndefeat.Asstarting-pointofthisanalysis,theauthorchoosesthe'philosophy'ofNietzsche,inwhichhedetectsapresentimentoftranscendentrealitiesandasitwereanattempttogobeyondthepurelymentalorder,anattemptforedoomedtofailurebytheabsenceofaspiritualdoctrineanddiscipline.

Withthesameacuity,theauthoranalyzesthefoundationsofmodernscience.Fromthischapter,wewillquotethefollowingpassage,whichrepliespertinentlytothepseudo-spiritualillusionsofcertainscientificcircles:

Fromthislatterpointofview,themostrecentscienceoffersnoadvantageoverthematerialisticscienceofyesterday.Withthehelpofatomsandthemechanicalconceptionoftheuniverse,onecouldstillimaginesomething(albeitinaverycrudeway);theentitiesofthelatestphysico-mathematicalscience,onthecontrary,areabsolutelyunimaginable;theyamounttonothingmorethantheholesinanetworkconstructedandperfectednotinordertoknowintheconcrete,intuitive,andlivingsenseoftheterminotherwords,accordingtotheonlymodethathasanyvalueforastillundegeneratehumanitybutsolelyinordertoexertacontrol,evergreaterbutalwaysexterior,overnaturewhich,initsessence,remainsclosedtomanandmoremysteriousthanever.Foritsmysterieshaveinfactmerelybeen'coveredover';ourgazehasbeendivertedfromthembythespectacularachievementsoftechnologyandindustryontoaplanewhereitisnolongeraquestionofknowingtheworld,butonlyoftransformingitfortheendsofahumanitythathasbecomeexclusivelyworldly...

Letusrepeatthatitisahoaxtospeakofthespiritualvalueofrecentsciencebecauseinitonenowspeaksofenergyinsteadofmatter,becauseitpeersinsidethemassofcoagulatedirradiations,

orbecauseitenvisagesaspaceofmorethanthreedimensions...Thesearenotionswhich,whentheyhavebeensubstitutedforthoseofearlierphysics,caninnowisealtertheexperiencewhichthemanoftodaycanhaveoftheworld...Whenpeoplesaythatthereisnomatter,onlyenergy,thatwedonotliveinaEuclideanspaceofthreedimensions,butina'curved'spaceoffourormoredimensions,andsoon,thingsremainastheywerebefore,myrealexperiencechangesinnothing,theultimatemeaningofwhatIseelight,sun,fire,sea,sky,plantsthatflowerandbeingsthatdietheultimatemeaningofeveryprocessandphenomenonhasinnowaybecomemoretransparentforme.Thereisnojustificationforspeakingofaknowledgethatgoesbeyondappearances,orthatknowsindepth,inthespiritualandtrulyintellectualmeaningoftheterm....

Nolesspertinentaretheauthor'sremarksonthesocialstructuresandtheartsofthecontemporaryworld.Wemustneverthelessexpressareservationregardingthethesisofthe'enslavementofthenegativeforce',asheappliesittocertainaspectsofModernlife.Letusquoteatypicalpassage:

Thepositivepossibilities(ofthereignofthemachine)canonlyconcernatinyminority,namelythosebeingsinwhomthedimensionoftranscendencepre-existsorinwhomitcbeawakened...Theyalonecangiveacompletelydifferentvaluetothe'soullessworld'ofmachines,technologies,Moderncities,inshort,ofeverythingthatispurerealityandobjectivity,whichappearscold,inhuman,menacing,devoidofintimacy,depersonalizing,'barbarous'.Itispreciselybyentirelyacceptingthisrealityandtheseprocessesthatthedifferentiatedmanwillbeabletorealizehisessenceandformhimselfaccordingtoavalidpersonalequation...

Inthisconnectionthemachineitselfandeverything,incertainsectorsofModernlife,thathasbeenformedintermsofpurefunctionality(especiallyarchitecture)canbecomesymbol.Assymbol,themachinerepresentsaformbornofanexactandobjectiveadequationofmeanstoanend,excludingeverythingthatissuperfluous,arbitrary,dispersive,andsubjective;itisaformthatrealizeswithprecisionanidea(thatoftheendtowhichit

isdestined).Onitslevel,itthusreflectsinacertainwaythevaluewhich,intheclassicalworld,puregeometricform(thenumberasessence)possessed,justliketheDoricprincipleofnothingtoomuch...

Heretheauthorforgetsthatthesymbolisnotaformthatis'objectively'adequatetojustanykindofend,butaformthatisadequatetoaspiritualendortoanintellectualessence;ifthereisacoincidence,insometraditionalarts,betweenconformitytoapracticalendandconformitytoaspiritualend,thisisbecausethefirstdoesnotcontradictthesecond,somethingthatcannotbesaidofthemachine,whichisinconceivableoutsidethecontextofadesacralizedworld.Infact,theformofthemachineexpressesexactlywhatitis,namelyasortofchallengeofferedtothecosmicanddivineorder;itmaywellbecomposedof'objective'geometricelementssuchascirclesandsquares,butinitsrelationshiporrathernon-relationshipwiththecosmicambience,ittranslates,nota'Platonicidea',buta'mentalcoagulation',orindeedanagitationoratrick.Therearecertainlysomeborder-linecases,likethatofamachinethatisstillclosetoatool,orlikethatofamodernshipwhoseshapeespousestoacertaindegreethemovementsofwaterandwind,butthisisnomorethanafragmentaryconformityanddoesnotcontradictwhatwehavejustsaid.Asfor'functional'architecture,includingmodernurbanism,itcanonlybecalled'objective'ifoneacceptsthatitspurposeisobjective,whichisobviouslynotthecase:allarchitectureisco-ordinatedtoacertainconceptionoflifeandofman;nowEvolahimselfcondemnsthesocialprogrammeunderlyingmodernarchitecture.Inreality,theapparent'objectivity'ofmodernarchitectureismerelyamysticisminreverse,acongealedsentimentalitydisguisedasobjectivity;moreoveronehasseenoftenenoughjusthowquicklythisattitudeisconverted,initsprotagonists,intothemostchangeableandarbitraryofsubjectivisms.

Itistruethatthereisnoformthatistotallycutofffromitseternalarchetype;butthisentirelygenerallawcannotbeinvokedhere,forthefollowingreason:foraformtobeasymbol,itisnecessarythatitbesituatedinacertainhierarchicalorderinrelationtoman.Inordertobeaspreciseaspossible,letusdistinguishthreeaspectsofthesymbolisminherentinthings:thefirstissimplytheveryexistenceof

theformconcerned,andinthissense,eachthingmanifestsitscelestialorigin;thesecondaspectisthemeaningofaform,itsintellectualinterpretation,eitherwithinagivensystemorinitself,byvirtueofitsmoreorlessessentialorprototypicalnature;thethirdaspectisthespiritualefficacyofthesymbol,whichpresupposes,inthemanwhousesit,bothapsychicandaritualconformitytoagiventradition.

Wehaveemphasizedthispoint,becauseJuliusEvolafailstorecognizethecrucialimportanceofatraditionalattachment,whileadmittingthepossibilityofaspontaneousorirregularspiritualdevelopment,guidedbyasortofinborninstinctthatmaybeactualizedbyacceptingthecrisisofthepresentworldasaliberatingcatharsis.ForEvola,thisisalmosttheonlyperspectiveremainingopenforthe'differentiatedman'ofourtime,foradherencetoareligion,inEvola'sview,amountstointegrationinamoreorlessdecadentcollectivemilieu,andthepossibilityofaregularinitiationisdismissed.

Weconcludethatinourdaythispossibilitymustbepracticallyexcluded,asaresultofthealmostcompletenon-existenceoftherespectiveorganizations.IforganizationsofthiskindhavealwayshadamoreorlessundergroundcharacterintheWestbecauseofthenatureofthereligionwhichsucceededingainingdominancethereanditsrepressiveandpersecutingactivitiestheyhavecompletelydisappearedinlattertimes.Asregardsotherpansoftheglobe,especiallytheOrient,theseorganizationshavebecomemoreandmorerareandinaccessible,eveniftheforcesofwhichtheywerethevehicleshadnotwithdrawnfromthem,inparallelwiththegeneralprocessofdegenerationandmodernization,whichhasfinishedbyinvadingeventheseregions.Inourday,eventheOrientisnolongercapableofsupplyinganythingbutoffshootsora'régimeofresidues';oneisalreadyforcedtoadmitthiswhenoneconsidersthespirituallevelofthoseAsiaticswhohavebeguntoexportEasternwisdomandtodivulgeitamongstus.

Thelastargumentisabsolutelyinconclusive:iftheAsiaticinquestionweretruerepresentativesofEasterntraditions,wouldtheydivulgethem?But,evenifEvolawererightinhisjudgementofthetraditionalorganizationsashumangroups,hiswayofseeingthings

nonethelessinvolvesaseriouserror,foraslongasatraditionpreservesitsessentialformsintact,itcontinuestobetheguarantorofaspiritualinfluenceorofadivinegracewhoseaction,ifnotalwaysapparent,immeasurablytranscendsanythingthatisinthethepowerofman.Weknowfullwellthatthereexistmethodsorways,suchasZen,whicharefoundedonthe'powerofone'sself'andwhichtherebydistinguishthemselvesfromotherwaysfoundedonthe'poweroftheother',thatistosaymakinganappealtoGrace;butneithertheonesnortheothersaresituatedoutsidetheformalframeworkofagiventradition.ForexampleZen,whichperhapsoffersusthemoststrikingexampleofanon-formalspirituality,iscompletely,andevenespecially,awareofthevalueofsacredforms.Onetranscendsforms,notbyrejectingtheminadvance,butbyintegratingthemintheirsupra-formalessences.

Moreover,Evolahimselfdefinesthemediatingfunctionofformwhenhespeaksoftheroleofthespiritual'type',whichheopposestotheindividualorthe'personality'intheprofaneandmodernsenseoftheterm:'Thetype(latipicità)representsthepointofcontactbetweentheindividualandthesupra-individual,thedemarcationlinebetweenthetwocorrespondingtoaperfectform.Thetypede-individualizes,inthesensethatthepersonthenessentiallyincarnatesanidea,alaw,afunction...'Theauthorsaysrightlythatthespiritualtypeisnormallysituatedwithintheframeworkofatradition,butapparentlythisdoesnotleadhimtobelieveinthe'typical'orsupraindividualnatureofallsacredforms,doubtlessbecausehedoesnottakeintoaccountwhatthemonotheisticreligionscallrevelation.Nowitisillogicaltoacceptthe'transcendentdimension'ofthebeinginotherwordstheeffectiveparticipationofthehumanintellectintheUniversalIntellectwithoutalsoacceptingrevelation,thatistosaythemanifestationofthisIntellectorSpiritinobjectiveforms.Thereisarigorousrelationshipbetweenthesupra-formal,free,andundeterminednatureoftheSpiritanditsspontaneousandthus'Heaven-inspired'expression,informsnecessarilydeterminedandimmutable.Intheirorigin,whichisunlimitedandinexhaustible,thesacredforms(althoughlimitedand'arrested')arethevehiclesofspiritualinfluences,andthusofvirtualitiesoftheinfinite,andinthisregarditiscompletelyimpropertospeakofatraditionofwhichonlytheformremainsthespirit

havingwithdrawnfromitlikethesoulfromadeadbody:thedeathofatraditionalwaysstartswiththecorruptionofitsessentialforms.

Accordingtoalltheprophecies,thesacreddepositoftheintegralTraditionwillremainuntiltheendofthecycle;thismeansthattherewillalwaysbesomewhereanopendoor.Formencapableoftranscendingoutwardshells,andanimatedbyasincerewill,neitherthedecadenceofthesurroundingworld,norbelongingtoagivenpeopleormilieu,constituteabsoluteobstacles.

Quaeriteetinvenietis.

LetusreturnforamomenttothetitleofEvola'sbook:theadagethatonemust'ridethetiger'ifonedoesnotwanttobetorntopiecesbyit,obviouslycontainsatantricmeaning.Thetigeristhentheimageofthepassionalforcewhichonemusttame.Onemaywellwonderwhetherthismetaphorreallycorrespondstothespiritualman'sattituderegardingthedestructivetendenciesofthemodernworld:letusnotefirstofallthatnotjustanythingisa'tiger';behindthetendenciesandformsthatJuliusEvolaenvisages,weshallfindnonaturalandorganicforce,noshaktidispensingpowerandbeauty;now,thespiritualmancanuserajas,buthemustrejecttamas;finally,thereareformsandattitudesthatareincompatiblewiththeintimatenatureofthespiritualmanandwiththerhythmsofeveryformofspirituality.Inreality,itisnottheparticular,artificial,andhybridcharacteristicsofthemodernworldthatcanserveasspiritualsupports,butthatwhich,withinthisworld,isofalltime.

IICHRISTIANTHEMES

4TheSevenLiberalArtsandtheWestDoorofChartresCathedralACCORDINGtotheMedievaltheologianstheVirginMary,byvirtueoftheinnateperfectionofhersoul,possessedallthewisdomofwhichmaniscapable.Adirectreferencetothiswisdomistobefoundintheallegoriesofthesevenliberalartswhich,justoutsideaninnercircleofadoringangels,decoratethetympanumoftheDooroftheVirgin.1IntheMedievalcontextthesevenscienceswhichwereclassifiedasthetriviumofgrammar,logicandrhetoricandthequadriviumofarithmetic,music,geometryandastronomywerenotexclusivelyempiricalsciences,asarethoseweknowtoday.Theyweretheexpressionofsomanyfacultiesofthesoul,facultiesdemandingharmoniousdevelopment.Thisiswhytheywerealsocalledarts.

Followingancienttradition,Dante,inhis'Convivio',comparesthesevenliberalartstothesevenplanets,grammarcorrespondingtotheMoon,logictoMercury,rhetorictoVenus,arithmetictotheSun,musictoMars,geometrytoJupiter,andastronomytoSaturn.ThecreatorsoftheRoyalDoorofChartreswerecertainlyawareofthiscorrespondence.Itisthusdoublysignificantthatonthetympanumoftheleftofthethreedoorsthesignsofthezodiacareportrayed.ThesebelongtotheunchangingheavenoffixedstarsandthusrepresentthekingdomoftheDivineSpirit,toWhomthisdoor,withitsrepresentationoftheascensionofChrist,isdedicated.Thesevenplanets,ontheotherhand,govern,accordingtotheancientviewpoint,theworldofthesoul.AndMaryisthehumansoulinallitsperfection.

1TheDooroftheVirginistheright-handofthethreeconstituentdoorsoftheRoyalDooroftheWestFaçade.OnthetympanumofthecentraldoorisaportrayalofChristinMajesty.

Bymeansofthesignsofthezodiacnotallofwhich,incidentally,appearonthesamedoor,PiscesandGeminihavinghadtobetransposed,forwantofroom,totheDooroftheVirginthearchessurroundingtherepresentationofChrist'sascension(ontheleft-handdoor)canbeseentorepresentthefirmament.Besideeachofthetwelvesignsofthezodiacthecorrespondingmonthisrepresentedpictoriallyintheformofitsnaturalactivity.

Thesenaturalactivitiesoneforeachmontharetheterrestrialreflectionsofthetwelvesignsofthezodiac.Fromthemonelearnstowhatextentthecourseofhumanexistencedependsupontheheavens:inseedtimeandharvest,inworkandleisure;fortheheavens,intheircycle,bringheataftercold,dryafterwet,andthuskeeplifeinbeing.

Thisissignificantformedievalart:inthetwotympanumsandinthearchessurroundingthem,thewholecosmosisrepresented,initsthreegreatdivisions:spiritual,psychic,andcorporeal.Medievalmanalwayskepttheprofoundorderofthingsinmind.

Theorderinwhichthesevenliberalartsarelisted,whenproperlyunderstood,testifiestoaPythagoreanviewofthings,andthiswasnotwithoutinfluenceonmedievalart.ThedivisionofthesesciencesandalltheirelementsintotriviumandquadriviumcameintoChristianculturefromGreekantiquityinalateandsimplifiedform.Themedievalspirit,however,wasabletoreanimatetheintegralvisionoriginallyinherentinit.

'Philosophyhastwomaininstruments,'writesThierryofChartres,'namelyintellect(intellectus)anditsexpression.Intellectisilluminedbythequadrivium(arithmetic,music,geometryandastronomy).Itsexpressionistheconcernofthetrivium(grammar,logicandrhetoric).'

Infactthetriviumwasaschoolingbothinlanguageandinthought.Itislanguagewhichmakesmanman;andthisiswhygrammarcomesatthebeginning.Notwithouthumour,thesculptoroftheDooroftheVirginhasportrayedthisartasawomanthreateningwitharodtwoyoungchildrenwhoarewriting.ThefiguresofthefamousgrammariansDonatandPriscianstandbesideher.Dialectic,whosefemininerepresentationinChartrescarriesascorpionandhasAristotleasacompanion,isnoneotherthanlogic.Rhetoricistheart

ofspeaking,orrather,speakinginsofarasitisanart;Ciceroaccompaniesitsallegoricalfigure.

ThefourmembersofthequadriviumarelikewiserepresentedinafeminineforminChartres.Theyare:arithmeticwithareckoningboard,musicwithaglockenspiel,geometrywithadrawing-board,andastronomy,contemplatingtheheavensandaccompaniedbyBoethius,Pythagoras,EuclidandPtolemy.Thesefourartsorsciencesrefertothefourconditionsofcorporealexistence:number,time,spaceandmotion.Music,ofcourse,isnotonlyconcernedwithtime,butalsowithsound;butitisintherealmofsoundthattimemanifestsitselfmostimmediatelyandcharacteristically;otherwisewecanonlygraspitinmovement,inwhichitisunitedwithspace.

'Everythingproceedingfromtheprofoundnatureofthings,'writesBoethius,thegreattransmitterofthequadrivium,'showstheinfluenceofthelawofnumber;forthisisthehighestprototypecontainedinthemindoftheFounder.Fromthisarederivedthefourelements,thesuccessionoftheseasons,themovementsofthestars,andthecourseoftheheavens.'

Itisaqualitative,andnotaquantitative,conceptionofnumberthatliesatthebasisofmedievalarithmetic.Itisthuslessamethodofreckoningthanawayofunderstandingthenatureofnumber,itsproperties,andtheuniquenessofnumericalseriesobtainedbycertainconstantrelationships.

Thateachindividualnumberdoesnotmerelyrepresentasumofelements,butinitselfisanexpressionofanessentialunity,appearsmostclearlywhenonetransposeseachnumberintoitscorrespondinggeometricalform:threeintoanequilateraltriangle,fourintoasquare,fiveintoaregularpentagon,etc.Ineachofthesefigures,innumerablerelationshipsappear,whichmultifariouslythrowlightontheinnerlawpropertothefigureinquestion.

Theconnectionbetweenarithmetic,geometryandmusiccanbeseeninthattherelationshipofmusicalnotestooneanotherismadevisibleinthemutualrelationshipofthevariouslylongstringswhichproducethem.Thiscaneasilybedemonstratedonamonochord,whichhasasinglestringandamovablebridge.

FollowingGreektradition,Boethiusdistinguishesthreekindsofproportions:thearithmetic,inwhichthesameintervalobtainsbetweenallmembersoftheseries,as,forexample:1,2,3,4,5,

6...;thegeometric,whichprogressesbymeansofaconstantmultiplication(a:c=c:b);andtheharmonic,whichunitestheprecedingtwo,accordingtotheformulaa:c=a-b:b-c.Thisisthemostperfectproportion:inmusicitismademanifestasharmony,andingeometryasthe'goldensection'.

Theregularrelationshipofdifferentmovementstooneanotherisrhythm.Theday,theyear,thecycleofthemoonthesearethegreatrhythmswhichmeasureallchange,andinthisregardastronomy,thelastmemberofthequadrivium,isthescienceofcosmicrhythms.

Number,proportion,harmonyandrhythmareclearmanifestationsofunityindiversityandalsoclearindicationsofhowtofindthewaybackfromdiversitytounity.AccordingtoBoethius,theessenceofthingsisintimatelyconnectedwithunity:themoreunityathingpossessesinitself,themoreprofoundlyitparticipatesinbeing.

Inmedievalscience,itislessaquestionofknowingmanythings,thanofhavinga'whole'viewofexistence.Itsmethodwasanythingbutdesignedfortheinvestigationofthematerialworldandthefurtheringoftechnology.Onthecontrary:itpossessedthemeanstoopenthespiritualeyetothebeautyofmathematicalproportions,andthespiritualeartothemusicofthespheres.

5BecauseDanteisRightTHEINCOMPARABLEgreatnessoftheDivineComedyshowsitselfnotleastinthefactthat,inspiteoftheexceptionallywiderangeandvarietyofitsinfluenceitevenshapedthelanguageofanationithasbeenbutseldomunderstoodinthefullnessofitsmeaning.AlreadyinDante'sownlifetimethosewhoventuredoutupontheoceanofthespiritinthewakeofhisship(Paradiso,II,1ff)weretoremainarelativelysmallcompany.TheymoreorlessdisappearedwiththeRenaissance;theindividualisticmodeofthoughtofthisperiod,tossedtoandfrobetweenpassionandcalculatingreason,wasalreadyfarremovedfromDante'sinward-lookingspirit.EvenMichelangelo,thoughhereveredhisfellow-Florentinetothehighestdegree,couldnolongerunderstandhim.1AtthetimeoftheRenaissance,however,peopledidatleaststilldebateastowhetherDantehadactuallyseenHeavenandhellornot.AtalaterdateconcernwiththeDivineComedydroppedtothelevelofapurelyscientificinterestthatbusieditselfwithhistoricalconnections,orofanaestheticappreciationthatnolongerbotheredaboutthespiritualsenseoftheworkatall.Admittedly,itwasknownthattheversesoftheDivineComedycontainedmorethanjustthesuperficialmeaningofthenarrative;DantehimselfpointedthisoutinseveralplacesinhisworkandalsoinhisConvivio(II,I),wherehetalksaboutthemultiplemeaningsofholyscripture,andquiteundisguisedlymakesthesameremarksapplytohisownpoem;thesymbolicalnatureoftheworkthereforecouldnotbeoverlooked.However,excusesweremadeforthepoet,andhisartisticmasterywasevencreditedwithenablinghimtobridge

1HowgreatlyMichelangeloreveredDantecanbeseenfromcertainofhisownsonnets.Thathewasnotreallycapableofunderstandinghimisapparentfromthetitanismofhissculpture:ifMichelangelohadknownthelawofsymbolismaccordingtowhichhigherrealitiesarereflectedinlowerones,hiscreations,inalltheircorporeality,wouldnothaveattemptedtotakeheavenbystorm.

overpoetically'thisscholasticsophistry'aboutmultiplemeanings.Thuspeoplefundamentallymisunderstoodthesourceuponwhichthepoetdrewforhisworkofcreation,sincethemultiplicityofmeaninginitisnottheresultofapreconceivedmentalconstructiongraftedontotheactualpoem;itarisesdirectlyandspontaneouslyoutofasupra-mentalinspiration,whichatoneandthesametimepenetratesandshinesthrougheverylevelofthesoulthereason,aswellastheimaginationandtheinwardear.Itisnot'inspiteofhisphilosophy'thatDanteisagreatpoet;heissothankstohisspiritualvision,andbecausethroughhisart,howevercaughtupintimeitmaybeasregardsitsdetails,thereshinesforthatimelesstruth,atonceblissfulandterrifyinginshort,itisbecauseDanteisright.

ThemostprofoundpassagesoftheDivineComedyarenotsimplythosewhereatheologicalorphilosophicalexplanationisplacedinthemouthofoneofthecharacters,northosewhichpossessanobviouslyallegoricalnature;itisaboveallthemosthighlyimagedandinasenseconcreteexpressionsthataremosthighlychargedwithmeaning.

Howaspiritualtruth,withouttheslightestdegreeofmentalinvolvement,cancongealintoanimage,canbeseenmosteasilyinthemetaphorsthatDanteusesinhisdescriptionofhell,as,forexample,themetaphorofthewoodcomposedofdried-up,barrenthornbushes,inwhichthesoulsofthosewhotooktheirownlivesareshutup(Inferno,XIII):itdepictsasituationdevoidofallfreedomandallpleasure,anexistenceborderingonthenothingnessthatcorrespondstotheinnercontradictionimpliedbysuicide,namelyawillthatdeniestheveryexistencethatisitsownbasisandsubstance.Astheegoitselfcannotcastitselfintonothingness,itfallsasaconsequenceofitsdestructiveactintotheseemingnothingnessthatthedesolatethornbushrepresents,buteventhereitstillremains'I',rivetedtoitselfmorethaneverinitsimpotentsuffering.

EverythingthatDantesaysabouttheinfernalwoodservestoemphasizethistruth:howthetreefromwhichheunsuspectinglybreaksoffabranch,criesoutatthewoundandscoldshimmercilessly;how,pursuedbydogs,thesoulsofthedissolutethey,too,despisersoftheirGod-givenexistencebreakthroughthethornwood,makingitbleed;andhowthetree,bereftofitsbranches,imploresthepoettogatherthebrokenpiecestogetheratthefootof

thetrunk,asifthepowerlessegoimprisonedwithinstillfeltitselfunitedwiththesedeadandseveredfragments.Here,asinotherplacesinthedescriptionofhell,everythingintherepresentationpossessesanuncannysharpness,neverintheslightestdegreearbitrary.

Dante'simagesofhellaresoveridicalpreciselybecausetheyarefashionedfromthesame'stuff'asthatoutofwhichthepassionalhumansoulismade.InthedescriptionofthemountofPurgatoryadifferentandlessimmediatelygraspabledimensionisintroduced:thesoul'srealitynowopensoutonacosmicscale,embracingthestarryheavens,dayandnight,andallthefragranceofthings:atthesightoftheearthlyparadiseonthesummitofthemountofPurgatoryDanteconjuresupinafewversesthewholemiracleofspring;theearthlyspringturnsdirectlyintothespringofthesoul,itbecomesthesymboloftheoriginalandholystateofthehumansoul.

Inrepresentingthepurelyspiritualstatesbelongingtothecelestialspheres,Danteisoftenobligedtomakeuseofcircumlocutions,asforexamplewhenheexplainshowthehumanspirit,bypenetratingmoreandmoredeeplyintotheDivineWisdom,becomesgraduallytransformedintoit:DantelooksatBeatrice,whoherselfkeepshereyesfixedonthe'eternalwheels',andashebecomesmoredeeplyabsorbedinhisvisionofher,heexperiencessomethinglikewhatbefellGlaucus,whowasturnedintooneofthesea-godsthroughconsumingamiraculousherb:

TrasumanarsignificarperverbaNonsiporìa;peròl'esempiobastiAcuiesperienzagraziaserba.

Topassbeyondthehumanstateisnottobedescribedinwords;whereforelettheexamplesatisfyhimforwhomgracehasreservedtheexperience.(Paradiso,I,70-1)

IfinthiswaythelanguageofthecantosoftheParadisosometimesbecomesmoreabstract,intheirturntheimagesthatDanteuseshereareevenricherinmeaning:theypossessaninscrutablemagic,whichshowsthatDantehasseeninspiritwhatheseekstoexpressinwords,andthatheistoanequaldegreepoetandspiritualvisionary,asfor

examplewhenhecomparestheuninterruptedascensionofblessedsouls,movinginresponsetothepoweroftheDivineattraction,tosnowflakesthatarefloatingupwardsinsteadofdownwards.(Paradiso,XXVII,67-72).

Thesimpleranimage,thelessunrestricteditscontent;foritisthesymbol'sprerogative,thankstoitsconcreteandyetopencharacter,tobecapableofexpressingtruthsthatcannotbeenclosedinrationalizedconcepts;which,however,innowayimpliesthatsymbolshaveanirrationalandpermanently'unconscious'background.Asymbol'smeaningiscompletelyknowable,eventhoughitdoestranscendreasonassuch;itcomesfromtheSpirit,andopensitselftothespiritorintellect,whichDantespeaksofasthehighestandinnermostfacultyofknowledge,afacultythatisfundamentallyindependentofanyform,eithersensoryormental,andiscapableofpenetratingtotheimperishableessenceofthings:

Nelcielchepiùdellasualuceprende,Fu'io;evidicosecheridireNèsanèpuòqualdilassùdiscende:Perchè,appressandosèalsuodisire,NostrointellettosiprofondatantoCheretrolamemorianonpuòire.

InthatheavenwhichmostreceivethofHislight,haveIbeen;andhaveseenthingswhichwhosodescendethfromupthere,hathneitherfacultynorpowertore-tell;because,asitdrawethnightoitsdesire,ourintellectsinkethsodeep,thatmemorycannotgobackuponthetrack.(Paradiso,I,4-9)2

Truesymbolismliesinthethingsthemselves,intheiressentialqualities,whichbelongmoretobeingthantobecoming.ThisexplainshowDante,inhisdescriptionofthehierarchicaldegreesofthespiritualworld,wasabletorelateittothestructureofthevisibleuniverse,asitappearsfromtheearthlystandpoint.Thiscosmiccomparisonwasjustasconvincingtothemedievalreaderasitis

2SeeDante'sowncommentaryontheseversesinhislettertoCanGrandedellaScala:'Intellectushumanusinhacvitapropterconnaturalitatemetaffinitatemquamhabetadsubstantiamseparatam,quandoelevatur,intantumelevatur,utmemonampostreditumdeficiatproptertranscendissehumanummodum.'

unconvincingtothereaderoftoday.Howisitpossible,thelatterasks,tobaseagenuinevisionofthespiritualworldsonascientificallyincorrectviewofthings?Inanswertothisitmustbesaidthateverypictureoftheuniversethatmanmakesforhimselfcanonlypossessaconditionalandprovisionalaccuracy;italwaysremainsinonewayoranotherattachedtosensoryexperienceandimagination,andhencewillneverbeentirelyfreefrom'naïve'prejudice;itis,however,scientifictotheextentthatitisabletoprovidelogicallysatisfyinganswerstothequestionsthatmanhasalwaysasked.ThePtolemaicrepresentationoftheworld,whichDanteusedasthescaffoldingforhiswork,wasinthissensecompletelyscientific.Butatthesametimeitwasperceptibletotheeyeandnotsoremotefromsensoryexperienceasthemodern,purelymathematicalexplanationoftheuniverse,anditispreciselyinthisclarityaclaritythatstillcorrespondsto'naïve'perceptionsthatitscapacitytobeasymbolresides.Becauseitcomprehendstheworldorderinrelationshiptoman,itdemonstratestheinnerunityjoiningmantotheuniverseandtheuniversetoGod:

...LecosetuttequanteHann'ordinetraloro:equestoèformaChel'universoaDiofasimigliante.

...Allthingswhatsoeverobserveamutualorder;andthisistheformthatmakeththeuniverselikeuntoGod.(Paradiso,I,103)

Danteinterpretedthequantitativedifferencebetweentheplanetaryheavensthatsurroundoneanotherconcentrically,asaqualitativegradationinaccordancewiththebasicnotionthatthehigherisreflectedinthelower:

LicerchicorporaisonoampiiedartiSecondoilpiùeilmendellavirtuteChesidistendepertuttelorparti...DunquecostuichetuttoquantorapeL'altouniversoseco,corrispondeAlcerchiochepiùamaechepiùsape.

Thecorporealcirclesarewiderornarroweraccordingtothegreaterorlesseramountofvirtuethatspreadsthroughalltheirparts...Thereforetheone[thehighestheaven],thatsweepethwithitalltherestoftheuniverse,correspondstothecirclethatmostlovethandmostknoweth.(Paradiso,XXVIII,64-66;70-72)

Thegeocentricandthereforehomocentricarrangementoftheplanetaryspheresisseenastheinverseimageofthetheocentrichierarchyoftheangels,whilehell'spit,withitscircles,isitsnegativereflection,towhichthemountofPurgatory,thrownupinthecentreoftheearththroughLucifer'sfall,providesthecompensatingcounter-balance.3

Evenmorethanbythe'antiquated'world-picturethatformstheframeworkoftheDivineComedy,mostpresent-dayreadersandnotonly'freethinkers'amongthemfindthemselvesrepelledbyDante'ssharpandapparentlypresumptuouslydrawndistinctionbetweenthedamned,thoseundergoingpurgation,andtheblessed.TothisonecanreplythatDante,asamanlivinginthethirteenthcentury,couldnothavewatereddownpsychologicallythetraditionalteachingaboutsalvationanddamnation,norcouldhehaveregardedthehistoricalexampleshementionsasanythingbuttypical.Butthatisnotthedecisivefactor:Danteiscompletelyimbuedwithandoverwhelmedbyhisperceptionofman'soriginaldignity,measuredagainstwhichthetracesofhellinthisworldappearastheyreallyare.HeperceivestherayofDivineLightinman,andhenceisboundalsotorecognizeassuchthedarknessofsoulthatisrefractorytothatlight.

ForDante,man'soriginaldignityconsistsessentiallyinthegiftofthe'Intellect',bywhichismeantnotmerelyreasonorthethinkingfaculty,butratherthatrayoflightthatconnectsthereasonandindeedthewholesoulwiththeDivinesourceofallknowledge.ThisiswhyDantesaysofthedamnedthattheyhavelostthegiftoftheintellect(Inferno,III,18),whichisnottoimplythattheycannotthink,

3ThesignificanceofDante'scosmographyisfullydiscussedintheearlierchapter'TraditionalCosmologyandModernScience'andalsointheauthor'sbookAlchemy:ScienceoftheCosmos,ScienceoftheSoul,(ElementBooks,Shaftesbury,England,1986).

sinceheallowsoftheirarguingamongthemselves:whattheylack,andwhatforthemhasbeenforevercastout,isthecapacitytorecognizeGodandtounderstandthemselvesandtheworldinrelationtoHim.Thiscapacityhasitsseat,asitwere,intheheart,inthebeing'scentre,whereloveandknowledgecoincide,forwhichreasonDantedescribestrueloveasakindofknowledge4,andthespiritorintellectasloving:bothhavefundamentallyonegoal,whichisinfinite.

Inthetrueman,allotherfacultiesofthesoularereferredtothebeing'scentre:'Iamlikethecentreofthecircleuponwhicheverypartofthecircumferencedependsequally',DantemakesAmor-IntellectussayinhisVitaNuova,'butthouartnotso'.(Egotanquamcentrumcirculi,cuisimilimodosehabentcircumferentiepartes,tuautemnonsic.XII,4)Totheextentthatdesireandwilltendawayfromthiscentre,evensoisthesoulpreventedfromopeningspirituallyontotheEternal:L'affettol'intellettolegal'passionfettersthespirit'(Paradiso,XIII,20).WhenDantesaysofthedamnedthattheyhavelostthegiftoftheIntellect,thismeansthatintheircasethewillhasbecomecompletelyalienatedfromthecentreoftheirbeing.Withthem,theGod-denyingofthewillhasbecometherulingimpulse:theygotohellbecausebasicallyhelliswhattheywant:'ThosewhodieinthewrathofGodcrossoverAcheronquickly,sinceDivinejusticespursthemon,sothatfearisturnedintodesire'(Inferno,III,121-126).ItisdifferentforthesoulswhohavetoendurethepunishmentsofPurgatory:theirwillhasnotrepudiatedtheDivineinman,buthassimplylookedforitinthewrongplace;intheirlongingfortheInfinite,theyhaveallowedthemselvestobedeceived:'Iclearlysee',saysBeatricetoDante,inoneplaceintheParadiso,'howinthyspiritalreadyisreflectedtheEternalLight,which,nosoonerseen,everenkindleslove;andifaughtelseseducethylove,itisnaughtbutsomevestigeofthatlight,illunderstood,thatshineththroughtherein'.(V,7-12)Whenatdeaththeobjectofpassion,anditsillusionregardingtheDivinegood,fallaway,thesesoulsexperiencetheirpassionasitreallyis,namelyasaburningupofoneselfonanappearancethatonlycausespain.Bycomingupagainstthelimitsoftheenjoymentthey

4See'Intellettod'Amore'byPierrePonsoye(EtudesTraditionnelles,Paris,May-June1962).

sought,theylearntoknow,negativelyandindirectly,whatDivineRealityis,andthisknowledgeistheircontrition.Thankstothis,theirfalsely-directedimpulseisgraduallyexhausted;itcontinuestoworkwithinthembutnowwithouttheconsentoftheirheartsuntilthedenialoftheirdenialturnsintotheaffirmationoftheoriginal,Godward-directedfreedom:

Dellamondiziailsolvolerfarprova,Che,tuttoliberoamutarconvento,L'almasorprende,edilvolerlegiova.Primavuolben,manonlasciailtalentoChedivinagiustiziacontravogliaComefualpeccar,ponealtormento.

Thewillaloneprovesthestateofcleansingthathasbeenreached;thewill,nowfullyfree,invadesthesoul,whichnowiscapableofwhatshewillShewillswellbefore,butthaturgepermitsitnot,which,justasitonceinclinedtowardssin,isnowdirectedbydivinejusticetowardspunishment,againstherownwill.(Purgatorio,XXI,61-66)

HerewearetouchingupononeofthemainthemesoftheDivineComedy,whichwemustinvestigatemoreclosely,eveniftodososhoulddivertussomewhatfromouropeningsubjects;itisthequestionofthereciprocalrelationshipbetweenknowledgeandwill,onwhichDante,throughouthiswork,throwslightfromallsides.Knowledgeoftheeternaltruthsispotentiallypresentinthehumanspiritorintellect,butitsunfoldingisdirectlyconditionedbythewill,negativelywhenthesoulfallsintosin,andpositivelywhenthisfallisovercome.ThedifferentpunishmentsinPurgatorythatDantedescribescanberegarded,notonlyasposthumousstates,butalsoasstagesinascesis,thatleadtotheintegralandprimordialcondition,inwhichknowledgeandwillor,moreprecisely,knowledgeofman'seternalgoalandhisstrivingafterpleasurearenolongerseparatedfromoneanother.AtthemomentwhenDantesetsfootintheearthlyparadise,atthesummitofthemountofPurgatory,Virgilsaystohim:

Nonaspettarmiodirpiùnùmiocenno:Libero,dritto,sanoètuoarbitrio,

Efalloforanonfareasuosenno:Perch'iotesopratecoronoemitrio.

Nolongerexpectmycounselnormysign:forfree,uprightandwholeisthyjudgement,anditwereafaultnottoactaccordingtoitspromptings;whereforeIcrownandmitretheeoverthyself.(Purgatorio,XXVII,139-142)

Theearthlyparadiseisasitwerethecosmic'place'wheretherayoftheDivineSpirit,whichpiercesthroughalltheHeavens,touchesthehumanstate,sincefromhereonDanteisraiseduptoGodbyBeatrice.Thatthisplaceshouldbethesummitofamountainovertoppingthewholeearthlyregioncorrespondsquitesimplytothenatureoftheearthlyparadiseitself.

Aquestionariseshere:whatisthemeaningofthefactthatDantehimselfscalesthemountofPurgatorywithoutsufferingasingleoneofthepunishmentsthroughwhichothersatonefortheirfaults?Onlyatthelaststagedoeshehavetowalkquicklythroughthefiresoastoreachtheearthlyparadise(Purgatorio,XXVII,10ff).Stagebystagetheangelsofthegateserasethemarksofsinfromhisforehead:onreachingthesummit,Virgilacknowledgeshissanctity,andyetshortlythereafterBeatricemeetshimwithburningreproachesthatmovehimtoagonizingrepentance(Purgatorio,XXX,55ff).ThemeaningofallthiscanonlybethatthewaytakenbyDante,thankstoaspecialgrace,isnotapathofmerit,butapathofknowledge.WhenVirgilsaysthatforhimthereisnootherwaytoBeatrice,toDivineWisdom,exceptbypassingdirectlythroughhell,thisshowsthatknowledgeofGodistobeattainedalongthepathofself-knowledge:self-knowledgeimpliestakingthemeasureoftheabyssescontainedinhumannatureandconsciouslysheddingeveryself-deceptionthathasitsrootsinthepassionalsoul:thereexistsnogreaterself-denialthanthis,andhencealsonogreateratonement.Properlyunderstood,whatBeatricereproachesDanteforisnotsomeactualsin,butsimplythathehaslingeredtoolongincontemplationofherreflectedearthlyradiance,insteadoffollowingherintotherealmoftheinvisible.InrepentingofthisDantethrowsoffthelastfetterbindinghimtothisworld.MuchcouldbesaidhereaboutthemeaningofthetworiversofParadise,LetheandEunoe,thefirstofwhichwashesawaythe

memoryofsin,whiletheotherrestoresthememoryofgooddeeds;butwemustreturntoourconsiderationofthewill-knowledgetheme.

Whereas,inthosewhosin,thewillconditionsthedegreeoftheirknowledge,intheelectthewillflowsfromtheknowledgeofthedivineorderthattheypossess.ThismeansthattheirwillisthespontaneousexpressionoftheirvisionofGod,andforthatreasontherankoftheirpositioninHeavenimpliesnoconstraintatall,asthesoulofPiccardaDonatiexplainstothepoetinthemoon-heaven,inanswertohisquestionwhethertheblessedinonespheremightnotdesiretooccupysomehighersphere'inordertobeholdmoreandbemoredeeplyloved?'

Frate,lanostravolontàquietaVirtùdicaritàchefavolerneSolquelch'avemo,ed'altrononciasseta.Sedisiassimoesserpiùsuperne,ForandiscordilinostridisiriDalvolerdiColuichequicicerne;ChevedrainoncapereinquestigiriS'essereincaritateèquinecesse.Elasuanaturabenrimiri:AnzièformaleaquestobeatoesseTenersidentroalladivinavoglia,Perch'unafansinostrevogliestesse:SìchecomenoisiamdisogliainsogliaPerquestoregno,atuttoilregnopiace,Com'alloRecheinsuovolerneinvoglia:Inlasuavolontadeènostrapace:EllaèquelmarealqualtuttosimuoveCiòch'ellacriaochenaturaface.

Brother,thequalityoflovestillethourwill,andmakethuslongonlyforwhatwehave,andgivethusnootherthirst.Didwedesiretobemorehighlyplaced,ourlongingswerediscordantfromHiswillwhoassignsustothisplace.Butthat,asthouwiltsee,cannothappeninthesecircles,sincehereofnecessityloverules.Andwhenthoudostrightlyconsideritsnature,sowiltthouunderstandhowitisoftheessenceofbeatitudetoexistinharmonywith

thedivinewill,sothatourownwillsthemselvesbecomeone.Ourbeingthus,fromthresholdtothresholdthroughouttherealm,isjoytoalltherealmastotheking,whodrawethourwillstowhatHewilleth:inHiswillisourpeace;Itisthatseatowhichallmovesthatitcreatethandthatnaturemaketh.(Paradiso,III,70-87)

SubmissiontotheDivinewillisnotlackoffreedom:onthecontrary,thewillthatrevoltsagainstGodfallsundercompulsiononthatveryaccount,5forwhichreasonthosewhodie'inthewrathofGod'arequicktoreachhell,'sincedivinejusticespursthemon'(Inferno,III,121-6),andtheseemingfreedomofpassionturnsintodependenceupontheurgewhich,'justasitonceinclinedtowardssin,isnowdirectedbydivinejusticetowardspunishmentagainsther(thesoul's)ownwill'(Purgatorio,XXX,61-6),whereasthewillofhimwhoknowsGodspringsfromthesourceoffreedomitself.Thusrealfreedomofthewilldependsuponitsrelationshipwiththetruth,whichformsthecontentofessentialknowledge.Conversely,thehighestvisionofGod,ofwhichDantespeaksinhiswork,isinaccordwiththespontaneousfulfilmentofthedivinewill.Hereknowledgehasbecomeonewithdivinetruthandwillhasbecomeonewithdivinelove;bothqualifiesrevealthemselvesasaspectsofDivineBeing,theonestaticandtheotherdynamic.ThisistheultimatemessageoftheDivineComedy,andalsotheanswertoDante'sefforttocomprehendthehumanbeing'seternaloriginintheDivinity:

Manonerandaciòlepropriepenne;SenonchelamiamentefupercossaDaunfulgore,inchesuavogliavenne.All'altafantasiaquimancòpossa;Magiàvolgevailmiodisiroevelle,Sicomeruotach'egualmenteèmossa,L'amorchemuoveilsoleel'altrestelle.

5Thejustificationfortheforcibledefendinganddiffusionofareligionrestspreciselyonthethoughtthattruthaloneliberateswhileerrorenslaves.Ifmanisfreetochoosebetweentruthanderror,thenhedepriveshimselfoffreedomthemomenthedecidesinfavourofthelatter.

Butnotforthisdidmyownwingssuffice;yetwasmyspiritsmittensuddenlywithaflash,whereuponitswillfoundfulfilment.Herethepowerofhighfantasyfailed;butalreadymydesireandmywillwereasawheelthatturnedregularly,drivenbytheLovewhichmovesthesunandtheotherstars.(Paradiso,XXXIII,139-145)

SomescholarstaketheviewthatBeatriceneverlived,andthateverythingthatDantesaysaboutherrefersonlytoDivineWisdom(Sophia).Thisopinionillustratestheconfusionbetweengenuinesymbolismandallegory,takingthelatterterminthesenseattributedtoitsincetheRenaissance:takeninthatsense,anallegoryismoreorlessamentalinvention,anartificialclothingforgeneralideas,whereasgenuinesymbolism,aswehavesaid,liesintheveryessenceofthings.ThatDanteshouldhavebestoweduponDivineWisdomtheimageandnameofabeautifulandnoblewomanisinaccordancewithacompellinglaw,notmerelybecauseDivineWisdom,insofarasitistheobjectofknowledge,includesanaspectwhichpreciselyisfeminine,inthehighestsense,butalsobecausethepresenceofthedivineSophiamanifesteditselffirstandforemosttohimintheappearanceofthebelovedwoman.Hereinakeyisprovidedthatenablesustounderstand,atleastinprinciple,thespiritualalchemywherebythepoetisabletotransposesensoryappearancesintosupra-sensoryessences:whenloveencompassestheentirewillandcausesittoflowtowardsthecentreofthebeing,itcanbecomeknowledgeofGod.Theoperativemeansbetweenloveandknowledgeisbeauty:whenexperiencedinitsinexhaustibleessencewhichconfersreleasefromallconstraintsanaspectofDivineWisdomisalreadywithinit,sothatevensexualattractionmayleadtoknowledgeoftheDivine,totheextentthatpassionisabsorbedandconsumedbylove,andpassionlikewisetransformedbytheexperienceofbeauty.

ThefirethatDantehastopassthroughatthelaststagebeforeenteringtheEarthlyParadise(Purgatorio,XXVII)isthesameasthefireinwhichthelustfularepurgedoftheirsin.'ThiswallalonestandsbetweentheeandBeatrice,'saysVirgiltoDante,asthelattershrinksfromsteppingthroughtheflames(ibid,36).'WhileIwasinthem',Dantesays,'Icouldhavewishedtothrowmyselfintomoltenglasstocoolmyself'(ibid,49-50).

TheimmortalBeatricegreetsDantesternlyatfirst(Purgatorio,XXX,103ff),butthenwithferventlove,andassheleadshimupwardsthroughtheheavenlyspheressheunveilsherbeautytohimmoreandmore,whichhisregardcanscarcelybear.ItissignificantthathereDantenolongerstressesthemoralbeautyofBeatricehergoodness,innocenceandhumilityashedidinhisVitaNuova,butspeaksquitesimplyofhervisiblebeauty;whatismostoutwardhasherebecometheimageofwhatismostinward,sensoryobservationtheexpressionofspiritualvision.

AtthebeginningDanteisnotyetcapableoflookingdirectlyattheDivineLight,butseesitmirroredinBeatrice'seyes.(Paradiso,XVIII,82-4)

Giustiziamosseilmioaltofattore:FecemiladivinapotestateLasommasapienzaeilprimoamore.DinanziamenonfurcosecreateSenoneterne,edioeternoduro:Lasciateognisperanza,volch'entrate.

JusticemovedmyexaltedMaker:DivinePowermademe,WisdomsupremeandprimalLove.Beforemewerenothingscreated,excepttheeternal,andeternalIendure:abandonallhope,yethatenter.(Inferno,III,1-9)

Facedwiththesefamouswords,whichstandinscribeduponthegateofhell,manyapresent-dayreaderisinclinedtosay:Maestro,ilsensolorm'èduro'Master,theirmeaningishardformetounderstand'(ibid,12),becauseitisdifficultforhimtoreconciletheideaofeternaldamnationwiththeideaofdivineloveilprimoamore.ButforDante,divineloveistheorigin,pureandsimple,ofcreation:itistheoverflowingoftheeternalwhichendowstheworld,created'outofnothing',withexistence,andthuspermitsitsparticipationinDivineBeing.InsofarastheworldisdifferentfromGod,ithasasitwereitsrootsinnothingness;itnecessarilyincludesaGod-denyingelement,andtheboundlessextentofdivineloveisrevealedpreciselyinthefactthatitevenpermitsthisdenyingofGodandgrantsitexistence.Thustheexistenceoftheinfernalpossibilitiesdepends

upondivinelove,whileatthesametimethesepossibilitiesarejudgedthroughdivinejusticeasthenegationthatindeedtheyare.'Beforemewasnothingcreated,excepttheeternal,andIendureeternally':theSemiticlanguagesdistinguishbetweeneternity,whichpertainstoGodaloneandisaneternalnow,andtheendlessdurationwhichpertainstotheposthumousstates:theLatinlanguagedoesnotmakethisdistinction,andthusDantelikewisecannotexpressitinwords.YetwhoknewbetterthanDantethatthedurationofthebeyondisnotthesamethingasGod'seternity,justasthetimelessexistenceoftheangelicworldsisnotthesamethingasthedurationofhell,whichislikeacongealedtime.Forifthestateofthedamned,viewedinitself,hasnoend,neverthelessinGod'ssightitcanonlybefinite.

'Abandonallhope,yewhoenter':itcouldalsobesaid,conversely:whoeverstillhopesinGodwillnotneedtopassthroughthisgate.Theconditionofthedamnedispreciselyhopelessness,sincehopeisthehandheldoutforthereceptionofgrace.

TotheModernreader,itseemsstrangethatVirgil,thewiseandgood,whowasabletoleadDantetothesummitofthemountofPurgatory,shouldhavetoresidelikealltheothersagesandnobleheroesofantiquityinlimbo,theante-chamberofhell.ButDantecouldnottransfertheunbaptizedVirgilintoanyoftheHeavensattainablethroughgrace.If,however,welookalittlemoreclosely,webecomeawareofaremarkableriffinDante'swork,whichseemstohintatadimensionthatwasnotdevelopedfurther:ingeneral,limboisdescribedasagloomyplace,withoutlightandwithoutsky,butassoonasDante,togetherwithVirgil,hasenteredthe'noblecastle'wherethesagesofoldwalkupon'emeraldlawns',hespeaksofan'open,luminousandhighplace'(Inferno,IV,115ff),asthoughhenolongerfoundhimselfintheunderworldcoveredbytheearth.Menthereare'ofslowanddeepgaze,ofgreatdignityintheirbehaviour,andspeakseldom,withmildvoices'(ibid,112-114).Allthisnolongerhasanythingtodowithhell,butneitherdoesitliedirectlywithinrangeofChristiangrace.

Inthisconnection,thequestionarises:didDanteadoptanexclusivelynegativeattitudetowardsnon-Christianreligions?InapassageintheParadiso,wherehenumberstheTrojanprinceRipheusamongtheelect,hespeaksoftheunfathomablenatureof

divinegraceandwarnsusnottobeprecipitateinourjudgement(XX,67ff).WhatelsecouldRipheusbeforDante,otherthansomedistant,innocentexampleofanextra-ecclesiasticalsaint?Wedonotsay'extra-Christian',becauseforDanteeveryrevelationofGodinmanisChrist.

Andthisleadstoyetanotherquestion:didDante,increatingtheDivineComedy,drawconsciouslyuponcertainIslamicmysticalworks,whichshowvariousanalogieswithit?ThetypeofepicpoemdescribingthepathoftheknowerofGodinsymbolicalform,isnotrareintheIslamicworld.ItmaybesurmisedthatcertainoftheseworksweretranslatedintotheProvençallanguage,6andweknowthatthecommunityofthe'Fedelid'Amore'towhichDantebelonged,wasincommunicationwiththeOrderoftheTemple,whichwasestablishedintheEastandopentotheintellectualworldofIslam.7Theargumentcanbecarriedalongway,andonecanfindaprototypeinIslamicesotericwritingsforalmosteveryimportantelementintheDivineComedyfortheinterpretationoftheplanetaryspheresasstagesinspiritualknowledge,forthedivisionsofhell,forthefigureandroleofBeatrice,andmuchelsebesides.However,inviewofcertainpassagesinDante'sInferno(XXVIII,22),itisscarcelycrediblethathecanhaveknownIslamandrecognizeditasatruereligion.AmorelikelyexplanationisthathedrewonwritingsthatwerenotthemselvesIslamic,butweredirectlyinfluencedbyIslamicdoctrines,8anditisprobablethatwhatactuallyreachedDantethroughthesechannelsamountedtomuchlessthancomparativeresearch9wouldhaveussuppose.Spiritualtruthsarewhattheyare,

6ThereexistsamedievalProvençaltranslationoftheMirâj,thestoryoftheProphet'sascenttoHeaven(EschieleMahomet,publishedbyMúñozSendinoandEnricoCerulli).Butthisismoreofapopulartreatmentofathemewhichelsewhereprovidesthebasisforimportantmetaphysicalandcontemplativeconsiderations.7SeetheworksofLuigiValli,especiallyIllinguaggiosegretodiDanteedeiFedelid'Amore,(Optima,Rome,1928).8ImportantinthisrespectisMS.Latin3236AintheBibliothèqueNationaleinParis,firstpublishedbyM.T.D'AlvernyinArchivesd'HistoiredoctrinaleetlittéraireduMoyenAge,1940(42).Ithasalreadybeenreferredtointheauthor'sbookonalchemy.ItisrelatedtotheDivineComedyinmanyways,andallthemoreremarkablyinthatitexpresslynamesthefoundersofthethreemonotheisticreligions,Moses,Christ,andMohammed,asthetrueteachersofthewaytoGodthroughknowledge.9SeethestudiesofP.AsínPalacios.

andmindscanencounteroneanotheratacertainlevelofinsightwithouteverhavingheardofoneanotheronanearthlyplane.

WhatmattersisnotsomuchwhatDantewasinfluencedbyasthefactthathewasright:theteachingscontainedinhisDivineComedyareallvalid,thoseintheforegroundinthesenseofthegeneralChristianbelief,andthemorehiddenonesforexampletheteachingonthemutualrelationshipbetweenwillandknowledgediscussedaboveintermsofgnosisintheChristiansenseoftheword.ItissignificantinthisconnectionthatDantewasnotself-deceivedabouthisownperson,andthathecouldobservehimselffromanimpersonalpointofview:heassessedhimselfcorrectlywhenhecountedhimselfamongstthesixgreatestpoetsofallages(Inferno,IV,100-102),andherightlyallowsVirgiltosayofhim:Almasdegnosa,benedettacoleicheintes'incinse!'Souldisdainful(ofallthatisvulgar),blessedbeshethatborethee!'(Inferno,VIII,44-45).HewasequallyunmistakenwhenhecondemnedthePapalpolicyofhistime,sinceitledtothemisfortuneoftheLutheransecessionandthesecularexplosionoftheRenaissance.Hischiefspirituallegacy,however,liesinthesymbolsandimageryofhispoem,whichneitherprofanephilosophicalresearchnorany'psychology'willeverexhaust.Theybearthesealofaninspirationindependentofalltemporalandspatialcircumstances,andthespiritualnourishmenttheyofferisreservedforthosewho,asDantesays,'inthetemporalworldalreadystretchouttheirnecksforthebreadoftheangels,bywhichoneliveshere,butisneversated'(Paradiso,II,10).

6ContraTeilharddeChardinBelowareextractsfromtwooftheauthor'sletters,inwhichheexpresseshisviewregardingTeilharddeChardin.

I

MYMAINOBJECTIONtotheevolutionarydoctrineofTeilharddeChardinisasfollows:ifthespiritualfacultyofmanthe'noeticfaculty',asTeilharddeChardincallsitismerelyaphaseofacontinuingbiologicalevolutionorinvolutionwhich,seenasawhole,canbecomparedtoacurveoraspiral,thenthisphasecannotstepoutofthewholeandsay:Iampartofaspiral.Anythingthatsuchanevolution-boundfacultycouldevergrasporexpresswouldlikewisebesubjecttoevolution,andthisleadstotheMarxistviewthatthereisnotruth,butonlybiologicalpragmatismandutilitarianism.ItisherethatTeilhard'stheorybreaksdowncompletely.

Thehumanspiritdoes,infact,havethefacultyofplacingitselfoutsidebiologicalcontingency,ofviewingthingsobjectivelyandessentially,andofmakingjudgements.TeilharddeChardinconfusesthecerebraland'noetic'faculties.TheNous(=Intellect=Spirit)isnotthesameastheactivityofthebrain;thelatter'worksover',whereastheformerjudgesandknows.Thetrulyspiritualfacultythatofdiscriminatingbetweentrueandfalse,ofdistinguishingtherelativefromtheabsoluteisrelatedtothebiologicallevel,metaphoricallyspeaking,asistheverticaltothehorizontal;itbelongstoanotherontologicaldimension.Andpreciselybecausethisdimensionoccursinman,heisnotanephemeralbiologicalappearance,but,inthisphysicalandearthlyworld,andinspiteofallhisorganiclimitations,anabsolutecentre.Thisisalsoindicatedbythefacultyofspeech,whichbelongstomanalone,andwhich,precisely,presupposesthecapacityto'objectivize'things,toplaceoneselfbehindandbeyondappearances.

TheterrestrialabsoluityofthehumanstateandofthehumanformisalsoconfirmedbythedoctrineoftheincarnationoftheDivineWordadoctrinewhich,inTeilhard'ssystem,losesallitsmeaning.IfmanfundamentallypossessesthecapacityofknowingGod,inotherwords,ifthefulfillingofthefunctionwhichishisbydefinitionisawaytoGod,thenonthebiologicalplanethereisnooccasionforasuper-man.Hewouldbeapleonasm.

Thepoorsaints!Theycameamillionyearstoosoon.Noneofthem,however,wouldeverhaveacceptedthedoctrinethatGodcouldbereachedbiologically,oragainthroughcollectivescientificresearch.

AndsoIcomebacktomymainobjection:accordingtoTeilhard'ssystem,the'noetic'facultyofmanisrelatedtobiogenesisnotastheeyeisrelatedtotheotherhumanparts,butratherasapart-processisrelatedtoawholeprocessandthisissomethingquitedifferent.Theeyecanviewtheotherlimbsandorgans,evenifonlyinamirror,butapart-processcanneverviewthewholeprocessofwhichitisapart.ThishasalreadybeensaidbyAristotle:whoeverassertsthateverythingisinastreamcanneverprovehisassertion,forthesimplereasonthatitcanrestonnothingthatisnotitselfinthestream;itisthusself-contradictory.

II

No,itisnottruethat'solongasawriteronreligioussubjectsisaffirmingbeliefs(whetherhisownorotherpeople's)heisexpressingthetruth,butwhendepreciatingotherpeople'sbeliefs,hiswordisnottobetrusted',forinthatcasethemosterroneousofsects,includingsatanism,andthemostabsurdofpersonalbeliefswouldbejustified;the'discerningofspirits'ofwhichtheNewTestamentspeakswouldhavenomeaning.Butperhapstheauthorofthisremarkisthinkingsomehowoftheprincipleaccordingtowhichadoctrinalpronouncementnotametaphysicalonebutadogmaticormoralonemaybeperfectlyvalidwithintheframeworkofagivenreligionwithoutnecessarilybeingvalidoutsideitandwithintheframeworkofanotherreligionthatisequallytrueinitself?Bethatasitmay,thisprincipledoesnotapplytothecaseofTeilharddeChardin,whosethesisonthegenesisofmanstandsinoppositionnotonlytotheformandspiritoftheChristiandogma,butalsotoall

traditionalwisdom.Letussimplysaythatthisthesisisfalse,thatitexpressesnoparticleoftranscendenttruth.Andhowcouldit,seeingthatitdeniestruthassuch:accordingtoTeilharddeChardin,intelligenceitself,includingallthatisdeepestinit,allthatisimplicitlydivine,issubjecttochange;it'evolves'togetherwiththesupposedevolutionofmatter,sothatitcouldhavenofixedandimmutablecontent;thespiritofman,accordingtoTeilharddeChardin,isentirely'inastateofbecoming'.Itishere,moreover,thattheTeilhardianthesiscontradictsitself,forifhumanintelligenceisnomorethanmatterwhichhasbeeninastateofprogressivetransformationeversincetheageofthefirstmolluscs,howcouldModernman,'half-developed'asheis,possiblytakein,withtheeyeofhisunderstanding,thewholemovementwhichiscarryinghimalong?Howisitpossiblefortheessentiallyimpermanenttojudgethenatureofimpermanence?ThisargumentshouldbeenoughtocondemntheTeilhardianthesis.Itremainstobeseenwhyithassomuchsuccess.

TheaverageModernman'believes'aboveallinsciencethesciencethathasproducedModernsurgeryandModernindustryandthisisalmosthisbasic'religion'.IfheconsidershimselfaChristianatthesametime,thetwo'beliefs'standinoppositiontoeachotherinhissoul,andengenderalatentcrisisthatcallsforasolution.ThissolutioniswhatTeilharddeChardinseemstobring.He'tiesthetwolooseendstogether';buthedoesso,notbymaking,asheshould,adistinctionbetweendifferentplanesofrealitythatofempiricalknowledgewhichisexactinitswaybutnecessarilyfragmentaryandprovisional,andthatoffaithwhichisboundupwithtimelesscertaintiesbutbymixingtheminextricablytogether:heendowsempiricalsciencewithanabsolutecertaintythatitdoesnotandcannothave,andheprojectstheideaofindefiniteprogressintoGodHimself.

Heputsforwardthetheoryofthetransformationofspeciesasacertainfact,whereasitisnomorethanahypothesis,asitsmostseriousdefendersadmit;novalidproofofithasever,infact,beenmade,andifinspiteofeverythingitkeepsitshold,thisisbecauseModernmindscanonlyconceiveofagenesiswhichtakesplaceintime;the'vertical'genesisofspecificformsfromthesupra-formalandanimicdegreesofexistenceisbeyondthem.Nonetheless,

scientifichonestydemandsthatoneshouldmakeadistinctionbetweenproofandhypothesis,andthatoneshouldnotbuild,asTeilharddeChardindoes,awholephilosophyindeed,apseudo-religiononanentirelyconjecturalbasis.ItisnotfornothingthatTeilharddeChardinwasthevictimofthefamousPiltdownhoaxtheEoanthroposofunhappymemoryandthathewasoneoftheinventorsofthenolessfantastic'Sinanthropos'ofChou-Kou-Tien!ButtheworstandmostgrotesquefeatureofTeilhardismisthefactthatitisobligedtoconsidertheprophetsandsagesofancienttimesasbeingmentally'under-developed':aretheynotalittlenearertotheapethanModernmanis?ItistruethatinthisrespectthethesisofTeilharddeChardinisinnosenseoriginal;itsnoveltyliesinitsbeingaTrojanhorsetointroducematerialismandprogressivismintotheverybosomofreligion.

7TheHeavenlyJerusalemandtheParadiseofVaikunthaWEREPRODUCEHEREaminiatureoftheHeavenlyJerusalemtakenfromamanuscriptoftheeleventhcentury,theso-called'ApocalypseofSaint-Séver'1whichbelongstoacertaingroupofmedievalmanuscripts,mostlyofSpanishoriginandallstemmingfromasingleprototype,acommentaryontheApocalypsewrittenbytheAsturianmonkBeamsdeLiébanatowardstheendoftheeighthcentury.ThesameimageoftheHeavenlyJerusalemoccursinmostofthesemanuscripts,withonlyslightvariations,sothatonecanadmitthatitscompositiongoesbacktotheprototype,whichisnowlost.

Theartistmadeuseofakindofabstractperspective,familiartomedievalreadersandviewers:herepresentedtheheavenlycityasifseenfromabove,withitswallsprojectedontothehorizontalplane.Inthisway,hecouldportraythetwelvegatesfacingthefourcardinalpoints:east,north,westandsouth,accordingtothesacredtext.(XXI,13)Thesameiconographicalschemeshowsclearlythesquareformofthecity:'Andthecityliethfoursquare,andthelengthisaslargeasthebreadth...'(XXI,16)TheheavenlyJerusalemisinfactthe'squaring'oftheheavenlycycle,itstwelvegatescorrespondingtothetwelvemonthsoftheyear,aswellastotheanalogousdivisionsofthegreatercycles,suchastheprecessionoftheequinoxeswhich,intheancientworld-system,isthegreatestofalltheastronomicalcyclesandthereforethelargestmeasureoftime.TheApocalypsementions'twelvethousandfurlongs'asthemeasureofthecity'scircuit;this

1Cod.Lat.8878oftheBibliothèqueNationale,Pads,fol.207v-208.TheHeavenlyJerusalemfromtheApocalypseofSaint-Sèever(eleventhcentury).

TheHeavenlyJerusalemfromtheApocalypseofSaint-Sèever(eleventhcentury).

numbercorrespondstothe'greatyear'ofthePersiansandisinfactanapproximatemeasureforhalftheequinoxialcycle,namelyforthetimeofthereversionoftheequinoxes(12960years).Uponthewallsoftheheavenlycityareseentwelveangels,whoaretheguardiansofthegates(XXI,12),andundereachgateisportrayedoneofthetwelveapostles,whosenamesarewrittenonthecity'sfoundations.(XXI,14)Underthegatestherearealsorepresentedtwelvecirclesorsphereswithinscriptionsreferringtothetwelvepreciousstonesgarnishingthefoundationsofthewall(XXI,9).Inoldermanuscriptsofthesamegroup,however,thesecirclesclearlyrepresentthepearlsofwhichthegatesaremade:'Andthetwelvegateswerepearls:everyseveralgatewasofonepearl'.(XXI,21)

InthemidstofthecitythedivineLambisstanding;onhisrightweseetheEvangelist,andonhislefttheAngelwiththegoldenreedmeasuringthecity.(XXI,15)

Forthemedievalvieweritwouldhavebeenclearthatthecitywasinfactnotonlyasquarebutacube:'Thelengthandthebreadthandtheheightofitareequal'.(XXI,16)TheHeavenlyJerusalemisreallyacrystal,notonlybecauseofitstransparent,incorruptibleandluminoussubstance,butalsobecauseofitscrystallineform.Itisthe'crystallization',intheeternalpresent,ofallthepositiveandessentiallyindestructibleaspectsofthetemporalorchangingworld.

ThisminiatureoftheHeavenlyJerusalemwaspublishedinabookdealingwiththesymbolismofthecathedral2whichpromptedareaderinIndiatosendthehereinserteddrawingofthemandalaoftheParadiseofVaikuntha,thecelestialabodeofVishnu,togetherwithatranslationofthecorrespondingpassagesoftheSkandaPurâna.3Theresemblanceofthemandalawithourminiatureoftheheavenlycityisindeedsurprising;itisevenmorecompleteifonecomparesthecorrespondingscripturaltexts.

LiketheHeavenlyJerusalem,thedivineabodeofVaikunthahastwelvegatesfacingthefourcardinalpoints.Themandalashowstheseinexactlythesamemannerasourminiature.Thereisonefeature,however,whichseemstomarkanessentialdifferencebetweenthetwoimages:thetreeoflifeispicturedinthecentreoftheVaikuntha-mandala,whereasthecentreofthecityofJerusalemistheLamb.Butthisdifferenceisduetoaniconographicaleconomyonly;itveilsanevendeeperanalogy,fortheApocalypsealsomentionstheTreeofLifeinthecentreofthedivinecity:'Inthemidstofthestreetofit,andoneithersideoftheriver,wastherethetreeoflife,which

2TitusBurckhardt,ChartresundieGeburtderKathedrale,Olten,1962.3ForthisdocumentationweareindebtedtoMissAliceBoner,Benares,theauthorofimportantstudiesonHindusculptureandarchitecture;seePrinciplesofCompositioninHinduSculpture,(Leiden,1962),dealingwiththegeometricalpatterns(yantras))underlyingtheHindusculpturesofthecaveperiod,andSilpaPrakâsa,amanualofHinduarchitecture,translatedbyAliceBonerandSadasiva*RathSarma*,(Leiden,1966).

baretwelvemanneroffruits,andyieldedherfruiteverymonth...'(XXII,2)

ThecentralfieldoftheVaikuntha-mandalaisdividedintosmallsquares;thereshouldbe12×12=144compartmentsaccordingtothePurâna;ourdrawinghas13×12,probablybymistake.Thesamedivisioninto12×12andsometimes13×12squaresmarksthecentralfieldofthecelestialcityinsomeoftheoldermanuscriptsoftheBeamsgroup4.Thenumber144ismentionedintheApocalypseasthemeasureofthecity'swall(XXI,17);itsnatureissolarandcyclical,144×180=25920beingthenumberofyearscontainedinthecompletecycleoftheequinoxes.

ThefourcomersoftheVaikuntha-mandalarepresentsecondaryshrines;theyaredividedinto16compartmentseach,whichmakes64altogether,thenumberofcosmicperfection.Thisisalsothenumberofsquaresinthechess-board,theastapâda,whichisamandalaofthecosmosintheformofthebattlefieldofthedevasandtheasûras.5

LikethegatesoftheHeavenlyJerusaleminourminiatures,thegatesofVaikunthaaresaidtobebuiltofcrystalandgold,preciousstonesandpearls.Bothareself-luminous:'Inthisself-luminous,brilliantsanctuarynosunisshining,nomoonandnostars',saysthePurâna;andtheApocalypse:'Andthiscityhasnoneedofthesun,neitherofthemoontoshineinit:forthegloryofGoddidlightenit,andtheLambisthelightthereof.'(XXI,23)

OnthetopoftheroofofVaikunthaisagoldenpitcherfilledwiththeMilkofImmortality.IthasnodirectanalogyintheHeavenlyJerusalem;butitclearlyremindsoneofthesymbolismoftheGraal;incidently,wemayobservethatthesanctuaryoftheHolyGraalasdescribedin'Titurel',isdirectlyrelatedtotheHeavenlyJerusalemanditscyclicalimplications.

WenowreproducetheextractfromtheSkandaPurâna(UtkalaKhanda,chap.48,SutaSamhitaandKapilaSamhita)andbesideittheanalogouspassagesoftheApocalypse.

4Cf.Ms.ofSanIsidroinLeón,NationalLibraryMadrid,B.31.5Seethechapter'TheSymbolismofChess'inthisbook.

TripâdaVibhûtiVaikuntha-

Manimandapa*Apocalypse

BeholdtheTempleofGemsstandingontheWhiteIslandsurroundedbytheOceanofMilk.InthemidstoftheMilkOceantheSacrificialHallismadeofpreciousstones.Itisbuiltofpurecrystalandisunshakable.

Andhecarriedmeawayinthespirittoagreatandhighmountain,andshowedmethatgreatcity,theholyJerusalem,descendingoutofheavenfromGod,HavingthegloryofGod:andherlightwaslikeuntoastonemostprecious,evenlikeajasperstone,clearascrystal(XXI,10,11).

TheinterioroftheTempleisintwelvebytwelvepartsandisshiningwiththefierybrillianceoftheSun.

Andhemeasuredthewallthereof,anhundredandfortyandfourcubits(XXI,17).

Itisrestingonsixteenpillarsmadeofemeraldsandhastwelveportalstowardsthefourdirectionsofspace.

Andhadawallgreatandhigh,andhadtwelvegates...Ontheeastthreegates;onthenorththreegates;onthesouththreegates;andonthewestthreegates(XXXI,12,13).

Deathlessness(amrta),Bliss(ânanda),GrowthorIncrease(pustr*),Happiness(tusti*),

Andatthegatestwelveangels,andnameswrittenthereon,whicharethenamesofthetwelvetribesofthechildrenofIsrael(XXI,12).

Andthewallofthecityhadtwelvefoundations,

Prosperity(pusa*),Delight(rati),Steadfastness(dhriti),Moon-likeLustre(sasini*),Illumination(candrikâ),Splendour(Kânti),HeavenlyLight(jyoti,)Fortune(sri*),thesearethetwelveguardiansoftheportals.ThesePratiharinîs,whoareguardingtheportalsareallveryyoungandbeautiful.

andinthemthenamesofthetwelveapostlesoftheLamb(XXI,14).

Andthefoundationsofthewallofthecityweregarnishedwithallmannerofpreciousstones.Thefirstfoundationwasjasper;thesecond,sapphire;thethird,achalcedony;thefourth,anemerald;thefifth,sardonyx;thesixth,sardius;theseventh,chrysolyte;theeighth,beryl;theninth,atopaz;thetenth,achrysoprasus;theeleventh,ajacinth;thetwelfth,anamethyst(XXI,19,20).

ThewallsofthesecondaryshrinesinthefourcomersaremadeofrubiesandhaveperforatedwindowswithsixteenopeningsThesearesixteenparts(kalâs),byaddingwhichthefullnumberof64kalâsisobtained.ThebeautifulsacrificialHallisemittingalightequaltoascoreofSuns,andthatlightwillenduretotheendofallthekalpas.

Andthereshallbenonightthere;andtheyneednocandle,neitherlightofsun;fortheLordGodgiveththemlight:andtheyshallreignforeverandever(XXII,5).

InthecentreoftheHallthereisthestainlessTree(ofLife)arisingfromtheshining,hundred-petalledlotus.

Andheshewedmeapureriverofwateroflife,clearascrystal,proceedingoutofthethroneofGodandoftheLamb.Inthemidstofthestreetofit,andoneithersideoftheriver,wastherethetreeoflife,whichbaretwelvemanneroffruits,andyieldedherfruiteverymonth;andtheleavesofthetreewereforthehealingofthenations(XXII,1,2).

Itsroofhastwostoreysandiscoveredwithgoldentiles.Betweenthe

storeysthereisaperforatedwallmadeofpearls.Onthetopoftheroofisabeautifulkalasa*,agoldenpitcherfilledwiththeMilkofImmortality.Theflagstaffismadeofcoral,andtheflagismotionless.Twodivinebirdsaresittingbythesideofthekalasa*inperfectsilence.Inthisself-luminous,brilliantsanctuarynosunisshining,nomoonandnostars.

Andthiscityhasnoneedofthesun,neitherofthemoon,toshineinit:forthegloryofGoddidlightenit,andtheLambisthelightthereof(XXI,23.)

ThisistheabodeofNârâyana,whoisbeyondthechangeableworldandbeyondtheunchangeable.IworshipthisPurusottama*,whoinallthethreeworldsisthemostdifficulttoapproach.

8TwoExamplesofChristianSymbolismBecauseoftheirintrinsicinterestandtheirrelevancetotheotherthemesdealtwithinthepresentsection,wereprintbelowtwoshortextractsfromtheauthor'searliestbookSchweizerVolkskunst('SwissFolkArt').

TheWoodenChest

BECAUSEofitsgeometricalform,comprisingsixflatsides,whichthechest(traditionallycarvedoutofonepieceofwood)hasincommonwiththeark,thehouse,andthecoffin,itisregarded,inthetraditionalloreofallpeoples,asasymboloftheearthnottheearthinageographicalsense,butinatransposedsense,asadegreeofexistence(theterrestrialstate),whichsupportsorcontainslife,justasthechestcontainspreciouspossessions,andwhichlikethearkfloatsonthewatersofthedeep.Thereisaninverserelationshipbetweenthesymbolofthethree-dimensionalorsix-armedcross,whichrepresentstheworldasradiatingoutwardsfromacentre,andthesacredchestwhich,initshexahedral,crystallineform,symbolizestheterminalstageofcreation.

Gargoyles

ThepurposeofthegrotesquemasksontheoutsidewallsofRomanesquechurcheswasundoubtedlythattheyshouldserveasameansofexorcismagainstimpurespirits.Themodeofactionofsuchexorcisticmaskscanbereadilyunderstoodifoneconsidershow,whenamanapproachesasanctuaryandseekstodirecthisspirittowardsthehighest,allthedregsinhisbeing,owingtoanaturalreactionofthesoul,tendtoariseandseektoenterhisthoughtsunderamultitudeofguises.If,atthismoment,heespiesamaskwhich

represents,withunmistakablegrossness,anyhiddengreed,passivityorlust,hecanlookonthem'objectively',andlaughatthem.Inthiswaytheevilspiritisexorcizedandfleesthescene.

Thesestonemasksthuscontributetoaprocessofunmaskinginthesoul,butonabasisthatistheexactoppositeofmodernpsychoanalysis.Forwhereasinthelattertheonewhoisplaguedbydubiousimpulsesisinvitedtoaccepthiscomplexesashimself,themedievalman,awakenedbyanexorcisticdevice,looksonthemischievousintruderasanenemyfromwithout,asanimpulseforeigntohimselfwhich,likeadisease,hassoughttotakerootinhim,andwhichhehasonlytoperceivewithclarityinordertobefreedfromit.For,accordingtoChristiandoctrine,thedevilcannottoleratethetruth.

9TheTheologicalMessageofRussianIconsTHEARToficonsisasacredartinthetruesenseoftheterm:itisnourishedwhollyonthespiritualtruthtowhichitgivespictorialexpression.Forthisreasonitisofteninadequatelyandfaultilyjudgedwhenapproachedfromtheoutsideandwithcriteriaborrowedfromprofaneandpurelyhumanart.

Moststudiesonartplacehistoricaldevelopmentintheforefront;theyanalyzetheinterplayofethnicandgeographicalinfluencesandseektherebytoexplaintheartitself,whiletheintellectualcontentofthepictorialrepresentationplaysasubordinaterole.Intheartoficons,however,itisthecontentthatisthecriterionoftheform.Thespecificallydoctrinalcharacterofthisartdeterminesnotonlytheiconography,butalsoitsartisticformandgeneralstyle.Thisissobecausethemeaningofanicontouchesacentresoclosetoman'sessencethatitgovernsvirtuallyallaspectsoftheworkofart,fromitsdidacticelementstotheimponderablesofartisticinspiration.

Itisquitedifferentinprofaneart,wherethesubject-matterofapaintingmerelyprovidesanopportunityfortheartisttoexpresshisowngenius,whichmaybemorevitalthanthesubjectchosenandwhoserichnesscomesfromelsewhere.

Itisthroughitscontentthatasacredarthasaccesstoalivingandtrulyinexhaustiblesource.Henceitisinitsnaturetoremaintruetoitself,evenwhenaparticularartisthasnothimselffullyrealizedthespiritualdepthofagiventheme,andsodoesnotdrawdirectlyfromthespringofholiness,butonlytransmitsmoreorlessofthelightthatiscomprisedinthesacredformssanctionedbyTradition.

Fundamentally,theiconalwaysremainsthesame;changesofstylearisefromthemeetingbetweenthetimelessspiritoftraditionandcircumstancesconditionedbytimeandplace,whichmerelycausetheunfoldingofdiversepotentialitieslatentinthenatureoftheicon

itself.AsLeonidOuspenskyhasrightlysaid1,justasByzantiumbroughttheologytoacertainperfectioninwords,soRussiahasdonelikewiseinpictures.

NothingcouldbemorepresumptuousthanthewishtoreplacetraditionalwisdomwiththepointofviewofModernpsychology,whichisquiteoutofplacehere.Thereisjustaslittlepossibilityofgraspingspiritualcontentpsychologicallyasofexplainingthenatureofbeautypsychologically.

1SeeTheMeaningofIconsbyLeonidOuspenskyandVladimirLossky(St.Vladimir'sSeminaryPress,Crestwood,NewYork,1983).

IIISYMBOLISMANDMYTHOLOGY

10TheSymbolismoftheMirrorFROMTHERICHreservoirofsymbolsthatareusedtogiveexpressiontothemysticismsofthevariousworldreligions,weselectherethesymbolofthemirror,forit,moreanalmostanyother,isfiredtoexpresstheessenceofmysticism,andatthesametimeitsessentiallygnosticorsapientialcharacter.Themirroristhemostimmediatesymbolofspiritualcontemplation,andindeedofknowledge(gnosis)ingeneral,foritportraystheunionofsubjectandobject.

Atthesametimethisexampleservestodemonstratehowthevariousmeaningsofasymbol,whichrefertosomanydifferentlevelsofrealityandwhichmaysometimesseemcontradictory,areinwardlycoherent,andharmoniouslycontainedwithinthetotalmeaningoftheimage,whichitselfispurelyspiritual.

Multiplicityofmeaninginheresintheveryessenceofasymbol;andthisisitsadvantageoverrationaldefinition.For,whereasthelatterorganizesaconceptinrespectofitsrationalconnectionsatthesametimefixingitonagivenlevelthesymbol,withoutlosinganiotaofitsprecisionorclarity,remains'openupwards'.Itisabovealla'key'tosupra-rationalrealities.

For'supra-rationalrealities'wecouldequallywellsay'supra-rationaltruths',andweemphasizethispoint,forithasforlongbeenthecustomtoexplainsymbolisminpurelypsychologicalterms.Notthatapsychologicalinterpretationisnecessarilywrongineverycase,foritcouldbeapossibility.Whatisabsolutelyfalseistheviewthattheoriginofthesymbolistobefoundintheso-called'collectiveunconscious',inotherwords,inachaoticsubstratumofthehumansoul.Thecontentofasymbolisnotirrational,butsupra-rational,thatistosay,purelyspiritual.Thisisnonewthesis,butpertainstothescienceofsymbolismthatispresentineverygenuinespiritualtradition.

Ourapproachhereispurelyprincipial:thesymbolismofthemirrorisasilluminatingasitisbecause,inasense,themirroristhesymbolofthesymbol.Symbolismindeedcanbestbedescribedasthevisiblereflectionofideasorprototypesthatcannotbefullyexpressedinpurelyconceptualterms.Inthissense,St.Paulsays:'Fornowweseethroughaglass,darkly;butthenfacetoface:nowIknowinpart;butthenshallIknowevenasalsoIamknown.'(1Cor.13;12.)

Whatisthemirrorinwhichthesymbolappearsastheimageofaneternalprototype?Firstlytheimagination,ifoneisthinkingofthevisualor'plastic'natureofthesymbolincontradistinctionfromabstractconcepts.Butinawidersense,itisthemindwhich,asthefacultyofdiscriminationandknowledge,reflectsthepureIntellect.Inanevenwidersense,theIntellectitselfisthemirrorofthedivineBeing.PlotinussaysoftheIntellect(Nous)thatitcontemplatestheinfiniteOne,andfromthiscontemplation,whichcannevercompletelyexhaustitsobject,theworldproceedsasaneverimperfectimagewhichmaybecomparedtoacontinuallybrokenreflection.

AccordingtoasayingoftheProphetMohammed,thereis'foreverythingameansofpolishingitandfreeingitfromrust.Onethingalonepolishestheheart,namelytheremembranceofGod(dhikrAllâh)'.Theheart,centreofthehumanbeing,isthereforelikeamirror,whichmustbepure,sothatitmayreceivethelightofthedivineSpirit.

TothismaybecomparedthefollowingteachingfromNorthernorCh'anBuddhism:Justasitisinthenatureofamirrortoshine,soallbeingsattheiroriginpossessspiritualillumination.When,however,passionsobscurethemirror,itbecomescoveredover,asifwithdust.Whenfalsethoughts,underthedirectionofthemaster,areovercomeanddestroyed,theyceasetoproclaimthemselves.ThenistheIntellectillumined,inaccordancewithitsnature,andnothingremainsunknown.Itislikethepolishingofamirror...(Tsungmi)

ThispassagemightequallywellhavecomefromaSufitreatise.

Whenthehearthasbecomeapuremirror,theworldisreflectedinitasitreallyis,namely,withoutthedistortionsduetopassionalthought;inaddition,theheartreflectsDivineTruthmoreorless

directly,firstlyintheformofsymbols(ishârât),thenintheformofspiritualqualities(sifât)oressences('ayân),whichliebehindthesymbols,andfinallyasDivineRealities(haqâ'iq).

ThisrecallsthesacredmirrorthatplayssuchanimportantroleinTaoismandShintoism.ThesacredmirrorofShintoismthatisconservedintheshrineatIsesignifiesbothtruthandtruthfulness.Accordingtothelegend,thegodsmadethismirrorinordertoenticethesun-goddessAmaterasuoutofthecaveintowhichshehadangrilywithdrawn,andsorestorelighttotheworld.Whenthegoddesspeepedoutofthecave,shesawherownlightinthemirror,thoughtitwasasecondsun,and,outofcuriosity,cameoutofthecave.Amongstotherthings,thisindicatesthattheheart,throughitsreflectivecapacityitstruthfulnessattractsthedivinelight.

Everythingthatlieswithinthelawofreflection,canalsobeappliedtothecorrespondingspiritualprocess.Itisimportantheretorememberthatthereflectedimageisinvertedinrelationtoitsobject.Thus,forexample,whendivineReality,whichcontainseverything,isreflected,itappearsasanungraspablyminutecentre;theblissofpureBeing,whenreflected,appearsasanannihilatingrigour;eternityappearsasasuddenmoment;andsoon.

Tothelawofreflectionalsobelongsthefactthat,whileareflectionisqualitativelysimilartoitsobject,itismateriallydifferentfromit.Thesymbolisthethingsymbolizedonlywhenoneabstractsitfromitsmaterial,orotherwiseconditioned,limits,andperceivesonlyitsessence.

Yetafurthercharacteristicofreflectionisthat,dependingontheshapeandpositioningofthemirror,theobjectappearsmorecompletelyorlesscompletely,moreclearlyorlessclearly.Thistoocanbeappliedtospiritualreflection,anditwasinthissensethattheSufimasterssaidthatGodrevealedHimselftoHisservantinaccordancewiththereadinessorcapacityofhisheart;Hetookon,sotospeak,theformofHisservant'sheart,ratheraswatertakesonthecolouroftheglasscontainingit.

Inthisconnection,themirroroftheheartiscomparedwiththemoon,which,dependingonitspositioninspace,moreorlessperfectlyreflectsthelightofthesun.Themoonisthesoul(nafs),whichisilluminedbythepureSpirit(Rûh),but,beingstillboundtotime,itsreceptivityhastosufferchange(talwîn).

Theprocessofreflectionisperhapsthemostperfectimageofthe'process'ofknowing,whichisnotexhaustedattherationallevel.Themirroriswhatitreflects,totheextentthatitreflects.Aslongasthehearti.e.thecognitiveIntellectreflectsthemultiplicityoftheworld,itistheworld,accordingtothewayoftheworld,namelywiththescissionofobjectandsubject,ofoutwardandinward.Totheextent,however,thatthemirroroftheheartreflectsdivineBeing,itispreciselythis,accordingtotheundividedmodeofpureBeing.InthissensetheApostlePaulsaid:'Butweall,withopenfacebeholdingasinaglassthegloryoftheLord,arechangedintothesameimage....'(2Cor.3;18.)

Weshouldlikenowtolookatthesymbolofthemirrorfromanotherangle.Hasanal-Basrî,oneoftheearliestmysticsofIslam,comparestheworldinitsrelationshiptoGodwiththereflectedimageofthesunthatisproducedbyafiatsurfaceofwater.Everythingthatwemayknowfromthereflectedimagestemsfromtheoriginalobject;butthisiscompletelyindependentfromitsreflection,andinfinitelyaboveandbeyondit.

Ifweseektounderstandthiscomparisionfromthestandpointofthe'unicityofexistence'(wahdatal-wujûd)thefundamentalconceptofIslamicmysticismwemustknowthatlightstandsforBeingandconsequentlydarknessstandsfornothingness;visibilityisexistenceandinvisibilityisabsence.Nowitisonlywhatisreflectedinthemirrorthatisvisible.Thepresenceofthemirrorisrevealedonlythroughthenatureofthereflectionandthroughitspurepossibility.Initself,withoutlight,themirrorisinvisible,andthismeans,accordingtothemeaningofthecomparison,thatinitselfitisnot.

FromthisthereisbutasteptotheHindudoctrineofMâyâ,thedivinepowerbyvirtueofwhichtheInfinitemanifestsitselfinthefinitebycoveringitselfwiththeveilofillusion.Theillusionconsistsinthefactthatmanifestation(i.e.reflection)appearsassomethingexistingoutsideInfiniteUnity.ItisMâyâthatgivesrisetothis;andMâyâ,apartfromthereflectionsthatfalluponher,isnothingotherthanapurepossibilityorfunctionoftheInfinite.

IftheuniverseasawholeisthemirrorofGod,soalsoismaninhisoriginalnature,sincethisqualitativelycontainsthewholeuniverse,themirroroftheOne.Inthisconnection,Muhyi'd-Dînibn'Arabî(twelfthcentury)writes:

BecauseofHisinnumerableperfections,GodwantedtocontemplateHisownEssenceinanobjectcomprisingallreality,soastomanifestHisownmysterytoHimself...Forabeing'sknowledgeofhimselfinhimselfisnotthesameasknowledgeofhimselfbymeansofsomethingotherthatactsforhimlikeamirror.Suchamirrorshowshimtohimselfintheformcorrespondingtothe'planeofreflection'andthereflectionresultingfromit...

WhatIbn'Arabîhasinmindis,ontheonehand,the'purereceptacle'ofmateriaprima(al-qâbil)and,ontheother,Adam;materiaprimaisinasensethemirrorthatisstilldarkandonwhichnolighthasyetshone,whileAdamis'theverybrightnessofthismirrorandthespiritofthisform'(Fusûsal-Hikam,chapteronAdam).

ManisthusthemirrorofGod.Fromanother,andmoreesoteric,pointofviewGodisthemirrorofman.Regardingthis,Ibn'Arabîwritesinthesamework:

Man,towhomtheEssenceofGodoffersitselftobeknown,doesnotseeGod;heonlyseeshisownforminthemirrorofGod.ItisnotpossiblethatheseeGodHimself,althoughhecanknowthatonlyinHimcanhebeholdhisownform.Thisprocesstakesplaceinthemannerofonelookinginamirror;forwhenthoubeholdestthyselfinamirror,thouseestnotthemirroritself,eventhoughthouknowestthatthoubeholdestthineownformonlybecauseofthemirror.GodHimselfprovidedthisphenomenonasthebestsymbolofHisSelf-revelation,sothatwhoeverreceivesthisrevelationmayknowthathecannotseeGod...Tryforthyselfwhether,whenthoulookestatareflectioninamirror,thoucanstseethemirroritself;thouwiltneverseeit.Thisissotruethatsomepeople,observingthislawofreflectionin[physicalandspiritual]mirrors,haveassertedthatthereflectedformisinterposedbetweenmirrorandobserver.Thisofcourseisnotso;inrealityitisaswehavejustsaid[namely,thatthereflectedform,sinceitdoesnotstandbetweenusandthemirror,doesnothideitfromus;neverthelessitisonlythankstothemirrorthatwecanseetheformreflectedinit]...Ifthougraspestthis[namelythatthecreaturecontemplatingneverseestheEssenceitself,butonlyhisownforminthemirroroftheEssence],thougraspesttheutmostlimitthatthecreaturecanreach;thereforeaspirenotbeyondit

andtirenotthysoulinseekingtodepassthisdegree[in'objective'mode],forinprincipleandinfactthereisnothingbeyonditbutpurenon-existence[theEssenceitselfbeingnon-manifested](Fusûsal-Hikam,chapteronSeth).

Inthesameconnection,MeisterEckhartwrites:

ThesoulcontemplatesitselfinthemirrorofDivinity.GodHimselfisthemirror,whichHeconcealsfromwhomHewill,anduncoverstowhomHewill...Themorethesoulisabletotranscendallwords,themoreitapproachesthemirror.Inthismirrorunionoccursaspureundividedlike-ness.

TheSufiSuhrawardîofAleppo(twelfthcentury)writesthatthemanonthewaytotheSelffirstdiscoversthatthewholeworldiscontainedwithinhim,thecognitivesubject;heseeshimselfasthemirrorinwhichalleternalprototypesappearasephemeralforms.Thenhebecomesawarethathehimselfhasnoexistence;his'I'disappearsasthesubject,andonlyGodremainsastheSubjectofallknowledge.

Muhyi'd-Dînibn'Arabîwritesfurther:'Godisthemirrorinwhichthouseestthyself,andthouartHismirrorinwhichHecontemplatesHisnames.ThesehoweverarenaughtotherthanHe,sothatitismerelyacaseoftheanalogyofrelationshipsbeinginverted'(Fusâsal-Hikam,chapteronSeth).

WhetherGodbethemirrorofmanormanbethemirrorofGod,themirrorinbothcasessignifiestheknowingsubject,whichassuchcannotalsobetheobjectofknowledge.InanabsolutemannerthisistrueoftheDivineSubjectalone,theeternal'Witness'(Shahîd)ofallmanifestedcreatures;thisistheinfinitemirrorwhose'substance'caninnowisebegrasped,butwhichneverthelessisknowableinacertainsense,becauseonecanknowthatonlyinitcanallcreaturesbeknown.

ThisthrowslightontheotherwiseobscurewordsthatDanteputsinthemouthofAdam.OfDante'slonging,Adamsays:

Perch'iolaveggionelveracespeglioChefadisèpareglioall'altrecose,Enullafaceluidisèpareglio.

IseeitinthetruthfulmirrorThatmakesitselfreflectorofallotherthings,Andofwhichnothingmakesitselfreflector.(Paradiso,XXVI,106ff)

Fâridad-Dîn'Attârsays:

Come,wanderingatoms,comebacktoyourcentre,andbecometheeternalmirrorwhichyehaveseen...

11TheSymbolismofWaterTHEMODERNECONOMY,inspiteofalltheresearchfindingsatitsdisposal,hasforalongtimealmostcompletelyleftoutofaccountoneofthemostimportantbasesofourlifeaswellasofitsownexistence,namelythelivingpurityofwater.Thisfactbearswitnesstoaunilateralnessofdevelopmentwhich,quiteapartfromthequestionofwater,isalsoharmfultomanyotherthings,nottheleastofwhichisthepsycheorsoul.WhenthebalanceofNatureisnotdisturbed,theearth'swatersthemselvescontinuallyre-establishtheirpurity,whereas,whenthisbalanceislost,deathandpollutionaretheresult.Itisthusnotmerelyacoincidencethatthe'life'ofthewatersisasymbolforthe'life'ofthehumansoul.

Whenoneconsiderswhetherthereisanythingthatcouldpossiblyalertnon-scientificallymindedpeopletothemenaceofwaterpollution,onequicklyrealizesthatthenaturalsenseofbeautythatenablesusspontaneouslytodistinguishadiseasedtreefromahealthyone,shouldalsobeabletosoundawarninghere.ThatithasnotdonesoorhardlydonesocomesfromthefactthatModernmancompletelyseparatesnotonly'thebeautiful'from'theuseful',butalso'thebeautiful'from'thereal'.Thiswayofthinkingislikeasplitinone'sconsciousness,anditisdifficulttosaywhetheritiscauseoreffectofastateofaffairswhich,ontheonehand,drivesmansystematicallytodestroy,onanever-wideningfront,thenaturalbalanceofthingsand,ontheother,impelshimperiodicallytofleetheartificialworldwhichinthiswayhecreates.Neverbeforehavetherebeensuchenormousconcentrationsofbuildingsofstone,concreteandiron,andneverbeforedidcity-dwellers,insuchenormousnumbers,periodicallyleavetheirhomesinordertore-discoverNatureattheseasideorinthemountainsthatveryNaturewhichtheythemselveshavesoinexorablybanished.Itwouldnotbetruetosaythat,insodoing,peoplearemerelyseekingtopreservetheirhealth.Many,ifnotall,areatthesametimeseekingarelaxationof

soulthatisaccordedonlybysurroundingswhosestillunspoiltandharmoniousstatehasensuredthepreservationofsuchbeautyasgivespeacetothesoulandfreesthemindfromthepressureofcalculatingthoughts.However,thesamepeoplewho,whenonholiday,consciouslyorunconsciouslyseekthisbeauty,quicklyrejectitas'romanticism'wheneveritstandsinthewayoftheirutilitarianinterests.Inthis,thegoodorbadintentionoftheindividualscarcelyplaysarole;everyoneisunderthepressureofeconomicforces,anditisusuallyunconsciousself-defenceifonehidesfromoneselfthedestructiveconsequencesofcertaindevelopments.Inthelongerview,however,suchanattitudeisdisastrous.

Beautyalwaysrepresentsaninwardandinexhaustibleequilibriumofforces;andthisoverwhelmsoursoul,sinceitcanneitherbecalculatednormechanicallyproduced.Asenseofbeautycanthereforepermitusthedirectexperienceofrelationshipsbeforewecanperceivethem,inadifferentiatedmanner,withourdiscursivereason;inthis,incidentally,thereisadefenceforourownphysicalandpsychicwell-being,somethingthatwecannotneglectwithimpunity.

Tothisitmaybeobjectedthatmenhavealwaysdistinguishedbetweentheusefulandthebeautiful;apleasure-grovewasalwaysaluxury,whileawoodwasusuallyviewedinautilitarianmanner.ItmightevenbesaidthatittookModerneducationtocreatethedesiretoprotectagivenpieceofnatureonpurelyaestheticgrounds.

However,inearliertimestherewerealsosacredgroves,whichnoaxemightfell.Theycateredneitherforuseintheusualsenseofthiswordnorforluxury.BeautyandrealitytwoqualitieswhichtheModernworldspontaneouslyseparateswere(and,formenwhohaveapre-modernviewregardingthesacred,stillare)united.EventodaytherearesacredwoodsinJapanandIndia,justastherewereinpre-ChristianEurope;wementionthemhereonlyasoneexampleofsacrednature,fortherearealsosacredmountains,aswellasandthistouchesusmorecloselysacredsprings,rivers,andlakes.EvenwithinChristendom,whichgenerallyavoidsthevenerationofthevariousphenomenaofNature,therewereandarespringsandlakesforexample,thewellatChartresandthespringatLourdeswhich,becauseoftheirconnectionwithmiraculousevents,havecometoberegardedassacred.Whatisimportanthereis

notthatsomeparticularmountainorspringisregardedassacred,andthereforeinviolable;butthatoneparticularphenomenonisinvariablyanexampleofawholerangeofrelatedthings,ofacompleteorderofNature,whichforalargerorsmallercommunityofmenisofvitalimportance,andexpressesahigherorsupernaturalreality:thus,fortheancientGermans,theforestwastheindispensablebasisoftheirverylife,andatthesametimesomethingofatemple,aplacethatharbouredtheDivinePresence.Allforesthadthisqualityand,inthissense,wasinviolable.Since,however,theforestsalsohadtobeused,therewerespecialsacredwoodswhosefunctionwastorecalltheprincipialandspirituallysignificantinviolabilityoftheforestassuch.ThecaseofthesacredcowamongtheHindusissimilar:inreality,fortheHindus,everythinglivingissacred,inotherwords,inviolableandsymbolical,for,accordingtotheirdoctrine,allconsciousnessparticipatesintheDivineSpirit.Since,however,itisimpossibleeverywhereandalwaystoavoidthekillingoflivingcreatures,thelawofinviolabilitywasinpracticelimitedtoafewsymbolicspecies,amongstwhichthecow,astheincarnationofthematernalmercyofthecosmos,assumesaspecialposition.Byrenouncingtheslaughteringofcows,theHinduinprincipleveneratesalllifeandatthesametimeprotectsoneofthemostimportantbasesofhiswayoflife,whichforthousandsofyearshasdependedoncultivationandtheraisingofcattle.Likewisethesacredsprings,ofwhichthereweremanyinMedievalChristendom,drewattentiontothesacrednessofwaterassuch;theywereareminderthatwaterisasymbolofgrace,somethingthatcanreadilybeseeninthesymbolismofbaptism.Thesacredisthatwhichistheobjectofvenerationandawe;itisthereflectionofsomethingeternal,andthereforeindestructible;andtheinviolabilitywhichitenjoysstemsdirectlytherefrom.

Dependingonwhichfaithapeopleadheresto,anddependingontheirhereditarymentality,thereareothernaturalorartificialthingsthattheymayregardassacred.Thefourelementsair,fire,water,andearthwhicharethemostelementarymodesofmanifestationofallmattertoofferthemselvestooursenses,arealmosteverywherewiththeexceptionoftheModern,rationalisticworldendowedwiththequalityofsacredness;fromthispointofview,earthisillimitable,airisungraspable,fireinitsverynatureis

undefilable;onlywaterisopentoviolation,andthereforecommendedtospecialprotection.

Torecapitulate:forpre-moderncultures,therearerealitieswhichtranscendthelevelofmereutilitarianismandhaveprecedenceoverthem.Theserealitiesareinthemselvesofapurelyspiritualordivinenature.Theyarehoweverreflectedincertainsensoryappearances,whichmayconsequentlybecometheobjectofvenerationandawe.Thesearethen,eithercompletelyorinpart(asrepresentativesymbols),withheldfromtheviolentinterferenceofmen.Suchanattitudeisnaturallyverydifferentfromthatofaestheticsensitivity,whichmayalsocauseus,allconsiderationsofusefulnessapart,toadmireandprotectanaturalphenomenon.Butthesenseofbeautyissomehowcontainedwithinthevenerationofthesacred;forthetrulybeautifulisthatwhichlieshiddenintheinexhaustiblerichnessofharmoniouslyunitedpossibilities.Thesameholdstrueforthesacred,andindeedforallphenomenaandelementspertainingtotheverybasesoflife,sothataweofthesacredalsomoreorlessdirectlycontributesnotalwaysinapredictablewaytothemaintenanceoflifeitself.

Afewremarksshouldbemadehereregardingtheelements:thesehavenaturallynothingtodowithwhatarecalledelementsinmodernchemistrybut,aswehavealreadysaid,representthemostelementarymodesofmanifestationinwhichthe'stuffonwhichtheworldismade'communicatesitselftoourfivesenses:thesolid,theliquid,theaerial,andthefierymodesofmanifestation.Thereareindeedotherliquidsbesideswater,butnonehasforusthesameaspectofpurity,andnoneplayssuchanimportantroleinthepreservationoflife.Likewisethereareothergaseoussubstancesbesidesair,butnoneofthemcanbebreathed.

Cosmically,then,thefourelementsarethesimplestmanifestationalmodesofmatter.Fromaninwardpointofview,ontheotherhand,theyarealsothesimplestimagesofoursoul,whichassuchisungraspable,butwhosefundamentalcharacteristicscanbelikenedtothefourelements.ThisiswhatSt.FrancisofAssisihasinmindwhenhepraisesGodforthefourelements,oneaftertheother,inhisfamousCanticleoftheSun.Inregardtowater,hesays:'PraisedbeThou,OLord,forsisterwater,whoisveryuseful,humble,precious,andchaste(Laudatosi,oSignore,persotacqua,la

qualeèmoltoutileedumileepreziosaecasta).'Thatmaysoundlikepurepoeticallegory,butinfactitsignifiesverymuchmore:humilityandchastitywelldescribethequalityofwaterwhich,inariver,takesonallforms,withouttherebylosingitspurity.Hereinalsoliesanimageofthesoul,whichpossessesthecapacitytotakeinallimpressionsandtofollowallformswhileremainingtruetoitsownundividedessence.'Thesoulofmanresembleswater,'saidGoethe,therebyreiteratinganimagethatoccursintheScripturesofbothNearandFarEast.Thesoulresembleswater,justastheSpiritresembleswindorair.

Itwouldleadustoofartomentionallthemythsandcustomsinwhichwaterappearsasanimageorreflectionofthesoul.Anawarenessthatthesoulrecognizesitselfwhenitbeholdswaterfindinganimationinitsplay,refreshmentinitsrest,andpurityinitsclarityisperhapsnowheremorewidespreadthanamongsttheJapanese.ThewholeofJapaneselife,totheextentthatitisstillformedbytradition,ispenetratedbyasenseofpurityandpliantsimplicitythatfindsitsprefigurationinwater.TheJapanesemakepilgrimagestothefamouswaterfallsoftheircountryandwillgazeforhoursattheunruffledsurfaceofatemplepond.SignificantisthestoryoftheChinesesageHsuyuarecurringthemeofJapanesepainterswhoreceivedamessagethattheEmperorwishedtohandoverhiskingdomtohim;hefledtothemountainsandwashedhisearsinawaterfall.ThepainterHarunoburepresentedhimallegoricallyintheformofayoungandnoblemaidenwho,inthesolitudeofthemountains,washesherearintheverticalfallofwater.

FortheHindus,thewateroflifefindsembodimentintheGangeswhich,fromitssourceintheHimalayas,themountainsoftheGods,irrigatesthelargestandmostpopulousplainsofIndia.Itswaterisheldtobepurefrombeginningtoend,andinfactitispreservedfromallpollutionbythefinesandwhichitdragsalongwithit.Whoever,withrepentantmind,bathesintheGanges,isfreedfromallhissins:innerpurificationherefindsitssymbolicsupportintheoutwardpurificationthatcomesfromthewaterofthesacredriver.ItisasifthepurifyingwatercamefromHeaven,foritsoriginintheeternaliceoftheroofoftheworldislikeasymboloftheheavenlyoriginofdivinegracewhich,as'livingwater',springsfromtimelessandimmutablePeace.Here,asinthesimilarritesofotherreligionsandpeoples,thecorrespondenceofwaterandsoulhelpsthelattertopurifyitselfor,

moreexactly,tofindanewitsownoriginallypureessence.Inthisprocess,thesymbolpreparesthewayforgrace.

Watersymbolizesthesoul.Fromanotherpointofviewbutanalogouslywatersymbolizesthemateriaprimaofthewholeuniverse.For,justaswatercontainswithinitself,aspurepossibilities,alltheformswhich,inflowingandsparkling,itmayassume,somateriaprimacontainsalltheformsoftheworldinastateofindistinction.

IntheBiblicalstoryofcreationitissaidthat,inthebeginning,beforethecreationoftheearth,theSpiritofGodmoveduponthefaceofthewaters;andtheholybooksoftheHindustellusthatalltheinhabitantsoftheearthemergedfromtheprimordialsea.Inthesemyths,waterisnotmeantintheordinarysenseoftheword;andyetthepicturetheycreateinourimaginationisinitsownwaycorrect,andasaptaspossiblycanbe,fornothingconveysbettertheundifferentiatedandpassiveunityofmateriaprima.

ThemythofthecreationofallthingsfromtheprimordialseafindsanechointheKoranicwords:'Wehavecreatedeverylivingthingfromwater'.TheBiblicalallegoryoftheSpiritofGodmovinguponthewatershasitscounterpartintheHindusymbolofthedivineswanHamsawhich,swimmingontheprimordialsea,hatchesthegoldeneggoftheworld;andeachoftheseallegoricalrepresentationsisfinallyechoedintheKoran,whereitissaidthat,atthebeginning,theThroneofGodwasuponthewater.

Theopenedlotusflower,theseatofIndiandivinities,isalsoa'throneofGod'floatinguponthewaterofmateriaprima,oruponthewaterofprincipialpossibilities.Thissymbol,whichwastransmittedfromHindutoBuddhistmythologyandart,bringsusbackfromwaterastheimageoftheprimordialsubstanceoftheworldtowaterastheimageofthesoul.Thelotus-streamoftheBuddhaorBoddhisattvarisesupfromthewatersofthesoul,justasthespirit,illuminedbyknowledge,freesitselffrompassiveexistence.Herewaterrepresentssomethingwhichhastobeovercome,butinwhichneverthelessthereisgood,becauseinitisrootedtheflowerwhosecalyxcontainsthe'preciousjewel'ofBodhi,theDivineSpirit.TheBuddha,the'JewelintheLotus',ishimselfthisSpirit.

Thatmustsufficeasasurveyofthemeaningswhichwatercanhaveasasymbol,thoughmanyotherexamplesofthiskindcouldbe

mentioned.Butitisnotmerelyaquestionofdemonstratingthatinallculturesthatcanbecalledpre-rationalistandthetermisnotusedpejorativelywaterhasmorethanapurelyphysicalorbiologicalmeaning;thespiritualrealities,ofwhichitisthesymbol,areneverattachedtoitarbitrarily,butaredirectlyandlogicallyderivedfromitsessence.ThecontemplativebeholdingofNaturewhich,throughessentialandconstantappearances,perceivesthetimelessprototypesorcausesoftheseappearances,isnotsomethingthatismerelysentimental,norisitboundtotimeandplace,andthisdespitethefactoftheModernworld,fromwhichthiskindofcontemplationseemstohavebeenbanished.Wesay'seems',forsuchacontemplationofthingsistoodeeplyrootedinthehumanhearttobeabletodisappearcompletely.Itevencontinuesunconsciously,anditwouldnotbedifficulttoshowhowthemysteriousattractionofwaterassomethingsacred,asasymbolicandmanifestedexpressionofapsychicorcosmicreality,livesoninart,especiallyinpaintingandpoetry.Who,whenconfrontedwithapuremountainlakeorwithaspringgushingforthfromtherock,hasneverfeltatleastsomethingoftheaweandvenerationthatareinseparablefromanythingsacred?Thepeopleofearliertimesknewbetterthanwethatonedoesnotdisturbthebalanceofnaturewithimpunity.Oursuperiorscientificknowledgeistotallyinsufficienttoprotectusfromalltheeffectsofadisturbednature;andevenifwecouldinsureourselvesagainsteverynegativereactiononthepartofthephysicalenvironment,wewouldstillhavenoguaranteethatthepsychicorsubtleworldwouldnottakeitsrevengeonus.AglanceatAsiaandAfrica,wherethespiritualequilibriumofancientcultureshasbeendisturbedonallsides,andtheirveryexistencecalledintoquestion,issufficienttoletussensethatitmaystillcometoadestructionof'livingwaters',incomparisonwithwhichthepollutionofourphysicalwaterswillseemharmless.

Inconclusion,andbywayofindicatingthateveninModernEuropetherearestillsacredwaters,mentionshouldbemadeofLoughDerginDonegal,themostnortherlycountyinIreland.InthisloughisanislandonwhichareanumberofChristianshrinesdatingfromtheMiddleAgesandalsoacave,whichrepresentstheentrytotheunderworld.Itiscalled'St.Patrick'sPurgatory',foritissaidthatitwasherethatSt.Patrick,theApostleofIreland,madehellandtheMountofPurgatoryappeartotheheatheninavision.Sincetheearly

MiddleAges,theislandhasbeenaplaceofpilgrimage,withwhichverystrictrulesareassociated.Thepilgrims,whoarebroughttotheislandbyboat,mustwalkonitfastingandbare-footed,andcarryoutcertainspiritualexercisesduringastayofthreedays.TheseconsistprincipallyinkneelingontherocksandprayingbeforeanumberofcrossesthathavebeenerectedinhonourofthemostimportantoftheIrishsaints.Eachtimeapilgrimcompleteshisdevotionbeforethese'stations',setoutlikethebeadsofarosary,hemakeshiswaytoalargerockthatrisesoutofthewateratalittledistancefromtheshoreoftheisland,and,afterafewprayers,recitesaloudthecreed,lookingoutoverthewaterofthelake.Peoplewhohaveperformedthispilgrimagedeclarethatthesemomentsofsolitude,incontemplationoftheunruffledlake,surroundedbyuninhabitedhills,releaseintheirheartssomethingthatisundescribable.

12InsightintoAlchemyTOMAKEofthebodyaspiritandofthespiritabody':adagesumsupthewholeofalchemy.Golditself,whichoutwardlyrepresentsthefruitofthework,appearsasanopaquebodybecomeluminous,orasalightbecomesolid.Transposedintothehumanandspiritualorder,goldisbodilyconsciousnesstransmutedintospirit,orspiritfixedinthebody.

Forthebasemetal,whichrepresentstheimmediatematerialofthework,isnoneotherthanconsciousnessboundtothebodyandasifsubmergedinit.Thisisthe'metallicbody'fromwhichmustbeextractedthe'soul'andthe'spirit',whichareMercuryandSulphur.Ifthe'body'werenotaninnerreality,itcouldnotserveasthematerialforthespiritualwork.

Intheaverageman,'toknow'and'tobe'areasitwerepolarizedinthoughtandbodilyconsciousness;thefirstrepresentsanintelligenceseparatedfromthebeingofitsobjects,whereasthesecondisapassivestateofbeingthatisasifbereftofintelligence.Thisdichotomyisnoticeableeveninthedreamstate,inwhichthepsychicformofthebodyismoreorlessdetachedfromitssensoryform.Thereturntothecentre,totheheartconsideredas'seat'ofthespirit,isbothanintegration,andasitwereaninversion,ofthetwopoles:bodilyconsciousnessinitsfashionbecomesintelligent:itistransmutedintoapassivestateofknowledge;atthesametimethoughtorthementalelementbecomescrystallizedunderthelightning-likeactionofthespirit.

Thistransmutationofspiritintobodyandofbodyintospiritistobefoundinamoreorlessdirectandobviousmannerineverymethodofspiritualrealization;alchemy,however,hasmadeofititsprincipaltheme,inconformitywiththemetallurgicalsymbolismthatisbasedonthepossibilityofchangingthe'stateofaggregation'ofabody.

Atthebeginningofthework,bodilyconsciousnessischaoticandobscure.Itisthencomparedtolead,andthe'régime'corresponding

tothisstateof'matter'isattributedtoSaturn.Thisplanetrepresentstheprincipleofcondensation,anditisthisthatexplainsitsseeminglycontradictoryassignationtothemetallead(amongcorporealsubstances)andtothereason(amongthefacultiesofthesoul):inrelationtotheexistentialdimensionoftheotherfaculties,thereasonislikeapointwithoutextension.Thepolarityofthoughtandbodilyconsciousnesstheopposition'spirit'/'body'isthustobefoundinthenatureofSaturn,andthiscorroboratesthehostile,impeding,andevensinistercharacterwhichthisplanetassumesindivinatoryastrology.

Ontheplaneofmethod,Saturninecondensationbecomesconcentration;theintelligencewithdrawsfromtheoutwardtotheinward;havingbecomeasinglepoint,itdescendsintotheinwardnightofthebody.

Accordingtoalchemicaldoctrine,everymetalisconstitutedbythemoreorlessperfectunionofthetwoprinciplesknownasSulphurandMercury;likewisebodilyconsciousness,assimilatedtothemetaltobetransformed,iswovenfromthesetwoprinciplesorsubtleforces,whicharebothoppositeandcomplementary:Sulphur,whichismale,andMercury,whichisfemale,arecombinedinthechaoticbodilyconsciousnessorinthebasemetalinsuchawaythattheyneutralizeorimpedeoneanother.

BasiliusValentinus1writes:'Wherevermetallicsoul,spirit,andformaretobefound,theretooaremetallicquicksilver,sulphur,andsalt...'2HethuslikensMercurytothesoulandSulphurtothespirit,anditisindeedthusthatthetwoprinciplesshouldbeunderstood,alwaysbeatinginmindthatalchemyconsidersthemprimarilyaspowersorforcesco-operatingonthesameplane,namelythatof'nature'.Ifithappensthatthesameauthor,orotheralchemists,shouldsometimescallMercury'spirit',thisisbecauseits'volatile'natureisherebeingopposedtothatofinertandsolidbodies,andinthissensebothSulphurandMercuryare'spirits'.Furthermore,Mercury,as'substance'oftheinnerorpsychicformof

1AGermanalchemistofthefifteenthcentury.2SeeDelagrandepierredesAnciensSages,publishedtogetherwithLesdouseClefsdelaPhilosophie,translatedbyEugeneCanseliet(Paris,1956).

thebody,correspondstothevitalspirit,whichisintermediarybetweensoulandbody.

AccordingtoGalen,thevitalspiritisaverypuresubstance,distributedthroughoutcosmicspace,whichtheheartassimilatesbyaprocessanalogoustorespiration,thustransformingitintoanimatelife.Itiseasytoseethatthiscorrespondstotheroleofprana,the'vitalbreath',asitisconceivedbytheHindus;itsemploymentinlaya-yoga,the'yogaofsolution',appearstobedirectlyanalogoustotheusetowhichthealchemistsputtheir'universalsolvent'.

Justasbreathingre-establishesrhythmicallythelinkbetweenthephysicalorganismandthecosmicenvironment,alinkwhichtheprogressivesolidificationofbodiestendstobreak,sotheparallelbutmoreintimateassimilationofthevitalspiritmaintainsthecontinuitybetweenthepsychicformofthebodyanditscosmicsubstance.BrotherMarcantonwritesonthissubject:

ItisnotthatIdonotknowthatyoursecretMercuryisaninnate,universal,andlivingspirit,which,intheformofanaerialvapour,descendsfromHeaventoearthtofillitsporousbelly,andisthenbornamongsttheimpureSulphursand,ingrowing,passesfromavolatiletoafixednature,givingtoitselfaradicalhumidform.3

The'porousbelly'oftheearthherecorrespondstothehumanbody;asforthe'impureSulphurs',theyarenoneotherthangrossbodiesasitwereenclosingtheirSulphur,whichistheirformalprinciple.Inallyingitselfwiththepsychicformofthebody,Mercuryissotospeaksolidified,whileatthesametimeconstitutingits'radicalhumid',inotherwordsitshyléorplasticsubstance.

Asregardsordinarymercury,itisnoteworthythat,aloneamongstthemetalsknowntoAntiquityandtheMiddleAges,itnormallyoccursinliquidform,anditevaporatesundertheactionofthecraftsman'sfire;itisthusbotha'body'anda'spirit'.Throughitgoldandsilvercanbeliquefied;inmetallurgy,itisalsousedtoextractthenoblemetalfromamixtureofimpureandinsolubleminerals;theamalgamisexposedtothefirewhichexpelsthemercuryandlaysbarethegold.

Justascommonmercuryformsanamalgamwithgold,sosubtle

3LaLumièresortantparsoi-mêmedesTenèbres,Paris,1687.

Mercurycontainsthegermofspiritualgold;thevitalbreath,whilebeing'humid'bynaturewhichisthatofthefemininecosmicenergy(theShaktioftheHindudoctrine)isthevehicleofthefieryprincipleoflife.Reducedtoitsuniversalprototype,MercurycorrespondstotheprimordialoceanofHindumythology,namelyPrakriti,whichcarriesHiranyagharba,thegoldeneggoftheworld.

Inconformitywiththisuniversalprototype,Mercuryincludesamaternalaspect;moreprecisely,itisitselfthematernalaspectorpowerofthemateriaoftheanimicworld.Forthisreasoncertainalchemists,somewhatdisconcertingly,giveitthenamemenstruum;bythistheymeantheuterinebloodthatnourishestheembryoaslongasitdoesnotflowoutwardsandbecomecorrupted;MercuryindeednourishesthespiritualembryoenclosedintheHermeticvessel.

Itisthroughbodilyconsciousness,apparentlyclosedinonitself,andinthemostintimatedepthsthereof,thatthealchemistrecoversthecosmicsubstanceMercury.Inorderto'capture'it,hewilluseassupportsomebodilyfunctionsuchasrespiration,andthisissignificantforallthespiritualartsrelatedtoalchemy;takingaphysicalmodalityasitsstarting-point,consciousnesswhichisessentiallyintelligenceascendsthroughitsown'existentialenvelopes'toarriveattheuniversalrealityofwhichthemodalityinquestionisareflectionorecho.Suchanintegrationcannothowever,beachievedwithoutsomekindofgrace;moreoveritpresupposesasacredframework,aswellasanattitudethatexcludesanyprometheanoregoisticadventure.

Mercuryisthus,atoneandthesametimeanddependingonitsvariousplanesofmanifestation,thesubtle'breath'animatingthebody,therestlesssubstanceofthesoul,thelunarpower,themateriaofthewholeanimicworld,andfinallymateriaprima.JustastheuniversalenergywhichtheHinduscallShaktipossessesnotonlyamaternalbutalsoaterribleanddestructiveaspect,soMercuryisboth'wateroflife'and'deadlypoison';inotherwords,its'humid'natureiseithergeneratingordissolving,dependingonthecircumstances.

'Shunthemixture,'wroteSynesius,4

4Greekalchemist.HeisperhapsidenticalwithBishopSynesiosofCyrene(379-415),adiscipleofHypatia,thePlatonistofAlexandria.SeeBibliothèquedesPhilosophesChimiques,Paris,1742.

andtakeitssimple(sic),forthisisitsquintessence.Observethatwehavetwobodiesofgreatperfection(goldandsilver,orheartandblood)filledwithquicksilver.Sodrawyourquicksilverthence,andyouwillmakeofitamedicinewhichiscalledquintessence,andhasapermanentandevervictoriouspower.Itisalivinglightthatillumineseverysoulthathasoncebeheldit.Itistheknotandbondofalltheelements,whichitcontainswithinitself,justasitisthespiritthatnourishesandvivifiesallthings,andbymeansofwhichnatureactsintheuniverse.Itisthestrength,thebeginning,themiddle,andtheendofthework.Totellyouallinafewwords,know,myson,thatthequintessenceandhiddenrealityofourstoneisbutourglorious,heavenlyandviscoussoulwhichbyourmasterywederivefromthemine5whichaloneengendersit.Itisnotinourpowertomakethiswaterbyanyart,sincenaturealonecanbegetit.Andthiswateristhesharpvinegarthatmakesapurespiritfromthebodyofgold.AndItellyou,myson,takenoaccountofanyotherthings,fortheyarevain,butonlyofthiswater,whichbums,whitens,dissolves,andcongeals.Itisalsothiswaterthatdecomposesandmakestogerminate...

AlthoughMercury,afterthefashionofuniversalsubstance,containsinpotencyallnaturalqualifiesitisalsooftenrepresentedasandrogynousitispolarizedinrelationtoSulphur,andismanifestedascoldandhumid,whileSulphurismanifestedaswarmanddry.Itshouldbenotedherethatwarmthanddryness,whicharethetwomasculinequalities,correspondtoexpansionandsolidification,andthatthetwofemininequalities,humidityandcold,representsolutionandcontraction.Inasense,Sulphurimitates,inadynamicandindirectway,theactionoftheformalprinciple,oressence,which'deploys'formsand'fixes'theminacertainplaneofexistence.Ontheotherhandsolutionandcontraction,whichpertaintoMercury,expressthereceptivityofthefeminineorplasticprinciple,itsfacultyofassumingallformswithoutbeingheldbythem,anditsdelimitingorseparativeaction,whichisanaspectofmateria.Inthecrafts,theanalogybetweenSulphurandtheformal

5AccordingtoMorienus,itismanwhoisthemineofthethingwithwhichMasteryisaccomplished.(DialogueduroiKhalidavecl'ermiteMoriénusinBibliothèquedesPhilosophesChimiques.)

principleisevincedinSulphur'scolouringaction:thusthecombinationofcommonsulphurandmercuryproducescinnabar,inwhichtheliquidmercuryisbothfixedandcolouredbysulphur.Inmetallurgicalsymbolism,colourisanalogoustoquality,andthustoform,inthetraditionalmeaningofthisterm.Howeveritshouldbestressedthatcinnabarisonlyanimperfectproductoftheprinciplesconcerned,justascommonsulphurandmercuryarenotidenticalwiththetwoalchemicalprinciplestheysymbolize.

Inthefirstphaseofthework,itisthesolidifyingorcoagulatingactionofSulphurwhichisopposedtotheliberationofMercury,justasthecontractingactionofMercuryneutralizesSulphur.TheknotisloosenedbythegrowthofMercury:totheextentthatMercurydissolvestheimperfectcoagulationthe'basemetal'theexpandingwarmthofSulphurcomesintoplayinitsturn.AtthebeginningMercuryworksagainstthesolidifyingpowerofSulphur;butafterthat,itawakensitsgenerativestrength,whichmanifeststhetrueformofgold.Thisisanalogoustotheamorouscombatbetweenmanandwoman;itisthefemininefascinationthatdissolvesthe'solidification'ofthevirilenatureandawakensitspower.Itissufficientheretoremarkthatitisthisfascination,spirituallycanalized,whichplaysacertainroleinTantricmethods.

InLesNocesChymiquesdeChristianRosencreutz,JohannValentinAndreae6narratesthefollowingparable:

...abeautifulunicorn,whiteassnow,andwearingagoldcollarinscribedwithcertainsigns,advancedtowardsthefountainand,bendingonitsfrontlegs,kneltasiftodoobeisancetothelionwhostooduprightonthefountain.Thislion,whobecauseofhiscompleteimmobilityseemedtobeofstoneorbrass,forthwithseizedanakedswordwhichheheldinhisclaws,andbrokeitintwain;Ithinkthetwohalvesfellintothefountain.Thenthelioncontinuedtoroaruntilawhitedove,carryinganolivebranchinitsbeak,flewtowardshimasfastasitcould;shegavethebranchtothelionwhoswalloweditandbecamequietoncemoreThenwithjoyousboundstheunicornreturnedtoherplace.

Thewhiteunicorn,alunaryanimal,isMercuryinitspurestate.The

61586-1654.BookpublishedbyChacornac,Paris,1928.

lionisSulphurwhich,beingidentifiedwiththebodyofwhichitistheformalprinciple,appearsatfirstasimmobileasastatue.BythehomageofMercuryhewakesandbeginstoroar.Hisroaringisnoneotherthanhiscreativepower:accordingtothePhysiologus,thelionvivifiesthestillborncubsbyhisvoice.Thelionbreakstheswordofreasonandthepiecesfallintothefountainwheretheydissolve.HedoesnotstoproaringuntilthedoveoftheHolySpiritgiveshimtoeattheolivebranchofknowledge.Thisseemstobethemeaningofthisparable,ofwhichJohannValentinAndreaewascertainlynottheauthor.

Incertainconditions,Sulphur,whenfettered,isthereasonandcontainsthegoldofthespiritinasterilestate.ThisgoldfirsthastobedissolvedinthefountainofMercury,inordertobecometheliving'ferment'whichwilltransformothermetalsintogold.

ThefirstactionofMercuryisto'whiten'thebody.Artephius7wrote:

Thewholesecret...isthatweshouldknowhowtoextractfromthebodyofMagnesiathenon-burningquicksilver,whichisAntimony,andtheMercurialSublimate;inotherwords,itisnecessarytoextractanincombustiblelivingwater,andthencongealitwiththeperfectbodyoftheSun,whichdissolvesinitintoawhitesubstancelikecream,untilitallbecomeswhite.However,becauseofthedecompositionandsolutionitundergoesinthiswater,theSunwillfirstloseitslight;itwillbeobscuredandblackened;thenitwillriseabovethewater,andgraduallyawhitecolourandsubstancewillfloatonthesurface;thisiswhatiscalledwhiteningtheredbrass,philosophicallysublimatingit,andreducingittoitsprimarymatter,namelyincombustiblewhitesulphurandfixedquicksilver.Thusthehumidisterminated;inotherwords,gold,ourbody,havingundergonerepeatedliquefactioninourdissolventwater,isconvertedandreducedtosulphurandfixedquicksilver.Inthiswaytheperfectbodyofthesuntakeslifeinthiswater,andisvivifiedandinspired;itwillgrowandmultiplyinitsownkindlikeallotherthings...

7Amedievalalchemistofwhoselifenothingisknown.'Artephius'isprobablyapseudonym.(BibliothèquedesPhilosopheschimiques.)

ThesunreferredtobyArtephius,whichhastodieandbedissolvedinthemercurialwater8beforebeingreborn,representsindividualconsciousnessboundtothebody,thebodilyegoasitwere,whichisgoldorsunonlyinthelatentstate.Alchemistsoftengivethename'gold'or'sun'towhatismerelyvirtuallygold.

The'whitening'ofthe'body',whichfollowsthe'blackening',issometimesdescribedasadissolvingofthebodyinthemercurialwater,andsometimesasaseparatingofthesoulfromthebody.Whatthismeansisthatthereductionofbodilyconsciousnesstoitspsychicsubstancecausesthesoultowithdrawfromthesensoryorgansandasitwereexpandina'space'thatisbothinwardandunlimited.'ItascendsfromEarthtoHeaven,'saystheEmeraldTablet,'andredescendsfromHeaventoEarth,thusreceivingthepowerofbothhigherandlowerthings.'Inthesamesense,onespeaksofasublimationthathastobefollowedbyanewcoagulation.

Whentheinnerconsciousnessisthusreducedtoitsprimarymatter,theequivalentofthemoonorsilver,Sulphurisrevealedinitstruenature,whichisapoweremanatingfromthemysteriouscentreofthebeing,fromitsdivineessence.Thisistheroaringofthesolarlion,whichislikeasonorouslightoraluminoussound.Sulphur'fixes'thefluidandungraspablesubstanceofMercurybygivingitanewformwhichisbothbodyandspirit.

Artephiuswrote:

...natureschangeeachother,becausethebodyincorporatesthespirit,andthespiritchangesthebodyintoaspiritbothcolouredandwhite...boilitinourwhitewater,namelyMercury,untilitisdissolvedinblackness;then,throughcontinuousdecoction,theblacknesswilldisappear,andfinallythebodythusdissolvedwillascendwiththewhitesoul[bodilyconsciousnessreabsorbedintothesoul],andtheoneshallbemergedwiththeother,andtheyshallembraceeachotherinsuchawaythattheycannevermorebeseparated;thenthespiritisunitedtothebody(byaprocessinversetothefirst)withtrueharmony,andtheybecomeasinglepermanentthing(thebody'fixing'thespirit,andthespiritturningbodilyconsciousnessintoapurespiritualstate);thisisthesolution

8OrinAntimony,whichisalsoadissolventandwhich,inspiritualalchemy,isasynonymforMercury.

ofthebodyandthecoagulationofthespirit,whichareoneandthesameoperation.

MostalchemistsspeakonlyofSulphurandMercuryastheconstituentnaturesofgold;others,keBasilValentine,addathird,namelySalt.Inthecrafts,SulphuristhecauseofcombustionandMercuryofevaporation,whereasSaltisrepresentedbyash.IfSulphurandMercuryare'spirits',Saltisthebody,ormoreaccurately,theprincipleofcorporeality.Inacertainsense,Sulphur,Mercury,andSaltcorrespondrespectivelytothespirit(orthespiritualessence),thesoul,andthebodyinman,oralternatively,totheimmortalsoul,thevitalbreath,andthebody.

Ifthedistinctionsbetweenthesethreenaturesdonotalwaysseemclearinthedescriptionsofthealchemicalwork,thisresultsfromtheirnotbeingconsideredinthemselves,butonlythroughtheiractionsonthecosmicplaneor,moreexactly,onthesubtleoranimicplane,wheretheirforcesintermingleincountlessways.Becauseofthecomplexityofthedomaininquestion,itisthemost'archaic'descriptionsoftheworkthatarethemostaccurate,becausetheirsymbolismisall-inclusive;asissaidintheEmeraldTablet,Sulphur(solarpower)andMercury(lunarpower)arerespectivelythe'fatherandmother'ofthealchemicalembryo.The'wind'(thevitalbreath,whichisthesecondnatureofMercury)has'cardeditinitswomb'.The'earth'(thebody)isits'nurse'.

Whenthebodyor,moreexactly,bodilyconsciousnessispurifiedofallpassional'humidity'andinthisconnectionitcorrespondsto'ashes'ithelpstoretainthe'fugitive'spirit;inotherwords,itbecomesthe'fixative'ofspiritualstateswhichthementalfacultycannotmaintainbyitself.Thisissobecausethebodyisthe'lower'thatcorrespondstothe'higher',accordingtothewordsoftheEmeraldTablet.

Thespiritualstatethatfindsits'support'inthebodyneverthelesshasnocommonmeasurewiththelatter;itisasifapyramid,invertedandofunlimitedextension,soughttosupportitselfwithitspointontheearth;itgoeswithoutsayingthatthisimage,whichsuggestsastateofinstability,isvalidonlyfromthepointofviewofextension.

Insacredart,thehumanlikenesswhichmostdirectlyexpressesthe'spiritualizationofthebodyandtheincorporationofthespirit'is

thatoftheBuddha:theanalogywithalchemicalsymbolismisallthemorestrikinginthatthisimagecomprisessolarattributeshaloandraysandisoftengilded.WehaveinmindespeciallytheMahayanastatuesoftheBuddha,thebestofwhichexpressintheplasticqualityoftheiroutwardappearancethatplenitudewhichisbothimmutableandintenseandwhichthebodycontainsbutcannotcircumscribe.

BasilValentinecomparestheresultoftheconjunctionofspiritandbodytothe'gloriousbody'oftheresurrected.9

Morienus10says:

Insuchaoneasshallhavetrulyknownhowtocleanseandwhitenthesoulandmakeitascendonhigh;andshallhaveguardedhisbodywellandremovedfromitalldarknessandblacknessalongwithanybadodour;thesoulwillbeabletoberestoredtoitsbody,andatthehouroftheirreuniting,greatwonderswillappear.

AndRhases11writes:

Thuseachsoulreuniteswithitsfirstbody;andinnowaycanitunitewithanyother;fromthenceforththeywillneveragainbeseparated;forthenthebodywillbeglorifiedandbroughttoincorruptionandtounutterablesubtletyandlustre,sothatitwillbeabletopenetrateallthings,howeversolid,sinceitsnaturewillthenbethatofaspirit.

9Op.cit.ThisiscomparabletotheroleplayedbytheimmortalityofthebodyinChinesealchemy.10TheDialogueduroiKhalidavecl'ermiteMoriénusisperhapsthefirstalchemicaltexttranslatedfromArabicintoLatin.11RhasesisundoubtedlytheGreco-LatinformoftheArabicRazî,thefullnamebeingAbuBakrar-Razî(826-925).(BibliothèquedesPhilosopheschimiques.)

13TheSymbolismofChessITISKNOWNthatthegameofchessoriginatedinIndia.ItwaspassedontothemedievalWestthroughtheintermediaryofthePersiansandtheArabs,afacttowhichweowe,forexample,theexpression'checkmate'(GermanSchachmatt),whichisderivedfromthePersianshâh:'king'andtheArabicmât:'heisdead'.AtthetimeoftheRenaissancesomeoftherulesofthegamewerechanged:the'queen'1andthetwo'bishops'2weregivenagreatermobility,andthenceforththegameacquiredamoreabstractandmathematicalcharacter;itdepartedfromitsconcretemodel,strategy,withouthoweverlosingtheessentialfeaturesofitssymbolism.Intheoriginalpositionofthechessmen,theancientstrategicmodelremainsobvious;onecanrecognizetwoarmiesrangedaccordingtothebattleorderthatwascustomaryintheancientEast:thelighttroops,representedbythepawns,formthefirstline;thebulkofthearmyconsistsoftheheavytroops,thewarchariots('castles'),theknights('cavalry'),andthewarelephants('bishops');the'king'withhis'lady'or'counsellor'ispositionedatthecentreofhistroops.

Theformofthechess-boardcorrespondstothe'classical'typeofVâstu-mandala,thediagramwhichalsoconstitutesthebasiclay-outofatempleoracity.Ithasbeenpointedout3thatthisdiagram

1InOrientalchessthispieceisnota'queen'buta'counsellor'or'minister'totheking(inArabicmudaffirorwazîr,inPersianfersanorfars).Thedesignation'queen'intheWesterngameisdoubtlessduetoaconfusionofthePersiantermfersan,whichbecamealfergainCastilian,andtheoldFrenchfierceorfiergefor'virgin'.Bethatasitmay,theattributionofsuchadominantroletotheking's'lady'correspondswellwiththeattitudeofchivalry.ItissignificantalsothatthegameofchesswaspassedontotheWestbythatArabo-Persiancurrentthatalsobroughtwithitheraldicartandtheprincipalrulesofchivalry.2Thispiecewasoriginallyanelephant(Arabical-fil)whichboreafortifiedtower.Theschematicrepresentationofanelephant'sheadinsomemedievalmanuscriptscouldbetakeneitherfora'fool'scap'orabishop'smitre:inFrenchthepieceiscalledfou,'fool';inGermanitiscalledLäufer'runner'.3Seetheauthor'sSacredArtinEastandWest(PerennialBooks,London,1986),Chapter1,'TheGenesisoftheHinduTemple'.

symbolizesexistenceconceivedasa'fieldofaction'ofthedivinepowers.Thecombatwhichtakesplaceinthegameofchessthusrepresents,initsmostuniversalmeaning,thecombatofthedevaswiththeasûras,ofthe'gods'withthe'titans',orofthe'angels'4withthe'demons',allothermeaningsofthegamederivingfromthisone.

Themostancientdescriptionofthegameofchesswhichwepossessappearsin'TheGoldenPrairies'bytheArabhistorianalMas'ûdî,wholivedinBaghdadintheninthcentury.Al-Mas'ûdîattributestheinventionorcodificationofthegametoaHinduking'Balhit',adescendentof'Barahman'.Thereisanobviousconfusionherebetweenacaste,thatoftheBrahmins,andadynasty;butthatthegameofchesshasabrahminicoriginisprovedbytheeminentlysacerdotalcharacterofthediagramof8x8squares(ashtâpadat).Further,thewarlikesymbolismofthegamerelatedittotheKshatriyas,thecasteofprincesandnobles,asal-Mas'ûdîindicateswhenhewritesthattheHindusconsideredthegameofchess(shatranj,fromtheSanskritchaturanga5asa'schoolofgovernmentanddefence'.KingBalhitissaidtohavecomposedabookonthegameofwhich'hemadeasortofallegoryoftheheavenlybodies,suchastheplanetsandthetwelvesignsoftheZodiac,consecratingeachpiecetoastar...'ItmayberecalledthattheHindusrecognizeeightplanets:thesun,themoon,thefiveplanetsvisibletothenakedeye,andRâhu,the'darkstar'oftheeclipses;6eachofthese'planets'rulesoneoftheeightdirectionsofspace.'TheIndians',continuesal-Mas'ûdî,'giveamysteriousmeaningtothere-doubling,thatistosaytothegeometricalprogression,effectedonthesquaresofthechess-board;theyestablisharelationshipbetweenthefirstcause,whichdominatesallthespheresandinwhicheverythingfindsitsend,andthesumofthesquaresofthechess-board...'Heretheauthorisprobablyconfusingthecyclicalsymbolismimpliedintheashtâpadaandthefamouslegendaccord-

4ThedevasofHindumythologyareanalogoustotheangelsofthemonotheistictraditions;itisknownthateachangelcorrespondstoadivinefunction.5ThewordchaturangasignifiesthetraditionalHinduarmy,composedoffourangas=elephants,horses,chariotsandsoldiers.6Hinducosmologyalwaystakesaccountoftheprincipleofinversionandexception,whichresultsfromthe'ambiguous'characterofmanifestation:thenatureofstarsisluminosity,butasthestarsarenotLightitself,theremustalsobeadarkone.

ingtowhichtheinventorofthegameaskedthemonarchtofillthesquaresofhischess-boardwithgrainsofcornbyplacingonegrainonthefirst,twoonthesecond,fouronthethird,andsoonuptothesixty-fourthsquare,whichgivesthesumof18,446,744,073,709,551,616grains.Thecyclicalsymbolismofthechess-boardresidesinthefactthatitexpressestheunfoldingofspaceaccordingtothequaternaryandoctonaryoftheprincipaldirections(4x4x4=8x8),andthatitsynthesizes,incrystallineform,thetwogreatcomplementarycyclesofsunandmoon:theduodenaryofthezodiacandthe28lunarmansions;furthermore,thenumber64,thesumofthesquaresonthechess-board,isasub-multipleofthefundamentalcyclicnumber25920,whichmeasurestheprecessionoftheequinoxes.Wehaveseenthateachphaseofacycle,'fixed'intheschemeof8x8squares,isruledbyaheavenlybodyandatthesametimesymbolizesadivineaspect,personifiedbyadeva.7Itisthusthatthismandalasymbolizesatoneandthesametimethevisiblecosmos,theworldoftheSpirit,andtheDivinityinitsmultipleaspects.Al-Mas'ûdîisthereforerighttosaythattheIndiansexplain,'bycalculationsbasedonthechess-board,themarchoftimeandthecycles,thehigherinfluencesthatareexertedonthisworld,andthebondsthatattachthemtothehumansoul...'

Thecyclicalsymbolismofthechess-boardwasknowntoKingAlphonsustheWise,thefamoustroubadourofCastile,whoin1283composedhisLibrosdeAcedrex,aworkwhichdrawslargelyfromOrientalsources.8AlphonsustheWisealsodescribesaveryancientvariantofthegameofchess,the'gameoffourseasons',whichtakes

7CertainBuddhisttextsdescribetheuniverseasaboardof8x8squares,fixedbygoldencords;thesesquarescorrespondtothe64kalpasofBuddhism(seeSaddharmaPundarika,Burnouf,LotusdelabonneLoi,p.148).IntheRamayana,theimpregnablecityofthegods,Ayodhyâ,isdescribedasasquarewitheightcompartmentsoneachside.Wealsorecall,intheChinesetradition,the64signswhichderivefromthe8trigramscommentedonintheI-Ching.These64signsaregenerallyarrangedsoastocorrespondtotheeightregionsofspace.Thusweagainencountertheideaofaquaternaryandoctonarydivisionofspace,whichsummarizesalltheaspectsoftheuniverse.8In1254St.Louis,KingofFrance,forbadechesstohissubjects.Thesainthadinmindthepassionsthatthegamecouldunleash,especiallyasitwasfrequentlycombinedwiththeuseofdice.

placebetweenfourpartners,sothatthepieces,placedinthefourcornersofthechess-board,moveinarotatorydirection,analogoustothemovementofthesun.The4x8piecesmusthavethecoloursgreen,red,black,andwhite;theycorrespondtothefourseasons:spring,summer,autumn,andwinter;tothefourelements:air,fire,earth,andwater;andtothefourorganic'humours'.Themovementofthefourcampssymbolizescyclicaltransformation.9Thisgame,whichstrangelyresemblescertain'solar'ritesanddancesoftheIndiansofNorthAmerica,bringsintoreliefthefundamentalprincipleofthechess-board.

Thechess-boardcanbeconsideredastheextensionofadiagramformedbyfoursquares,alternativelyblackandwhite,andconstitutesinitselfamandalaofShiva,God,inhisaspectoftransformer:thequaternaryrhythm,ofwhichthismandalais,asitwere,the'spatial'coagulation,expressestheprincipleoftime.Thefoursquares,placedaroundanunmanifestedcentre,symbolizethecardinalphasesofeverycycle.Thealternationoftheblackandwhitesquaresinthiselementarydiagramofthechess-board10bringsoutitscyclicalsignificance11andmakesofittherectangularequivalentoftheFar-Easternsymbolofyin-yang.Itisanimageoftheworldinitsfundamentaldualism.12

Ifthesensibleworldinitsintegraldevelopmentresultstosomeextentfromthemultiplicationofqualitiesinherentinspaceandtime,theVâstu-mandalaforitspartderivesfromthedivisionoftimebyspace:onemayrecallthegenesisoftheVâstu-mandalafromthe

9ThisvariantofchessisdescribedintheBhawisyaPurana.AlphonsustheWisealsospeaksofa'greatgameofchess'whichisplayedonaboardof12x12squaresandofwhichthepiecesrepresentmythologicalanimals;heattributesittothesagesofIndia.10GiventhattheChinesechess-board,whichlikewisehaditsorigininIndia,doesnotpossessthealternationoftwocolours,itistobeassumedthatthiselementcomesfromPersia;itneverthelessremainsfaithfultotheoriginalsymbolismofthechess-board.11Italsomakesofitasymbolofinverseanalogy:springandautumn,morningandevening,areinverselyanalogous.Inageneralmannerthealternationofblackandwhitecorrespondstotherhythmofdayandnight,oflifeanddeath,ofmanifestationandofreabsorptionintheunmanifest.12ForthisreasonthetypeofVâstu-mandalawhichhasanunevennumberofsquarescouldnotserveasachess-board:the'battlefield'whichthelatterrepresentscannothaveamanifestedcentre,forsymbolicallyitwouldhavetobebeyondoppositions.

never-endingcelestialcycle,thiscyclebeingdividedbythecardinalaxes,thencrystallizedinarectangularform.13Themandalaisthustheinvertedreflectionoftheprincipialsynthesisofspaceandtime,anditisinthisthatitsontologicalsignificanceresides.

Fromanotherpointofview,theworldis'woven'fromthethreefundamentalqualitiesorgunas14andthemandalarepresentsthisweavinginaschematicmanner,inconformitywiththecardinaldirectionsofspace.TheanalogybetweentheVâstumandalaandweavingisbroughtoutbythealternationofcolourswhichrecallsawovenfabricofwhichthewarpandthewoofarealternatelyapparentorhidden.

Moreover,thealternationofblackandwhitecorrespondstothetwoaspectsofthemandala,whicharecomplementaryinprinciplebutopposedinpractice:themandalaisontheonehandPurusha-mandala,thatistosayasymboloftheUniversalSpirit(Purusha)inasmuchasitisanimmutableandtranscendentsynthesisofthecosmos;ontheotherhanditisasymbolofexistence(Vâstu)consideredasthepassivesupportofdivinemanifestations.Thegeometricquality.ofthesymbolexpressestheSpirit,whileitspurelyquantitativeextensionexpressesexistence.Likewiseitsidealimmutabilityis'spirit'anditslimitingcoagulationis'existence'ormateria;hereitisnotmateriaprima,virginandgenerous,thatisbeingreferredto,butmateriasecunda,'dark'andchaotic,whichistherootofexistentialdualism.InthisconnectiononemayrecallthemythaccordingtowhichtheVâstu-mandalarepresentsanasûra,personificationofbruteexistence:thedevashaveconqueredthisdemonandhaveestablishedtheir'dwelling-places'onthestretched-outbodyoftheirvictim;thustheyconfertheir'form'uponhim,butitishewhomanifeststhem.15

ThisdoublemeaningwhichcharacterizestheVâstu-Purusha-mandala,andwhich,moreover,istobefoundineverysymbol,isinasenseactualizedbythecombatthatthegameofchessrepresents.

13Seetheauthor'sSacredArtinEastandWest,Chapter2,'TheFoundationsofChristianArt'(PerennialBooks,London,1986).14SeeRenéGuénon,TheSymbolismoftheCross(Luzac,London,1958).15Themandalaof8x8squaresisalsocalledManduka,'thefrog',byallusiontothe'GreatFrog'(maha-manduka)whichsupportsthewholeuniverseandwhichisthesymbolofobscureandundifferentiatedmateria.

Thiscombat,aswehavesaid,isessentiallythatofthedevasandtheasûras,whodisputethechess-boardoftheworld.Itisherethatthesymbolismofblackandwhite,alreadypresentinthesquaresofthechess-board,takesonitsfullvalue:thewhitearmyisthatofLight,theblackarmythatofdarkness.Inarelativedomain,thebattlewhichtakesplaceonthechess-boardrepresents,eitherthatoftwoterrestrialarmieseachofwhichisfightinginthenameofaprinciple,16orthatofthespiritandofdarknessinman;thesearethetwoformsofthe'holywar';the'lesserholywar'andthe'greaterholywar',accordingtoasayingoftheProphetMohammed.OnewillseetherelationshipofthesymbolismimpliedinthegameofchesswiththethemeoftheBhagavad-Gîtâ,abookwhichislikewiseaddressedtoKshatriyas.

Ifthesignificanceofthedifferentchessmenistransposedintothespiritualdomain,thekingbecomestheheart,orspirit,andtheotherpiecesthevariousfacultiesofthesoul.Theirmovements,moreover,correspondtodifferentwaysofrealizingthecosmicpossibilitiesrepresentedbythechessboard:thereistheaxialmovementofthe'castles'orwarchariots,thediagonalmovementofthe'bishops'orelephants,whichfollowasinglecolour,andthecomplexmovementoftheknights.Theaxialmovement,which'cuts'throughthedifferent'colours',islogicalandvirile,whilethediagonalmovementcorrespondstoan'existential'andthereforefemininecontinuity.Thejumpoftheknightscorrespondstointuition.

Whatmostfascinatesthemanofnobleandwarlikecasteistherelationshipbetweenwillanddestiny.Nowitispreciselythisthatissoclearlyillustratedbythegameofchess,inasmuchasitsmovesalwaysremainintelligiblewithoutbeinglimitedintheirvariation.AlphonsustheWise,inhisbookonchess,relateshowakingofIndiawishedtoknowwhethertheworldobeyedintelligenceorchance.Twowisemen,hisadvisers,gaveopposinganswers,andtoprovetheirrespectivetheses,oneofthemtookashisexamplethegameofchess,inwhichintelligenceprevailsoverchance,whiletheother

16InaholywaritispossiblethateachofthecombatantsmaylegitimatelyconsiderhimselfastheprotagonistofLightfightingthedarkness.Thisagainisaconsequenceofthedoublemeaningofeverysymbol:whatforoneistheexpressionoftheSpirit,maybetheimageofdark'matter'intheeyesoftheother.

produceddice,thesymboloffatality.17Al-Mas'ûdîwriteslikewisethattheking'Balhit',whoissaidtohavecodifiedthegameofchess,gaveitpreferenceovernerd,agameofchance,becauseintheformerintelligencealwayshastheupperhandoverignorance.

Ateachstageofthegame,theplayerisfreetochoosebetweenseveralpossibilities,buteachmovementwillentailaseriesofunavoidableconsequences,sothatnecessityincreasinglylimitsfreechoice,theendofthegamebeingseen,notasthefruitofhazard,butastheresultofrigorouslaws.

Itisherethatweseenotonlytherelationshipbetweenwillandfatebutalsobetweenlibertyandknowledge;exceptinthecaseofinadvertenceonthepartofhisopponent,theplayerwillonlysafeguardhislibertyofactionwhenhisdecisionscorrespondwiththenatureofthegame,thatistosaywiththepossibilitiesthatthegameimplies.Inotherwords,freedomofactionishereincompletesolidaritywithforesightandknowledgeofthepossibilities;contrariwise,blindimpulse,howeverfreeandspontaneousitmayappearatfirstsight,isrevealedinthefinaloutcomeasanon-liberty.

The'royalart'istogoverntheworldoutwardandinwardinconformitywithitsownlaws.Thisartpresupposeswisdom,whichistheknowledgeofpossibilities;nowallpossibilitiesarecontained,inasyntheticmanner,intheuniversalanddivineSpirit.TruewisdomisamoreorlessperfectidentificationwiththeSpirit(Purusha),thislatterbeingsymbolizedbythegeometricalquality18ofthechessboard,'seal'oftheessentialunityofthecosmicpossibilities.TheSpiritisTruth;throughTruth,manisfree;outsideTruth,heistheslaveoffate.Thatistheteachingofthegameofchess;theKshatriyawhogiveshimselfovertoitdoesnotonlyfindinitapastimeorameansofsublimatinghiswarlikepassionandhisneedforadventure,butalso,accordingtohisintellectualcapacity,aspeculativesupport,anda'way'thatleadsfromactiontocontemplation.

17Themandalaofthechessboard,ontheonehand,anddice,ontheother,representtwodifferentandcomplementarysymbolsofthecosmos.18WemayrecallthattheSpiritortheWordisthe'formofforms',thatistosaytheformalprincipleoftheuniverse.

14TheSacredMaskTHEMASKisoneofthemostwidespreadanddoubtlessoneofthemostancientmodesofsacredart.Itistobefoundasmuchinthemostelaboratedofcivilizations,suchasthoseofIndiaandJapan,asamongtheso-calledprimitivepeoples.TheonlyexceptionisthatofthecivilizationattachedtoSemiticmonotheism,althoughinfactthemaskhasbeenpreservedinthefolkloreofChristianpeoplesaswellasamongcertainMoslempeoples,1andthisattimesinformswhosesymbolismisstillevident.2Indeed,thetenacityoftheirsurvivalinthefaceofallModernthoughtprovesindirectlytheirsacredorigin.

ForChristianity,asforJudaismandIslam,theritualuseofthemaskcanonlybeaformofidolatry.Butinfactthemaskislinkednotwithidolatrybutwithpolytheism,ifoneunderstandsbythistermnotpaganism,butaspiritualvisionoftheworldthatspontaneouslypersonifiescosmicfunctionswithoutignoringthesingleandinfinitenatureofSupremeReality.

Thisvisionimpliesaconceptionofthe'person'thatissomewhatdifferentfromthatfamiliartousfrommonotheism.Itderivesfromtheexpressionpersonaitself.Weknowthatintheancienttheatre,derivedfromthesacredtheatreoftheMysteries,thisworddesignatedboththemaskandtherole.3Nowthemasknecessarily

1EspeciallyamongtheMoslemsofJavaandBlackAfrica.ThemaskisalsotobefoundamongtheBerbersofNorthAfrica,whereithasacarnivalesquecharacter.2Thegrotesquemaskofan'apotropeic'characterandusedaboveallinthesolsticialmasqueradesaswellasthefairymask,andeventheheroicmask,aretobefoundamongtheGermanicpeoples.TheheroicmaskalsofeaturesinSpanishfolklore.3Personahasbeenderivedfrompersonare,'tosoundthrough'themaskbeingliterallythemouthpieceofthecosmicEssencethatismanifestedthroughitbutaccordingtoLittréthisetymologyisdoubtfulforphoneticreasons.EvensoitretainsacertainvaluefromthepointofviewofsignificantcoincidenceswhicharebynomeansaccidentsinthesenseoftheHindunirukta.

expressesnotanindividualitywhoserepresentationscarcelyrequiresamaskbutatype,andhenceatimelessreality,cosmicordivine.The'person'isthusidentifiedwiththefunction,andthisinturnisoneofthemultiplemasksoftheDivinity,whoseinfinitenatureremainsimpersonal.

Thereisahierarchyoffunctionsandthusofdivine'persons';buttheirverymultiplicitymeansthatnosingleoneofthemcanberegardedastheuniqueandtotalmaskoftheinfiniteDivinity.TheDivinitycanclotheitselfinonemaskoranotherinordertorevealitselfmoredirectlytotheworshipper;oralternativelythelattercanchooseoneparticularmaskashissupportandwayofworship;hewillalwaysendbyfindinginiteverycelestialdignity,foreachoftheuniversalqualitiesessentiallycontainstheothers.Thisexplainstheapparentlyfluctuatingcharacteroftheancientpantheons.4

Theessenceoftheuniversalqualitiesisone;thisiswhatmonotheismseekstoaffirmwhenitproclaimstheunicityofthedivine'person'.ItisasifitmadeuseoftheideaofthepersontheonlyideathatapolytheismthathasbecomeforgetfuloftheAbsolutecanstillgraspinordertoaffirmtheunityoftheEssence.Ontheotherhand,monotheismhadtomakeadistinctionbetweenthepersonandhisvariousfunctionsandqualities,adistinctionthatisindeedevidentsinceitissimilartothatwhichexistsbetweenthehumansubjectandhisfaculties.NonethelessitremainstruethatthepersonaldivinityisalwaysconceivedbymeansofoneorotherofHisqualities,whichontheplaneofmanifestationaredistinguishableandevensometimesmutuallyexclusive.Theycanneverallrevealthemselvesatthesametime,andwheretheycoincideintheundifferentiatedplenitudeoftheircommonessenceonecannolongertrulyspeakofaperson,sincethisessenceisbeyondalldistinctiveness,andtherebybeyondtheperson.ButthedistinctionbetweenthepersonalGodandtheimpersonalEssencepertainstothedomainofesoterism,andthusrejoinsthemetaphysicsthatunderliestraditionalpolytheism.5Beallthatasitmay,bydenyingthe

4Wehaveinmindthefactthatasubordinategodcansometimes'usurp'thehighestrole.5InMoslemesoterism,forexample,themultiplegodsofthepolytheistsareoftencomparedtodivinenames;paganism,orpolytheismintherestrictivesenseoftheterm,thuscorrespondstoaconfusionbetweenthe'name'andthe'named'.

multiplicityofpersons,monotheismalsohadtorejecttheritualuseofthemask.

Buttoreturntothesacredmaskassuch:itisaboveallthemeansofatheophany;theindividualityofitswearerisnotsimplyeffacedbythesymbolassumed,itmergesintoittotheextentthatitbecomestheinstrumentofasuperhuman'presence'.Fortheritualuseofthemaskgoesfarbeyondmerefiguration:itisasifthemask,inveilingthefaceortheoutwardegoofitswearer,atthesametimeunveiledapossibilitylatentwithinhim.Manreallybecomesthesymbolthathehasputon,whichpresupposesbothacertainplasticityofsoulandaspiritualinfluenceactualizedbytheformofthemask.Inaddition,asacredmaskisgenerallyregardedasarealbeing;itistreatedasifitwerealive,anditisnotputonuntilcertainritesofpurificationhavebeenperformed.6

Moreover,manspontaneouslyidentifieshimselfwiththerolethatheplays,onethathasbeenimposedonhimbyhisorigin,hisdestiny,andhissocialambience.Thisroleisamaskmostoftenafalsemaskinaworldasartificialasourown,andinanycaseonethatlimitsratherthanliberates.Thesacredmask,onthecontrary,alongwithallthatitswearingimpliesasregardsgesturesandwords,suddenlyoffersone's'self-consciousness'amuchvastermouldandtherebythepossibilityofrealizingthe'liquidity'ofthisconsciousnessanditscapacitytoespouseallformswithoutbeinganyoneofthem.

Hereweshouldmakeanobservation:by'mask'wemeanaboveallanartificialfacethatcoversthefaceofitswearer.ButinmanycasesforexampleintheChinesetheatreoramongtheNorthAmericanIndiansasimplepaintingofthefacehasthesamefunctionandthesameefficacy.Usuallythemaskiscomplementedbythedressingorornamentationofthewholebody.Furthermore,theritualusageofthemaskismostlyaccompaniedbysacreddancing,whosesymbolicgesturesandrhythmhavethesamepurposeasthemask,namelytheactualizingofasuperhumanpresence.

Thesacredmaskdoesnotalwayssuggestanangelicordivinepresence:itcanalsobethesupportofan'asuric'ordemonic

6ThesameistrueforthemakingofmasksamongmostoftheAfricanpeoples:thesculptorofasacredmaskhastoundergoacertainasceticdiscipline.SeeJean-LouisBédouin,LesMasques(LesPressesUniversitaires,Paris,1961).

presence,withoutthisnecessarilyimplyinganydeviation;forthispresence,maleficinitself,canbetamedbyahigherinfluenceandcapturedwithaviewtoexpiation,asincertainlamaistrites.Alsoworthyofmention,asawell-knownexample,isthecombatbetweentheBarongandthesorceressRangdainthesacredtheatreofBali:theBarong,whohastheformofafantasticlion,andiscommonlyconsideredastheprotectivegeniusofthevillage,isinrealitythesolarlion,symbolofdivinelight,asisexpressedbyhisgoldenornaments;hehastoconfrontthesorceressRangda,personificationoftenebrousforces.Bothofthesemasksaresupportsforsubtleinfluencesthatarecommunicatedtoallwhoparticipateinthedrama;betweenthetwoarealcombatdevelops.Atagivenmoment,youngmeninatrancethrowthemselvesuponthesorceressRangdainordertostabher;butthemagicalpowerofthemaskforcesthemtoturntheirkrisonthemselves;finallytheBarongrepulsesthesorceressRangda.InrealitysheisaformofthegoddessKali,ofthedivinepowerenvisagedinitsdestructiveandtransformingfunction,anditisbyvirtueofthisimplicitlydivinenatureofthemaskthatitswearercanassumeitwithimpunity.

Thegrotesquemaskexistsatmanydifferentlevels.Itgenerallypossessesan'apotropeic'power,for,inunveilingthetruenatureofcertainevilinfluences,itputsthemtoflight.Themask'objectivizes'tendenciesorforceswhosedangerisincreasedtotheextentthattheyremainvagueandunconscious;itrevealstothemtheirownuglyanddespicablefaceinordertodisarmthem.7Itseffectisthuspsychological,butitgoesfarbeyondtheplaneofordinarypsychology,sincetheveryformofthemaskanditsquasi-magicalefficacydependonascienceofthecosmictendencies.8

The'apotropeic'maskhasoftenbeentransposedtothesculpturaldecorationoftemples.Whenitsgrotesqueandterrifyingcharacterisconceivedasanaspectofthedivinedestructivepower,itisinitsturnadivinemask.TheGorgoneionofarchaicGreektemplesmustnodoubtbeinterpretedinthisway,andthisisalsothemeaningofthe

7ThehealingmasksoftheIroquoiscalled'falsefaces'areawellknownandverytypicalexampleofthefunctioninquestion;strangelyenough,theyrecallcertainpopularmasksoftheAlpinecountries.8ThiswasoneofthefirstthemesdealtwithbyTitusBurckhardtinapublishedwork;seepages110-1ofthisbook.

Kâla-mukha,thecompositemaskthatadornsthetopmostpointofthenichesinHinduarchitecture.9

Thesacredmasknecessarilyborrowsitsformsfromnature,butitisnever'naturalistic',sinceitspurposeistosuggestatimelesscosmictype.Itachievesthispurposeeitherbyemphasizingcertainessentialfeaturesorbycombiningdifferentbutanalogousformsofnature,forexamplehumanandanimalforms,oranimalandgeometricalforms.Itsformallanguageismuchlessoftenaddressedtotheemotivesensibilitythanonemightbetemptedtothink:theritualmasksoftheEskimos,forexample,oroftheIndiansofthenorth-westcoastofAmerica,orofcertainAfricantribes,areintelligibleonlytothosewhoarefamiliarwithalltheirsymbolicreferences.ThesamecanbesaidaboutthemasksoftheHindusacredtheatre:themaskofKrishna,asitisrepresentedinsouthernIndia,islikeanassemblageofmetaphors.

Asregardsmasksofanimalform,thefollowingmaybesaid:theanimalisinitselfamaskofGod;whatlooksatusfromitsfaceislesstheindividualthanthegeniusofthespecies,thecosmictype,whichcorrespondstoadivinefunction.Onemightalsosaythatintheanimalthedifferentpowersorelementsofnatureassumetheformofamask:wateris'personified'inthefish,theairinthebird;inthebuffaloorbisontheearthmanifestsitsgenerousandfertileaspect,andinthebearitshowsitsdarkerface.Nowthesepowersofnaturearedivinefunctions.

Nevertheless,danceswithmasksofanimalformscanhaveapracticalpurpose,namelythatofconciliatingthegeniusofthespecieshunted.Thisisamagicalaction,butonethatcanwellbeintegratedwithaspiritualvisionofthings.Sincesubtlelinksbetweenmanandhisnaturalambienceexist,onecanmakeuseofthemjustasonemakesuseofphysicalconditions.Whatisimportantfromthespiritualpointofviewisanawarenessoftherealhierarchyofthings.Certainlytheritualuseofthemaskcandegenerateintomagicpureandsimple,butthishappensmuchlessfrequentlythanisgenerallyassumed.

FortheBantu,asforotherAfricanpeoples,thesacredmask

9SeeA.K.Coomaraswamy('Svayâmatrinnâ:JanuaCoeli'inSelectedPapers,vol.1,Princeton,N.J.1976),'TheFaceofGlory',andalsomybookSacredArtinEastandWest,p.36.

representstheanimaltotemthatisconsideredasthetribe'sancestor.Obviouslyitisnotaquestionhereofthenaturalancestor,butofthetimelesstypefromwhichtheancestorsreceivedtheirspiritualauthority.Theanimalofthemaskisthusasupra-terrestrialanimal,andthisisindicatedinitshalf-animal,half-geometricalform.10Likewisetheanthropomorphicmasksof'ancestors'donotmerelyevokeanindividual;theyrepresentthecosmictypeorfunctionofwhichtheancestorwasthehumanmanifestation:inthecaseofpeopleswherethespiritualfiliationcoincidesinpracticewithanancestraldescendence,theancestorwhoisattheoriginofthisdescendencenecessarilyassumestheroleofsolarhero,half-human,half-divine.

Inacertainsense,thesunisthedivinemaskparexcellence.Foritislikeamaskinfrontofthedivinelight,whichwouldblindandconsumeearthlybeingsifitwereunveiled.Nowthelionisasolaranimal,andthemaskintheformofalion'sheadistheimageofthesun.Thissamemaskisalsotobefoundonfountains,andthejetofwaterthatgushesfromitsymbolizesthelifethatcomesfromthesun.

ThecustomofcoveringthefaceofadeadmanwithamaskwasnotexclusivetotheancientEgyptians;andtheprimalmeaningofthiscustommusthavebeenthesameeverywhere:byitssymbolicformsometimesresemblingthesun11thismaskrepresentedthespiritualprototypeintowhichthedeadmanwassupposedtoreintegratehimself.ThemaskcoveringthefaceofEgyptianmummiesisusuallyregardedasastylizedportraitofthedeadman,butthisisonlypartiallythecase,althoughthismaskdidinfactbecome,towardstheendoftheancientEgyptianworldandundertheinfluenceofGreco-Romanart,averitablefuneraryportrait.Priortothisdecadence,itwasamaskthatshowedthedeadmannotashewasbutashehadtobecome.Itwasofahumanfacethatinasenseapproximatedtotheunchangingandluminousformofthestars.Nowthismaskplayedaspecificroleintheposthumousevolutionofthesoul:accordingtoEgyptiandoctrine,thelowersubtlemodalityof

10ItmaybethattheEgyptianimagesofgodswithahumanbodyandananimalheadderivefromtheritualuseofthemask.Thesegodscorrespondtoangels;accordingtoSt.ThomasAquinas,eachangeloccupiestherankofanentirespecies.11SeeJean-LouisBédouin,op.at.,pp.89ff.

man,whichtheHebrewscallthe'breathoftheremains'12andwhichnormallydissolvesafterdeath,canbeheldandfixedbythesacredformofthemummy.Thisformorthismaskthusplays,inrelationtothisassemblageofdiffuseandcentrifugalsubtleforces,theroleofaformativeprinciple:itsublimatesthis'breath'andfixesit,makingofitakindoflinkbetweenthisworldandthesoulofthedeadman,abridgebymeansofwhichtheincantationsandofferingsofthesurvivorscanreachthesoul,andbymeansofwhichitsblessingcanreachthem.Thisfixationofthe'breathoftheremains'ismoreoverproducedspontaneouslyonthedeathofasaint,anditisthisthatmakesarelicwhatitis:inasaint,thelowerpsychicmodalityorbodilyconsciousnesshadalreadybeentransformedduringhislifetime;ithasbecomethevehicleofaspiritualpresencewithwhichitwillimbuetherelicsandthetomboftheholypersonage.

ItisprobablethatinthebeginningtheEgyptiansconsecratedonlythemummiesofmenofhighspiritualdignity,sincethereisadangerinretainingthepsycho-physicalmodalityofjustanyone.Aslongasthetraditionalframeworkremainedintact,thisdangercouldbeneutralized;thedangerarisesonlywhenmenofatotallydifferentcivilization,andcompletelyignorantofsubtlerealities,breakthesealsofthetombs.

TypicalstylizationofthehumanfaceisalsotobefoundinthemasksofNô,theitualtheatreofJapan,wheretheintentionisbothpsychologicalandspiritual.Eachtypeofmaskmanifestsacertaintendencyofthesoul;itlaysthistendencybare,showingwhatiseitherfatalorgenerouswithinit.Thustheplayofthemasksistheplayofthegunas,thecosmictendencies,withinthesoul.

InNð,thedifferentiationoftypesisobtainedbyextremelysubtlemethods;themoretheexpressionofamaskislatentandimmobile,themoreitislivinginitsplay:eachgestureoftheactorwillmakeitspeak;eachmovement,causingthelighttoglideoveritsfeatures,willrevealanewaspectofthemask;itislikeasuddenvisionofadepthorofanabyssofthesoul.

12SeeRenéGuénon,L'Erreurspirite,chapter7.

15TheReturnofUlyssesEVERYPATHleadingtowardsspiritualrealizationrequiresofmanthathestriphimselfofhisordinaryandhabitualegonorderthathemaytrulybecome'himself',atransformationwhichdoesnottakeplacewithoutthesacrificeofapparentrichesandofvainpretensions,andthusnotwithouthumiliation,norwithoutastruggleagainstthepassionsofwhichthe'oldego'iswoven.Thisiswhyonefinds,inthemythologyandfolkloreofalmostallpeoples,thethemeoftheroyalherowhoreturnstohisownkingdomundertheguiseofapoorstranger,orevenofajugglerorabeggar,inorder,aftermanytrials,tore-conquerthepropertywhichlegitimatelyishisandofwhichausurperhaddispossessedhim.

Insteadofakingdomtobere-conqueredorperhapsinparalleltothisthemethemythoftenspeaksofamarvellouslybeautifulwomanwhoistobelongtotheherocapableofliberatingherfromthephysicalormagicalfettersbymeansofwhichahostilepowerholdsherprisoner.If,inthemyth,thiswomanisalreadythehero'swife,theideathatshebelongstohimbyfightisreinforced,asisalsothespiritualmeaningofthemythaccordingtowhichthewife,freedfromhostileforces,isnoneotherthanthesoulofthehero,unlimitedinheressence,andfeminine,becausecomplementarytothehero'svirilenature.1

WefindallthesemythologicalthemesinthelastpartoftheOdyssey,thepartthatdescribesUlysses'returntoIthacaandtohisownhome,whichhefindsinvadedbyyoungsuitorsforhiswife'shand,whosquanderhispossessionsandforcehimtoundergoallkindsofhumiliationsuntilthemomentthathemakeshimselfknown,notonlyasthemasterofthehousebutalsoastheirimplacableandquasi-divinejudge.

1OneparticularcaseistheHindumythofRâmaandSîtâ:Sîtâ,liberatedfromthedemons,isrepudiatedbyRâmainspiteofherfidelity.

Itisalsothispartoftheepicthatincludesthemostdirectallusionstothespiritualdomain,allusionsthatprovethatHomerwasawareofthedeepmeaningofthemythsthathewastransmittingoradapting.Theseopeningsareneverthelessrareandasifneutralizedbyasortofnaturalistictendencythatseekstoadheretomodalitiesthatareonlytoohuman.WhatacontrastwiththegreatHinduepicssuchastheMahâbhârata,forexample,orevenwithGermanicmythology,inwhichitispreciselytheimprobable,theexcessive,thediscontinuous,andeventhemonstrousthatsignalizethepresenceofatranscendentreality!

ThelastcantosoftheOdyssey,moreover,constitutepartoftheessentialnarrativeofthepoem,foritisasguestofthePhaeaciansthatUlyssesrelateshisadventuressinceleavingTroy;andthishedoesinsuchawaythatallhiswanderingsarepresentedretrospectivelyasalongandpainfulreturntohishomeland,onethathadbeenseveraltimesdelayedbytheinsubordinationorfollyofhisowncompanions;foritwastheywho,whileUlysseswasasleep,hadopenedtheflasksinwhichAeolus,thegodofwinds,hadenclosedtheunfavourablewindsbeforeentrustingthemtothesafe-keepingofthehero.Thedemonicforcesthusimprudentlyletloosedrivehislimefleetfarfromitsdestination.Itwasalsothesecompanionswhokilledthesungod'ssacredcame,thusincurringhiscurse.UlyssesisforcedtovisittheHyperboreanregions,theretoconsulttheghostofTiresiasbeforeregainingthewaytohishomeland.Healoneissaved,withouthiscompanions;shipwreckedandbereft,hefinallyreachestheislandofthePhaeacians,whoreceivehimwarmly.TheyconveyhimtoIthacaanddeposithim,sleeping,ontheshore.ThusUlyssesreacheshismuchlonged-forhomelandwithoutknowingit;forwhenheawakes,hedoesnotatfirstrecognizethecountry,veiledasitisinmist,untilAthena,hisdivineprotectress,liftsthefogandshowshimhisnativeland.

AtthispointoccursthefamousdescriptionofthecaveofNymphs,inwhichUlysses,onAthena'sadvice,hidesthepreciousgiftsreceivedfromthePhaeacians.AccordingtoPorphyry,thediscipleandsuccessorofPlotinus,thiscaveisanimageofthewholeworldandwewillseebelowonwhatthisinterpretationisbased.2Onething

2SeePorphyry,DeAntroNympharumStationHillPress(Barrytown,N.Y.1983).

iscertain:Ulysses'visittothecavemarksthehero'sentryintoasacredspace;henceforththeislandofIthacawillnolongermerelybethehero'snativeland,butwillbeasitwereanimageofthecentreoftheworld.

Allthesame,Homernomorethantouchesonthisdimension;asalways,whenhespeaksofspiritualrealities,heexpresseshimselfbymeansofallusion:

Attheheadoftheharbourisanolive-treewithlongleaves,AndclosetothatisapleasantandshadowycavernSacredtothenymphswhoarecalledNaiads.AndinittherearebowlsandamphorasOfstone.Andbeesstoreuptheirhoneyinthem.Therearealsohighstoneloomsinit,wherethenymphsWeavepurplemantles,awondertobehold,Andever-flowingwatersarethere.Ithastwodoors,OnetowardtheNorth,accessibletomen,AndtheotheronedivineistowardtheSouth,normaymenApproachbythatone,butitisapathforimmortals.Odyssey,XIII,102-112.3

AccordingtoPorphyry,thestoneofwhichthecaveandtheobjectscontainedwithinitaremaderepresentsthesubstanceorplasticmatterofwhichtheworldisacoagulation,forstonehasnoformotherthanthatwhichisimposedonit.Thesameistrueforthewatersthatgushforthfromtherock:theytooareasymbolofsubstanceconsidered,inthiscase,initsoriginalpurityandfluidity.Thecaveisdarkbecauseitcontainsthecosmosinpotency,inastateofrelativeindifferentiation.ThegarmentsthattheNymphsweaveontheirhighstoneloomsarethegarmentsoflifeitself,andtheirpurplecolouristhatofblood.Asforthebeesthatdeposittheirhoneyinbowlsandstoneamphoras,theyare,liketheNaiads,purepowersintheserviceoflife,forhoneyisanincorruptiblesubstance.Honeyisalsotheessence,orthe'quintessence',thatfillsthereceptaclesof'matter'.

Likethegreatcaveoftheworld,thesacredcavehastwodoors:the

3AdaptedfromthetranslationbyAlbertCook(W.W.Norton&Co.,NewYork,1967).

northernoneisforthesoulswhichoncemoredescendintobecoming,andthesouthernoneisforthesoulswhich,immortalorimmortalized,ascendtowardstheworldofthegods.4Thesearethetwosolsticialdoors,januaecoeli,whicharereallytwodoorsintime,orindeedoutoftime,fortheycorrespondtothetwoturningpointsintheannualcycle,thetwomomentsofimmobilitybetweentheexpandingandcontractingphasesofthesun'smovement.InordertounderstandHomer'sallusion,onemustcarefullynotethefactthatthe'place'ofthewintersolstice,Capricorn,issituatedinthesouthernhemi-cycleofthesun'sorbit,whilethe'place'ofthesummersolstice,Cancer,issituatedinthenorthernorborealhemi-cycle.

PorphyryalsoremindsusthatthesacredolivetreethatgrowsclosetothecaveisthetreeofMinervaandthatitsleavesturnroundinwinter,obeyingtheannualcycleofthesun.Letusaddthatthistreeisheretheimageofthetreeoftheworld,whosetrunk,branches,andleavesrepresentthetotalityofbeings.5

ThereisonethingPorphyrydoesnotmention,andthatisthatthesacredcaveisaboveallasymboloftheheart.AnditisinthiscontextthatUlysses'gestureofentrustingallhistreasurestotheguardianshipofthedivineNaiadsacquiresitsfullsignificance:fromthismomentheislikeonewhois'poorinspirit':outwardlypoor,butinwardlyrich.6Athena,throughhermagic,confersonhimtheappearanceofapooroldman.

ThefactthatUlyssesistheprotégéofPallasAthena,thegoddessofwisdom,forcesustobelievethattheguileheexhibitsoneveryoccasionandwhichisalmosthismostsalientcharacteristic,didnot,inthespiritualcosmosoftheGreeksofAntiquity,playthesamenegativerolethatitdidforaChristianlikeDante,whoplacesUlyssesinoneofthemostterribleregionsofhell,asaliaranddeceiverparexcellence.FortheGreeks,Ulysses'guileamountedtoacapacityto

4AccordingtoHelleniceschatology,theonlyalternativeisbetweendeliverancebydivinizationandareturntobecoming;itdoesnotconceiveofthepermanentdwellingofsoulsinparadise,thispossibilityarisingonlyintheshadowofasaviourormediator.5Letusnotethattheolivetreeisasacredtreenotonlyforthe'pagan'world,butalsoforJudaismandIslam.6InIslamicesoterism,initiatesarecalledthe'poortowardsGod'(fuqarâ,ilâ'Llâh).

dissimulateandpersuadewhichinitselfwaspositive;itwasthesignofasovereignintelligence,andalmostamagicofthespiritthatcouldpenetrateandfathomothers'thoughts.LetusrefertoPorphyry,whoanalyzesthespiritualandmoralnatureofUlyssesinthefollowingway:

Hecouldnoteasilyfreehimselffromthislifeofthesenses,giventhathehadblindedit[inPolyphemus]andsetaboutannihilatinghimwithonesingleblow...Forhewhodarestodosuchthingsisalwayspersecutedbythewrathofthegods,bothmarineandmaterial.7Thereforehemustfirstpropitiatethemwithsacrifices,thenwithtrialsofmendicancyandotheractsofperseverance,sometimescombatingthepassions,sometimesusingincantationsanddissimulations,andbythoseverymeanspassingthroughallmodalitiesinorderfinallytoescapefromhisragsandmakehimselfmasterofall.8

TheinhabitantsofIthacabelievethatUlyssesisdead;Penelopeherself,theeverfaithfulwife,doubtsifhewilleverreturn.Infact,hehasalreadyreturned,astrangerinhisownhome,andasifdeadtothislife.Inbeggingalmsfromthesuitorswhoareabusinghisproperty,heputsthemtothetest,andhesuffersthistesthimself.Beforehehadcome,theywererelativelyinnocent;nowtheyburdenthemselveswithfaultsthroughtheiroutragestowardsthestranger,andUlyssesisjustifiedinhisintentiontodestroythem.

Accordingtoamoreinwardaspectofthings,thepridefulsuitorsarethepassionswhich,inthehero'sveryheart,hadtakenpossessionofhisinwardbirthrightandwereseekingtoseizehiswife,thepureandfaithfuldepthofhissoul.However,strippedofthefalsedignityofhisego,havingbecomepoorandastrangertohimself,hesees,withoutillusion,thesepassionsforwhattheyare,anddecidestofightthemtothedeath.

Inordertoprovokeanordeal,Ulyseeshimselfsuggeststohiswifethatsheinvitethesuitorstoanarcherycontest.Itconsistsinbending

7AnallusiontotheangerofPoseidon,godoftheocean,whoseson,Polyphemus,Ulysseshadblinded.AccordingtoPorphyry,theoceanrepresentsuniversalsubstanceinitsterribleaspect.8Porphyry,op.cit.

thesacredbowbelongingtothemasterofthehouseandinshootinganarrowthroughtheholesintwelveaxeslinedupandplantedintheground.

ThecontesttakesplaceonthefeastofApollo,forthebowistheweaponofthesun-god.Onemayrecallinthisconnectiontheanalogoustrialswhich,accordingtoHindumythology,wereundergonebycertainavatárasofVishnu,suchasRâmaandKrishna,andeventheyoungGautamaBuddha:itisalwaysthebowofthesun-godthattheybend.

Cretandoubleaxe

Thetwelveaxesplantedintheground(throughtheholesinwhichthearrowhadtobedirected)representthetwelvezodiacalconstellations,whichmeasurethepathofthesun.Theaxeisasymboloftheaxis,asitsnameinEnglishindicates,andtheholeintheaxe,whichmusthavebeensituatedatthetopofthehandle,9correspondstothe'axial'doorofthesunatthetimeofthesolstice.Nowthereareonlytwosolsticesintheyear,buteachmonthcorrespondsinprincipletoalunarcycle,analogoustothesolarcycle,andincludinginitsturnan'axial'passagethatinasensemirrorsthesolstice,whencethelineoftwelveaxes.Theirnumberinanycasemadethetrialmoredifficult.

9Someinterpretthistexttomeanthattheaxeswerewithouthandlesandwereplantedinthesoilbytheirblades,theholethroughwhichthearrowhadtopassbeingpreciselythatintowhichthehandlewasnormallyfixed.Butthismeansthatthearrowwouldhavetobeshotataheightofonlytwohandsabovetheground,whichinpracticewouldbeimpossible.itmaythusbeassumedthattheholeinquestionwassituatedattheupperendoftheaxeandwasnormallyusedtohangtheaxeonthewall.

WedonotknowforcertaintheshapeoftheaxesHomerhadinmind;theymayhavebeensimplewaraxes,ortheymayhavehadtheformofCretanaxeswithdoubleblades.Inthelattercasetheiraxialandlunarsignificancewouldbeparticularlyevident,forthetwobladesofthebipennisresemblethetwoopposingphasesofthemoonwaxingandwaningbetweenwhichindeedislocatedthecelestialaxis.

Thetrajectoryofthearrowthussymbolizesthesun'spath;onemightobjectthatthispathisnotastraightlinebutacircle;nowthesun'spathisnotsituatedsolelyinspacebutalsointime,whichcanbecomparedtoastraightline.Furthermore,thearrowinitselfsymbolizestheraywhichthesun-godhurlsintothedarkness.

Thepowerofthesunisbothsoundandlight:whenUlyssesalonesucceedsinbendingthesacredbowandcausesitsstringtovibrate'withthevoiceofaswallow',hisenemiesshudderandfearfullyanticipatetheterribleendthathehasinstoreforthem,evenbeforehehasrevealedtothemhistruenature,thatoftheherounderAthena'sprotection.

Thedescriptionofthemassacrewhichfollowsissohorriblethatitwouldrevoltus,wereitnotforthefactthatUlyssesincarnateslightandjustice,whereasthesuitorsrepresentdarknessandinjustice.

Itisonlyafterkillingthesuitors,andpurifyingthehousefrombottomtotop,thathemakeshimselfknowntohiswife.

Penelope,aswehavesaid,representsthesoulinitsoriginalpurity,asthefaithfulwifeofthespirit.Thefactthateachdaysheweaveshernuptialgarmentandeachnightundoesitagaininordertodeceivehersuitorsshowsthathernatureisrelatedtouniversalsubstance,theprinciplebothvirginalandmaternalofthecosmos:likeher,Nature(physisinHellenismandMâyâinHinduism)weavesanddissolvesmanifestationfollowinganever-endingrhythm.

Thesomuchlonged-forunionbetweentheheroandhisfaithfulwifethussignifiesthereturntotheprimordialperfectionofthehumanstate.Homerindicatesthisclearly,andthroughUlysses'ownmouth,whenthelatternamesthesignsbymeansofwhichhiswifewillrecognizehim:nooneexcepthimandherknewthesecretoftheirmarriagebed:howUlysseshadbuiltitandmadeitimmobile;withhisownhandhehadwalledintheirnuptialchamberaroundanoldandvenerableolive-tree,whosetrunkhehadthencuttothe

heightofabed,carvingoutofthefirmlyrootedpartasupportforthecouchthatwasmadeofplaitedstrips.AsinthedescriptionoftheNymphs'cave,theolive-treeisthetreeoftheworld;itsoil,whichnourishes,heals,andfuelslamps,istheveryprincipleoflife,tejâsainHinduterminology.Thetrunkofthetreecorrespondstotheaxisoftheworld,andthebedsteadcarvedinthistrunkissymbolicallysituatedatthecentreoftheworld,the'place'whereoppositesandcomplementaries,suchasactiveandpassive,manandwoman,spiritandsoul,unite.Asforthenuptialchamberbuiltaroundthetree,itrepresentsthe'chamber'oftheheart,throughwhichpassesthespiritualaxisoftheworld,andwithinwhichisaccomplishedthemarriageofspiritandsoul.

16TheSunDanceWhatfollowsisapersonaldescriptionoftheauthor'sfriendshipwithThomasYellowtail,aMedicineManoftheCrowIndians,andofhisattendanceataSunDanceheldontheReservationoftheCrowIndiansinMontana.

FirstMeetingwithYellowtail

WEMETYELLOWTAILforthefirsttimeintheHöteldesChampsElyséesinParis.HewastherewithagroupIndiandancerswhoweretravellingtogether,notsomuchtoearnmoneyastoseeforeignlands.OurfriendFrithjofSchuonhadtoldusoftheauthenticnatureofthedancesbeingperformed,andthefactofstayinginthesamehotelasthegroupofIndiansgaveustheopportunityofmakingtheiracquaintance.AmongsttheIndians,Yellowtail,whoatthattimewasnotyetamedicineman,stoodoutbyhisstrongpersonality.Ihadneverbeforeseenamanwhowassostrongandatthesametimesogentle.Hewasslowinhismovements,withanalmosthieraticslowness,andhadanexpressionofserenityandstrength.Wheneveronespokeofspiritualrealities,hisfacewouldlightup.

Wespoketohimaboutthemeaningofthegesturesandcostumesofcertaindances,andheconfirmedwhatwesaid,withsomesurprise.Towardsmidnightofthesameeveninghesentamessengerwhodirectedustohisroomwherehehadlitaritualfireonacoppertraythathehadfoundinthehotel.Heexplainedtousthathewasgoingtocelebratetheriteofthefullmoon,whichrecapitulated,inbrief,theSunDance.

Yellowtailopenedhismedicinebundleandtookoutseveralobjectsthatwerethevehiclesofasubtleforce,suchasanimalskins,birds'feathers,andstonesofunusualcolours,whichheplacedaroundthefire.Thenheburntsomesweetgrassandsaid:'Withthiseagle'sfeather,whichIpassoverthesacredfire,Ishallpurifyeach

oneofyou;thenIshallraisemyvoicetothegreatspirit,thathemaygiveyouanunderstandingofourreligion.Youwillreceivethisunderstandingintheformofadream.'Thenhehunganeagle-bonewhistlearoundhisneckand,risingup,turnedsuccessivelytothefourdirectionsofspace,prayingaloudinthelanguageoftheCrowIndians.Finallyhewhistledseveraltimes,reproducingthewhistlingvoiceoftheeagle.

EachofuslaterhadadreamwhichsymbolicallyrevealedoneorotheraspectofthetraditionofthePlainsIndians.AtthatpointwehadalreadyleftParis;butYellowtail,withafewmembersofhisfamily,unexpectedlyvisitedusinSwitzerland.Thebondoffriendshipandmorethanfriendshipremains,andwehavesubsequentlymetoneanotheronbothcontinentsmoreoftenthanwewouldhavebelievedpossible.

TheSunDance

AftercrossingtheimmenseplainofWyoming,wereachedthereservationoftheCrowIndiansbytheendoftheafternoon.Itwastheseconddayofthesummersolstice,andthatveryeveningtheSunDancewastobegin.Weweresurroundedbyhillsidescoveredwithflowers;nosignofthesacredsitecouldbeseenuntilwecrossedtheraisededgeofahighplateauwherethesacredtreeoftheprecedingyearnowaleaflessskeletonwasoutlinedagainstthesky.AlittlefurtheronstoodthenewlybuiltSunDancelodge.Thesacredtreewasalreadyinplace;thereweretwelveradiallyarrangedbeams,whoseupperendsweresupportedintheforkofthetree,andwhoselowerendsrestedonthesurroundingfenceofsmallfir-treesthathadbeenstrippedoftheirbark.Yellowtail,themedicineman,wastherewithafewotherIndians.Hehadjustattachedthetwogreatsymbols:thebison'shead,whichwashungfromthetrunkofthetree,andtheeagle,whichwasplacedononeoftheradialbeamsandwhichswayedgentlyinthebreeze.

Thelodgewasthusalmostentirelycompleteonourarrival.Thefirstpartoftherites,concerningthefellingofthetreeanditserectioninthecentreoftheenclosure,hadalreadytakenplace.Theimpressionofprimordialitythatemanatedfromthelodgewasaccompaniedbyanatmosphereofcoolnessandthefragranceof

resin.Thesacredenclosurewasintheformofavastcircle,theeasternportionofwhich,facingtherisingsun,remainedopen.IcouldnotpreventmyselffromembracingYellowtail,whosmiledandsaidAhé('itisgood').

Hourswerespentwaiting.Atduskthedancersenteredthelodge,aftermarchingrounditintwoopposedmovements.Alargedrumhadbeeninstalledandfivesingerstookuptheirpositionsroundaboutit.Thechantsthatrosetowardsthestar-filledheavensweremelodieswithoutwords,apparentlyimitationsofthevoicesofnature.Eachmelody,whichwecouldbarelydifferentiatefromtheonethatwentbefore,proceededlikeacascade:itwouldbeginwithahighnoteandthenmovedownuntilitbecamelowandharsh,likeanechothatgrowsstrongerasonegetsnearer.

Thedancelastedthreedaysandthreenights,andduringthistimethedancersfasted;whentheywereexhausted,theywouldrestforafewmomentsintheshadeofthefir-treesandthenimmediatelyresumethemovementofthedance.Thismovementtookplacebetweenagivenpointonthesurroundingfenceoffir-treesandthesacredtreeinthecentre,eachdancermovingbackandforwardonhisownradialpathway.Whenheapproachedthesacredtree,hispacewouldaccelerate;then,havingfeltthecoolnessthatalwayssurroundedthetreesoitwasexplainedtoushemovedbackwardswithsmallstepstowardshispositiononthesurroundingfence.

Fromtheseconddayonwards,certainalleviationsareprovidedforthedancersbymembersoftheirfamilies:aquaticplants,rushesandreedsareintertwinedfromonefir-treetothenext,forminglittleareasofcoverthatprovidesomeshade,andsacredsage,whichgrowsprofuselyintheregion,isscatteredinthedancers'paths.Therewereatleastsixtydancers,includingbothmenandwomen,thelattertakinguppositionsalongsideeachotherneartheopeningattheeasternsideofthelodge.

Duringthenightafireiskeptgoinginsidethelodge.Itissituatedontheaxisthatlinksthesacredtreetothepointonthehorizonatwhichthesunrises.Assoonasitisdawn,thedancerspreparethemselvesforthemostimportantrite,thegreetingoftherisingsun.Yellowtailsaysalongprayerinhisnativetongueandsingsfoursacredchantswithoutwords.Thedancersreceivethefirstrayofsunlightstandinginarow,andintensifythesoundoftheireagle-

bonewhistles.Onemightsaythattheirwhistlingismadevisiblebythevibrationoftheeagle-downattachedtotheirwhistles.Thedancers,theupperpartsofwhosebodiesarebareduringtheday,covertheirshoulderswithblanketstoshieldthemselvesfromthecoldwindblowingacrosstheprairieasharpcontrasttotheintenseheatofthesunthatlaststhroughoutthewholedayandcausesconsiderablesufferingtothedancersexposedtoit.Butthesufferingwasmuchgreaterinoldentimeswhenleatherthongs,insertedundertheskinofthedancers'chestorback,attachedthemtothetrunkofthetree.Thereisasitwereareminderofthiscustominthesometimesrapid,sometimesmeasuredmovementsofthedance.Onthemovementawayfromthecentre,theleatherthongwouldpullontheskinuntilitbroke.Butintheseinwardandoutwardmovementsthereisalsotheexpressionofaspiritualmovementwhichfirstquicklygraspsitsobject,andthenslowlyassimilatesitbytakingupacertaindistancefromit.Moreover,eachparticipantinthedancehastoacertainextenthisownparticularmovement.Irememberespeciallyawomanofaboutfortyyearsofagewhoaccomplishedherinwardandoutwardmovementswithasmallnumberofmajesticsteps.

Onthetrunkofthetreearepaintedthreeringswhichcorrespondtothethreeworlds.Theeagledominatesallthreeoftheseworlds,whereasthebisonisassociatedwiththeearth;hisheavyheadcanbeseenamidstthefoliagethatfacesthesun;sacredsagehasbeenputinhismouthandclayonhischeeksbecause,asourIndianfriendsexplainedtous,thebisoninangercausestheearthtotremble.TheeagleandthebisonarethetwosymbolsthatmostoftenappearinwardlytoSunDanceparticipantswhentheyfaintundertheheatofthesunorareravishedbyanecstasy.TheeagledominatesthetreeastheSpiritdominatestheCosmos.'ThesacredeagleiscalledPoorEagle,'Yellowtailtoldus.ThisisnodoubtbecausethecosmicSpiritissituateddirectlybeneaththeGreatSpirit.

Asmentionedabove,theseconddayoftheSunDanceisthedayofalleviations.Itisalsothedayofsupernaturalmanifestations.Itisthenthatmembersofthedancers'familiesornamentthedancersinaccordwiththeIndianartofpainting,thepurposeofwhichisto'fix'thepresenceofcertaincosmicpowersinthebodyoftheirprotégé.Sincethedancersperformthedancewiththeupperpartoftheir

bodiesbare,thislendsitselftosymbolicalpainting.Sometimesasimplesignaringroundaboutaneye,orazigzagoflightningalonganarmsufficestoassociatetheonethusornamentedwiththevisionthathehasmostoftenreceivedindreams.

Duringalltheseceremonies,thedrumbeatingandthemonotonouschantingcontinueunceasinglybothdayandnight.Therhythmisrapidandremindsoneofthunder;thunderisalsoidentifiedwiththeeagle,whichotherwiseismanifestedinthestridentsoundofthewhistles.Theeagleisthespirit,andthespiritistheheart.Thewideprairieprovidessotospeakprimordialandimmediatelyconvincingsymbolsofallspiritualrealities.When,aftersunset,oneapproachesthelodge,stillenlivenedbytherhythmofthedrumandthewhistlingoftheeaglebonesanditsfoliagetremblinginthewind,onehastheimpressionofbeinginthepresenceofagreatlivingcreatureendowedwithmagicalstrength.Fromthedanceitselfthereemanatesapowerfulmagicthatresonatesintheheartfordaysanddays.

Theseconddayisalsotheculminationofthedance.Thethirddayisthedayofcures.Frommorningonwards,acrowdofpeople,includingentirefamiliesofwhitefarmers,cometotheSunDancesiteandpatientlywaitforYellowtailtoletthemshareinthehealingpowerwithwhichthesacredtreeisasitwerefilledasaresultoftheriteofwhichithasbeenthecentre.Yellowtailhealsinthenameoftheeaglewhoishisparticularprotector,andalsointhenameoftheotter.Hetouchesthetrunkofthesacredtreewithaneaglefeather,andthenwithithestrokesthesickpartsofthepatient'sbody;ashedoesthisheholdsupanotter'sskin.Inrealityallthesegesturesareaddressedtothearchetypeoftheprotectinganimal;withtheIndiansthefunctionofhealerisofnecessitypartofthespiritualrankoftheonewhoisinvestedwithit.EssentiallytheIndianseekstheharmonyofnature,aswellastheharmonyofhisownpeoplewiththeircosmicambience.

Thethirddayendswiththegivingofpresentstoclanrelativeswhohaveofferedspecialprayersforthedancers;thisexchangeisanexpressionoftheharmonybetweencreatures.

Alongprayerissaidonbehalfofthesponsor,whohasundertakentocoverthecostsoftheriteandwhoduringithasofferedritualprayersalongsideYellowtailtheMedicineMan.Finallyaritualmealofbisonmeatisofferedtoallpresent.

Yellowtail,infullvigourinspiteofhisage,couldnotbutbeexhaustedbythedanceandthefast,andwesuggestedtohimthatweshouldcampinaforestintheBighornMountainssothathecouldrest.Heagreedandweleftalmostimmediately.Beforechoosingourcamp-site,weclimbedtotheridgeofthemountainwhich,onourside,rosegently;ontheothersidewasadeepgorge.Ontheridgeissituatedthefamous'MedicineWheel',themeaningofwhich,accordingtothetraditionofhistribe,Yellowtailexplainedtous:amanwhowassufferingfromadiseaseoftheskinhadwithdrawntothesolitudeofthemountain,theretoexpressinstonetheoutlineoftheSunDance.Twenty-eightradiijoinedtherimofthewheeltoitsaxis;thesearethetwenty-eightmansionsofthemoon.Fourheapsofstonesindicatedthecardinaldirections;theylookedlikefourshrines.AccordingtoYellowtail,themakerofthesacredwheelwasabletosleeptherebycoveringhimselfwithfirtwigs.TheconstructionofthewheelwasaccompaniedbyaninvocationtotheGreatSpiritandwhenitwascompleted(itwasaboutthesamesizeasaSunDancelodge)itsmakerwascured.

OnleavingtheMedicineWheel,wewentdownagaintothespotwherethegreatriversofthemountainsleavetheedgeoftheforest(inwhichtheyhavecreatedlargeswamps)andwheredeer,assilentasshadows,movetoandfro.Wesetupourtentsnearthewater,inaplacecalledDeadSwede.Seatedatourcamp-fire,welistenedtotheMedicineMan:hegaveusthehistoryofthetransmissionofthepowersofhealingfromonemedicinemantoanotherbymeansofa'chain'startingwiththemysterious'LittlePeople'andendingwithYellowtailhimself.AsinmanyoftheIndiantraditions,itislightningthatforgesthelinkbetweentheworldofmenandtheworldofthespirits.Thepowerofhealingisincludedinthespiritualpower,whilebeingvehicledtoagreaterorlesserextentbynaturalobjects,suchasstonesorplants.Inthisconnection,Yellowtailtoldmethatnomedicineiseffectiveifitdoesnotcomprisebothherbsandprayer.Accordingtohisownexperience,thedoubleeffectofthemedicinespreparedinthiswaysometimesexceedsbyfartheexpectationsofthemedicinemanusingthem.

Healsotoldusthenameofthegeniuswhoistheguardianofthesepowers;heiscalled'SevenArrows',anamewhichisasymboloftheCentre:accordingtotradition,an'arrow'signifiesadirectionof

space.Therearefirstlythefourarrowsofthecardinaldirections;thentherearetheZenithandtheNadir,whichmakesix.Theseventhisinrealitynotadirection,buttheCentreitself,fromwhichtheotherdirectionsemanate.

IVISLAMICTHEMES

17TheTraditionalSciencesinFezThischapteristhetextofanaddressgivenbytheauthortomembersofstaffandformerstudentsattheUniversityofAl-QarawîninFez,Morocco,inAutumn1972.

TRADITIONALSCIENCE(al'ilmu't-taqlîdî)andModernsciencehavelittleornothingincommon;theydonothavethesamerootanddonotbearthesamefruits.Tosaytraditionistosaytransmission;itisaquestionofessentialtransmissionofnon-humanorigin,onedestinedtoensurethecontinuityofaspiritualinfluenceandofanintegralsciencewhich,shouldtheyeverbelost,couldnotbereconstitutedbyhumanefforts.CompletelydifferentisthenatureofModernscience,whichisfoundedonsensoryexperience,andthusonsomethingwhichinprincipleisaccessibletoeveryone,sothatthissciencecanalwaysbereconstitutedfromscratch,providedthatonecanaccumulatesufficientexperimentaldata.Thisconditionhoweverisdifficulttofulfil,sincescientificdataandtheconclusionsdrawnfromthemareaccumulatedinsuchaprogressionthatithasbecomeimpossibleforanyonetograspthemall.Experimentationonthebasisofthesenses,practisedmethodicallyandasifitweretheonlyapproachtoreality,getsboggeddownintheindefinitemultitudeofphysicalphenomenaandtherebyrunstheriskofforgettingitsownpointofdeparture:maninhisintegralnature,manwhoisnotonlyaphysicaldatumbut,atoneandthesametime,body,soul,andspirit(jasad,nafs,rûh).

IfoneshouldaskModernscience,whatisman?itwilleitherremainsilentthroughawarenessofitsownlimits,oritwillreplybysayingthatmanisananimalwithparticularlywell-developedcerebralfaculties.Andifoneshouldraisethequestionastothe

originofthisanimal,itwillspeaktoyouaboutaninfinitelylongchainofcoincidences,accidents,andchances.Asmuchastosaythattheexistenceofmanhasnomeaning.

Ifontheotherhandoneshouldasktraditionalscience,whatisman?,itwillreplybymeansofmetaphorse.g.BiblicalandKoranicstoriesaboutthecreationofAdamwhichonemightbetemptedtocastasideasoutwornmythology,ifonedidnotdivinethatthesesacredaccountsarethevehicleofaprofoundvisionofman,tooprofoundinfacttobeencapsulatedinrationaldefinitions.Thefirstthingwegatherfromaccountsofthiskindisthatmanhasauniquecause,situatedentirelybeyondcontingency,andthathisexistenceonearthhasameaning.Thismeaningorthisvisionofmanhasnothingtodowithanempiricalscience;onecouldnotreconstituteitfromexperimentsandreasonings,foritconcernsman,notinrespectofhisspatialandtemporalexistence,but'inrespectofeternity',ifonemayventuretoexpressitthus.

Traditioninallitsformsisessentiallyaremembrance(dhikrâ)ofthistimelessvisionofmanandhisoriginwhetheritbeaquestionofthetransmissionofsacredlawsandcustoms,oroftheirspiritualsignificancetotheextentthatthiscanbetransmittedfromonemantoanother,inotherwords,totheextentthatmastersareauthorizedtoexpounditanddisciplesarereadytoreceiveit.

Thesesomewhatgeneralobservationswerenecessaryinordertosituateourthemeandabovealltomakeclearwhatismeantby'traditionalscience'.Evenintheearlierpartofthiscentury,manybranchesofIslamicsciencewhichhadreacheditspeakduringtheMiddleAgeswerenolongerpartoftheinstructionofferedinthegreatmosqueofAl-Qarawîn.AlreadyinthefourteenthcenturyIbnKhaldunhadcomplainedaboutacertainintellectualimpoverishmentinthefieldoftheIslamicsciences,andthedeclinecontinuedduringthefollowingcenturies,uptothetimeofthearrivaloftheFrenchinMorocco.However,theprogressivereductionofthedomainscoveredbytraditionalsciencewasnotuniquelyduetodecadence;itwastheexclusivedominationofMalikismthathadsimplifiedthestudyoflaw,whileAsharismhadeliminatedHellenisticphilosophy.And,inamoregeneralmanner,thereisinthegeniusoftheMaghrebatendencytoreducethingstotheessentialandtotherigorouslynecessary.Theteachingofhistory,forexample,

hadcometobeconcernedonlywithsacredhistory,thatoftheoriginsofIslam,becauseitwasconsideredthatonlysacredhistorywhichexpressedtimelesstruths(haqâ'iq)deservedtoberetained.Asforastronomy,ithadbeenreducedtothecalculationsnecessaryfortheestablishmentoftheMoslemcalendarandthehoursofprayer.InspiteofthesereductionsandperhapsalsobecauseofthemthecorpusofsciencestaughtatthegreatmosqueofAl-Qarawîninthe1930sconstitutedaperfectlyhomogeneouswhole,whereasModernuniversityinstructionisdividedintodifferentdisciplineswhichareoftendivergentamongthemselves.AtAl-Qarawîn,allthebranchesoflearning:language,logic,law,moralphilosophy,andtheologyconvergedtowardoneandthesameend;anditcouldalsobesaidthattheyderivedfromoneandthesamesource,namelytheKoranandthehadîth(traditionsoftheProphet),whicharethefoundationofboththespiritualorderandthesocialorderinIslam.

Onemightbeastonishedatthezealofthegrammarianswhowouldholdforthforhours,orevendays,ononesingleverb,oronesinglegrammaticalform.Andyetitisperhapsnotsoastonishingthatalanguagethathadservedasthevehicleofadivinerevelationandhadtherebyretainedadepthandafinenessthatprofanelanguageshadlongsincelostshouldbecherishedasthemostpreciousofpossessions.

Onemightalsobeastonishedatthemeticulousnesswithwhichthespecialistsinhadîthexaminedthe'chainoftransmission'(isnad)ofeverysayingoftheProphet;theirmemoryinthisfieldwasindeedprodigious.Andyetitishardlyastonishingthat,forsayingsonwhichdependtheverylifeofboththecommunityandeachindividualsoul,theproofsofauthenticityhadtobescrupulouslyweighed.

Buttherewassomethingelsethatmightunderstandablyastonishorevendismaytheuninformedobserver,namelytheapparentlyrationalisticandinanycasefranklylegalisticstylegenerallyattachingtoinstructiongiveninthegreatmosque.Sometimesthecourses,whichtooktheformofadialoguebetweenmasterandpupil,wouldresemblealegaldiscussion.Itistruethatjuridicalthoughthaditswhollylegitimateplaceinthisinstruction,sincethesharî'ahisalaw,andthelegalsciencethatderivesfromitconstitutedtheprincipalobjectofstudyforthemajorityofstudents.Nevertheless,inthetheologicaldomain(kalam),legalisticthoughtwithitsprosandits

contrasitslawkânainkâna,andlainyakuncouldgivetheimpressionofrationalism,thatistosayofamodeofthoughtexclusivelymadeupofalternatives,andforthisreasonmuchtooschematictobeadequateforitsobject:InfiniteReality.Allthesame,itwasonlyaprovisionalrationalism,arationalismonthesurface,forundoubtedlynoneofthe'ulamâwhousedthismethodofargumentationwouldhavedreamtofmakinghumanreasonthemeasureofallthings,asinfactmodernsciencebelievesitcando.Thedifferencebetweenthetwopointsofview,thatofIslamiclaw(fiqh)andthatofmodernrationalism(beitphilosophicormerelyscientistic),isbasicallythefollowing:forfiqh,reasondoesnotincludeallreality,farfromit,butrepresentsitafteritsfashionandtotheextentthatitopensitselftodivinerevelation;ontheotherhand,forphilosophicandscientificrationalism,everythingmustbeexplainablebyreason,andbyitalone,eventhoughonedoesnotknowwhatthisreasonis,norwhyitshouldpossessthisquasi-absoluterightwithregardtoreality.

Letusnotethat,amongthebestofthelearnedmenofFez,thejuridicalroutinewastemperedbyalivelyawarenessofhumanfragility,andthusbyasortofconstantprudence,whichconferredonthemmuchdignity.Anditwasperhapsthisvirtuethathadthegreatestinfluenceontheirpupils,aswellasonthesimplemenofthepeoplewhowouldcometolistentocoursesgivenatAl-Qarawîn,whileremainingseatedatarespectfuldistancefromthemanoflearningwhowassurroundedbyhisregularstudents.

Inageneralmanner,theopenandgenerouscharacteroftheinstructionhadabeneficinfluenceonthewholetown.Therelationshipbetweenprofessorandstudentwasahumanone:notimpededbyregulations,butbasedonreciprocaltrust.Veryoftenbothmasteranddiscipleworkedonlyfortheloveofthescience.Manyoftheprofessorsreceivedonlyaverymodestsalaryornoneatall;someofthemlivedfromatradewhichtheywouldpractiseinadditiontotheirteachingfunction,orfromgiftsmadetothembyrichcitizens.

Fromtimetotime,classicalworksofSufism(at-Tasawwuf)werereadandcommentedonatAl-Qarawîn.Onesuchworkwas'TheRevivificationoftheReligiousSciences'(Ihyâ'ulûmad-dîn)ofAl-Ghazâlî,anditwasnotthefirsttimeinMoroccothatthisworkplayedtheroleofconciliatorbetweenlaw(fiqh)andmysticism

(tasawwuf),betweenoutwardscience('ilmaz-zâhir)andinwardscience('ilmal-bâtin).Ingeneral,however,theprofessorsattheuniversityofAl-QarawînwereveryreservedregardinganythingthathadtodowithSufism.DuringtheperiodoftheFrenchprotectoratethisattitudewasreinforcedbythepoliticaloppositionbetweentheuniversitycirclesandtheSufibrotherhoods(turuq),anoppositionwhichthecolonialadministrationexploitedtothelimit.ThebrotherhoodsdoindeedderivefromSufism,ofwhichtheyrepresent,inasense,thepopularform;neverthelesstheyconstitutegroupsthataretoolargenottobesubjecttopoliticalpressures.Thisdangerwasallthegreaterinthatmanyofthesebrotherhoodsnolongerhadtruespiritualmastersattheirhead,butpurelynominalleaders,mostlydescendantsofthefounderofthebrotherhood;physicalheredity,however,isnotaguaranteeofspirituality.Thetruespiritualmastersandtherestillweresuchremainedalooffrompoliticsandfromthegreatcollectivemovementsandweresurroundedbyonlyasmallnumberofdisciples;itwasinthesemoreorlessisolatedcirclesthattruetasawwufwastaught.

Ontheotherhand,therewerealwaysscholarsatAl-Qarawînwho,withoutnecessarilyadheringtoSufism,recognizeditsvalidity,forthesimplereasonthatfiqhclearlydidnotembraceallthedimensionsofreligion(ad-dîn).WemayrecallinthisconnectionthethreedimensionsoftheIslamicreligion'submission'(al-islîm),'faith'(al-îmân),and'virtue'or'excellence'(al-ihsân)establishedbythefamous'Gabrielhadîth.1Thefirsttwodimensionscompriserespec-

1Thefullformofthishadîth,reportedbyOmar,isasfollows:'OnedaywhenwewerewiththeMessengerofGod,therecameuntousamanwhoseclotheswereofexceedingwhitenessandwhosehairwasofexceedingblackness,norwerethereanysignsoftraveluponhim,althoughnoneofushadseenhimbefore.HesatdownkneeuntokneeoppositetheProphet,uponwhosethighsheplacedthepalmsofhishands,saying:''OMohammed,tellmewhatisthesurrenderuntoGod(al-islâm)."TheProphetanswered:"ThesurrenderisthatthoushouldsttestifythatthereisnogodbutGodandthatMohammedisGod'sApostle,andthatthoushouldstperformtheprayer,bestowthealms,fastRamadanandmake,ifthoucanst,thepilgrimagetotheHolyHouse."Hesaid:"Thouhastspokentruly''andwewereamazedthathavingquestionedhimheshouldcorroboratehim.Thenhesaid:"Tellmewhatisfaith(imân),"andtheProphetanswered:"ItisthatthoushouldstbelieveinGodandHisAngelsandHisBooksandHISApostlesandtheLastDay,andthatthoushouldstbelievethatnogoodorevilcomethbutbyHisProvidence.""Thouhastspokentruly,"

(Footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

tivelytheprescribedactionsandthedogmasandthesearepreciselythedomainofscholasticsciencewhereasthethirddimension,spiritualvirtue,referstothecontemplativelife.AccordingtotheProphet'sownwords,al-ihsânconsistsinthefollowing:'ThatthoushouldstworshipGodasifthousawestHim,forifthouseestHimnot,verilyHeseeththee.'Thesefewwordssummarizeafar-reachinginwardpractice,onewhosedevelopmentisinprincipleunlimited,sinceitsobjectisinfinite,andwhichpresupposes,notamoreorlessdialecticalknowledge,buta'scienceoftheheart'.

Thepresenceofmanbody,soulandspiritintheactofworshipopensontothepresenceofGodinman,ifitbepermittedtoexpressinthesetermsacompletespiritualuniversethatistoosubtleandtoorichtobedefinedlightly.Inacertainsense,thewholeofIslamicmysticism(tasawwuf)isdevelopedfromthefundamentalrequirementforsincerity(ikhlâs):'toworshipGodasifthousawestHim'istoworshipHimsincerely;nowthiseffortlogicallyleadstoa'conversion'(tawbah)ofthewholebeing,andthisbringsaboutasortofreversalofthesubject-objectrelationshipinone'sinwardvision:untilthenmansaweverythingwiththeeyeofhisindividualego,hispassionalsoul,andeverythingforhimwasinevitablycolouredbythis;henceforwardmanseeshisownegowiththeeyeofthespirit,whichtranscendsitandjudgesit;asthehadîthteaches:'Hewhoknowshisownsoul,knowshisLord.'(Man'arafanafsa-hu,fa-qad'arafaRabba-h.)

Inordertoexpressthingsassimplyaspossible,wecouldalsoputitasfollows:inIslam,thebelieverissavedbasicallybythedoubletestimony,that'thereisnogodbutGod',andthat'MohammedistheMessengerofGod',thefirsttestimonyinasenseincludingthesecond.WhatSufism(tasawwuf)doesistogivetothistestimonyallthemeaningthatitcanpossiblyhave,andtodemandatthesametimethatthebelieverbecompletelysincere.Thisamountstosayingthat,

(Footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

hesaid,andthen:"Tellmewhatisexcellence(ihsân)."TheProphetanswered:"ItisthatthoushouldstworshipGodasifthousawestHim,forifthouseestHimnot,verilyHeseeththee."Thenthestrangerwentaway,andIstayedtherelongafterhehadgone,untiltheProphetsaidtome:"OOmar,knowestthouthequestioner,whohewas?"Isaid"GodandHisProphetknowbest,butIknownotatall.""ItwasGabriel,"saidtheProphet."Hecametoteachyouyourreligion".'TranslatedbyMartinLings.SeeASufiSaintoftheTwentiethCentury(London,Allen&Unwin,1971).

fortasawwuf,allthingsarefinallyeffacedbeforetheAbsolute:theworld,whichisbutitsreflection,andtheego,whichisbothitsreflectionanditsveil(hijâb);thereflectionbecause,likeallthings,ithasitsexistencefromGod,andtheveilbecauseitattributestoitselfapriorianabsolutecharacterthatbelongstoGodalone:'thereisnogodbutGod'(lâilâhaillâ'Llâh).

Aswehavesaid,thebrotherhoodsrepresentthepopularformoftasawwuf,afactwhichdoesnotexcludetheexistence,intheirmidst,ofauthenticspiritualtreasures.SomefundamentalclassicsoftasawwufliketheHikamofIbn'Atâ'i'Llâhwerereadandcommentedontothemembersofsuchbrotherhoods(fuqarâ,the'spirituallypoor'),andthepoemsofIbnal-Fârid,ShushtariandothergreatSufis,whichweresungatmajâlis(spiritualmeetingsforthe'remembranceofGod'[dhikr]),expoundthehighestspiritualtruths;thesearesometimesbetterunderstoodbysimpleandapparentlyuncultivatedmenthanbytheeducated,becausetheintelligenceoftheheartandtheintelligenceofthebrainarenotthesamething.

MoroccohasalwaysbeenalandofSufis;itreceivedarichheritageofspiritualmasterswho,inthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,cameoverfromSpainandsettledinNorthAfrica.AttheverytimewhenEuropewasundergoingtheeffectsoftheFrenchrevolution,amajorvictoryformaterialism,Moroccowasenjoyinganewfloweringofthecontemplativelife:masterssuchasAl-'Arabî,ad-DarqâwîandAl-HarrâqcontinuedtorepresentthepurestofclassicalSufism.

Traditionalmedicine,whichhadbeentaughtonthemarginoftheofficialcoursesatAl-Qarawîn,wasbanishedbytheFrenchprotectorate.ThecontemptofmodernEuropeansfor'medieval'and'backward'sciencesinevitablyhaditseffect.Nevertheless,thismedicinecontinuedtobepractisedclandestinely.Hasitnowentirelydisappeared?Itwouldbeamatterforregretifithas,forthissciencewhichtheArabsinheritedfromancientGreece,butwhichtheyconsiderablyenrichedpossessed(overandaboveitslongandrichexperience)asyntheticvisionofman,comparedwithwhichtheimpoverishedviewpointofmodernsciencecanbeseenforwhatitis.

ItwasmoreoverthisviewpointofsynthesisthatconstitutedthelinkthatattachedGreco-ArabmedicinetotheintellectualworldofIslamUnity-totality-equilibrium:thesearethereferencepointsofIslamicthought,anditwasequilibrium,precisely,thatwastheprincipleof

thisformoftraditionalmedicine.Accordingtoitsperspective,thewholeofnatureandafortiorithehumanorganismareruledbythelawofequilibrium.Therearefourradicalhumourswhich,analogoustothefourelements,aresubtlycombinedinthevariousvitalfunctions;anyruptureofequilibriumintherelationshipofthesehumourscausesanillness.TheartofthedoctorinGreekmedicinewastohelpnaturetorecoveritsoriginalequilibrium.Natureactsbycomplementaryforces:ittempersheatwithcold,anddrynesswithhumidity;orexpansionwithcontraction,andsolutionwithcoagulation;thedoctordoesthesame,usingwhateverinnaturecorrespondstotheseforces.Themateriamedicagenerallyconsistedofvegetablesubstances,preferablyplantswhichwerealsofoodstuffsandwhichthebodywouldabsorbspontaneously.Manyofthesemeansarestilltobefoundinpopularmedicine.

Havingreferredtotraditionalmedicine,wemustalsomentionalchemy,whichisalsoascienceoranartofpre-IslamicoriginwhichhasbeenspirituallyintegratedintoIslam.FalseideasregardingalchemywhichwaspractisedinFezuntilrelativelyrecentlyarecommon.Itisusuallyregardedasasuperstitiouspracticethatseeksonabasisofcompleteself-deceptiontotransmuteleadandotherbasemetalsintogold.Inactualfact,truealchemywasoftenconcealedbehindthiscaricaturalappearance.Fortruealchemy,theleadorotherbasemetalthatwastobetransmutedintogoldwasonlythesymbolaveryadequateoneofthehumansoulsunkinthedarknessandchaosofthepassions,whilegoldrepresentedtheoriginalnatureofman,inwhicheventhebodyisennobledandtransfiguredbythelifeofthespirit.Everybasemetal,imageofacertainstateofthesoul,isconsideredasa'sickgold',whilegolditselfcorrespondstotheperfectequilibriumofthenaturalforces;hereweencounteroncemorethesameprinciplesasgoverntraditionalGreekmedicine.Truealchemymightbedescribedasa'medicine'oftotalman:body,soulandspirit.Butwhydidoneusemetallurgicalsymbolsanddescriptionsofstrangechemicalproceduresinordertoexpressrealitiesofacompletelydifferentorder?Doubtlessbecausethe'professionsusingfire'metallurgists,smelters,enamellers,potters,etc.-exist,andbecausetheirprocedureslendthemselvesquitenaturally,andprovidentially,totheexpressionofcertainveryintimatestatesandtransformationsofthesoul.

Wehaveseenthatscienceandartareoftenthetwofacesofoneandthesametradition;medicine,forexample,isbothascienceandanart;alchemycallsitselfa'royalart',andtasawwufisaspiritualart.Likewise,thetraditionalplasticartsarchitecture,sculpture,mosaics,etc.presupposeacertainknowledgewhich,withoutbeingexplicit,neverthelessalsopertainstothedomainoftraditionalscience.

Itisparticularlysignificantthatproficiencyinatraditionalartconcernsboththetechnicalsolutionandtheaestheticsolutionofagivenproblem;thus,theprocedureenablingonetotracetheoutlineofanarchconcernsbothitsstabilityanditselegance.Intraditionalart,beautyandusegohandinhand;theyaretwoinseparableaspectsofperfection,asenvisagedbytradition:'Godprescribedperfectionforallthings'(Inna'Llâhakataba'l-ihsâna'alâkullishay),accordingtothehadîth.Hereagainweencounterthetermihsân,whichinSufismmaybetranslatedas'spiritualvirtue',orsimplyas'virtue',andwhichincludestheideasofbeautyandperfection.

Inartandcraftsmanshipinatraditionalcontext,thetwoarenotdistinguishableitoftenhappensthatinstructionisnottransmittedbymeansofwords.Theapprenticeseeshismasteratwork,andimitateshim.Butitisnotmerelyacaseofmethodsofwork;thegoodcraftsmanisdistinguishedbyawholeclusterofhumanvalues:patience,discipline,sincerity.Itisdifficulttooverestimatethepedagogicqualityofart(orcraft)inthetraditionalsenseoftheterms.InaFezofnotsolongago,weknewmenwell-versedinoneorotherofthesciencesforexamplelaw(fiqh)orspirituality(tasawwuf)andmoreparticularlymenwhosawinthemostmodestaspectsoftheirprofessionameansofspiritualperfection(ibsân).

Howcantradition,inaplasticart,bereconciledwithcreativefreedom,withoutwhichartisnotart?Throughtradition,theartisthasathisdisposalasetofmodelsortypicalformswhichhewilluseoradaptaccordingtothecircumstances,ormoreexactly,accordingtotheparticulargoalofthework.Inadapting,hecreates,butthiscreationobeyscertainlaws:themodelsortypicalformsaretheelementsofalanguagethatpossessesitsgrammarandsyntax;masteryinagivenartistobeabletoexpressoneselffreelywhileobeyingtherulesofthelanguageorrather:itistobeabletoexpressoneselffreelythankstotheresourcesofthelanguage.Ifthe

expressionisjustandadequatetothegoalofthework,itisnourishedbyasortofinspirationthatarisesfromthesupra-individualdepthofthetradition;forjustasIslamicsciencehasitsrootsintheKoran(onwhichitisamoreorlessdirectcommentary),sothetypicalformsofIslamicartarerootedinthespiritofIslam,ofwhichtheyareasitwerethevisibletraces;nowIslam,likeallthegreatspiritualtraditionsofhumanity,wasnot'invented'byman.

18ThePrayerofIbnMashîsh(As-Salâtal-Mashîshîyah)THEMOROCCANSUFI'Abdas-SalâmibnMashîsh1,themasterofAbu'lHasanash-ShâdhilîfounderoftheShâdhilîorderwasthespiritualpole(qutb)ofhisage.Hediedin1228,inhishermitageonMountal-'Alam,intheRifmountains;histombonthesummitofthismountisoneofthemostveneratedplacesofpilgrimageinthewholeoftheMaghrib.

Onlyonetextbyhimremains,thefamousprayerontheProphet,whichisrecitedinallthebrotherhoodsofShâdhilîfiliation,andwhichisasitwereasummaryoftheSufidoctrineofUniversalMan(al-insânal-kâmil).Wegivehereatranslationofthisprayer,followedbyacommentaryonallthedifficultpassages.

ItshouldberecalledthateveryprayerontheProphetrefersimplicitlytotheKoranicinjunction:'GodandHisangelsblesstheProphet;Oyewhobelieve,blesshimandwishhimpeace.'(XXXIII,56)

TheArabicverbsalla,whichwetranslatehereas'tobless',alsomeans'topray';thewordsalât,fromthesameroot,meansprayer(moreparticularlytheritualprayer),iftheactioncomesfromman;itmeansblessing,oreffusionofgrace,iftheactioncomesfromGod.2

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'OMYGOD(Allâhumma),blesshimfromwhomderivethesecretsandfromwhomgushforththelights,andinwhomriseupthe

1TherealsoexiststheformIbnBashîsh('sonofamanwithaserenecountenance'),whichindeedseemstobetheoriginalArabicformofthispatronymic,themîmofibnMashîsh(orbenMashîsh)beingexplainedbytheassimilationtypicallyMaghribîofthebâtothepreceedingnûn,orsimplybytheeasychangefromonelabialtoanother.Mecca,originallyBecca,isawell-knownexampleofthelatter.2OnthegeneralmeaningoftheprayerontheProphet,see:FrithjofSchuon,UnderstandingIslam(Allen&Unwin,MandalaBooks,London,1976).

realities,andintowhomdescendedthesciencesofAdam,sothathehathmadepowerlessallcreatures,andsothatunderstandingsarediminishedinhisregard,andnooneamongstus,neitherpredecessornorsuccessor,cangrasphim.

'Thegardensofthespiritualworld(al-malakût)areadornedwiththeflowerofhisbeauty,andthepoolsoftheworldofomnipotence(al-jabarût)overflowwiththeoutpouringofhislights.

'Thereexistethnothingthatisnotlinkedtohim,evenasitwassaid:Weretherenomediator,everythingthatdependethonhimwoulddisappear!(Blesshim,OmyGod),byablessingsuchasreturnethtohimthroughTheefromThee,accordingtohisdue.

'OmyGod,heisThineintegralsecret,thatdemonstratethThee,andThysupremeveil,raisedupbeforeThee.

'OmyGod,joinmetohisposterityandjustifymebyThyreckoningofhim.Letmeknowhimwithaknowledgethatsavethmefromthewellsofignoranceandquenchethmythirstatthewellsofvirtue.Carrymeonhisway,surroundedbyThineaid,towardsThypresence.Strikethroughmeatvanity,sothatImaydestroyit.PlungemeintheoceansofUnity(al-ahadîyah),pullmebackfromthesloughsoftawhîd,anddrownmeinthepuresourceoftheoceanofUnicity(al-wahdah),sothatIneitherseenorhearnoramconsciousnorfeelexceptthroughit.AndmakeoftheSupremeVeilthelifeofmyspirit,andofhisspiritthesecretofmyreality,andofhisrealityallmyworlds,bytherealizationoftheFirstTruth.

'OFirst,OLast,OOutward,OInward,hearmypetition,evenasThouheardestthepetitionofThyservantZachariah;succourmethroughTheeuntoThee,supportmethroughTheeuntoThee,unitemewithThee,andcomeinbetweenmeandother-than-Thee:Allâh,Allâh,Allâh!VerilyHewhohathimposedontheetheKoranforalaw,willbringtheebacktothepromisedend(Koran,XXVIII,85).

'OurLord,grantusmercyfromThypresence,andshapeforusfightconductinourplight(Koran,XVIII,10).

'VerilyGodandHisangelsblesstheProphet;Oyewhobelieve,blesshimandwishhimpeace(Koran,XXXIII,56).

'Maythegraces(salawât)ofGod,Hispeace,Hissalutations,HismercyandHisblessings(barakât)beonourLordMohammed,Thyservant,ThyprophetandThymessenger,theunletteredprophet,

andonhisfamilyandonhiscompanions,(graces)asnumerousastheevenandtheoddandastheperfectandblessedwordsofourLord.

GlorifiedbethyLord,theLordofglory,beyondwhattheyattributeuntoHim,andpeacebeontheMessengers.PraisebetoGod,theLordoftheworlds(Koran,XXXVII,180-182).'

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OmyGod(Allâhumma),blesshimfromwhomderivethesecretsandfromwhomgushforththelights.

Thereisacomplementarismbetweenthe'secrets'(asrâr)andthe'lights'(anwâr),forthefirstarelatentpredispositions,ofmanorofthecosmos,whilethesecondare'emanations'or'flashes'ofBeingwhichechothe'secrets'byactualizingtheirpotentialitieswithouteveryieldinguptheirultimatedepth.

Thename'secret'(sirr)isgiventotheinnermostpartofthesoul,the'locus'ororganofcontemplationofthe'lights'.'TheDivineLights',writesthesufiIbn'Atâ'i'LlâhinhisHikam,'aboundaccordingtothepurityofthesecret'.Thisissimilartoamirrorthatreflectsthedivinerealitiesandpolarizestheminacertainfashionaccordingtoitsownpredisposition(isti'dâd).4

Insofarasthe'secret'issituatedonthesideofthepotentialities,itplaysapassiverolewithregardtothe'lights',whicharelikeprolongationsofthefiatlux;butinitsunfathomabledepth,itisidentifiedwiththe'immutableessence'(al'aynath-thâbitah)ofthebeing,i.e.withthearchetypewhich'undergoes'noactexteriortoitself,sinceitcontainseminentlyandindistinctlyeverythingthattheindividualconsciousnessrealizesinexistentialandsuccessivemode.

Thisenablesustoconsidertherelationshipbetween'secrets'and'lights'inallitsuniversalbreadth,thefirstcorrespondingtothearchetypes,andthesecondtothedivineQualities,whicharetheverysourcesofExistence.Accordingtooneaspectofthings,the'lights'conferexistenceonthe'secrets',thelatterassuchbeingnon-manifested;bymanifestingthe'secrets',the'lights'alsoveilthem.

1Seeonthissubject:Muhyi'd-dînibn'Arabî,LaSagessedesProphètes(Fusûsal-Hikam),translatedbyTitusBurckhardt(AlbinMichel,Paris,1955),chapteronSeth.ForanEnglishversionoftheFrenchtranslation,seeTheWisdomoftheProphets(BesharaPublications,1975).

Andaccordingtoanotheraspect,complementarytotheprecedingone,the'secrets'polarizethe'lights'bydifferentiatingthesinglelightofBeing.

Thearchetypes,indistinctlycontainedintheDivineEssence,aredistinguishedfirstofall,inaprincipialmanner,intheFirstIntellect(al-'aqlal-awwal),anditisthroughitthattheyshineasitwereintothecosmos;thusthey'derive'fromitand,fromthisstarting-point,are'splitup'.5LikewisetheDivineLightisbrokenbytheprismoftheIntellectintomultiple'lights'.

TheFirstIntellectislikethe'isthmus'(barzakh)betweenthetwo'seas'oftheuncreatedandthecreated,ofpureBeingandExistence,thelatterbeingrelative.AccordingtoasayingoftheProphet,theIntellectisthefirstthingthatGodcreated;neverthelessitdoesnotdifferfromtheSpirit(ar-Rûh),whichcomprisesbothacreated,orangelicaspect,andanuncreated,ordivine,aspect.6Inacertainsense,theIntellectisliketheconsciousnessoftheSpiritandtheSpiritislikethelifeoftheIntellect.If,inIslam,onedoesnotspeakofthe'DivineIntellect',whereasonespeaksofthe'DivineSpirit',thisisbecauseitisonlythelatterthat'emanates'fromGod,ratherlikeabreaththatpassesthroughallthedegreesofBeing;theIntellect,foritspart,issotosaystatic,andcannotbedefinedbutbyitsobject:ifthisbethecreateduniverse,theIntellectisitselfcreated,whereasitisneithercreatednor'intellect'whenithasforitsimmediateobjecttheAbsolute,forinthisrelationshipnoqualityofitsowndistinguishesitfromtheDivineEssence;itisthatwhichitknows.7

5TheArabicverbinshaqqai,usedinourtext,possessesbothofthesemeanings.6OntheangelicaspectoftheSpirit,'Abdal-Karîmal-Jîlîwrites:'ThisistheAngelthattheSufiscall:theTruthwhereby(things)arecreated.ItisalsotheRealityofMohammed(al-haqîqatal-muhammadîyah).GodlookeduponthisAngelwhilelookinguponHimself;HecreateditfromHisLightandcreatedfromittheworld...'(Al-insânal-kâmil,chapteronar-rûh).OnthedivineaspectoftheSpirit,hewrites:'TheHolySpirit(rûhal-quds)istheSpiritofspirits;ittranscendsExistence,sothatitisnotpermittedtocallitcreated,foritisaparticularaspectofGod,byvirtueofwhichtheworldsubsists.Itisspirit,butnotlikeotherspirits,foritistheSpiritofGod,anditwasthisSpiritthatwasbreathedintoAdam...'(ibid.,chapteronrûhal-quds).7'KnowthatGodmanifestedthisintellectlikeauniqueessencesubsistingbyitself,limited(mutahayyiz)accordingtoacertainschoolandnon-limitedaccordingtoanother,thislatteropinionbeingthemorejust...'(Muhyi'd-dînIbn'Arabî,'TheWhitePearl'[ad-Durratal-baidâ]).

Thetwo'faces'oftheIntellect,oneturnedtowardsGodandtheothertowardstheworld,areindicatedinthesayingoftheProphet:'ThefirstthingthatGodcreatedwastheIntellect(al-'aql).Hesaidtoit:receive(orturntowardsme,iqbal),anditreceived;thenhesaidtoit:transmit(orturnaway,idbar),andittransmitted.'ThefollowingsayingoftheProphetalsoreferstotheIntellect,symbolizedbythesupremeCalamus(al-qalamal-a'lâ):'ThefirstthingthatGodcreatedwastheCalamus.Hesaidtoit:Write!Itreplied:WhatshallIwrite?Write,saidGod,MyknowledgeofMycreationuntilthedayofresurrection.'FromthisitresultsthattheIntellectiscreatedinsofarasitisacosmicinstrument,whilethesciencethatittranscribesortheknowledgethatitrefractsisdivineinessence.

Thus,theFirstIntellectistheuniversalMediator,anditiswiththisthattheProphetisidentifiedbytheverysecretofhisfunction.

Inwhomriseuptherealities,andintowhomdescendedthesciencesofAdam.

TheFirstIntellectistothewholecosmoswhatthereflectedintellectistoman.Thus,themanwhoseintimateconsciousnessistheFirstIntellectitself,isbothamanandtotalcosmicbeing;hisheartistheheartoftheuniverse,andalltheelementsofthecosmosarelikemodalities,notofhisindividualnature,butofhisintellectualanduniversalnature;heis'UniversalMan'(al-insâal-kâmil).Itisinhimthattherealities(haqâ'iq)'riseup'bythereintegrationofallthingsinUnity,areintegrationperpetuallyoperatedbytheIntellect,anditisinhimtoothattherealities'descend'bythereflectionofuniversaltruthsinthehumanmind:accordingtotheKoran,GodtaughtAdamthe'names'ofallthings(11,30).

Sothathehathmadepowerlessallcreatures,andunderstandingsarediminishedinhisregard,andsothatnooneamongstus,neitherpredecessornorsuccessor,cangrasphim.

TheWholecausesitsparttobepowerless,inthatthepartcanneverembracethewhole.Thisistrueof'UniversalMan'who,accordingtothisperspective,isnoneotherthanMohammed:Mohammed,asthelastprophetintimeandthe'seal'ofthepropheticfunction,representsbyvirtueoftheinverseanalogybetweenHeavenandEarththemostcompleteearthlymanifestationoftheUniversalMediator,theFirstIntellect;intheotherreligionsthepre-excellenceoftherespectivefounderhasasitsbasissomeother

metaphysicalrelationship,suchas'Incarnation'or'Illumination'.8

Thegardensofthespiritualworld(al-malakût)areadornedwiththeflowerofhisbeauty,andthepoolsoftheworldofomnipotence(al-jabarût)overflowwiththeoutpouringofhislights.

TheUniversalMediator,theFirstIntellect,islikeamirrorthatreverberatestheDivineBeauty.AccordingtoPlotinuswhosedoctrinewasconfirmedandcompletedbytheSufistheFirstIntellect(nous)unceasinglycontemplatestheOne,whileprojecting,withoutbeingabletoexhaustthem,thecontentsofitscontemplationintotheUniversalSoul,whichforitspartcontemplatestheFirstIntellect.ItisintheUniversalSoulthatthegardensofal-malakûtaresituated.Asforthe'pools'oftheworldofomnipotence(al-jabarût),theyarethe'reservoirs'ofnon-manifestation,containedinPureBeing,fromwhichExistencegushesforth,whichinitsoriginalpurityisnoneotherthanthe'LightofMohammed'(an-nûral-muhammadî).AccordingtoasayingoftheProphet,'GodtookahandfulofHislight,andsaidtoit:beMohammed!'

Thereexistethnothingthatisnotlinkedtohim,evenasitwassaid:Weretherenomediator,everythingthatdependethonhimwoulddisappear!(Blesshim,OmyGod),byablessingsuchasreturnethtohimthroughTheefromThee,accordingtohisdue.

AccordingtotheSufis,theblessingoreffusionofgraces(salât)thatGodheapsupontheProphetisnothingotherthantheirradiation(tajallî)oftheDivineEssence,whicheternallypoursintothecosmos,ofwhichMohammedisthesynthesis.ToaskfortheblessingofGodontheProphetisthustoconformwiththedivineactandintentionallytoparticipateinit;also,traditionprovidestheassurancethatwhoeverblessestheProphetattractsuponhimselftheblessingoftheentireuniverse.9

8Inacertainsense,thenameofeachofthegreatdivinemessengersisthenameoftheUniversalMediator,butnoneissuchinthesamerespectasothers.'UniversalManisthepolearoundwhomrevolvethespheresofexistencefromthefirsttothelast.Hehasbeenonealonesincethebeginningoftheuniverseandheismanifestedinthevariousreligions,oneachoccasionbeingnamedinrespectofaparticularmanifestationandtotheexclusionoftheothers.HisoriginalnameisMohammed...Ineachcasehebearsthatnamethatcorrespondstohismanifestationonthatoccasion;ImethimintheformofmyspiritualmasterSharafad-DînIsmâ'ilal-Jabartî...'('Abdal-Karîmal-Jîlî,op.cit.,chapteronal-insânal-kâmil).

OmyGod,heisThineintegralsecret,thatdemonstratethThee,andThysupremeveil,raisedupbeforeThee.

The'essentialreality'(haqîqah)oftheMediator,hisrootinGod,ifitmaybesoexpressed,isnothingotherthanthefirstdivineself-determination(ta'ayyun),Being(al-wujûd),insofarasitisinacertainfashiondetachedfromNon-Being('adam).Thisfirstdetermination,whichincludesallothers,isinitselfasecretoramystery;forhowcantheUndetermineddetermineitself?Ontheonehand,thefirstdetermination'demonstrates'God,fortheUndeterminedisincomprehensible;ontheotherhand,itveilsHimbylimitingHiminacertainmanner;itrevealsHimandveilsHimatoneandthesametime.10

OmyGod,joinmetohisposterity11andjustifymebyThyreckoningof

9ThefollowingareafewsayingsoftheProphetinthisconnection,transmittedbyvariouschains:'(TheArchangel)Gabrielpeacebeuponhimcametomeandsaid:''OMohammed,nooneshallblesstheewithoutseventythousandangelsblessinghim;andhewhomtheangelsblesswillbeofthepeopleofParadise.""Ifanyoneblessmeoutofveneration,GodmayHebeexaltedwillcreatefromhiswordsanangelwhosetwowingswillstretchfromeasttowest,whosetwofeetwillbeplacedontheseventhnetherearthandthenapeofwhoseneckwillbebentbeneaththedivinethrone,andGodwillsaytotheangel:blessmyservant,asheblessedMyProphet!Andhewillblesshimuntilthedayofresurrection.""Ifanyoneblessmeonce,Godwillblesshimtentimes;ifanyoneblessmetentimes,Godwillblesshimahundredtimes...""NoservantofGodshallblessmebuthisblessingshallhastefromhismouth,traverseeverylandandeverysea,everyeastandeverywest,andshallsay:'Iamtheblessingofso-and-so,sonofso-and-so,whoblessedMohammed,theelect,thebestofthecreaturesofGod'.""Thenshallthereremainnothingthatwillnotblesshim,thisservant.AndGodwillcreatefromthisblessingabirdwithseventythousandwings,oneachwingtherewillbeseventythousandfaces,ineachfacetherewillbeseventythousandmouths,andeachmouthwillhaveseventythousandtongues;eachoneofthemwillpraiseGodinseventythousandlanguages;andGodwillinscribeforhimtherewardsforallofthat".'AlltheseallegoriesexpresstheincalculablereciprocitybetweenthesingularmanandUniversalMan.10Thiscanalsobesaidofmâyâ,accordingtotheVedanticdoctrine.Theoriginofmâyâisanunfathomablesecret,sinceitisneitherrealliketheAbsolute,norunreallikenothingness.ItisthusthattheSufisenvisagethe'RealityofMohammed'(al-khaqîqasal-muhammadîyah),asfirstexistentialdetermination.11Itisobviouslyaquestionofspiritualposterity.Itmaybementionedthat'Abdas-SalâmibnMashîshwashimselfadescendentoftheProphet,throughIdrîs,theholyfounderofFez.TheexistenceofcountlesssaintsissuedfromthephysicalposterityoftheProphetprovesthatthisposterityislikethemateriaprimaofaspiritualkinship,whenvocationandpersonaleffortactualizeitspotentialities.

him.Letmeknowhimwithaknowledgethatsavethmefromthewellsofignoranceandquenchethmythirstatthewellsofvirtue.Carrymeonhisway,surroundedbyThineaid,towardsThypresence.Strikethroughmeatvanity,sothatImaydestroyit.

TheselastwordsareaparaphraseoftheKoranicverse:'Butweshallhurlthetruth(al-haqq)againstvanity(al-bâtil),sothatitwillshatterit,andbeholditvanisheth.'(XXI,18).12

PlungemeintheoceansofUnity(al-ahadîyah),pullmebackfromthesloughsoftawhîd.

Sinceat-tawhîdnormallysignifiestheattestationofUnityor,byextension,unionwithGod,IbnMashîsh'spetitionisparadoxical;whathehasinviewinthispetitionistheconfusionofthecreatedwiththeuncreated;itisasifhesaid:preservemefromthepitfallsthatthedoctrineofUnity,improperlyunderstood,extendstowardsthe'drunken',whonolongerknowhowtodistinguishbetweenLordandservant.

Anddrownmeintheessence(orthesource)['ayn]oftheoceanofUnicity(al-wahdah),sothatIneitherseenorhearnoramconsciousnorfeelexceptthroughit.

Thisisanallusiontothe'holysaying'(hadîthqudsî):'MyservantceasethnottodrawnighuntoMeuntilIlovehim;andwhenIlovehim,Iamthehearingwherebyhehearethandthesightwherebyheseethandthehandwherebyhesmitethandthefootwhereuponhewalketh;andifheaskethsomethingofme,Iwillcertainlygiveittohim.'Accordingtothisimageofunion,theservantdoesnotceasetobeservant,buthishumannatureisasifpenetratedandenvelopedbyDivineReality.

InUnityinthesenseofal-ahadîyah,alltracesofthecreatureortheservantareeffaced,whereasinUnicityinthesenseofal-wahdah,thecreatureappearsinGod;multiplicityinunityandunityinmultiplicity.

AndmakeoftheSupremeVeilthelifeofmyspirit,andofhisspiritthesecretofmyreality,andofhisrealityallmyworlds.

Thismeans:grantthatthefirstofalldeterminations,Being,betheveryessenceofmyspirit,thattheUniversalMediatorbethesecretof

12Al-bâtil,whichwetranslateas'vanity',signifieseverythingthatisfalse,ephemeralandillusory.

myspiritualreality(haqîqah),andthathisownspiritualrealitymayassimilateintoitselfallthemodalitiesofmyexistence.

BytherealizationoftheFirstTruth.

ConcerningwhichtheKoransays:'WecreatednottheHeavensandtheearthandallthatisbetweenthemsavewithTruth'(XV,85).GodHimselfiscalled'theTruth'(al-Haqq).

OFirst,OLast,OOutward;OInward

ThesedivinenamesarementionedintheKoraninthissameorder.

Hearmypetition,evenasThouheardestthepetitionofThyservantZachariah,

whoimploredGodnottoleavehimwithoutheir;Godfulfilledhisdesire,despitetheageandbarrennessofhiswife(Koran,III,37ff).

SuccourmethroughTheeuntoThee,supportmethroughTheeuntoThee,unitemewithTheeandcomeinbetweenmeandother-than-Thee:13Allâh,Allâh,Allâh!VerilyHewhohathimposedontheetheKoranforalaw,willbringtheebacktothepromisedend(Koran,XXVIII,85).

ThelastphraseisaversefromtheKoran,addressedtotheProphetontheoccasionoftheemigration(hijrah)toMedina.Hereitreferstotheexileofthespiritintheworld:GodpromisestowhoeverinvokesHimthatHewillbringhimbacktohistruehomeland,eternityorGodHimself.

OurLord,grantusmercyfromThypresence,andshapeforusrightconductinourplight(Koran,XVIII,10).

AccordingtotheKoran,thisistheprayerutteredbythesevensleepersofEphesus,atthemomentoftheirtakingrefugeinthecave.Thecaveistheimageparexcellenceoftheisolation(Khalwah)ofthecontemplativewithinhimself.

Verily,GodandHisangelsblesstheProphet;Oyewhobelieve,blesshimandwishhimpeace(Koran,XXXIII,56).

Maythegraces(salawât)ofGod,Hispeace,Hissalutations,HismercyandHisblessings(barakât)beonourLordMohammed,Thyservant,ThyprophetandThymessenger,theun-letteredprophet,andonhisfamilyandonhiscompanions,(graces)asnumerousastheevenandtheoddandastheperfectandblessedwordsofourLord.

13ThisechoestheKoranicverse(VIII,24):'Godcomethin(yahwul)betweenmanandhisownheart'.ThisrootistheoriginoftheSufitermhâl.

ThegracesthatGodheapsonHisfirstandall-inclusivecreatureareasnumberlessandwithoutendasareHiscreativewords.

GlorifiedbethyLord,theLordofGlory,beyondwhattheyattributeuntoHim,andpeacebeontheMessengers.PraisebetoGodtheLordoftheworlds(Koran,XXXVII,80-182).

19ConcerningtheBarzakhAVERYEXPLICITexampleofthedoublemeaningofsymbols1isprovidedbytheuseoftheexpressionbarzakhinIslamicesoterism.InIslamictheologythewordbarzakhisgenerallytakentomeanacertainintermediatestateintheposthumousevolutionofthehumanbeing.Butesoterismgivesitamuchlessrestrictedmeaning,whilemoreoverbasingitselfstrictlyonthemetaphysicalinterpretationoftheKoranicversescontainingthetermbarzakh.OneoftheseversesisfromthesuraAr-Rahmân:'Hebringethforththetwoseas,whichmeet;betweenthemisanisthmus(=barzakh),whichtheydonotgobeyond'.AnotherverseisfromthesuraAl-Furqân:'Heitiswhobringethforththetwoseas;oneisfreshanddrinkable,theotherissaltandbitter;andHehathmadebetweenthetwoanisthmus(=barzakh)andaclosedbarrier'.

Accordingtointerpretationswell-knowninSufism,thetwoseassymbolizerespectivelyQuiddityandtheQualifies,2or,accordingtootherinterpretations,thenon-manifestedandthemanifested,theformlessandtheformal,immediateknowledgeandtheoreticalknowledge,etc.Inshort,thetwoseascanrepresenttwomoreorlessexalted,butalwaysconsecutive,degreesinthehierarchyofBeing(wuj(þd).

Asforthebarzakh,which,seen'fromtheoutside',mustnecessarilyhavethedefinitemeaningof'partition'or'separativeelement',itcannotbemerelythisforaperspectivewhichappliestoittheprincipleofnon-otherness.Lookingatitinregardtoitsontologicalsituation,ifonemaysoputit,itappearsasasimplepartitiononly

1SeeRenéGuénon,TheReignofQuantityandtheSignsoftheTimes(Baltimore,Maryland,PenguinBooks,1972),chapter30,'TheInversionofSymbols'.2ThesetermsareexplainedinthebookDel'HommeUniversel(al-insânal-kâmil)by'Abdal-Kafimal-Jîlî,translatedbyTitusBurckhardt(Paris,Dervy-Livres,1975).Englishedition,UniversalMan,translatedbyAngelaCulme-Seymour(Sherborne,BesharaPublications,1983).

fromthepointofviewofthedegreeoflesserreality,whereasseen'fromabove',itistheverymediatorbetweenthetwoseas.

Itcanthusbecomparedtoaprismwhichbreaksdowntheintegrallightofahigherworldintothevariedcoloursofalowerworld,oragaintoalenswhichconcentratestheraysfromabovebyfilteringthemthroughasinglepointofinversion.

Thebarzakhisthusseparationonlyinthatitisitselfthestartingpointofaseparativeperspective,intheeyesofwhichitappearstobealimit.Andthisfindsananalogyinwhatiscalledthe'blindspot'inthephysicaleye,attheveryplacewheretheopticnerveperforatesit.

TheseconsiderationsregardingthetwocomplementaryaspectsofthebarzakhsufficientlyexplainwhyinSufismthisexpressionissometimesusedsynonymouslywithqutb,'pole'.

'Whatiscalledthebarzakhofagivenrealmofexistence,'saystheShaikhSiMohammadTadilîofJadîda,'isnothingotherthanthepolethatgovernsthisrealmandgivesititsgrowth.'

Ascanbeseenfromtheuseoftheexpression'growth',theShaikhTadilîhadaboveallinmindthecosmologicalapplicationsofthetheoryofthebarzakh:

'Intheimageofthehierarchyoftheworldscontainedinthekawnal-kabîr,3everyworldoreverydegreeofhumanindividualityispresidedoverbyabarzakh,inthesamewayaseveryhumanfacultyisgovernedbyacertainpole.'

Thisismosteasilyseeninthefacultiesofmentalconception,inwhichthebarâzikh(pluralofbarzakh)constitutethepivotsofthecomplementaries'subject'and'object',aswellasinthefacultiesofsenseperception.

TheShaikhTadilîalsosays:'Allthebarâzikhofmandependonhiscentralbarzakh,whichistheheart(qalb),4mediatorbetweenthedomainoftheSpirit(Rûh)andthatoftheindividualsoul(nafs).'

Moreover,thephysicalaspectoftheheartveryclearlyexpresses

3Themacrocosm.AccordingtoaSufisaying,'thecosmosislikeabigmanandmanislikealittlecosmos'.4Inthisconnectionitisverysignificantthattherootofthewordqalb,QLB,impliestheideaof'turningupsidedown',whereastherootQBLimpliesthatof'placingoneinfrontoftheother',whencetheexpressionqiblah(ritualorientation);thewordqalb,moreover,alsohasthemeaningof'mould',giventheinversionof'negative'and'positive'intheprocessofmoulding.

thedifferentcharacteristicsofthebarâzikh,for,accordingtoShaikhTadilî,'thesebarâzikhofthehumanhierarchycanbesymbolicallyrepresentedassomanyimperceptiblepointsfromwhichaluminousvibrationemanates,alternatelyofconcentrationandofexpansion,continuouslyandspontaneously.Eachpulsationofthebarzakhproducesatransformationofthevitallight.Inorderthatthistransformationdoesnotbecomeupsetanddoesnot,throughindividualnegligence,becomefatally"downward-tending",itmustalwaysbedeterminedbyspiritualorientationandsustainedbymeanssuchasdhikr(incantation)orbymethodsthatdependonthescienceofrespiration.'Thesemethodsarebased,fromacertainpointofview,ontheanalogybetweenthephasesofrespirationandthepulsationofthebarâzikh.

Asforthedhikr,itshouldbenotedthatthiswordalsomeans'recall'or'remembrance',whichallowsustoseeanalogiesbetweenincantationandthecalltothebarzakhofmemory,situatedbetweenthe'seas'ofremembranceandforgetfulness.5

Thetwo-facednatureofJanuswhichischaracteristicofthebarzakh,itsdoublefunctioninaverticalsenseofjunctionandseparation,isexpressedonthehorizontalplanebythealternationsofexpansionandcontraction.Theseareobviouslyaspectsofthesamecomplementarism.Reducedtoanelementarylogicalexpression,thesedualitiescanberepresentedrespectivelybyaffirmationandnegation.

ThisleadsustoacorrespondingapplicationoftheformulaoftheShahâdah,6whichitselfcanbecalledthedoctrinalbarzakhparexcellence.

TheShahâdahisgenerallydividedintotwoparts,ofwhichthefirst,theLâilâha,iscalledan-nafy,negationoras-salb,suppression,andthesecond,theillâ'Llâh,iscalledal-ithbât,affirmation.

5TheuseoftenseintheArabiclanguagepertainstothesameorderofanalogies:itisnotthepresenttenseoftheverbthatisusedtosymbolizetheeternal,butthepastdefinite,orratherwhatcorrespondstothisinArabic.6The'testimony';inotherwords,thefundamentalformulaLâilâhaillâ'Llâh,'ThereisnodivinitybutTheDivinity'.Theword-for-wordtranslationisasfollows:Lâ=no;ilâha=divinity;in=ifandlâ=not(contractedintoillâ);Allâh=TheDivinity.AccordingtoArabgrammarians,thenameAllâhwasoriginallycomposedofthedefinitearticleAlandthenounilâhu(nominativeofilâha).

ButinordertoapplytheShahâdahevenmoreexplicitlytothetheoryofthebarzakh,itmustbedividedintothreeparts:Lâilâha,illâ,andAllâh.7Andinorderbettertounderstandthebarzakhillâ,whichissituatedbetweenthe'sea'ofnegation,Lâilâha,andthe'sea'ofaffirmation,Allâh,itshouldbebrokendownintoitsconstituentelements:theparticlein(=if),whichexpressesacondition,andlâ(=no),whichexpressesanegation.

Now,whenonehasunderstoodthattheparticleinisaconditionedaffirmation,sinceitgivesbackrealitytoilâhun(nominativeofilâha)8onconditionthatthisisnototherthantherealityofAllâh,itwillbeseenthattheaffirmationandthenegationarepresentintheillâinthereverseordertotheaffirmationandthenegationwhichsotospeak'frame'thewholeformula.

Thisreversalisnaturallynotasimplequestionoftheorderofwords,for,aswehavejustindicated,theparticleinisthe'pointofreflection'forthegraceofAllâhwhichreachesasfarastheillusoryilâhun;onecanseethisifonereplacesthetermilâhabyanypositivenotionwhatsoever;thiswillthenbedeniedinsofarasitaffirmsitself,atleastillusorily,alongsidetheipseityofAllâh,anditwillbeaffirmedinsofarasitisidentifiedessentiallyorprincipiallywiththeipseityofAllah.Ontheotherhand,thesecondelementoftheillâ,thenegativeparticlelâ,isinasensethe'pointofreflection'ofthefirstpartoftheShahâdah,namelythenegationLâilâha:thefirstLâoftheformuladeniesthenotionof'divinity'expressedbytheindeterminateformilâhun,whereasthesecondlâsinglesoutthissamenotioninthedeterminateformAllâh('TheDivinity'),whichsymbolizesherenon-comparability,andnotdeterminationintherestrictivesenseofthisterm.

Thustheexpressionillâdemonstratesveryclearlythetwofunctionsofthebarzakh;thefirstconsistsinmediationinan'ascending'sense,inotherwordsinthepassagefromthemanifestedtothenon-manifested,apassageortransformationwhichalwaystraversestheblindspotofanextinction,orofadeath;whilethesecondisthatthispointisthepointofreversalofrelationships.

TheShahâdahshowsthatthesetwoapparentlyopposedaspects

7'Thereisnodivinity';'ifitisnot';'TheDivinity'.8Ilâhun=divinity,al-ilâhu=TheDivinity;ilâha=theaccusativeofnegation.

canbeintegratedintotheconceptionof'non-otherness',aconceptionwhichobviouslytranscendsthedomainofreasonandwhichthusgivestoitsexpression,theShahâdah,acertainappearanceofpleonasm.9

ThedifferentaspectsofthebarzakharefurtherrepresentedinthediagramoftheSealofSolomon,andthisleadsustoconsidertherelationshipofthebarzakhwithal-insan*al-kâmil,'UniversalMan',who,byexpressingtheconstituentanalogyofthemicrocosmandthemacrocosm,istrulythebarzakhparexcellenceor,whatamountstothesamething,thesymbolparexcellence.

UniversalMan,inIslam,isMuhammadun,whoincludesinhimselfallhamd,10thepositiveaspectofexistence.HisroleasbarzakhisexpressedbythesecondofthetwoShahâdatâni:Muhammadunrasûlu'Llâh,'Muhammad(is)themessengerofAllâh'.

Whenonecomparesthetwofundamentalformulas:Lâilâhaillâ'LlâhandMuhammadunrasûlu'Llâh,oneseesthat,inthefirst,thebarzakhappearsaboveallinitstransformingaspect(illâ=ifitisnot),and,inthesecond,initsaspectofmediatorandconserver(rasûl=messenger).

WemustalsomentionhereaSufiinterpretationofthefollowingversefromthesuraAr-Rahmâan:'Hebringethforththetwoseas,whichmeet;betweenthetwoisanisthmus(barzakh)whichtheydonotgobeyond.'TheinterpretationinquestionisrelatedtoUniversalManandconsistsintheaffirmationthattheProphetisthe'isthmus',andthatthe'twoseas'arerespectivelySayyidnâ'AlîandSayyidatnââtima.11

TheRisâlatu'l-Qushairîyah(theQushairîEpistle),thefamoustreatiseofShaikhAbû'l-Qâsimal-Qushairî,12containsamongst

9ThishasgivenrisetoanumberoffantastictranslationsoftheShahâdah,ofwhichoneoftheleastfalseisthefollowing:'thereisnogodexceptAllâh',atranslationwhich,byitsinadequacy,hasinducedmanypeopletoseeintheShahâdahonlytheaffirmationofaverysimplistic'monotheism'.10ThemostessentialnamesoftheProphetare:'AbdAllâh,'servantofAllâh';Ahmadun,'thebestofglorifiers';andMuhammadun,'thebestoftheglorified'.AhmadunisconsideredastheesotericaspectofMuhammadun.11'AlîistheesotericKhalîfah(=lieutenant)parexcellence,FâtimaisthedaughteroftheProphetandthewifeof'Alî.12Al-Qushairîwasadiscipleof'Alîad-Daqqâqandlivedfrom986to1074A.D.

otherthingsacompendiumofcertain'technicalterms'peculiartoSufism.Orientalistshavesoughttoseeintheseakindofreligiouspsychologyandthisisbecause,infact,someofthetermscommentedonbyQushairîpertaintothesymbolismofthesentiments.Itisnotwrongtoseeinthisa'psychology',inotherwordsascienceofthehumanpsyche,sincethedevelopmentandcontrolofthepsychicelementsorenergiesnecessarilyformanintegralpartinthemethodor'way'(tarîqah),butitwouldbewrongnottobeawareofthesymbolicalperspectiveimpliedinthisSufiscienceofthepsyche,aperspectivethatgivesitallitsspiritualsignificance.

IfweapplytheconsiderationsregardingthebarzakhthathavebeenformulatedabovetosomesectionsoftheQushairîEpistle,theessentiallymetaphysicalnatureofwhatsomehavecalleda'religiouspsychology'willbereadilyapparent.

Wehaveseenthatthedoublenatureofthebarzakhisreflectedatacosmiclevelbythealternationofthetwophasesofconcentrationandexpansion.Intherealmoftheemotions,thesetwophasescanbeseenmostdirectlyinthetwoprimordialwaysinwhichthepsychereactstowhatitconsiderstobe'reality':ontheonehand,withfear,whichisacontractiontowardsthecentreofconsciousness,andontheotherhandwithjoyorhope,whichisanexpansion.13

Nowwhenitisaquestionofconsciouslyintegratingthesetwophasesintotheuniversalorder,theycannolongerberelatedtosomethingthatcouldbeconceivedofasbeingexteriortothemselves.Whenfear(al-khawf)andhope(ar-rajâ)areorientedtowardsAllâhorUniversalEssence,theyarenotforthatreasoneffacedfromthepsychicdomain,buttheyareinacertainsenserhythmized,beingnolongersubjecttodisorderedimpulses;itcouldbesaidthattheyaredetermined,inacertainfashion,bythe'Present'intime,andbythe'Centre'inspace,thepolewhichrulesthemandtheendtowardswhichtheytendhavingbecomeoneandthesamereality.

13ThisexpansionwhichispropertojoyisexpressedinacompletelyspontaneousmannerinArabicintheverbinsharaha'torejoice',whichliterallymeans'toexpand',inspeakingofthebreastfilledwithjoy.Theverbinbasata,whichalsomeans'torejoice',alsopossesses,etymologicallyspeaking,ameaningof'expansion'.Fortheanalogybetweenfearandcontractiononecouldciteverbalimagesfromseverallanguages;letusnoteonly,asaparticularlyclearexample,therelationshipbetweentheGermanwordAngst,'fear',andtheLatinwordangustus,'narrow'.

Ifthephasesoffearandhopearethusdeterminedandabsorbedbythepermanentactualityoftheimmediatepresent,insuchawaythatthefaqîr14whorealizesthemhasbecomethe'sonofthemoment'(ibnu'l-waqt),theywillmanifestmoreessentialaspects,andtheycanbedenotedbyexpressionsthathaveamoregeneralcosmologicalmeaning,suchas'contraction'(qabd)and'expansion'(bast).15

Theycanthenbetransformedintothecomplementarystatesofhaibah,anexpressionwhichcanbeapproximatelytranslatedas'terrorofmajesty',andofuns,'intimacy'.

Whereasitissaidofthetwophases'contraction'and'expansion'(qabdwabast)thatoneisinproportiontotheotherwhichindicatesthattheymustbeconsideredasbeingmanifestedonthesameplaneitissaidofthestateofhaibahthatitisidentifiedwiththatofghaibah,'absence'or'rapture'.Itisherethatapassagefromthehorizontaltotheverticaltakesplace;andbyinversion,throughthenarrowdoorofthebarzakh,absence(intheworldoffarq,orseparativity)becomesPresence(Hudûr)(intheworldofjam',orunion).

Al-Qushairîquotesthefollowingwordsofal-Junaid:16'ThefearofAllahcontractsme(qabd),hopedirectedtowardsHimenlargesme(bast);theTruth(haqîqah)unitesme,andJustice(haqq)separatesme.IfHecontractsmethroughfear,Heextinguishesmefrommyself(afnanî'annî),andifHeenlargesmethroughhope,Hereturnsmetomyself.IfHeunitesmebytheTruth,HeputsmeintoHisPresence(ahdaranî),andifHeseparatesmebyJustice,Hemakesmewitnessoftheother-than-myself,andveilsmethusfromHim.'

14The'poor'inAllâhorforAllâh.15AmongthenamesofAllahare:al-Qâbid,'Hewhocontracts'or'Hewhogrips',andal-Bâsit,'Hewhoenlarges'.16Abû'l-Qâsimal-Junaid,whocamefromaPersianfamily,livedinBaghdad,wherehediedin910A.D.Hewasoneoftheverygreatmasters,andwascalledthe'lordofthetroop'and'peacockofthewise'.

20ExtractsfromtheCommentaryontheDivineNamesbytheImamGhazali1(al-maqsadal-asnâfisharhiasmâ'illâhi'l-husnâ)

THEINFINITELYGOOD,theMerciful(Ar-Rahmâan,Ar-Rahîm).

TheDivineMercyisperfect,inthesensethatitrespondstoeveryneed.Itisuniversal,inthesensethatitislavishedbothonthosewhodeserveitandthosewhodonotdeserveit.

OfthetwoNamesmentioned,thefirst(Ar-Rahmân)isnotcapableofanyrelativeapplications;itpertainstoAllâhalone.Becauseofthisfact,itapproximates,inusage,totheNameAllâh.'Say:invokeAllâhorinvokeAr-Rahmân,whicheveryeinvoke,toHimarethemostbeautifulNames'2(Koran).

Theparticipationofthe'servant'('abd,thecontingentbeing,inasmuchasheisdeterminedmarbûbbythe'Lord'[Rabb],AbsoluteBeing,inasmuchasHedeterminescontingencies)inthequalityofAr-Rahîmconsistsinactivegenerosity.HisparticipationinthequalityofAr-Rahmânisthecomprehensionofallhumanimperfectionsasbeingaspectsofhisownsoul.

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1ThefamousSufiandtheologianAbûHâmidat-Tûsîal-Ghazâlî(1058-1111).2AccordingtoatemporalsymbolismusedinIslamictheology,God'was'Ar-RahmânHewhoisinfinitelygoodinHimself'before'creation,whereasheisAr-RahîmHewhomanifestsHismercy'since'creation.'Before'thusreferstothePrincipleinitself,and'since'(or'after')tomanifestation.Christianityusesananalogoustemporalsymbolism,butasitwereinaninverseway:Christisatthecentreoftime,thereignofthe'OldCovenant'referringtothehumanandtheearthly,andthereignofthe'NewCovenant'referringtotheDivineandtheHeavenly.

TheKing(Al-Malik).

Al-MalikisHewho,byHisBeingandHisqualifies,isindependentofallexistence,whileeverythingthatexistsdependsonHimineveryrespect.

Participationinthisdivinequalityisthestateofprophethood.

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TheHoly(Al-Quddûs).

Al-QuddûsisHewhoisfreefromeveryperceptible,imaginable,andconceivablequality.

Participationinthisdivinequalityrelatestothestateofpurityandspiritualsolitude.

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Peace(As-Salâm).

As-SalâmisHewhoisfreefromallimperfectionsanddiminishments.ThereisnointegrityexceptthroughAllâh.

Participationinthisdivinequalityisspiritualre-integration(ofthecontingentintheAbsolute,bythereturnofexistentialdisequilibriaintotheDivineEquilibrium,As-Salâm).3

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TheFaithful(Al-Mu'min).

3Disequilibriumisaneffectofcosmicexteriorization,pureExistencecorrespondingtoequilibriumorindifferentiation.Thisdistinctionbetween'outwarddisequilibrium'and'inwardequilibrium'isalsotobefoundinthedivisionofthehumanworldintothe'regionofIslam'(dâral-islâm)andthe'regionofwar'(dâral-harb).Al-Islâmisconformitytoas-Salâm,whichisthegoal;thisisprefiguredonearthbytheKaaba,whichisdâras-salâm,'houseofpeace'or'regionofpeace'(Koranicexpression).Inthehumanmicrocosm,thishouseofpeaceorthisKaabaisrepresentedbytheheart.OnecanunderstandwhyRâbi'aal-AdawîyaomittedperformingthepilgrimagetoMecca,giventhatshehadcarriedoutthe'pilgrimagetotheheart';inotherwords:hadattainedthe'peace'that'pre-exists'beneaththetumultofexteriorizedexistence.Furthermore,ifonerecallsthatthegoalofajustwaristruepeace,itiseasytounderstandtheroleofthe'holywar'ofthesoul:theinward'war'isinfacttheabolitionofanotherwar,theonewagedbyearthlypassionsagainsttheimmortalsoulandagainstthepureintellect.

Al-Mu'minisHewhogivessafety.

Theservantwhoparticipatesinthisqualitygivessafetytoothercreatures;heistheirrefugeandtheirmodel.

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TheGuardian(Al-Muhaimin).

Al-MuhaiminisHewhoguards(orprotects)creaturesbyhisforesight,hismasterfulness,andhisconservingpower.ThisNamethuscontains,inasyntheticmanner,aspectsofprescience,powerfulness,andpenetration.ThisiswhyitiscountedamongsttheNamesrevealedbytheancientsacredBooks.

Participationinthisdivinequalityrelatestothestateofvigilance,continualwakefulness,andspiritualsupervision.

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TheEminent(Al-'Azîz).

Al-'AzîzisHewhoatoneandthesametimeiseminent,rare,precious,andhardofaccess.ItwouldbeimpossibletoapplythisNamewhereveranyoneoftheseaspectswaslacking.Thus,forexample,thesuniseminent,itisuniqueofitskind,butitisnotdifficultofaccess(i.e.byvision);thereforetheNameal-'Azîzcannotbeappliedtothesun.

Theperfectionofrarityis(metaphysically)identifiablewithUnicity.

Theservantwhoparticipatesinthisdivinequalityiscomparabletotheraregreatspiritualmasters.

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TheRestorer(Al-Jabbâr).

Al-JabbârisHewhoseordainingwillpenetratesandpermeateseverything,withoutHisbeingHimselftouchedbyanything(sincenothingisoutsideofHimandconsequentlyHeisimpassible).

Theservantwhoparticipatesinthisqualityisnotsubjecttotheinfluenceofanyoneelse;heimpresseshisnatureoneveryothercreature,andisrecognizedonlybytheonewho

hasundergonetheextinction(fanâ)ofhisindividuality.

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TheProud(Al-Mutakabbir).

Al-MutakabbirisHewholooksonallthingsasbeingnegligibleinrelationtoHimself,andwhoseesneithergreatnessnoreminencebutinHisownessence(ahât).

Theapplicationofthisqualitytotheservantisspiritualdignity(inotherwords,theconcentrationofthepowersofthesoulontheheart-intellect,andsoontheSelf,whencetheimpressionofaproudattitudewithregardtotheappearancesfromwhichthespiritisdetached).

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TheCreator(Al-Khâliq);theProducer,orHewhorealizesordevelopscreation(Al-Bâri');andHewhogivesform,whofashionsthecreature(Al-Musawwir).4

Somepeoplethinkthatthesethreenamesaresynonyms,allexpressingequallythecreativeaction;butthisisnotso:everythingthatproceedsfromnon-existence('adam)toexistence(wujûd)istheobjectfirstlyofdivinedetermination(tadqîr),5thenofdivinemanifestation(ijâd),6andfinallyofdivinefashioning(tawîr).7AllâhisCreator(Khâliq)inasmuchasHeassignstoeachthingitsexistentialmeasure(qadr);HeisProducer(Bâri')inasmuchasHerealizesexistence,andHeisHe-who-gives-form(Musawwir)inasmuchasHeordainsmanifestedformsinperfectbeauty.Letusciteasaparabletheconstructionofahouse:firstofall,thearchitectsketchesitsproportionsanddeterminestheamountofbuildingmaterialsthatwillbenecessary,thenthemasonerectsthebuilding,andfinallythecraftsmanembellishesit...

Asforthename'Hewhogivesform'(Al-Musawwir),itdesignatesGodinasmuchasHeconfersonthingsaperfectorderandformsfull

4ThisternaryofDivineNamesismentionedinthisorderintheKoran.5Thisistheassignationofthe'existentialmeasure',ofthe'capacity'toreceivetoagreaterorlesserdegreethefullnessofBeing.Itisthis'capacity'(qadr)thatissubsequentlydevelopedundertheactionofAl-Bâri'.ThecreativeactionisthusanalogoustotheprincipialdeterminationofthepossibilitiesofmanifestationintheDivineIntellect.6Literally:'existentiation'.7Thiswordalsosignifiesartisticactivity,expeciallydrawing.

ofbeauty.Thisisoneoftheaspectsofdivineactivity.Inordertograspitsmeaningcompletely,itisnecessarytoknowtheformoftheworldinitstotalityandindetail,forthewholeworldisformedonthemodelofasingleperson,whosemembersarecoordinatedwithaviewtoasinglegoal.

Theparticipationofthe'servant'inthisdivinename,isthatmanshouldinwardlyrepresenttohimselfthewholecosmos,untilheembracesitsformasifhewerelookingatit.8Fromthisglobalvisionhewilldescendtowardsthecontemplationofparticularforms,considering,forexample,thebodilyhumanformwithitsmembersandorgans;whenhehasunderstoodtheirprincipleofformation,theircomposition,andthedifferencesbetweenthem,hewillraisehisattentiontotheconsiderationofthecognitiveandvolitivequalitiesofwhichtheseorgansaretheinstruments;inlikemannerhewillcontemplatetheformofanimalsandplants,intheirdoubleaspect,outwardandinward,9andtotheextentofhisownunderstanding,untilheconceivesinhisheartthesoulandtheformofeverything.Nowallthisrefersonlytotheknowledgeofphysicalforms,whichhasnomorethanarelativesignificanceincomparisonwiththeknowledgeofthespiritualorder;thislattercomprisesthehierarchyofAngels;italsodiscernsthevariousfunctionsoftheAngelsrulingthemovementsofthestars,theeffectsofGraceintheheartofman,andtheimpulsionsofinstinctintheanimals.10Manthusparticipatesin

8Thispresupposesaninclusiveandhomogeneousconceptionofthephysicalcosmos,suchaswaspossessedbyallthetraditionalcivilizations.A'vision'ofthiskindwillalwaysbebutasymbol;itcanneverbemorethanthat.Whateverprogressmayhavebeenmadeinmoderncosmography,thetotalityofthephysicalworldwillalwaysoutstripbyfarourmeansofinvestigation.Theancientandmedievalconceptionsoftheworldcorrespondedtoanaturalexperience;becauseofthis,theywerethevehicleofaqualitativesynthesisofthetotalcosmos,whereasmodernconceptionsofthesiderealuniversearetooindirectandtooabstracttoprovideasupportforcontemplation;atthesametime,theyimplyamaterialisticpointofviewthatcreatesamonstrousdisproportionbetweensurroundingrealityandthehumansubject:oneforgetsthateveryconceptionoftheworldisbasicallybutacontentofthehumanmindandthatitsintrinsictruthcannotbesuperiortothatofitsintellective'mirror'.9Thismeansthatanimalandvegetableformsmustbeunderstoodbothinrespectoftheirobjectiveformalcharacteristicsandasmanifestationsofdiversemodalitiesofconsciousness.10Thesearetheimpersonal,non-mental,andnon-individualmodesofuniversalIntelligence.TheternarymentionedbyAl-Ghazâlîisrichinmeaning.

thisdivinenamebyassimilatingtheintelligibleformthatcorrespondstotheexistentialform;forscienceisnoneotherthananinwardformanalogoustotheformoftheobjectofknowledge.11TheknowledgethatGodhasofformsisthecauseoftheexistence12oftheseformsintheessences(al-a'yân),andtheformscontainedintheessencesarethecauseoftheactualizationoftheintelligibleformsintheheartofman.Itisinthiswaythatthe'servant'realizessciencebyvirtueofthedivinename'He-who-gives-form'(Al-Musawwir).Bytheassimilationoftheintelligibleforms,manhimselfbecomes'he-who-gives-form'(musawwir),13althoughthisqualityonlybelongstohiminacontingentmanner.Inreality,eachoftheseformsisonlyactualizedinmanbyadivinecreativeact,andnotbyindividualcreation;14nevertheless,theservantopenshimselftotheinfluxoftheDivineMercy(Rahmah),for'Goddoesnotchangewhatapeoplehasreceived,unlesstheythemselveschangewhattheycarrywithinthem'(Koran);inthesamesense,theProphetsaid:'Verilyinthecourseofearthlyexistence,yourLordexhalescertainbreathsofmercy;willyethennotbereadytoreceivethem?'15

AsforthetwonamesTheCreator(Al-Khâliq)andtheProducer(Al-Bâri'),the'servant'onlyparticipatesintheminaveryindirectanddistantmanner,bythedevelopmentofhisstrength,foundedonhisscience...ThereexistdivinenamesindeedmostofthemwhichinrealityapplytoGodalone,suchasthenamesTheCreatorandTheProducer,whichcanonlybeattributedtotheindividualinacontingentandprovisionalmanner,andthereareotherslikeThe

11Thissimpletruthisinpracticeignoredbymodernscience.ThedefinitiongivenbyAl-Ghazâlîappliestospeculation.Asforknowledgeorgnosis(al-ma'rifah),itistheidentificationoftheintellectwiththeessenceoftheobject.12Thatistosay,oftherealityoftheseforms,forthecontentsoftheimmutableessences(al-a'yânath-thâbitah)arenotmanifestedassuch;theyhaveno'existence'butonlyaprincipial'permanence'(thubût).13Atermthatalsomeans'artist'.Onecanseeherethelinkattachingtruearttosacredscience.14Individualcreationisonlyrealizedwithintheframeworkofdivinecreationandrepresentsnomorethanaprolongationofthelatter.15Inconnectionwiththedivinenameinquestion,thissayingoftheProphetcontainsanallusiontothenatureofartconsideredaccordingtothetraditionalpointofview,inotherwords,asbothanartandascience:trueartistorealizetheprolongationofthedivinecreativeactinthecreativeactivityofman.

Patient(As-Sabûr)andTheGrateful(Ash-Shâkir)whicharereallynamesofthecreatureandapplytoGodonlyinaprovisionalandentirelysymbolicmanner...

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Hewhoisfullofforgiveness(Al-Ghaffâr).

ThisisHewhomanifestsbeautyandhidesugliness,suchastheuglinessofsins,whichHehidesby'coveting'themwithaveilinthispresentworldandbyeffacingtheirconsequencesintheworldtocome,for'forgiveness'(al-ghafr)literallymeanstheactof'covering'(as-sitr).God'forgives'firsflybycoveringtheuglinessoftheentrailsbythebeautyofbodilyform,thenHe'forgives'byhidingtheseatofabjectthoughtsandbadsuggestions,sothatnoonecandetectthem,andfinallyHeforgivesbytheremissionofsins16...Moreover,Godhaspromised(intheKoran)thatHewilltransformthemoraluglinessofmanintobeauty,bycoveringitwiththeclothingofvirtue,ifmanremainsfirminhisfaith.17

Theparticipationofthe'servant'inthisdivinenameisthatheshould'cover'inotherswhathemusthideinhimself.18FortheProphetonhimbeBlessingsandPeacehassaid:'Ifsomeonecoverstheshameofabeliever,Godwillcoverhisownshameonthe

16Sinortransgressionisaruptureofthenormalequilibriumofthebeing.BydivineforgivenesswhichisanexpressionoftheundifferentiatedplenitudeofBeingtransgressionisasitwere'drowned'intheintegralcosmicequilibrium.17'Verily,Weshalltransformtheiruglinessintobeauty'(Koran).BythereintegrationofthebeingintotheEdenicstate,whichistheplenitudeofhumanpossibilities,accidentaldeviationsareneutralizedandbroughtbacktotheirpositiveaspect:transgressionassuchisaconfusionbetweengoodandevilorrealandunreal;itsontologicallypositivecontentistheaspirationtowardsthegoodorthereal,onconditionhoweverthatthetransgression,insofarasitissomethingobscure,doesnotrepresentthedeep-seatedandfundamentaltendencyofthebeing;inthiscase,reintegrationintotheEdenicstateisimpossible.Lovealsopossessesthevirtueoftransformingintobeautywhat,outsideitself,canappearasanugliness.Itisinthiswaythattheanimalaspectofsexualloveistransformedintobeauty.18AccordingtotheIslamicperspective,itisnotmeritorioustoconfessone'ssinspublicly,iftheyhavenotbeenmadepublicbysomeoneelse,foritisalackofgenerosityandrespectforone'sneighbourtodisplayone'sownuglinessbeforehim;moreover,torevealthismaycorruptothers.Itisacaseofhidingone'ssininthehopethatGodwillalsohideitbyforgivingit.

dayofjudgement'.Slander,spying,vengeance,andtheretributionofevilbyevilareattheextremeoppositeofthisquality;onthecontrary,itbelongstothemanwhodivulgesonlythegoodthatcreaturespossess.Everycreaturepossessesperfectionsandimperfections,beautiesanduglinesses;whoeverdisregardstheiruglinessesandmentionsonlytheirbeauties,trulyparticipatesintheDivineForgiveness.19ItisrelatedthatJesusonwhombepeacewastravellingwithhisdisciples,andthattheypassedbyadeaddog,theevilsmellfromwhichwasunbearable.'Howfoul-smellingisthiscarcass!'exclaimedthedisciples.ButJesusreplied:'Howbeautifulisthewhitenessofitsteeth!'

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TheDominator,Hewhosubdues(Al-Qahhâr).

Thisistheonewhobreakstheprideofhisadversariesbydestroyingthemandabasingthem;thereisnothing,outsideGod,thatisnotdominatedbyHispowerandthatisnotimpotentinHisgrip.20

19Theimitationofdivineforgivenessdoesnotexclude,inthespiritualman,discriminationanddiscernment,nor,inthecaseofthemonarchresponsibleforsocialorder,theadministrationofjustice,justasthemeaningofthedivinename'Hewhoisfullofforgiveness'doesnotexcludethemeaningsofthedivinenamesTheJudge(Al-Hakam)andTheWise(Al-Hakim).Discriminationappliestoideasandactionsinsole'astheyexpresstruthsorerrors,andnottotheessencesofindividualbeings.Withregardtosocialjustice,asitisprescribedbyMoslemlaw,itrefrainsfromuncovering,byconstraint,individualmotivesandactsthatcanremainhiddenwithoutprejudicetothesafetyofothers.Adistinctionismadebetweeninfractionsofthe'rightsofGod'andinfractionsofthe'rightsofman'.inthecaseofthefirst,thejudgecanbeclement,supposingthatGodmayhaveforgiventheaccused.Inageneralway,witnessesarenotencouragedtogiveevidenceagainsttheaccused,andthelatterisinvitedtodenyhiscrime,iftherightsofothershavenotbeeninfringedthroughit;ifinspiteofthis,thecrimeisproved,judgementwillbeexecutedwithrigour.ThispracticetakesasitsmodeltheProphet'swayofacting.20Thefirstandmostuniversaloftheconstraintsundergonebythecreatureistheimpossibility,forhim,ofapproachingtheEssence(Ahadiyah)initstranscendentandabsoluteUnity.Indeed,theEssencecanonlybeknownbytheEssence;asaspiritualstate,thisknowledgeimpliestheannihilation(mahw)ofthecreature.Accordingtothismeaning,thedivineaspectoftheOne-who-subdues(Qahhâr)flowsdirectlyfromUnity,whichincludeseverything,sothatnothingissituated'outside'It,andItItselfforthisreasoncannotbereached'fromtheoutside';inotherwords,Godcannotbe'grasped',becauseitisHewho'grasps'allthings.

Thedominatoramongstmenishewhosubdueshisenemies.Now,theenemyofmanishisownsoul(nafs)containedbetweenhissides.21Itishisenemybecauseofsatanwhodeceivesit.Totheextentthatmansubduesthedesiresofhissoulheconquerssatan,wholeadstoruin,bymeansofthepassionsofthesoul.Oneofthesnaresofsatanissexualappetite;hewhoisnolongersubjecttothisdesire,cannolongerbecaughtbythissnare,andthesameistrueforhimwhosubduesitbyreligiousdisciplinesandbythecriteriaofreason.22Whoeverdominatesthepassionsofhissoul,dominatesthewholeworld;noonecanovercomehim,sincetheworstthatsomeoneelsecandohimistokillhisbody;nowthedeathofhisbodywillbelifeforhisspirit,fortheonewhocauseshispassionstodiewhileheisliving,liveswhenhedies.'ThinknotthatthosewhohavebeenkilledinthewayofGodaredead;theyliveandreceivetheirnourishmentfromtheirLord...'(Koran).

Postscriptum

ThetotalnumberofDivinenamesisninety-nine.ThosenotincludedinthetranslatedextractsfromAl-Ghazâlî'sworkgivenabovearethefollowing:

Al-Wahhâb(TheGiver);Ar-Razzâq(TheProvider);Al-Fattâh(TheOpener[oftheinwardeye]ofthewaytosuccessandvictory);Al-'Alîm(TheOmniscient);Al-Qâbid(Hewhocontracts,TheStraitener);Al-Bâsit(Hewhoexpands,TheMunificent);Al-Khâfid(TheAbaser);Ar-Râfi'(TheExalter);Al-Mu'izz(TheHonourer,TheEnhancer);Al-Mudhill'(Hewhohumbles);As-Samî(TheAll-Hearing);Al-Basîr(TheAll-Seeing);Al-Hakam(TheArbitrator,theDecider);Al-'Adl(TheJust);Al-latîf(TheBenign,TheSubtle,TheAll-Penetrating);Al-Khabîr(Hewhoisawareofeverything);Al-Halîm(TheIndulgent);Al-'Asîm(TheImmense,TheMagnificent);Al-Ghafûr(TheAll-Forgiving);Ash-Shakûr(TheGrateful);Al-'Alî(TheMostHigh);Al-Kabîr(TheGreat);Al-Hafîz(TheAll-Preserver);Al-Muqît(TheNourisher,TheGiverof

21Inotherwords,thepassionalsoulwhichisidentifiedwiththe'flesh'.22Themostperfectdominationofthesoulistoknowitsownnature.Inthiscase,man,intellectualbynature,'includes'hissoulasGod'includes'theworld.

Strength);Al-Hasîb(TheAll-Calculating);Al-Jalîl(TheMajestic);Al-Karîm(TheGenerous);Ar-Raqîb(TheAll-Observant);Al-Mujîb(TheAnswererofprayers);Al-Wâsi'(TheVast,TheAll-Containing);Al-Hakîm(TheWise);Al-Wadûd(TheLoving-kind);Al-Majîd(TheAll-Glorious);Al-Bâ'ith(TheRaiserofthedead,TheSender);Ash-Shahîd(TheUniversalWitness);Al-Haqq(The>Truth);Al-Wakîl(TheGuardian,TheReliable);Al-Qawîy(TheStrong);Al-Matîn(TheFirm,TheSteadfast);Al-Walîy(ThePatron,TheHelper);Al-Hamîd(ThePraised);Al-Muhsi*(TheKnowerofeachseparatething);Al-Mubdi'(TheBeginner,TheCause);Al-Mu'îd(TheBringer-back,TheRestorer);Al-Muhyî(TheLife-Giver);Al-Mumît(TheSlayer);Al-Hayy(TheLiving);Al-Qayyûm(TheSelf-Existing,theAll-Sustaining);Al-Wâjid(TheFinder,TheResourceful);Al-Mâjid(TheMagnificent);Al-Wâhid(TheUnique);As-Samad(TheEternal,Hewhohasabsoluteplenitude);Al-Qâdir(TheAll-Powerful);Al-Muqtadir(TheAll-Determiner);Al-Muqaddim(Hewhobringsforward,ThePromoter);Al-Mu'akhhir(ThePostponer);Al-Awwal(TheFirst);Al-Akhir(TheLast);As-Zâhir(TheOutward);Al-Bâtin(TheInward);Al-Wâlî(TheRuler);Al-MMuta'âlî(TheExalted,theSublime,TheTranscendent);Al-Barr(TheDoerofGood);At-Tawwâb(TheEver-relenting,Hewhomakesrepentanceeasy);Al-Muntaqîm(TheAvenger);Al-Afûw(TheEffacerofsins);Ar-Ra'ûf(TheAll-Pitying);Mâliku'l-Mulk(TheKingofAbsoluteSovereignty);Dhû'l-Jalâliwal-Ikrâm(TheLordofMajestyandGenerosity);Al-Muqsit(TheEquitable,TheRequiter);Al-Jâmi'(TheAssembler,TheUniter);Al-Ghanîy(TheRich);Al-Mughnî(TheEnricher);Al-Mâni'(ThePreventer,TheShielder);Ad-Dârr(ThePunisher,Hewhoharms);An-Nâfi'(Hewhobenefits);An-Nûr(Light);Al-Hâdî(TheGuide);Al-Badî(TheAbsoluteCause);Al-Bâqî(ThePermanent,TheEverlasting);Al-Wârith(TheHeir,TheInheritor);Ar-Rashîd(TheRightinGuidance);As-Sabûr(ThePatient).

21TheRoleoftheFineArtsinMoslemEducationLETUSSTARTbyconsideringtheplacethatIslamicartoccupiesinModernacademicteaching,foritisthroughthatteachingormorespecificallythroughthedisciplinesofarchaeologyandthehistoryofartthatmanyMoslemstudentsmaketheirfirstcontactwiththeartisticlegacyofIslam.Archaeologyandthehistoryofartaretwobranchesofonesinglesciencewhichoriginatedineighteenth-centuryEuropeasasistertohumanisticphilosophy,anagnosticphilosophywhichreducesallspiritualvaluestotheirpurelyhumanaspect.Onemaythereforewonderwhetherthissciencewhichhasincontestablyaccumulatedagreatdealofvaluabledataandalsocontributedtothepreservationofmanypreciousmonumentsisabletounderstand,notonlytheoutwardhistoryofIslamicart,butalsoitsspiritualcontent.

Archaeologyandthehistoryofartarebothfoundedonthehistoricalanalysisofworksofart.Suchananalysismaywelldeliverobjectiveresults,butitdoesnotnecessarilyleadtoanessentialviewofthings.Onthecontrary,ithasatendencytostopshortatdetailsattheexpenseofmorecomprehensiveviews,ratherasifamanwholookedatastonewalltriedtounderstandtheraisond'êtreofthewallbytracingbackeachindividualstonetoitsorigin.ThisisexactlywhathashappenedwithmanyscholarswhohavetriedtoexplaintheoriginofIslamicartbytracingbackeachofitselementstosomeprecedentinByzantine,Sassanid,Copticorotherart.TheyhavelostsightoftheintrinsicandoriginalunityofIslamicart.Theyhaveforgottenthe'seal'thatIslamconferredonallborrowedelements.

Itistruethatthehistoryofartreceivedmanynewimpulsesfromstudyingtheartoforientalcivilizations.However,ithasbynomeansfreeditselffromcertainprejudicesstemmingfromitsveryorigin,themostdeeplyrootedofthesebeingthehabitofjudgingthevalueofaworkofartbythedegreeofitsrealorpresumed'originality'orby

virtueofits'revolutionary'character;asiftheessentialqualityofaworkofartwerenotitsbeauty,andasifbeautywerenotindependentofthepsychologicaldramasofthemoment.Butmosthistoriansofartareprimarilyinterestedintheindividualityoftheartist;theyarenotdirectlyconcernedwiththespiritualtruthwhichanartmayconvey.Whattheytrytocaptureisthepsychologicalimpulsethathasledtosuchandsuchanartisticexpression.Nowthisindividualismorpsychologism,aswemaycallit,isasfarascanbefromthespiritofIslamicart,whichneverbecamethestageforindividualproblemsandexperiences.TheMoslemartist,byhisveryislâm,his'surrender'totheDivineLaw,isalwaysawareofthefactthatitisnothewhoproducesorinventsbeauty,butthataworkofartisbeautifultothedegreethatitobeysthecosmicorderandthereforereflectsuniversalbeauty:al-hamduli-'Llâhiwahda-hu.Thisawareness,whileexcludingallprometheanism,bynomeansdiminishesthejoyofartisticcreativity,astheworksthemselvestestify.Rather,itconfersonIslamicartasereneandsomehowimpersonalcharacter.FortheMoslemmind,artremindsmanofGodwhenitisasimpersonalasthelawsthatgovernthemovementoftheheavenlyspheres.

Formodern'psychologism',therefore,Islamicartisaclosedbook,evenmoresosinceithardlyoffersanythinganalogoustotherepresentationofhumanbeingsfoundinEuropeanart.InWesterncivilization,influencedasitisbothbyGreekartandbyChristianiconography,theimageofmanoccupiesthecentralpositioninallvisualart,whereasintheworldofIslamtheimageofmanplaysasecondaryroleandisaltogetherabsentfromtheliturgicaldomain.TheIslamicnegationofanthropomorphicartisbothabsoluteandconditional:itisabsolutewithregardtoallimagesthatcouldbetheobjectofworship,anditisconditionalwithregardtoartformsimitatinglivingbodies.WerefertothesayingoftheProphetinwhichhecondemnedartistswhotryto'ape'thecreationofGod:intheirafterlifetheywillbeorderedtogivelifetotheirworksandwillsufferfromtheirincapacitytodoso.Thishadîthhasbeeninterpretedindifferentways.Ingeneralithasbeenunderstoodascondemninganintrinsicallyblasphemousintention,andthereforeIslamtoleratesanthropomorphicartformsonconditionthattheydonotcreatetheillusionoflivingbeings.Inminiaturepainting,forinstance,centralperspectivesuggestingthree-dimensionalspaceisavoided.

FromtheEuropeanpointofview,theIslamicrestrictiononfigurativeartseemsexcessive.Itisresponsible,itissaid,forculturalimpoverishment.ThehistoryofEuropeanart,however,fullyjustifiestheIslamic'aniconism'.Europeanart,asithasdevelopedsincetheMiddleAgesinotherwords,sincethenaturalistictrendoftheRenaissancehasstronglycontributedtorobbingreligionofitscredibility.

Andletusnotforgetthattheimageofmanisalwaystheimagethatmanconceivesofhimself.Theimagebearsbackuponitsauthor,whothusneverquitefreeshimselffromthespellitcastsuponhim.ThewholecourseofEuropeanart,withitsincreasinglyacceleratedphasesofactionandreaction,ismainlyadialoguebetweenmanandhisimage.Islambanishedallthisambiguousplayofpsychologicalmirrorsatanearlystage,thuspreservingtheprimordialdignityofmanhimself.

TheEuropeanandIslamicconceptionsofartaresodifferentthatonemaywonderwhethertheircommonuseofsuchwordsas'art'and'artistic'doesnotcreatemoreconfusionthanunderstanding.AlmosteverythinginEuropeanartisimage.ConsequentlythehighestrankinthehierarchyofEuropeanartisheldbyfigurativepaintingandsculpture.Theseare'freearts',whereasarchitecture,asconditionedbytechnicalnecessities,occupiesalowerrank.Even'lower'arethe'decorative'arts.FromtheEuropeanpointofview,thecriterionofanartisticcultureliesinitscapacitytorepresentnature,andevenmoreinitscapacitytoportrayman.FromtheIslamicpointofview,onthecontrary,themainscopeofartisnottheimitationordescriptionofnaturetheworkofmanwillneverequaltheartofGodbuttheshapingofthehumanambience.Arthastoendowalltheobjectswithwhichmannaturallysurroundshimselfahouse,afountain,adrinkingvessel,agarment,acarpetwiththeperfectioneachobjectcanpossessaccordingtoitsownnature.Theperfectionofabuilding,forinstance,stemsfromthree-dimensionalgeometry(followingtheperfectionofmatterinitscrystallinestate),whereastheartofthecarpetinvolvestwo-dimensionalgeometryalongwithharmonyofcolours.Islamicartdoesnotaddsomethingalientotheobjectsthatitshapes;itmerelybringsouttheiressentialqualities.Itisessentiallyobjective;infact,neitherthesearchforthemostperfectprofileforacupolanortherhythmicaldisplayofalinearornament

havemuchtodowiththepersonalmoodoftheartist.Thecentralthemenotonlyofpost-RenaissanceEuropeanartbutalsooftraditionalChristianartistheimageofman.InIslamtoomanisthecentretowhichallartsrefer,butasarulemanisnotthethemeofvisualart.IfwefullyconsiderthegeneralIslamicresistancetofigurativeandanthropomorphicart,wediscoveratremendousrespectfortheDivineoriginofthehumanform.MutatismutandisthesameistruefortraditionalChristianart,buttheconsequencesarecompletelydifferentinthetwocases.

WeshouldlikeheretooutlinethehierarchyofthevisualartsintheworldofIslam.Themostnobleofallitsartsiscalligraphyortheartofwriting,forthishastheprivilegeoftranslatingintovisualformsthedivinespeechoftheKoran.Indeed,Arabiccalligraphynotonlyattainedthehighestperfection,italsogaverisetoawiderangeofdifferentstylesfromthepurelyrectangularkûfîtothemostfluidandmelodiousformsofnaskhî.WhereverIslamhasreignedaretobefoundinnumerablejewelsofArabiccalligraphy.

Almostasimportantistheartofarchitecture.OnecansaythatitoccupiesthecentralpositionamongtheartsshapingthehumanambienceandmakingitcongenialtoIslamicbaraka.Mostoftheminorarts,suchaswoodcarving,mosaics,sculpture,andsoon,areattachedtoarchitecture.Wecallthem'minoram'accordingtotheconventionalterminology,butinfacttheyneveroccupiedalowerrankintheMoslemworld.Thisistrueevenoftheso-calledutilitarianarts,fortheytooshareinthedignityofmanasthe'representativeofGodonearth'.

BeforetheworldofIslamwasinvadedbytheproductsofmodernindustry,noobjectleftthehandsofaMoslemcraftsmanwithoutbeingendowedwithsomebeauty,whetheritwereabuildingoradomesticimplement,whetheritwereforarichcustomerorapoorone.Thematerialusedbythecraftsmanmightbehumbleandhisinstrumentsverysimple;hisworkwasnonethelessnoble.ThereasonforthisremarkablefactisthatbeautyisinherentinIslamitself;itflowsfromitsinnermostreality,whichisUnity(at-tawhîd)manifestingitselfasjustice('adl)andgenerosity(karam).Thesethreequalitiesofunity,justiceandgenerosityarealsothefundamentalaspectsofbeautyandalmostconstituteitsdefinition,aswillbemoreapparentifwecallthemunity,equilibriumandplenitude.For,atthe

levelofart,'justice'becomesequilibriumand'generosity'becomesplenitude,whileunityisthecommonsourceofallperfections.

Ifweconsiderinwardbeautyandoutwardbeauty,wefindthelatterhasitsoriginintheformer.TotheextentthathumanactivitiesareintegratedintoIslam,theybecomeasupportforbeautyabeautywhichinfacttranscendstheseactivitiesbecauseitisthebeautyofIslamitself.Thisisparticularlytrueofthefinearts,asitistheirroletomanifestthehiddenqualitiesofthings.TheartofIslamreceivesitsbeautynotfromanyethnicgeniusbutfromIslamitself.

ThebeautyoftheartsofIslamwemightalsosay:thebeautythatIslamnormallyconveystoitssurroundingsislikeasilenteducationwhichinanexistentialwayrendersplausiblethedoctrinalteachingofexplicitreligiouseducation.Itpenetratesthesoulwithoutpassingthroughrationalthought,andformanybelieversisamoredirectargumentthanpuredoctrine.Itislikethelifeandfleshofreligion,whilsttheology,lawandethicsareitsskeleton.

ForthisreasontheexistenceofartisavitalnecessityinthespiritualandsocialeconomyofIslam.Art,however,cannotexistwithouttheartistorwithoutthecraftsman:nodistinctionismadebetweenthetwointhetraditionalIslamicworld,whereartwithoutcraftsmanship,andtechnicalprowesswithoutbeauty,areequallyinconceivable.ThismeansthattheprogressiveeliminationofthecraftsasaresultoftheinroadsmadebythemachineentailsthepartialortotaldisappearanceoftheIslamicarts.Atonestrokereligiouseducationisrobbedofitstwoprincipalsupports:thesilentaidofanall-pervadingbeautytherearestillsometracesleft,butforhowlong?andthemoreexplicitaidoftheprofessionalartisanalactivitiesthemselves,whicharenormallyorientedtowardsaspiritualend.

EducationinthecraftsconvergeswithspiritualeducationwheneveritstrivestowardsthatkindofperfectiontowhichtheProphetreferredinsaying:'Godprescribesperfectioninallthings'(kataba'Llâhuihsâna'alâkullishay).Thewordihsân,translatedhereby'perfection',alsomeans'beauty'and'virtue';moreexactly,itmeansinwardbeauty,beautyofthesouloroftheheart,whichnecessarilyemanatesoutwards,transformingeveryhumanactivityintoanartandeveryartintotheremembranceofGod(dhikru'Llâh).

ThereisnoMoslemartistwhohasnotinheritedfromhis

predecessors.Ifheshoulddisregardthemodelsthattraditionoffershim,hewouldipsofactoprovehisignoranceoftheirintrinsicmeaningandspiritualworth;beingignorantofthat,hecouldnotputhisheartintothoseforms.Insteadoftradition,therewouldonlybesterilerepetition.ThisispreciselythephenomenonforwhichsomeEuropeanscholarsreproachIslamicart;theyarguethatthisartgraduallydiedfromlackofimagination.Butinfact,theartsofIslamneverlosttheirinwardsubstanceuntilmodernindustrydealtthemadeadlyblow.IftheartsofIslamhavenowdied,itisbecausetheirveryfoundations,thetraditionalcrafts,havebeendestroyed.

Butnotallthetraditionalcraftsandartshavedisappeared;insomeplacestheysurvive,andeveryeffortshouldbemadetoprotectthem,forindustrializationisnottherealsolutiontosocialproblems.WehaveconsideredtheplacethatIslamicartoccupiesinmodernacademicteachingandalsoitsrelationshiptothetraditionalcrafts.AndwehaveshownthatIslamicartisnotmerelytheartofMoslempeoples,butisdeeplyrootedinthespiritofIslamitself;notonlydothevariousformsofIslamicarthavecommonfeatures,butitsveryvarietyisamanifestationofanessentialunity,likevariationsonasinglemusicaltheme.

Wecannowreturntoourmainsubject,andaskthequestionwhetheraknowledgeofIslamicartisvitaltoMoslemeducation.Ifwesimplifythequestion,andputitinthefollowingwords:'IsIslamicartvitaltoIslamitself?.'everyMoslemwill,Ipresume,answer'No'.IslamasapathtoDivineTruthdoesnotdependonanyculturalcircumstances;aBedouinmaybeasperfectasaMoslemscholar,andasimplemusallâinthedesert,surroundedbyalineofstoneswithabiggerstoneindicatingthedirectionoftheKaaba,isasvalidaplaceforprayerasthePearlMosqueinDelhi.Culturaldevelopmentisnotnecessarilyidenticalwithspiritualachievement.Letusthenask:'CanaMoslemcommunitylivewithinaculturalframeworkalientoIslam?'Experienceshowsthatitmaysurvive,butthatitdoesnotprosper.Butourquestionwillprobablyelicittheremarkthataculturalframeworkinvolvesavarietyofelementsofgreaterorlesserimportance,andthatmaterialisticphilosophyandsociologyareagreaterhandicaptoMoslemeducationthanthepresenceofnon-IslamicartortheabsenceofIslamicart;forartdealswithappearances,whereasphilosophyandpsychologytouchtheheartofthings.

Thisjudgement,however,isone-sided;itforgetsthatart,whiledealinginfactwiththeoutwardaspectofthings,atthesametimerevealsaninwarddimensionofreality.

Theessenceofartisbeauty,andbeautybyitsverynatureisanoutwardaswellasaninwardreality.Accordingtoawell-knownsayingoftheProphet:'GodisbeautifulandHelovesbeauty'(Allâhujamîlunyuhibbu'l-jamâl).BeautyisthereforeaDivineQuality(sifahilâhiyyah)reflectedinwhateverisbeautifulonearth.Somescholarswillperhapsobjectthatthebeautyreferredtointhehadîthisofapurelymoralcharacter,butthereisnoreasonwhyweshouldlimittheimportofthehadîthinthisway,norwhytheDivineBeautyshouldnotshineforthateverylevelofexistence.NodoubtDivineBeautyisincomparablyexaltedabovephysicalaswellasmoralbeauty,butatthesametimenothingbeautifulcanexistoutsidethedominionofthisDivineQuality:that'GodisbeautifulandHelovesbeauty'meansthatHelovesHisownreflectionintheworld.

AccordingtoanumberoffamousMoslemmetaphysicians,DivineBeauty(jamâl)includesalltheDivineAttributesexpressingbountyandgraceinotherwords,themercifulradianceofGodintheworldwhereasDivineMajesty(jalâl)includesalltheDivineAttributesexpressingseverity,whichinawaymanifestthetranscendentnatureofGodwithregardtoHiscreation.Inmoregeneralterms,eachDivineQualitycontainsalltheothers,fortheyallrefertotheoneEssence.Inthisway,beautyimpliestruth(haqq)andtruthimpliesbeauty.Thereisnorealbeautywhichdoesnothavetruthconcealedinit,andthereisnorealtruthfromwhichbeautydoesnotemanate.Thisreciprocityoftheuniversalqualitieshasitsreflectionattheleveloftraditionaleducation,andinthisconnectionithasbeensaid:'InIslameveryartisascienceandeveryscienceisanart.'ThesewordsreferdirectlytothegeometricalloreinvolvedinIslamicart,alorewhichallowstheartisttodevelopharmoniousformsfromfundamentalgeometricalpatterns.Accordingtoahigherlevelofmeaning,however,artisasciencebecauseitopensupawayofcontemplativeknowledgewhoseultimateobjectiveisDivineBeauty,andscienceisanartinsofarasitisorientedtowardsunityandthereforepossessesasenseofequilibriumorharmonywhichcannotbutlenditbeauty.

ModernEuropeanart,whateverbeautyitmayofferincidentally,is

generallyenclosedwithintheparticularpsychicworldofitsauthor;itcontainsnowisdom,nospiritualgrace.Asformodernscience,itneitherpossessesnordemandsanybeauty.Beingpurelyanalytic,itscarcelyopensitseyestoacontemplativevisionofthings.Whenitstudiesman,forinstance,itnevercontemplateshisentirenature,whichisatoneandthesametimebody,soulandspirit.Ifwemakemodernscienceresponsibleformoderntechnology,itisattheverybasisofawholeworldofugliness.Theleastwecansayisthatmodernscience,inspiteofallitslearningandexperience,isanunwisescience.Perhapsthegreatestlessontraditionalartcanteachusisthatbeautyisacriterionoftruth.IfIslamwereafalsereligion,ifitwerenotadivinemessagebutasysteminventedbyman,couldithaveproducedsomanyworksofartendowedwitheverlastingbeauty?

Atthispointwemustaskthequestion:'WhatoughttobetheroleofthefineartsinMoslemeducationtoday?'ThestudyofIslamicart,ifundertakenwithanopenmindandwithoutthepost-Medievalprejudiceswehavementioned,isawayofapproachtothespiritualbackgroundofallIslamicculture.Thesameistrueforalltraditionalart.Themainshortcomingthatonehastoavoidistheacademicmentalitythatconsidersallworksofartfromearliercenturiesaspurelyhistorical'phenomena'whichbelongtothepastandhaveverylittletodowithpresent-daylife.Wecannotevenunderstandart,itseems,withoutknowingthehistoricalcircumstancesofitsbirth.Againstthisrelativisticpointofview,wegladlyaffirmthatfortheMoslem,thegreatmosquesofKairawan,Córdoba,Cairo,Damascus,Isfahan,Heratandsoonbelongasmuchtothepresentastothepast,insofarasitisstillpossibletorealizethestateofmindofthosewhocreatedthem.Nordoesitmakesensetosay:'Wearelivinginanothertimeandthereforecannottakethesefamousbuildingsasmodelsforcontemporarymosquearchitecture.'Letusnotrunaftertimeitwillalwaysbefasterthanwearebutletusaskwhatistimelessintheartofourspiritualancestors.Ifwerecognizethis,weshallalsobeabletomakeuseofitwithintheinevitableframeworkofourownage.

Historicalresearchhasacertainuse;itcangiveanswerstoquestionslikethese:Whenwasthismosquebuilt?Whobuiltit?Whopaidforitsconstruction?Whatwereitsnearestmodels?Andsoon.ButMoslemeducationinthefineartsshouldnotstopthere;itshould

firstandforemostpointtotherealvaluesofIslamicart.Letstudentslearnthetechnicalproceduresofthevariousarts,frompotterytothevaultingofadome;letthemdiscoverthegeometricalfiguresfromwhichtheproportionsofagivenbuildinghavebeendeveloped.Inaword,letthemexperience,intheirmindsatleast,theverygenesisofaworkofart.Forthegreatartisticlegacywhetheritbelostoronlyneglected;whetheritcanberediscoveredornotistraditionalartitself,notasanobjectbutasamethod,unitingtechnicalskillwithaspiritualvisionofthings,avisionwhichhasitssourceintawhîd.

22PerennialValuesinIslamicArtMUCHHASBEENwrittenabouttheformationofIslamicartfrompre-existingelementsofByzantine,Persian,HinduandMongolianorigin.Butverylittlehasbeensaidaboutthenatureofthepowerthatwroughtallthesevariouselementsintoauniquesynthesis.NoonewilldenytheunityofIslamicart,eitherintimeorinspace;itismuchtooevident:whethertheworkofartbethemosqueatCódoba,thegreatmadrasaatSamarkand,asaint'stombintheMaghrib,orasaint'stombinChineseTurkestan,itisasifthesamelightshoneforthfromallofthem.Whatthenisthenatureofthisunity?ThereligiouslawofIslamdoesnotprescribeanyparticularformsofart;itmerelyrestrictsthefieldoftheirexpression,andrestrictionsarenotcreativeinthemselves.Ontheotherhand,itishighlymisleadingif,asisoftendone,onesimplyattributesthisunityto'religiousfeeling'.Howeverintenseanemotionmaybe,itisunabletofashionawholeworldofformsintoaharmonythatisbothrichandsober,bothoverwhelmingandprecise.ItisnotbychancethattheunityandregularityofIslamicartremindusofthelawthatgovernscrystals:thereissomethingherethattranscendsthemerepowerofemotion,whichisnecessarilyvagueandalwaysfluctuating.Weshallcallitthe'intellectualvision'thatisinherentinIslamicart,takingtheword'intellect'initsoriginalsense,asafacultymorecomprehensivebyfarthanreasonandthought,andinvolvingtheintuitionoftimelessrealities.Thisisalsothemeaningof'intellect'(al-'aql)inIslamictradition:faithisnotcompleteunlessitbeilluminedbyal-'aqlwhichalonegraspstheimplicationsofat-tawhîd,thedoctrineofDivineUnity.Inasimilarway,Islamicartderivesitsbeautyfromwisdom.

Thehistoryofart,beingaModernscience,inevitablyapproachesIslamicartinthepurelyanalyticalwayofallModernsciences,by

dissectionandreductiontohistoricalcircumstances.WhateveristimelessinanartandasacredartlikethatofIslamalwayscontainsatimelesselementisleftoutbysuchamethod.Onemayobjectthatallartiscomposedofformsand,sinceformislimited,itisnecessarilysubjecttotime:likeallhistoricalphenomena,formsarise,develop,becomecorrupted,anddie;thereforethescienceofartisofnecessityahistoricalscience.Butthisisonlyhalfofthetruth:aform,thoughlimitedandconsequentlysubjecttotime,isabletoconveysomethingtimeless,andinthisrespectitescapeshistoricalconditions,notonlyinitsgenesiswhichinpartbelongstoaspiritualdimensionbutalsoinitspreservation,atleasttoacertainextent,foritisinrespectoftheirtimelessmeaningthatcertainformshavebeenpreserveddespiteandagainstallthematerialandpsychicrevolutionsofanepoch;traditionmeansjustthat.

Moreover,themodernstudyofartderivesmostofitsaestheticcriteriafromclassicalGreekandpost-medievalart.Whateveritslatestdevelopmentsmayhavebeen,ithasalwaysconsideredtheindividualastherealcreatorofart.Fromthispointofview,aworkis'artistic'insofarasitshowsthestampofanindividuality.Now,fromanIslamicpointofview,beautyisessentiallytheexpressionofuniversalTruth.

Itisthusnotsurprisingthatmodernscience,whenstudyingIslamicart,oftenstopsshortatanegativejudgement.WefindsuchnegativejudgementsinmanyifnotmostofthelearnedworksonIslamicart;theyareallrathersimilar,thoughdifferentindegree.OneoftenreadsthatIslamicartwascreativeonlyinitsfirststage,inintegratingandtransformingearlierlegacies,andthatlateritcongealedmoreandmoreintosterileformulas.Theseformulas,welearnfurther,didnotquiteannultheethnicdifferencesofthepeoplesofIslam,buttheyunfortunatelysuffocatedtheindividualinitiativeoftheartist.ThishappenedallthemoreeasilysoitwouldseemsinceIslamicartwasdeprivedofamostvitalandprofounddimensionbythereligiousprohibitionofimages.Wehavequotedallthesejudgementsintheirmostextremeforms,knowingperfectlywellthatfewEuropeanscholarswouldsubscribetoallofthem.Butitisusefultoconfrontthesejudgementsheadon,fortheyhelpus,bytheirverylimitations,toindicatethepointofviewthattrulycorrespondstothenatureofIslamicart.

Letusfirstconsiderthelastofthesereproaches,theoneconcerningthereligiousprohibitionofimages.Thisprohibitionistwofold:firstlythereistheKoraniccondemnationofidolatrywhich,fromthegeneralMoslempointofview,involvesthevisualrepresentationofGodinanyform,thenatureofGodbeingbeyondalldescription,eveninwords.Secondly,therearethesayingsoftheProphetaccordingtowhichthewishtoimitatetheCreator'sworkbyimitatingtheformoflivingbeings,andparticularlytheformofman,isirreverentandevenblasphemous.Thislastinjunctionhasnotalwaysandeverywherebeenobserved,sinceitconcernsmoretheintentionthanthedeed:inthePersianandIndianworldespecially,itwasarguedthatanimagewhichdoesnotclaimtoimitatetherealbeing,butisnomorethananallusiontoit,isallowed.Thisisoneofthereasonsforthenon-illusivestyleofPersianminiatures,thatistosay,theabsenceinthemofshadowsandperspective.Nomosque,however,haseverbeendecoratedwithanthropomorphicimages.

Ifweconsiderthingssuperficially,wemaybetemptedtolikentheIslamicpointofviewtothatofPuritanism,whichisignorantofsymbolismandconsequentlyrejectsallsacredartasanillusion.SymbolismisbasedontheanalogybetweenthedifferentdegreesofBeing:sinceBeingisone(al-wujûduwâhid),everythingthatis,orexists,mustinsomewayreflectitseternalsource.Islambynomeansignoresthislaw,whichtheKoranproclaimsinathousandmetaphors:wainrainshay'inillâyusabbi-hubi-hamdi-hi('ThereisnothingwhichdoesnotexaltHispraise,'Koran,XVII,44).ItisnotoutofdisregardforthesacredcharacterofcreationthatIslamproscribeshumanimages;onthecontrary,itisbecausemanistheviceregent(khalîfah)ofGodonearth,astheKoranteaches.TheProphetexplainedthatGodcreatedAdam'inHisform'('alâsûrati-hi),'form'inthiscasemeaningqualitativelikeness,formanisgiftedwithfacultieswhichreflecttheseven'personal'qualitiesofGod,namelyLife,Knowledge,Will,Power,Hearing,Seeing,andSpeech.

AcomparisonoftheIslamicandChristianattitudestowardsthehumanimagewillhelptoclarifymatters.InresponsetoByzantineiconoclasm,whichwasinfluencedbytheexampleofIslam,theSeventhEcumenicalCounciljustifiedtheuseoficonsintheliturgywiththefollowingargument:GodisindescribableinHimself;but

sincethedivineLogosassumedhumannature,hereintegrateditintoitsoriginalformandpenetrateditwithdivinebeauty.InrepresentingthehumanformofChrist,artremindsusoftheincarnation.ThereisasharpdistinctionbetweenthispointofviewandthatofIslam,butneverthelessbothrefertoacommonbasis,namelythetheomorphicnatureofman.

ItisworthmentioningthatoneoftheprofoundestexplanationsoftheChristianattitudetowardssacredartwasgivenbythefamousSufiMuhyi'd-Dînibn'Arabî,ash-shaikhal-akbar,who,inhisAl-Futûhâtal-Makkiyyah('MeccanRevelations'),writesasfollows:'TheByzantinesdevelopedtheartofpaintingtoitsperfection,becauseforthemtheuniquenature(fardâniyyah)ofJesus(Sayyid-nâ'Isa),asexpressedinhisimage,istheforemostsupportofconcentrationonDivineUnity'.Asthiswitnessproves,thesymbolicroleofanimageisnotinitselfunintelligibletocontemplativeMoslems,although,inobediencetoKoraniclaw,theyrejecttheuseofsacredimages,thusgivingprecedenceto'incomparability'(tanzih)over'analogy'(tasbih).Inaway,thefirstofthesetwo'aspects'thatofdivineincomparabilityortranscendenceevenabsorbsthetheomorphicnatureofman.Indeed,thesevenuniversalqualitiesthatconstitutethedivine'form'ofAdam,namely,life,knowledge,will,power,hearing,seeing,andspeech,escapeallvisualrepresentation;animagehasneitherlife,knowledge,power,noranyotherofthesequalities;itreducesmantohiscorporeallimits.Althoughlimitedinman,thesevenqualitiesarethepotentialbearersofaDivinePresence,accordingtothehadîthqudsî:'...Ishallbetheearwherewithheheareth,theeyewherewithheseeth,'andsoon.Thereissomethinginmanthatnonaturalmeansofexpressioncanrender.TheKoransays:'Weofferedthetrust(amânah)untotheHeavensandtheearthandthehills,buttheyshrankfrombearingitandwereafraidofit.Andmanassumedit.'(XXXIII,72).Thistrustismerelypotentialinordinaryman.Itisactualinperfectman:inMessengers(rusul),Prophets(anbiyâ),andSaints(awliyâ);inthemitoverflows,fromtheinwardtotheoutward,shiningforthevenintheirbodilyappearance.Fearingtooffendthisdivinetrustwithinman,IslamicartshrinksfromdepictingtheMessengers,Prophets,andSaints.

Insteadof'Islamiciconoclasm',weprefertosay'Islamicaniconism',fortheabsenceoficonsinIslamhasnotmerelyanegativebut

apositiverole.Byexcludingallanthropomorphicimages,atleastwithinthereligiousrealm,Islamicartaidsmantobeentirelyhimself.Insteadofprojectinghissouloutsidehimself,hecanremaininhisontologicalcentrewhereheisboththeviceregent(khalîfah)andslave('abd)ofGod.Islamicartasawholeaimsatcreatinganambiencewhichhelpsmantorealizehisprimordialdignity,itthereforeavoidseverythingthatcouldbean'idol',eveninarelativeandprovisionalmanner.NothingmuststandbetweenmanandtheinvisiblepresenceofGod.

ThusIslamicartcreatesavoid;iteliminatesinfactalltheturmoilandpassionatesuggestionsoftheworld,andintheirsteadcreatesanorderthatexpressesequilibrium,serenity,andpeace.FromthisitcanclearlybeseenhowcentralthepositionofarchitectureisinIslam.AlthoughtheProphetsaidthatGodfavouredhiscommunitybygivingitthewholesurfaceoftheearthasaplaceofprayer,itisarchitecturewhich,inpopulatedregions,hastore-establishtheconditionsofpurityandcalmelsewheregrantedbynature.Asforthebeautyofvirginnature,whichisliketheimprintoftheCreator'shand,itisrealizedbyarchitectureonanotherlevel,onenearertohumanintelligenceandthereforeinawaymorelimited,butnonethelessfreefromthearbitraryruleofindividualpassions.

Inamosque,thebelieverisneveramerevisitor.Heissotospeakathome,butnotintheordinarysenseoftheexpression.WhenhehaspurifiedhimselfbytheritualablutionthusfreeinghimselffromaccidentalalterationsandrecitestherevealedwordsoftheKoran,hesymbolicallyreturnstothe'station'ofAdam,whichisatthecentreoftheworld.Inviewofthis,allMoslemarchitectshaveendeavoredtocreateaspaceentirelyrestinginitselfandshowingeverywhere,ineachofits'stations',theplenitudeofspatialqualities.Theyachievedthisendbymeansasdifferentasthehorizontalhallofpillars(asintheoldmosqueatMedina)andtheconcentricdomesinTurkey.Innoneoftheseinteriorsdowefeeldrawninanyparticulardirection,eitherforwardsorupwards;norareweoppressedbytheirspatiallimits.Ithasrightlybeenremarkedthatthearchitectureofamosqueexcludesalltensionbetweenheavenandearth.

AChristianbasilicaisessentiallyawayleadingfromtheoutsideworldtothemainaltar.AChristiandomeascendstoHeavenordescendstothealtar.Thewholearchitectureofachurchreminds

thebelieverthattheDivinePresenceemanatesfromtheEucharistonthealtarlikealightshininginthedarkness.Themosquehasnoliturgicalcentre;itsmihrâbmerelyindicatesthedirectionofMecca,whileitswholeorderofspaceismadetosuggestaPresencewhichencompassesthebelieveronallsides.

ItismostrevealingtoseehowthegreatTurkisharchitectSinan,inadoptingtheconstructiveplanofHagiaSophia,developeditaccordingtoanIslamicviewpointuntilheachievedtheperfectorderoftheSelimiyeMosqueatEdirne.ThehugecupolaofHagiaSophiaissupportedbytwohalfcupolasandextendedbyseveralsmallapses.Thewholeinteriorspaceiselongatedinthedirectionoftheliturgicalaxis,itsdifferentpartsmeltingintoeachother,inakindofindefiniteimmensity.SinanbuiltthemaincupolaatEdirneonanoctagonsupportedbystraightwallsonthecardinalsidesandbyvaultedapsesonthefourdiagonalsides,creatingakindofclearlycutjewel,thecontoursofwhichareneitherfluctuatingnornarrow.

WhenMoslemarchitectstookoverandenlargedsomeChristianbasilicas,theyoftenchangedtheinteriorplansothatwhathadbeenitslengthbecameitsbreadth;frequentlyevenapartfromsuchtransformationsthearcadesinamosquerunacrossthemainspace,theydonot'progress'inalongitudinaldirectionasdothearcadesthatrunalongsidethenaveofacathedral.Theytendrathertostemthemovementofthespace,withouthoweverinterruptingit,thusinvitingonetorest.

Moslemarchitectslavishedmuchattentionandloveontheformofarcades.ItisnowonderthattheArabicwordforarcaderawq,pluralriwâqisalmostsynonymouswithbeautiful,graceful,andpure.Europeanartknowstwomainformsofthearch:theRomanesquearchwhichisplain,rational,andstatic,andtheso-calledGothicarchindirectlyderivedfromIslamicartwithitsascendingmovement.Islamicartdevelopedagreatvarietyofarchforms,ofwhichtwoaremosttypical:thePersianarchintheshapeofaship'skeel,andtheMoorisharchintheshapeofahorseshoe,withamoreorlessaccentuatedpoint.Botharchescombinethetwoqualitiesmentionedabove,namelystaticcalmandlightness.ThePersianarchisbothgenerousandgracious;itascendswithouteffortlikethecalmflameofanoillampprotectedfromthewind.AsfortheMoorisharch,itsextremewidthisbalancedbyitsrectangularframe:a

synthesisofstabilityandamplitude.Thereisinitabreathingwithoutmovement;itistheimageofaspaceexpandinginwardlybyanoverabundanceofbeatitude.InthewordsoftheKoran:'Didwenotdilatethybreast?'(alamnashrahla-kasadra-k)(XCIV,1).

Asimplearcade,builtaccordingtotherightmeasure,hasthevirtueoftransformingspacefromapurelyquantitativerealityintoonethatisqualitative.Qualitativespaceisnolongermereextension;itisexperiencedasastateofbeing(wajd).Thustraditionalarchitecturefavourscontemplation.

BetweenthearchitectureofamosqueandthatofaprivateMoslemhouse,thereisadifferenceinplan,butnotinstyle,foreveryMoslemdwellingisaplaceofprayer:thesameritesareperformedthereasinamosque.Ingeneral,Islamiclifeisnotdividedintosacredandprofanedomains,andlikewisetheIslamiccommunityisnotdividedintoaconsecratedclergyandalaity:everyMoslemofsoundmindandmoralitycanactasimam.Thisunityoflifeismanifestedinthehomogeneityofitsframework:whetheritbetheinteriorofamosqueorthatofaprivatehouse,itslawisequilibrium,calm,andpurity.Itsdecorationnevercontradictstheideaofpoverty.IndeedornamentinIslamicarchitecture,byitsrhythmandregularity,helpstocreateavoidbydissolvingtherawbodyofwallandpillarsandthusenhancingtheeffectofthegreatwhitesurfacessocharacteristicofMosleminteriors.

ThefloorofatraditionalMoslemdwelling,likethefloorofamosque,isnevertroddenonwithshoes,noraretheroomsfilledwithfurniture.

MuchoftheunityofIslamiclifeislostwhentheclotheswornineverydaylifearenolongeradaptedtotheprescribedrites.CostumeindeedispartoftheframeworkthatIslamicarthascreatedforIslam,andtheartofdressisnottheleastoftheIslamicarts.AstheKoranexplicitlycommands:'OsonsofAdam,looktoyouradornmentwhenyouapproachamosque'(VII,31).Thetraditionalmasculinecostumeshowsmanyvariations,butitalwaysexpressestherolewithwhichIslamendowsman,thatis,tobetheviceregentandtheslaveofGod.Thereforeitisbothdignifiedandsober;wemightevensay:majesticandpoor.Itveilstheanimalnatureofman,enhanceshisfeatures,dignifieshisgestures,andmakeseasythedifferentposturesoftheritualprayer.ModernEuropeancostume,onthecontrary,while

claimingtofreemanfromhisservitude('ubûdiyyah),infactdenieshisprimordialdignity.

WehaveseenthattheexclusionofimagesfromIslamicartmoresevereinSunnithatinShiitecountrieshasapositivemeaning,evenonthelevelofart,asitrestorestomanthedignitywhichelsewhereissotospeakusurpedbyhisimage.TheimmobilitywithwhichIslamicartisreproachedisinacertainsenseconnectedwiththeabsenceofimages,foritisbymakingimagesofhimselfthatmanchanges.Heprojectshissoulintotheidealheshapes,thusinfluencinghimselfuntilheisdriventochangetheimagehehasmadeofhimself.Thisinitsturnwillawakenhisreaction,andsooninanendlesschain,aswecanobserveinEuropeanartsincetheRenaissance,thatis,sincethepurelysymbolicalroleoftheimagewasforgotten.Sacredartisnormallyprotectedbyitstraditionalrulesfromfallingintosuchatorrentofchange.Neverthelesstheuseofanthropomorphicimagesisalwaysprecarious,formanisalwaysinclinedtotransferhisownpsychiclimitationstotheimageheshapes,inspiteofallcanonicalprescriptions,andsoonerorlaterherebelsagainstitnotonlyagainsttheimage,butalsoagainstwhatitstandsfor.ThoseepidemicoutburstsofblasphemywhichmarkedcertainperiodsofEuropeanhistorywouldbeinconceivablewithouttheexistenceandthedecayofanthropomorphicreligiousart.Islamdealswiththiswholeproblematitsroot.Inthisrespectasinothersitshowsitselfasthelastofthereligionsonethattakesfullheedoftheweaknessofmanasheisandasareturntotheprimordialreligion.Themuchcriticized'immobility'ofIslamicartissimplytheabsenceinitofallsubjectivemotives;itisanartthatisunconcernedwithpsychologicalproblemsandwhichretainsonlythoseelementsthatarevalidforalltime.

ThisisthereasonfortheextraordinarydevelopmentofgeometricalornamentationinIslamicart.Attemptshavebeenmadetoexplainthisdevelopmentbythefactthattheprohibitionofimagescreatedavoidthathadtobefilledbyanotherkindofart.Butthisisnotconclusive;thearabesqueisnotacompensationforimages,itisrathertheiroppositeandtheverynegationoffigurativeart.Bytransformingasurfaceintoatissueofcoloursorintoavibrationoflightandshadows,theornamentpreventsthemindfromfixingitselfonanyformthatsays'I',asanimagesays'I'.Thecentreofan

arabesqueiseverywhereandnowhere,each'affirmation'beingfollowedbyits'negation',andviceversa.

Therearetwotypicalformsofthearabesque;oneofthemisgeometricalinterlacingmadeupofamultitudeofgeometricalstars,theraysofwhichjoinintoanintricateandendlesspattern.Itisamoststrikingsymbolofthatcontemplativestateofmindwhichconceivesof'unityinmultiplicityandmultiplicityinunity'(al-wahdatufî'l-kathratiwa'l-kathratufî'l-wahdah).

Thesecondform,thearabesquecommonlyso-callediscomposedofvegetablemotifs,stylizedtothepointoflosingallresemblancewithnatureandobeyingonlythelawsofrhythm.Indeeditisthescienceofrhythmtransposedintographicmode,eachlineundulatingincomplementaryphases,andeachsurfacehavingitsinversecounterpart.Thearabesqueisbothlogicalandrhythmical,bothmathematicalandmelodious,andthisismostsignificantforthespiritofIslaminitsequilibriumofloveandintellectualsobriety.

Insuchanarttheindividualityoftheartistofnecessitydisappears,withoutforallthathiscreativejoybeingabated;itissimplylesspassionalandmorecontemplative.Suppressionofcreativejoyistheprivilegeofmodernindustryalone.Asfortraditionalart,beitevenatthelevelofmerehandicraft,itsbeautyprovestheprofoundpleasureinvolvedinit.

Moreover,theuniversalcharacterofgeometricalornamentthefundamentalelementsofwhichareessentiallythesame,whethertheyappearinaBedouinrugorinarefinedurbandecorationcorrespondsperfectlytotheuniversalnatureofIslam,whichunitesthenomadsofthedesertwiththelearnedmenofthecity,andthislatter-dayepochofourswiththetimeofAbraham.

InwhatwehavesaidthusfarwehaveimplicitlyansweredthecriticsofIslamicartmentionedattheoutsetofthischapter.WehavestilltosaywhatthenotionofartmeansinIslamicthought.Fromthispointofview,artcanneverbedissociatedeitherfromacraft(san'ah),asitsmaterialfoundation,orfromascience('ilm),regularlytransmitted.Art(fann),initsspecificmeaning,partakesofbothcraftandscience.Thelattermoreoverhastobenotonlyarationalinstruction,butalsotheexpressionofawisdom(hikmah),whichlinksthingstotheiruniversalprinciples.

TheProphetsaid:'Godprescribedthateverythingshouldbe

accomplishedtoperfection'wemightalsotranslate:'inbeauty'(irna'Llâhakataba'l-ihsâna'alâkullishay).TheperfectionorthebeautyofathingliesinitspraisingGod;inotherwords,itisperfectorbeautifulinsofarasitreflectsadivinequality.NowwecannotrealizeperfectioninanythingunlessweknowthatathingcanbeamirrorofGod.

Takingarchitectureasanexample,weseethatitsmaterialfoundationisthemason'scraft,whilethescienceinvolvedinitisgeometry.Intraditionalarchitecture,geometryisnotlimitedtoitsmoreorlessquantitativeaspect,asinmodernengineering,forinstance;italsohasaqualitativeaspect,whichismanifestedinthelawsofproportionthroughwhichabuildingacquiresitsquasi-inimitableunity.Thelawsofproportionaretraditionallybasedonthedivisionofthecirclebyinscribedregularfigures.Thusallproportionsinabuildingareultimatelyderivedfromthecircle,whichisaclearsymboloftheUnityofBeing(wahdatal-wujud*)thatcontainswithinitselfallthepossibilitiesofexistence.Howmanycupolaswithpolygonalbasesandhowmanyvaultswithalveolarsquinchesremindusofthissymbolism!

Whenoneconsiderstheinternalhierarchyofartwhichcomprisescraft,science,andcontemplativewisdomitiseasytounderstandhowatraditionalartcanbedestroyedeitherfromthetoporfromthebottom:Christianartwascorruptedbythelossofitsspiritualprinciples;Islamicarthasgraduallydisappearedbecauseofthedestructionofthetraditionalcrafts.

Wehavemainlyspokenaboutarchitecture,givenitscentralroleintheIslamicworld.IbnKhaldun,indeed,relatestoitmostoftheminorarts,suchascarpentry,joinery,sculptureinwoodandstucco,mosaicinearthenware,decorativepainting,andevencarpet-making,socharacteristicoftheIslamicworld.Evencalligraphycanberelatedtoarchitectureintheformofdecorativeinscriptions;initself,however,Arabiccalligraphyisnotaminorart;sinceitisusedforthewritingoftheKoran,itoccupiesthehighestrankamongstallIslamicarts.

ItwouldtakeustoofartoreviewthewholerangeofIslamicarts;letitsufficetoconsiderthetwoextremepolesofvisualart:architectureandcalligraphy.Thefirstoftheseistheartthatisthemostconditionedbymaterialcircumstances,whereasthesecondisthe

freestofallartsinthisrespect.Itisnonethelessgovernedbystrictruleswithregardtothedistinctiveformoftheletters,proportions,continuityofrhythm,andchoiceofstyle.Ontheotherhand,thepossiblecombinationsoflettersarewell-nighlimitless,andstylesvaryfromtherectilinearkûfitothemostflowingnaskhi.ItisthesynthesisofutmostregularityandutmostlibertythatlendsArabiccalligraphyitsroyalcharacter.InnoothervisualartdoesthespiritofIslambreathemoreopenly.

ThefrequencyofKoranicinscriptionsonthewallsofmosquesandotherbuildingsremindsusofthefactthatthewholeofIslamiclifeisinterwovenwithquotationsfromtheKoran,andspirituallysupportedbyitsrecitation,aswellasbyprayers,litanies,andinvocationsderivedfromit.IfonemaycalltheinfluenceemanatingfromtheKoranaspiritualvibrationandwecanfindnobetterwordforit,sincetheinfluenceinquestionisofbothaspiritualandanauditivenaturewemaywellsaythatallIslamicartmustneedsbeartheimprintofthisvibration.Thus,visualIslamicartisbutthevisualreflectionoftheKoranicword;itcannotbeotherwise.However,thereisaparadoxhere,forifwelookforKoranicmodelsofart,wecannotfindthem,eitherinthecontentsoftheKoranorinitsform.Ontheonehand,exceptincertainPersianminiatures,IslamicartdoesnotreflectthestoriesandparablescontainedintheKoran,asChristianartforinstancedepictsepisodesfrombothTestaments,noristhereanycosmologyintheKoranwhichcouldbetranslatedintoarchitecturalschemes,asVediccosmologyfindsitsexpressioninHinduarchitecture.Ontheotherhand,itwouldbevaintolookintheKoranforanythingresemblingaprincipleofcompositionthatcouldbetransposedintoanart.TheKoranisofastartlingdiscontinuity;itshowsnologicalordernoranyinteriorarchitecture;evenitsrhythm,powerfulthoughitis,obeysnoconstantrule,whereasIslamicartisentirelymadeupoforder,clarity,hierarchy,andcrystallineform.ThevitallinkbetweentheKoranicwordandvisualIslamicartmustnotbesoughtonthelevelofformalexpression.TheKoranisnotaworkofart,butsomethingentirelydifferent,notwithstandingtheoverwhelmingbeautyofmanyofitspassages,nordoesIslamicartderivefromitsliteralmeaningorfromitsform,butfromitshaqîqah,itsformlessessence.

Atitsbeginning,Islamhadnoneedofart;noreligionisconcerned

withartwhenitfirstenterstheworld.Theneedforaprotectiveframework,composedofvisualandauditiveforms,comeslater,justliketheneedforextensivecommentariesontherevealedBook,althougheverygenuineexpressionofareligionisalreadyincludedasalatentpossibilityinitsoriginalmanifestation.

Islamicartisfundamentallyderivedfromtawhîd,thatis,fromanassenttooracontemplationofDivineUnity.Theessenceofat-tawhîdisbeyondwords;itrevealsitselfintheKoranbysuddenanddiscontinuousflashes.Strikingtheplaneofthevisualimagination,theseflashescongealintocrystallineforms,anditistheseformsintheirturnthatconstitutetheessenceofIslamicart.

23TheVoidinIslamicArtWESHOULDLIKEtoelaboratefurtheroncertainofecharacteristicsofIslamicarttowhichwedrewattentionintheprecedingchapter.Strictlyspeaking,theforbiddingofimagesinIslamrefersonlytoimagesoftheDivinity;itisthussituatedintheperspectiveoftheDecalogue,ormoreexactlyofAbrahamicmonotheism,whichIslamrenews:initslastasinitsfirstmanifestation,thismonotheismisdirectlyopposedtoidolatrouspolytheism;1theplasticimageoftheDivinityaccordingtoa'dialectic'bothhistoricalanddivineisseenasthemarkoftheerrorof'associating'(shirk)therelativewiththeabsolute,orthecreatedwiththeuncreated,thelatter,ineachcase,beingreducedtotheformer.Thedenialofidols,andevenmoresotheirdestruction,isatranslationintoconcretetermsofthefundamentaltestimonyofIslam,theformulalâilâhaillâ''Llâah('thereisnodivinityapartfromGod'),andjustasthistestimonyinIslamdominatesandconsumeseverything,afterthefashionofapurifyingfire,sothedenialoftheidols,beiteffectiveormerelyvirtual,tendstobecomegeneralized:thustheportrayingofdivineenvoys(rusul),prophets(anbiyâ),andsaints(awliyâ)isavoided,notonlybecausesuchimagescouldbecometheobjectofanidolatrouscult,butalsooutofrespectforwhatisinimitableinthem;theyarethevicegerentsofGodonearth;itisthroughthemthatthetheomorphicnatureofmanbecomesmanifest;butthistheomorphismisasecretwhoseappearanceinthecorporealworldremainsungraspable;theinanimateandcongealedimageoftheman-godwouldbemerelyashell,anerror,anidol.InanArabSunnicontext,thereisevenareluctancetorepresent

1Itisnotapleonasmtospeakof'idolatrouspolytheism',asisshownbytheexampleofHinduismwhichispolytheistbutinnowiseidolatrous,sinceitrecognizesboththeprovisionalandsymbolicnatureoftheidolsandtherelativityofthe'gods'(devas)as'aspects'oftheAbsolute.TheMoslemesoterists,theSufis,sometimescompareidolstoDivineNames,whosemeaningthepaganshaveforgotten.

anylivingbeingwhatsoever,outofrespectforthedivinesecretcontainedincreation.2Andiftheprohibitionoftheimageisnotquitesofar-reachinginotherethnicenvironments,itisnonethelessobservedinthecaseofanythingthatformspartoftheliturgicalframeworkofIslam.

Thismayseemparadoxical,forthenormalbasisofasacredartissymbolism;inareligionwhichelsewhereexpressesitselfinanthropomorphicsymbols,therejectionofimagesseemstounderminetherootsofanyvisualartofasacredcharacter.Butitisnecessarytotakeaccountofacomplexplayofsubtlecompensations,andespeciallyofthefollowing:asacredartisnotnecessarilycomposedofimages,eveninthewidestsenseofthisterm;itmaysimplybetheexteriorizationofacontemplativestate,andinthiscaseitwillnotreflectparticularideas,butwillqualitativelytransformtheambiencewithaviewtoitsintegrationinaspiritualequilibriumwhosecentreofgravityistheinvisible.ItiseasytorecognizethatsuchisthenatureofIslamicart:itsobjectisabovealltheambienceofmanwhencethedominantroleofarchitectureanditsqualityisessentiallycontemplative.Aniconismdoesnotlessenthisquality;onthecontrary,byexcludingeveryimagethatcouldinvitemantofixhismindonsomethingoutsidehimselfandtoprojecthissoulintoan'individualizing'form,itcreatesavoid.Inthisrespect,thefunctionofIslamicartisanalogoustothatofvirginnature,especiallythedesert,whichalsofavourscontemplation,although,fromanotherpointofview,theordercreatedbyartisopposedtothechaosinherentinthenatureofthedesert.

Letitbesaidrightawaythatornamentationwithabstractforms,sorichlydevelopedintheartofIslam,doesnotexisttofillthisvoid,assomeseemtothink.Inrealityitcorroboratesitbyitscontinuousrhythmanditsresemblancetoanendlesspieceofweaving:insteadofensnaringthemindanddraggingitintosomeimaginaryworld,itdissolvesmental'coagulations',justasthecontemplationofastream

2AccordingtoasayingoftheProphet,artistswhoseektoimitatetheworkoftheCreatorwillbecondemnedinthehereaftertogivelifetotheirworks,andtheirinabilitytodosowillthrowthemintotheworstoftorments.Thissayingcanobviouslybeunderstoodinvariousways;infactithasnotpreventedtheflowering,incertainMoslemenvironments,ofafigurativeartentirelyfreefromnaturalisticpretensions.

ofwater,ofaflame,orofleavestremblinginthewindcandetachtheconsciousnessfromitsinward'idols'.

WehavealreadymentionedthetwoprincipalmodesofIslamicornamentation:thearabesqueinthestrictsenseoftheterm,madeupofsinuousandspiralformsmoreorlessrelatedtovegetablemotifs,andgeometricalinterlacing.Thefirstisallrhythmandfluidityandcontinuousmelody,whereasthesecondiscrystallineinnature:theradiatingoflinesfrommultiplegeometricalfocirecallssnowflakesorice;itgivestheimpressionofcalmandfreshness.ItisinMaghribiartinparticularthatthesetwoornamentalmodesappearinalltheirpurity.

Howeverrichitmaybe,ornamentationneverdestroysthesimplicity,nottosaythesobriety,ofthearchitecturalwhole;suchatleastistherulethatisobservedinallagesandplacesthatarenotdecadent.Inageneralmanner,thearchitecturalwholemanifestsequilibrium,calmnessandserenity.

WhereastheinteriorofaRomanesquebasilicaprogressestowardsthealtar,andtheapseofaGothicchurchtendsupwards,theinteriorofamosquedoesnotcompriseanydynamicelement;whateverbeitstypeofconstruction,fromtheprimitivemosqueswithahorizontalroofonpillarstomosqueswithcupolas,spaceisorderedinsuchawaythatitreposesentirelyinitself;itisnotanexpansethatwaitstobetraversed;itsvoidislikethemouldorwombofamotionlessandundifferentiatedplenitude.

TurkisharchitectssuchasSinan,whoadoptedtheconstructionplanofHagiaSophiainordertodevelopitinanIslamicway,soughtaperfectlystaticandfullyintelligiblesynthesisofthetwogreatcomplementaryforms:thehemisphereofthecupolaandthecubeofthebuildingitself.Theyachievedthisinvariouswayswhichwehavealreadyreferredto.Itwillsufficetomentionhereanarchitecturaldetailcharacteristicoftheirconceptionofspace.ItisknownthatByzantinecupolaslikeRomancupolasaresupportedonpendentiveswhichvaguelyprolongtheircurveandmerge'surreptitiously'withthefourcornersofthesupportingwalls.This'somewhatirrationalpassagefromthecircularbaseofthecupolatothesquareofthesupportsissomethingthatTurkisharchitectureseekstoavoid;itreplacesthependentivesbyaclearlyarticulatedelement,whichiscalledmuqarnasinArabicandwhichisoften

comparedtostalactites,althoughitisreallymoreinthenatureofanalveolacomposedofnicheswhichoverlapintooneanother;bymeansoftheirgeometricalplay,thepassagefromthecontinuousand'fluid'formofthecupolatotherectangularand'solid'formofthesupportingwallsappearsasagradualcrystallization:thecubeofthebuilding'coagulates'fromoutoftheundifferentiatedunityofthecupola,andsincethelatteralwaysrepresentsHeaven,itisthecontinuousmovementoftheheavenlyspherewhichissuddenlyimmobilizedintheplenitudeofthepurepresent.

ThisarchitecturalconceptionistypicalforIslam;atthesametime,itisveryfarremovedfromthatofGreco-Romanarchitecture,whichisalwaysmoreorlessanthropomorphic,inthesensethatitinvitesthespectatortoparticipatesubjectivelyinthedramaoftheforcesofconstruction;onemaymentionespeciallytheclassicalcolumn,madetothemeasureofmanandalsothearchitrave,corbelsandcorniceswhichmakeonefeeltheweightandtheforcewhichtheysupport;inRomanesqueandGothicarchitecturethisdramaistransposedtothespiritualplane:theclusteredcolumnsofa'Gothiccathedralareasifanimatedbyanirresistibleimpulsetoascend.ThereisnothingofallthisinMoslemarchitecture,whichremainsobjective.

ThisvoidwhichIslamicartcreatesbyitsstatic,impersonalandanonymousqualityenablesmantobeentirelyhimself,toreposeinhisontologicalcentre.Certainly,thesacredimageinitsturnisasupportforcontemplation,whereveritsuseiscalledforbythenatureofthedoctrine,3andonconditionthatitssymbolismandformallanguageremainguaranteedbythetradition.Butthereligiousartwhoseformsareanthropomorphicisofaneminentlyprecariousnaturebecauseofpsychictendencies,bothindividualandcollective,whichmayalltooeasilygainaccesstoit,anddragitintoanaturalistic'evolution',withreactionsthatarewellknown.Islameradicatesthisproblembyexcludingfromitsliturgicalframeworkanyimageofman.Bythisfactitmaintains,inacertainfashionandonahigherandspiritualplane,thepositionofthenomad,whoisnotinvolvedinthe

3AsitisinChristianity,inwhich'GodbecamemansothatmanmightbecomeGod',accordingtothesayingofSt.Irenaeus.

turbulentevolutionofaworldthatcomprisesthementalprojectionsofmanandhisreactiontowardsthem.

TheaniconismofIslamicartcomprisesfundamentallytwoaspects:ontheonehand,itpreservestheprimordialdignityofman,whoseform,'madeintheimageofGod',isneitherimitatednorusurpedbyaworkofartthatisinevitablylimitedandone-sided;ontheotherhand,nothingthatcouldpossiblybeanidol,eveninarelativeandwhollyprovisionalmanner,mayinterposeitselfbetweenmanandtheinvisiblepresenceofGod.Whatcomesbeforeall,isthewitnessingthat'thereisnodivinitybutGod':thisdissolveseveryobjectivationoftheDivine,evenbeforeitcanoccur.

24TheImpactoftheArabicLanguageontheVisualArtsofIslamTHEEXPRESSION'Arabart'iscommonlyemployedtodesignateIslamicart;howeverthelegitimacyofthistermhasoftenbeencontestedwiththeaidofargumentswhichareseeminglyplausiblebutwhichinrealityarevitiatedbyasuperficialorevenprejudicedviewofthings.Thequestiontobeaskedfirstofallisthefollowing:whatisitthatcharacterizestheArabgenius,andhowmaythisbediscernedinart?Theonlyartspossessedbythepre-IslamicArabs,whoweremostlynomadslivingatthecrossroadsofseveralcivilizations,werearectilineararchitectureandthevariouskindsofcraftswhich,incidentally,itwouldbewrongtounderestimate,andwhoseinfluencewaslatertobecomeverygreat;bethatasitmay,thepredominantandmoststrikingexpressionoftheArabgeniusisthelanguage,includingitsscript.TheArabsbequeathedtheirlanguagetothewholecivilizationofIslam,anditwasnotonlythemeansofpreservingtheheritageoftheArabsoutsideArabia,butevencausedthistobloomatafarremovefromitsownracialsource.Bytheintermediaryofthislanguage,everyessentialoftheArabgeniuswaseffectivelycommunicatedtothewholeofIslamiccivilization.

TheextraordinarynormativepoweroftheArabiclanguagederivesbothfromitsroleasasacredlanguageandfromitsarchaiccharacter,thesetwothings,moreover,beingconnected:itwasitsarchaismthatpredestinedArabictotheroleofasacredlanguage,anditwastheKoranicrevelationthatinasenseactualizeditsprimordialsubstance.Inthelinguisticrealm,archaismisbynomeanssynonymouswithstructuralsimplicity,quitethereverse:languagesaregenerallyimpoverishedwithtime,theyloseboththehierarchicaldifferentationofmeaningsandthelogicalconcisionofforms,while

becomingcomplicatedontheplaneofrhetoricinordertocompensatethisimpoverishment.WhatsurpriseshistoriansoflanguageisthatArabichasbeenabletopreserveamorphologyalreadyexemplifiedbyHammurabi'scodeinthenineteenthoreighteenthcenturyB.C.1andaphoneticsystemwhichperpetuates,apartfromonesinglesound,theveryrichsoundrangebornewitnesstobythemostancientSemiticalphabetsdiscovered,2andthatithasdonesodespitetheabsenceofany'literarytradition'whichmighthaveactedasabridgebetweenthisremoteageofthePatriarchsandthetimewhentheKoranicrevelationwastofixthelanguageforever.TheexplanationofthisperennialityofArabicresidespreciselyintheconservativeroleofnomadism:itisinthetownsthatlanguagedecays,bytheveryfactthatitbecomesattachedtothingsandinstitutionsandundergoestheirfate;thewell-nightimelesslifeofthenomad,onthecontrary,protectsthelanguageandpermitsittobloominallitsfullness:theportionofprimordialsymbolismwhichfelltothelotofthenomadswastheartofspeech,whichisnotboundtoplace,andwhosedynamiccharactercorrespondstothatofnomadiclifeitself,whereasthesedentarypeoplesdevelopedtheplasticarts,whichrequirestabilityandwhichintheirsymbolismareconnected,quitenaturally,totheideaofacentreinspace.3Itcanthusbestated,ingeneralterms,thattheArabiclanguageguaranteesthesurvival,onthementalplane,ofaprimitiveSemitism,nomadicincharacter.

Toexplaininafewwords,andwithouttheneedofanyspeciallinguisticknowledge,whatisthespecificnatureofthislanguage,itshouldberecalledfirstlythateverylanguagecomprisestworootsorpoles,oneortheotherofwhichwillpredominate,andwhichmaybedesignatedbytheterms'auditiveintuition'and'imaginativein-

1Cf.EdouardDhorme,L'arabelitéraletlalanguedeHammourabiin'MélangesLouisMassignon'(Damascus,1957).2ThemostancientSemiticalphabetscomprise29soundsorletters,ofwhichArabichaspreserved28,the'lost'soundbeingavariantofS.Itmaybethatthereductionofthealphabetto28lettersreflectsasymbolicintention,sincesomeArabauthorsconsiderthatthesoundscorrespondtothe28lunarmansions:thephoneticcyclerangingfromthegutturalstothepalatals,dentalsandlabialsretracesthe'lunar'phasesoftheprimordialsoundemanatingfromthesun.3AsRenéGuénonhaspointedout.Seethechapter'CainandAbel'inTheReignofQuantity.

tuition'.Thefirstisnormallymanifestedbythefactthatagivenwordisderivedfromasimplecombinationofsoundswhich,assuch,expressatypicaleventor,moreexactly,afundamentalaction;itdoesthisinamoreorlessimmediatemanner,notbymeansofonomatopoeia,butbecausethesounditselfisaneventwhichunfoldsintime,sothatitcorrespondsapriori,andindependentlyofallsemanticconventions,toaction;speechisessentiallyactand,accordingtothislogic,thelanguagefundamentallyconceiveseverythingthatitnamesasanactionoranobjectofaction.Imaginativeintuition,ontheotherhand,ismanifestedinlanguagebymeansofthesemanticassociationofanalogousimages:everywordpronouncedinwardlyevokesacorrespondingimage,whichcallsforthothers,generalimagesdominatingmoreparticularimages,accordingtoahierarchywhichinturnisinherentinthestructureofthelanguage.TheLatinlanguagesbelongmainlytothislattertype,whereasArabicdisplaysanalmostpureauditiveintuitionorphoneticlogic,theidentityofsoundandact,aswellastheprimacyofaction,beingaffirmedthroughouttherichtissueofthislanguage:inprinciple,everyArabicwordisderivedfromaverbwhoseroot,consistingofthreeinvariablesounds,islikethesonorousideogramofafundamentalactsuchas'gathering-together','dividing','including','penetrating',withthefullphysical,psychicalandspiritualpolyvalenceoftheideainquestion;fromonesinglerootuptotwelvedifferentverbalmodesaredevelopedsimple,causative,intensive,reciprocal,andsoonandeachofthesemodesproduces,bythepolarizationoftheactiveandthepassive,ofthesubjectandtheobject,awholepleiadofsubstantivesandadjectives,whosemeaningisalwaysconnected,inamoreorlessdirectmanner,withthefundamentalactrepresentedbythetriliteral4rootofthewholeverbal'tree'.

Itisobviousthatthissemantictransparencyofthelanguagethefactthat,initssymbolism,itderivesentirelyfromthephoneticnatureoftheverbisaproofofitsrelativeprimordiality.Intheorigin,andintheverydepthofourconsciousness,thingsarespontaneouslyconceivedasdeterminationsoftheprimordialsoundwhichresoundsintheheart,thissoundbeingnoneotherthanthefirstand

4Thereareinfactverbscomposedorfourorfiverootsounds,butinthesecasesgroupsofconsonantssuchasTSorBRplaytheroleofsimplesounds.

non-individualizedactofconsciousness;atthislevelorinthisstate,to'name'athingistoidentifyoneselfwiththeactorthesoundwhichproducesit;5thesymbolisminherentinlanguagemoreorlessveiledordeformedbyacquiredhabitsgraspsthenatureofathingnotinastaticmanner,asonegraspsanimage,butsotospeakinstatunascendi,intheactofbecoming.ThisaspectoflanguageingeneralandoftheArabiclanguageinparticularis,intheMoslemworld,theobjectofawholegroupofsciences,somephilosophical,othersesoteric.ItmaybesaidthatMoslemscholarshavenotonlypreservedthisstructureofArabic,butthattheyhaveevencontributedtorenderingitexplicit.

InordertounderstandhowArabic,whichisofBedouinorigin,couldbecome,withalmostnoborrowings,thelanguageofacivilizationthatwasintellectuallyveryrichanddifferentiated,itisnecessarytoknowthatitsverbalrootsarecapableofexpressing,inasotospeakactivemanner,determinationswhichtheIndo-Europeanlanguagesgenerallyexpressbyanadjectiveassociatedwiththeverb'tobe':therootBTN,forexample,comprisesthemeaningof'beinginside',andtherootZHRthatof'beingoutside';therootRHMsummarizesallthemodesof'beingmerciful'or'havingcompassion',etc.Thefundamentalactwhichisattherootofa'tree'ofexpressionsisthusnotnecessarilyanactionintheordinarysenseoftheterm;itmaybeanexistentialact,likethatoflightwhichshines,orevenapurelylogicalact,suchas'beingbig'or'beingsmall',anditisinthispossibilityofgatheringeverymannerofbeingofathingintoaprincipialact,thatthegreatpowerofabstractionoftheArabiclanguageresides.Whatwemustgrasphere,asfarasartisconcerned,istheimplicitlyauditivecharacterofthisabstraction:thepassagefromtheparticulartothegeneralisaprioriindicatedbythepresence,inagivenexpression,ofrootsoundswhichrecallagivenprototypalact.

Therelationshipbetweenprototypalactsandtheirverbalderivationsishowevernotalwayseasytograsp,becauseofthesometimesveryparticularandconventionallyfixedmeaningofsuchandsuchaderivedterm,andalso,aboveall,becausethefundamentalideas

5AccordingtotheKoran,itwasAdamwhoknewhowto'name'allbeings,whereastheangelscouldnotdoso.

expressedbytherootsareofaneminentlycomplexnature.Anorientalistwentsofarastosaythat'thestructureoftheArabiclanguagewouldbeofanincomparabletransparencyifthemeaningoftheverbalrootswasnotarbitrary';itishoweverscarcelypossiblethatthebasisofalanguageshouldbearbitrary.Infact,theverbalrootsmarkthethresholdbetweendiscursivethoughtandakindofsyntheticperceptionwhichhasitsmodelsinbothmindandbody;theArabiclanguageisasthoughsuspendedfromauditiveintuition.6

Ifthesedataaretransposedintotherealmofart,withallthereservationswhichgeneralizationsofthisnaturepresuppose,itcanbesaidthattheArabisapriorianauditiveratherthanavisualtype,inotherwords,heistheformerbeforeheisthelatter;7infact,hisneedforartisticexteriorizationislargelyabsorbedbythecultureofhislanguage,withitsfascinatingphonetismanditsalmostlimitlessfacultyofproducingnewverbalderivations.NoristheArabacontemplativeintheordinarysenseoftheword,ifonemeansbythisthetypeofmanwholooksorcontemplatesratherthanacts,andwhospontaneouslyreducesperceivedformstoprototypalformsthatareinprincipleimmutable;theArablovestoanalyzethingswithaviewtotheirintrinsicfunctionsandtheactivitiesreflectedinthem;this

6ThephoneticsymbolismwhichunderliestheArabiclanguageshowsitselfmoreparticularlyinthepermutationoftherootsounds.Infact,accordingtoal-jafr('thescienceofletters'),thewordswhichareformedfromthesamelettersarrangedindifferentordersallspringfromthesame'Pythagoreannumber'andthereforefromthesameidea.Thisisnoteasytograsp,however,owingtotheoftentooparticularizeduseofthewords,butitcanbesensedincertaincases:therootRHM,forexample,means'beingmerciful','havingpity',whereasitspermutationHRMhasthemeaningof'forbidding','makinginaccessible',sacrumfacere,theunderlyingcomplementarismistobeseenmoreclearlyinthemostsimplenounsderivedfromthesetworoots:RaaHMmeans'womb'andbyextension'bondofrelationship',whereasHaRaMmeans'sacredplace';wecandivineheretheideaofmaternitybothinitsinclusiveandexclusivecharacter.AnotherexampleisofferedusbytherootRFQwhichhasthemeaningof'accompanying','binding',anditspermutationFRQwhichmeans'separating','dividing'(theLatinfurcaseemstobederivedfromananalogousroot),whereasthegroupFORmeans'beingpoor,needy'(whencetheexpressional-faqîruilâ'Llâh,'theneedyuntoGod','thepoorinSpirit);thesegiveusthreevariantsofthetheme'polarity':joining(RFQ),separation(FRQ),anddependence(FQR).7WhichobviouslydoesnotexcludetheexistenceofpurevisualtypesintheArabrace.

meansthathismentalityisnotstatic,butessentiallydynamic.However,sinceheisneverthelessacontemplativeIslamprovesit,andtheArabiclanguageincludesthispossibilityhefindsaccesstounitybymeansofrhythm,whichisliketherefractionoftheeternalpresentinthecurrentoftime.

Theplasticexamplesthatillustratethesetendenciesspringtomind:thearabesqueinparticular,withitsdeploymentatonceregularandindefinite,isindeedthemostdirectexpressionofrhythminthevisualorder.ItistruethatitsmostperfectformsarenotconceivablewithouttheartisticcontributionofthenomadsofCentralAsia;neverthelessitwasinArabsurroundingsthatithaditsfullestdevelopment.AnothertypicalelementinMoslemart,onewhosedevelopmentgoeshandinhandwithArabdomination,istheinterlacingmotif;itappearsinallitsperfectionfromthetimeoftheOmayyads,intheformofsculptedlatticesinthewindowsofmosquesandpalaces.8Toenjoythegeometricalinterplaythatconstitutestheinterlacingmotif,itisnotenoughtolookatitdirectly,itisnecessaryto'read'itbyfollowingthecourseoftheforcesthatcrossoneanotherandcompensateoneanother.InterlacingalreadyexistsinthepavementmosaicsoflowerAntiquity,butinarudimentarystateandderivingfromanaturalisticconceptiondevoidofthecomplexityandtherhythmicprecisionoftheArabo-Mosleminterlacing.Theseexamplesbelongtoabstract,notfigurative,art,andthisalsocharacterizestheArabgenius:contrarilytowhatisusuallybelieved,theaverageArabscarcelypossessesa'luxuriantimagination'.InsofarasthisappearsinArabliterature,forexampleinthetalesfromthe'ThousandandOneNights',itisnon-Arabinorigin,beinginthiscasePersianandIndian;onlytheartofstory-tellingisArab.ThecreativespiritoftheArabsisapriorilogicalandrhetorical,thenrhythmicalandincantatory;therichnessisinthementalarabesqueandnotintheprofusionofimagesevoked.

ThemoreorlesscategoricalrejectionofimagesintheartofIslamobviouslyhasitsexplanationinreasonsofatheologicalorder.ButitisafactthattheSemiticnomadsdidnotpossessafigurativetraditionthepre-IslamicArabsimportedmostoftheiridolsand

8IntheOmayyadmosqueatDamascus,forexample,orinthepalaceofKhirbetal-Mafjar.

thatfortheArabsimagesneverbecomeatransparentandspontaneousmeansofexpression,9astheyareforIraniansandMongolswhoareMoslemsbyreligion.Therealityoftheverbeclipsedthatofstaticvision:comparedwiththewordwhichisalwaysinact,andwhoserootplungesintotheprimordialityofsound,apaintedorsculptedimageappearsasanalarmingcoagulationofthemind.ForthepaganArabs,itsmackedofmagic.

ButtheArabiclanguageisnotentirelydominatedbytheideaoftheverb-act;italsocomprisesastatic,ormoreexactly,atimelesspole,whichshowsitselfinparticularinwhatiscalledthe'nominalsentence',inwhichthe'noun'(subject)andthe'predicates'arejuxtaposedwithoutacopula.Thispermitstheformulationofathoughtinalapidaryfashionandoutsideanyconsiderationoftime.Asentenceofthissortislikeanequation;buttheuseofcertainprepositionscanimpressonitaninternallogicalmovement.Themoststrikingexampleofthiskindistheformulaconstitutingthefundamental'testimony'ofIslam:lâilâhaillâ'Llâh('thereisnodivinityapartfromGod'),aphrasethatwouldbetranslatedliterallyas:'nodivinityifnotTheDivinity';inArabic,thesymmetryofthenegationslâandillâ,'not'and'ifnot'isevenmoreapparent.Inthisformula,thestaticcharacterofthenominalphrasedisappearsasaresultofapurelyintellectualaction,whichcorrespondstoanintegration:'ThereisnoautonomousbeingapartfromtheonlyBeing.'Itisthedistinctionbetweentherelativeandtheabsoluteandthereductionofthefirsttothesecond.TheArabiclanguagethuscomprisesthepossibilityofcondensingawholedoctrineinabriefandconciseformulathathastheappearanceofadiamondwithsharpedgesandreverberatingfacets.Itistruethatthispossibilityofexpressionisonlyfullyactualizedbyrevelation;itbelongsabovealltotheKoran;butitisnonethelessinherentinthegeniusofArabicandreflectedinitsfashioninArabo-Islamicart,forthisisnotonlyrhythmical,itisalsocrystalline.

TheconcisionoftheArabicsentence,whileitobviouslydoesnot

9Itisnotabsolutelycertainthattheminiaturesofthe'Baghdadschool'areattributabletotheArabs;inanycase,theirstyleiscrude,andowesitsfewpositiveelementstoByzantineandAsiaticinfluences.

limittheprofundityofthemeaning,neverthelessdoesnotfavourasynthesisatthelevelofdescription:Arabicrarelyaccumulatesseveralconditionsorcircumstancesinasinglesentence;itpreferstolinktogetherawholeseriesofshortsentences.Inthisconnection,anagglutinatinglanguagelikeTurkish,whichisrelatedtotheMongollanguages,islessdryandmoresupplethanArabic;itisclearlysuperiorwhenitcomestodescribingasituationoralandscape,whichisalsotrueofPersian,whichisanIndo-EuropeanlanguageclosetoGothic;neverthelessbothoftheselanguageshaveborrowednotonlytheirtheologicalterminologybutalmostalltheirphilosophicalandscientificterminologyfromArabic.

TheextremeoppositeofArabicisalanguagelikeChinese,whichisdominatedbyastaticvisionofthingsandwhichgroupstheelementsofathoughtaroundtypical'pictures',astheideographiccharacteroftheChinesescriptitselfindicates.

TheTurksareofnomadicoriginliketheArabs,buttheirlanguageconnectsthemtoaverydifferentmentaltype;theArabisincisiveanddynamicinhiswayofthinking;theTurk,ontheotherhand,isenvelopingandprudent.WithinthegeneralframeworkofIslamicart,theTurkishgeniusisrevealedinapowerfulcapacityforsynthesis,onemightalmostsay,byitstotalitarianspirit.TheTurkpossessesaplasticorsculpturalgiftwhichtheArabdoesnothave;hisworksalwaysderivefromaninclusiveconception;theyareasthoughchiselledoutofasingleblock.TheinteriorofthemostancientTurkishmosqueswithacupolarecallstheclosedspaceoftheyurt,andTurco-ArabiccalligraphyrevealsaMongolinfluence.

AsforPersianart,itisdistinguishedbyitssenseofhierarchicaldifferentiations;Persianarchitectureisperfectlyarticulated,withouteverbeing'functional'inthemodernsenseoftheterm.ForthePersian,Unityismanifestedaboveallbyharmony.ThePersians,moreover,are'visuals'bynatureandbyculturebutlyricalvisuals,sotospeak,theirartisticactivitybeingasitwereanimatedbyaninwardmelody.ItiscommonlysaidintheEastthat'ArabicisthelanguageofGod,andPersianthelanguageofParadise',whichsumsupverywellthedifferencethatexists,forexample,betweenatypicallyArabarchitecture,likethatoftheMaghrib,wherethecrystallinegeometryoftheformsproclaimstheunitaryprinciple,andPersianarchitecture,withitsbluecupolasandfloralornaments.

TheArabarchitectisnotafraidofmonotony;hewilladdpillarafterpillarandarcadeafterarcadeandwilldominatethisrepetitiononlybyrhythmicalalternationandbythequalitativeperfectionofeachelement.

ThelanguageoftheKoraniseverywherepresentintheworldofIslam;thewholelifeoftheMoslemisconstellatedwithKoranicformulas,aswellasprayers,litaniesandinvocationsinArabic,whoseelementsarederivedfromthesacredBook;innumerableinscriptionsbearwitnesstothis.OnemightsaythatthisubiquityoftheKoranactsasaspiritualvibrationthereisnobettertermtodesignateaninfluencethatisbothspiritualandsonorousinnatureandthatthisvibrationnecessarilydeterminesthemodesandmeasuresofMoslemart;theplasticartofIslamisthusinacertainmannerthereflectionoftheKoranicWord.ItisnonethelessverydifficulttograsptheprinciplethatunitesthisarttotheKoranictext,notonthenarrativeplane,whichplaysnopartinthenormalplasticartofIslam,butontheplaneofformalstructures,fortheKoranobeysnolawofcomposition,eitherintheinternalrelationshipsofitscontents,whicharestrangelydiscontinuous,orinitsverbalstyle,whicheludesallmetricalrules.Itsrhythm,althoughsopowerfulandsopenetrating,followsnofixedmeasures;itiscomposedentirelyoftheunforeseen,sometimesemployingastrikingrhyme,thensuddenlychangingitsbreadthandpace,andupsettingcadencesinamannerthatisasunexpectedasitisremarkable.ToassertthattheKoranisArabicpoetrybecauseitcomprisespassagesinmonotonousrhyme,similartotheBedouinrajaz,wouldbeanerror;buttoallegethatitsmonotoniesandabruptdiscontinuitiesdonotcorrespondprofoundlytotheArabsoulwouldalsobeanerror.Inreality,thestateofinwardharmonywhichtheKoranengenders,andtowhichbothitsconsonancesanddissonances,bothitsbeautyanditsharshness,contribute,issituatedonacompletelydifferentplanefromthatreachedbyart.Perfectpoetrylikeeveryperfectworkofartplungesthesoulintoacertainstateofplenitude;theKoranontheotherhandengenders,inwhoeverhearsitswordsandexperiencesitssonorousmagic,bothplenitudeandpoverty.Itgivesandittakes;itenlargesthesoulbylendingitwings,thenlaysitlowandstripsitbare;itiscomfortingandpurifyingatone

andthesametime,likeastorm;humanartcanscarcelybesaidtohavethisvirtue.ThisamountstosayingthatthereisnoKoranic'style'whichcanwithoutmoreadobetransposedintoart;butthereexistsastateofsoulwhichtherecitationoftheKoransupports,andwhichpredisposestocertainformalmanifestationswhileexcludingothers.ThediapasonoftheKoranalwaysunitesintoxicatingnostalgiawiththegreatestsobriety:itisashiningoftheDivinesunonthehumandesert.Toacertainextent,theflowingandflamboyantrhythmofthearabesqueandtheabstractandcrystallinecharacterofarchitecturecorrespondtothesetwopoles;theyaretwoelementswhichconstantlyrecur.

Themostprofoundlink,however,betweenIslamicartandtheKoranisofacompletelydifferentkind:itresides,notintheformoftheKoran,butinitshaqîqah,itssupra-formalessence,andmoreparticularlyintheideaoftawhîd(unityorunion),withitscontemplativeimplications;IslamicartinthesenseofalltheplasticartsofIslamisessentiallytheprojection,inthevisualorder,ofcertainaspectsordimensionsofDivineUnity.

Letusnotforget,nevertheless,thatsacredcalligraphyreflectsinitsfashionthemajesticstyleoftheKoranicsuras,withoutitbeingpossibletodefinethenatureofthisanalogyindetail.BytheveryfactthatwritingservestofixthewordofGod,itisthenoblestartofIslam;10anditisalso,almostbydefinition,themosttypicallyArabart.

Inthislatterconnection,itissignificantthattheabstractnatureofthesignstheArabicscriptbeingpurelyphoneticgivesrisetoanextraordinarydevelopmentofgraphicrhythms,withouttheessentialformsofthelettersbeingtherebydiminished.ThegeneralandtosomeextentnaturaldevelopmentofArabicwritingtendstowardsafluidityofforms;verydifferentstylesnotonlyfollowoneanother,theyexistsidebyside,especiallyinmonumentalepigraphy.ArabiccalligraphyisattheantipodesofFar-Easterncalligraphy,whichshouldbementionedherebecauseittoorepresentsapeakintheartofwriting:theChineseorJapanesecalligrapherisolatesthesigns,eachoneofwhichcorrespondstoadistinctidea;usingabrush,he

10InacertainsenseitsroleisanalogoustothatoftheiconinChristianity,sinceitrepresents,liketheicon,thevisibleformoftheDivineWord.

evokesinafewmoreorlessbroadstrokesakey-pictureoravisualnucleusofrelatedideas.TheArabcalligrapher,ontheotherhand,usesapenareedtrimmedtoadoublepointandwiththishetracesoutpreciseandofteninterlacinglines;asfaraspossiblehejoinstheletterstoeachother,whilestressingtheircontrasts:thewritingrunsfromrighttoleft,anditisinthishorizontaldirectionthattheformsinterlinkandmarrywithoneanother,whereasintheverticaldirectiontheuprightsofthelettersstandoutinisolationandinasensepunctuatethecontinuousmelodyofthelines.Fromthepointofviewofthesymbolismofthespatialaxes,whichisappropriatehere,andwhichmoreoverisalsoinherentintheartofweaving,theverticalelementsoftheletters,which'transcend'theflowofthewriting,correspondtotheiressences,whilethehorizontalmovementrepresentsthe'material'continuityoftheirforms;theuprightislikearayfromtheoneEssence,whichdistinguishesbyitsveryunity,justasthepresentinstantdistinguishesbetweenpastandfuture;thehorizontalmovement,ontheotherhand,whichproceedsincontinuouswaves,istheimageofbecomingoroflife.Incertaincalligraphicstyles,suchasthulûth,forexample,thispolarityiscarriedtoitslimit;inthedirectionofthehorizontalcurrent,themelodyoftheampleandvariedcurvescorrespondstotherhythmoftheincisiveuprights,formedespeciallybytheverticallinesofthealifandthelam:itislikeatirelessattestation(shahâdah)ofUnityaccompaniedbyajoyousandsereneexpansionofthesoul.

TheclassicalpoetryoftheMoslemArabsislinkedbyitsformitsmonotonousrhymeandcomplexmetretothepre-IslamicBedouinpoetry.ItthusshowstheinfluenceoftheKoranonlythroughtheideasthatitmayvehicle.Butthereexistsasemi-poeticliteraturewhoseveryformsreflecttheKoran,namelythatoftheprayers,litanies,andincantationscomposedbytheholymasters.Oneexampleofthissortisthedalâilal-khairatofShaikhal-Jazûli,acollectionofpraisesoftheProphet,ormoreexactly'prayersupontheProphet':theMoslemaddresseshisprayerstoGodalone,inconformitywithhisunitaryperspective,butinaskingGodtoblesstheProphet,heissotospeakincommunionwithhim.Oneaftertheother,theseprayersevokethehumanandcosmicperfectionspresentinthenatureofMohammed,thesynthesisofalltheDivine

reverberationswithincreation.Sometimestheformoftheprayersorincantationsremainsthesame,whiletheirtermsofcomparisonvary,goingfromthevirtuestothebeautiesofthevisibleandinvisibleuniverse;andsometimesthesubjectoftheprayersisconstant,whiletheirformsvary;andthisalternatingrepetitiondescribesaspiralmovement,whoseaimistheintegrationofallthepositiveaspectsoftheworldintheSpirit,intheinwardprophet,whois'nearertomenthantheirownsouls',accordingtoaverseintheKoran.

TheinversionofperspectiveinrelationtoChristianitywillbeevident;whereasthelatterviewsGodfromthestarting-pointofman,Islamviewsmanfromthestarting-pointofGod,whichexcludesanyfixationofananthropomorphicimage;theimageoftheDivinemanisasitweredissolvedinitselements;itdisappearsintheuniversaltheophanies,whenceitsabsencefromplasticart,whichbecomesanimpersonalincantationlikethewavesoftheseaorthetwinklingofthestars.

ThepredominanceoftheauditiveoverthevisualintheArabsoulcannotbutshowitselfeveninplasticart;anditisthesameforacertainformofspiritualintuitionorecstasy,whichfindsitssupportmoreespeciallyinrhythmandsound:itislikeasuddencessationoftime,animmobilizationofallmovementinthelightningflashofthepurepresent.Theworldmayhenceforthbecomparedtoawaterfall,whichflowswithoutchangingform,ortoaflamewhich,althoughbeingconsumed,appearsmotionless.Arabo-Moslemornamentationessentiallyexpressesthissuspensionintheinstant.

VENVOI

25ALetteronSpiritualMethodTHEREISNOspiritualmethodwithoutthesetwobasicelements:discernmentbetweentherealandtheunreal,andconcentrationonthereal.Thefirstofthesetwoelements,discernmentordiscrimination(vijñânainSanskrit),doesnotdependonanyspecialreligiousform;itonlypresupposesmetaphysicalunderstanding.Thesecondelement,however,requiresasupportofasacredcharacter,andthismeansthatitcanonlybeachievedwithintheframeworkofanormaltradition.TheaimofmethodisperpetualconcentrationontheReal,andthiscannotbeachievedbypurelyhumanmeansoronthebasisofindividualinitiative;itpresupposesaregulartransmissionsuchasexistsonlywithinanormaltradition.Forwhatisman?Whatishispunywill?HowcanhepossiblyadheretotheAbsolutewithoutfirstintegratinghiswholebeingintoanon-individual(i.e.asupra-individual)form?Tobeprecise:thereisnospiritualpathoutsidethefollowingtraditionsorreligions:Judaism,Christianity,Islam,Buddhism,HinduismandTaoism;butHinduismisclosedforthosewhohavenotbeenbornintoaHinducaste,andTaoismisinaccessible.

Theguaranteeofaspiritualmethodisthatitbereceivedfromaspiritualmaster;theguaranteeofspiritualmastership,besidesdoctrinalorthodoxy,istheinitiaticchaingoingbacktooneofthegreatfoundersofreligionoravâtaras,astheHinduswouldsay.Itisthedutyofthediscipletoobeyhismaster;itisthedutyofthemastertoprovehisattachmenttotheinitiaticchain.Amasterhastherightnottoacceptadisciple;hehastherighttoconcealhisteachingfromoutsiders,buthedoesnothavetherighttoconcealfromhisdisciplesthespiritualchainherepresentsorhisspiritualpredecessors.

Themastertransmits:(1)thespiritualinfluencewhichderivesfromthefounderofthetraditionandthroughhimfromGod;(2)thekeysfortheunderstandingofthemethodorthekeystomeditation;(3)thesacredsupportsforperpetualconcentrationontheReal.

Thedistinctivesignofaspiritualmasterishisawarenessoftherelativityofformsaswellasoftheirnecessity.Onlyamanwhoseknowledgetranscendsformsknowswhatformsinvolve.Amasterwhosespiritualoutlookislimitedbyaparticularformalortraditionalframeworkisnotacompletemaster(althoughatruemastermayinpracticebeunfamiliarwithtraditionsotherthanhisown);andamasterwhorejectsallformsisafalsemaster(althoughatruemastermayreducetraditionalformtoitsessentialelements,andhesurelywill).Notruemasterputshimselfoutsideagiventradition(orreligion),forheknowsitsmeaningandseesitsdivineorigin.

Inthespirituallifethereisnoplaceforindividualexperiments;theyaretooruinous.

APPENDIX

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'LeTemple,Corpsdel'HommeDivin',EtudesTraditionnelles,June1951.

'ExtraitsduCommentairedesNomsDivinsparl'ImâmGhazâlî'(TranslationandnotesbyTiresBurckhardt),EtudesTraditionnelles,October-November1952,December1954.

'"JesuislaPorte"',EtudesTraditionnelles,June1953,July-August1953.

'LaGenèseduTemplehindou',EtudesTraditionnelles,October-November1953,

December1953.

'LesFondementsdel'Artchrétien',EtudesTraditionnelles,April-May1954.

'LesFondementsdel'Artmusulman',EtudesTraditionnelles,June1954.

'Lesymbolismedujeudeséchecs',EtudesTraditionnelles,October-November1954.

'LePaysagedansl'Artextreme-oriental',EtudesTraditionnelles,April-May1955.

'CommentairesuccinctdelaTabled'Emeraude',EtudesTraditionnelles,November-December1960.

'Considérationssurl'Alchimie(11),EtudesTraditionnelles,November-December1961.

'"ChevaucherleTigre"',EtudesTraditionnelles,July-October1962.

'LeMasqueSacré',EtudesTraditionnelles,November-December1963.

'CosmologieetSciencemoderne',EtudesTraditionnelles,May-June1964,July-October1964,January-February1965,March-April1965,May-August1965.

'LaPrièred'IbnMashîsh',EtudesTraditionelles,January-February1967.

'Miseaupointencequiconcernel'éditionfrançaisedulivreAlchemie:SinnundWeltbild',EtudesTraditionnelles,January-February1967.

'LeVidedansl'ArtIslamique',Hennès,1970.

'Caractèresperennesdel'artarabe',JournalofWorldHistory,1972.

'Fès,unevillehumaine'(causeriefairele21avril1973danslepalaisduPachadevantlesmembresdel'AssociationpourlasauvegardedeFès),EtudesTraditionnelles,July-September1984.

'NotesurleProphèteMohammed',inFormesetSubstancedanslesReligionsbyFrithjofSchuon,pp.86-87(Paris,Dervy-Livres,1975).

PréfaceàIslam,PerspectivesetRéalitésbySeyyedHosseinNasr(Paris,Buchet-Chastel,1975).

'LesSciencestraditionnellesàFès',EtudesTraditionnelles,October-December1977.

'LeRetourd'Ulysse',EtudesTraditionnelles,January-March1979.

'Fèsetl'Artdel'Islam',inActesduSéminaireexpérimentald'Animationculturelle,7mars-28avril1978,FondsinternationalpourlaPromotiondelaCulture,UNESCO,Conféences,volume1,pp.109-119,1980.

'LaDanseduSoleil',ConnaissancedesReligions(Nancy,France),1985.

TrnaslationsFromArabicIntoFrenchDel'HommeUniversel(Traductionpartiellede'Al-Insânal-Kâmil'de'Abdal-Karîmal-Jîlî).Withanintroductionbythetranslator.Lyons,Derain.1953;Paris,Dervy-Livres,

1975.

LaSagessedesProphètes(Traductionpartielledes'Fusûsal-Hikam'deIbn'Arabî.WithanIntroductionbythetranslator.Paris,AlbinMichel,1955and1974.

Lettresd'unMaitreSoufi(Traductionpartielledes'Rasâ'il'deMoulayal-'Arabîad-Darqâwî).WithanIntroductionbythetranslator.Milan,Archè,1978;Paris,Dervy-Livres,1978.

BooksInEnglishAnIntroductiontoSufiDoctrine(translatedfromtheFrenchbyD.M.Matheson),Lahore,Ashraf,1959;Wellingborough,England,Thorsons,1976.

Siena,CityoftheVirgin(translatedfromtheGermanbyMargaretBrown),OxfordUniversityPress,1960.

FamousIlluminatedManuscripts(partialtranslationofVonwunderbarenBüchern),OltenandLausanne,UrsGrafVerlag,1964.

SacredArtinEastandWest(translatedfromtheFrenchbyLordNorth-bourne),Bedfont,Middlesex,England,PerennialBooks,1967,

Alchemy:ScienceoftheCosmos,ScienceoftheSoul(translatedfromtheGermanbyWilliamStoddart),London,SmartandWatkins,1967;Baltimore,Maryland,PenguinBooks,1972.

MoorishCultureinSpain(translatedfromtheGermanbyAlisaJaffa),London,AllenandUnwin,1972;NewYork,McGraw-Hill,1972.

ArtofIslam:LanguageandMeaning(translatedfromtheFrenchbyPeterHobson),London,IslamicFestivalTrustLtd,1976.

MysticalAstrologyaccordingtoIbn'Arabî(translatedfromtheFrenchbyBulentRauf),Sherbourne,England,Beshara,1977.

Fez,CityofIslam(translatedfromtheGermanbyWilliamStoddart),Cambridge,England,IslamicTextsSociety,inpreparation.

MirroroftheIntellect:EssaysonTraditionalScienceandSacredArt(translatedbyWilliamStoddart),Cambridge,England,QuintaEssentia,1987.

ChartresandtheGenesisoftheGothicCathedral(translatedbyPeterHobson),inpreparation.

ArticlesinEnglish'PrinciplesandMethodsofTraditionalArt',inArtandThought(CoomaraswamyFestschrift),London,Luzac,1947.

'TheSpiritofIslamicArt',IslamicQuarterly(London),December1954.

ForewordtoTheMeaningofIconsbyLeonidOuspenskyandVladimirLossky(translatedbyE.KadloubovskyandG.E.H.Palmer),Boston,TheBostonBookandArtShop,1956;Crestwood,NewYork,St.Vladimir'sSeminaryPress,1983.

'InsightintoAlchemy',Tomorrow,Winter1964;StudiesinComparativeReligion,Summer-Autumn1979.

'CosmologyandModernScience',Tomorrow,Summer1964,Autumn1964,Winter1965.AlsoincludedinSwordofGnosis(editedbyJacobNeedle-man),Baltimore,Maryland,PenguinBooks,1974.

'BecauseDanteisRight',Tomorrow,Summer1966.

'PerennialValuesinIslamicArt',Al-Abhath,March1967;StudiesinComparativeReligion,Summer1967;inGodandManinContemporaryIslamicThought,Beirut,Centennial,1972;inSwordofGnosis(editedbyJacobNeedleman),Baltimore,PenguinBooks,1974.

'IslamicSurveys:FourWorksbySeyyedHosseinNasr',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Winter1968.

'TheSymbolismofChess',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Spring1969.

'TeilharddeChardin(1),StudiesinComparativeReligion,Spring1969.

'TheSevenLiberalArtsandtheWestDoorofChartresCathedral',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Summer1969;alsoWinter-Spring1985.

'TheHeavenlyJerusalemandtheParadiseofVaikuntha',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Winter1970.

'TheVoidinIslamicArt',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Spring1970;alsoWinter-Spring1985.

NoteontheProphetMohammed,inDimensionsofIslambyFrithjofSchuon,pp.69-70(London,AllenandUnwin,1970).

'AraborIslamicArt?',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Winter1971;alsoinSwordofGnosis(editedbyJacobNeedleman),Baltimore,PenguinBooks,1974.

'AbstractArtinAncientFez',Du(Zürich),March1972.

ForewordtoGeometricConceptsinIslamicArtbyIssamEl-SaidandAyseParman,London,IslamicFestivalTrustLtd,1976.

'IntroductiontoIslamicArt'inTheArtsofIslam,cataloguetothespecialexhibitionintheHaywardGallery,London,TheArtsCouncilofGreatBritain,1976.

'ThePrayerofIbnMashîish',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Winter-Spring1978;IslamicQuarterly,September1978.

'TheReturnofUlysses',Parabola,November1978.

'Concerningthe"Barzakh"',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Winter-Spring1979.

'Fez',inTheIslamicCity,UNESCO,Paris,1980,pp.166-176.

PrefacetoR.W.J.Austin'stranslationofIbn'Arabî'sTheBezelsofWisdom(Fusûsal-

Hikam),London,S.P.C.K.,1980;Ramsey,NewJersey,ThePaulistPress,1980.

'TheSacredMask',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Winter-Spring1980.

'TeilharddeChardin(11)',inTheDestructionoftheChristianTraditionbyRamaCoomaraswamy,pp.211-212.Bedfont,Middlesex,England,PerennialBooks,1981.

'TheRoleofFineArtsinMuslimEducation',inPhilosophy,LiteratureandFineArts(editedbySeyyedHosseinNasr),Sevenoaks,Kent,England,IslamicEducationSeries,1982.

'TraditionalScience',StudiesinComparativeReligion,Winter-Spring1985.

TwoshortextractsfromSchweizerVolkskunst,StudiesinComparativeReligion,Winter-Spring1985.

'TheSpiritualityofIslamicArt',inTheEncyclopediaofWorldSpirituality,vol.20(editedbySeyyedHosseinNasr),London,RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1987.

'TheUniversalityofSacredArt',inTheUnanimousTradition(editedbyRanjitFernando),TheInstituteofTraditionalStudies,Colombo,SriLanka,inpreparation.

TranslationsFromArabicIntoFrenchAndThenIntoEnglishLettersofaSufiMuster(partialtranslationofthe'Rasâ'il'ofMulayal-'Arabîad-Darqâwî),Bedfont,Middlesex,PerennialBooks,1973.

TheWisdomoftheProphets(partialtranslationof'Fusûsal-Hikam'byIbn'Arabî),Sherbourne,Beshara,1975.

UniversalMan(partialtranslationof'Al-Insânal-Kâmil'by'Abdal-Karîmal-Jîlî),Sherbourne,Beshara,1983.

BooksInItalianL'Alchimia(translatedfromtheGermanbyAngelaTerzaniStaude),Turin,Boringhieri,1961;(translatedfromtheFrenchbyFerdinandoBruno),Milan,Guanda,1981.

ScienzamodernaeSagzzatradizionale(translatedfromtheGermanbyAngelaTerzaniStaude),Turin,Borla,1968.

Siena,CittàdellaVergine(translatedfromtheGermanbyGisellaBurgisser),Milan,Archè1978.

L'ArtesacrainOrienteeOccidente(translatedfromtheFrenchbyElenaBono),Milan,Rusconi,1976.

IntroduzionealleDottrineesoterichedell'Islam(translatedfromtheFrenchbyBarbaraTurco),Rome,EdizioniMediterranee,1979.

Simboli(translatedfromtheFrenchbyElisabettaBonfantiMutti),Parma,All'InsegnadelVeltro,1983.

Chiavespiritualedell'Astrologiamusulmana(translatedfromtheFrench),Genoa,Basilisco,1985.

ArticlesInItalian'UnaChiavespiritualedell'AstrologiasecondoMuhyiddinibn'Arabî',RivistadiStudiiIniziatici,Naples,August-October1947.

NotasulProfetaMohamedinFormaeSostanzanelleReligionidiFrithjofSchuon(Roma,EdizioniMediterranee,1984).

TranslationsFromArabicIntoFrenchAndThenIntoItalianL'UomoUniversale(translatedfromtheFrenchbyGiorgioJannaccone),Rome,EdizioniMediterranee,1981.

LaSapienzadeiProfeti(translatedfromtheFrenchbyGiorgioJannaccone),Rome,EdizioniMediterranee,1987.

Lettered'unMaestroSufi(translatedfromtheFrenchbyGiorgioJannaccone),Milan,LaQueste,1987.

BooksInSpanishAlquimía(translatedbyAnaMaríadelaFuente),Barcelona,PlazayJanés,1971.

LaCivilizacióHispano-Arabe(translatedbyRosaKuhneBraban),Madrid,AlianzaEditorial,1977.

EsoterismoIslåmico(translatedbyJesúsGarcíaVarela),Madrid,TaurusEdiciones,1980.

SabiduríaTradicionalyCienciaModerna(translatedbyJordíQuinglesandAlejandroCorniero),Madrid,TaurusEdiciones,1980.

Símbolos(translatedbyFrancescGutiérrez),Mallorca,JoséJ.deOlañeta,1982.

PrincipiosyMétodosdelArtesagrado,BuenosAires,1984.

ArticlesInSpanishNotasobreelProfetaMohámedenFormaeSustanciaenlasReligionesporFrithjofSchuon,capítulosobreMohámed(Madrid,TaurusEdiciones,1981).

'ElSimbolismodelAjedrez',CieloyTierra(Barcelona),No.1,1982.

'ElArtesagrado',CieloyTierra(Barcelona),No.6,1983/1984.

INDEX

AAbrahamicmonotheism,231

Adam,121,184,187,223

Alchemy,132-141,180-1

Alî,Sayyidna,197

AiphonsustheWise,144,147

Alâh,196-7,218;

DivineNamesof,201-9;

remembranceof,118;seealsoShahadah

Amaterasu,119

AmericanIndians,63,145,151,153.Crow,164-5;

Plains,165;

SunDance,145,164-170;

andmasks,151

Andreae,JohannValentin,137-8

Angels,20-1,97

Aniconism,212,222-3,232,235

Apocalypse:ofSaint-Séver,102-8

Arab(ic),236,241;

art,236;

architecture,245;

calligraphy,213,225-239,244-6;

language,236-247;

poetry,246

Arabicterms:

'abd,223

'adam,189

al-ahadîyah,184,190

amânah,222

anbiyâ222,231

anwar,185

al-'aql,187

asrâr,185

al-'aqlal-awwal,186

awliyâ231

'ayâ,119

'ayn,190

al-'aynath-thâbitah,185

barakât,184,191

barzakh,186,193-9

bast,199

al-bâtil,190

dhikrAllâh,118,179,195

dhikrâ,174

ad-dî,177

fann,227

faqî,199

fardâniyyah,222

farq,199

fuqarâ,179

fiqh,176,181

ghaibah,199

haibah,199

al-haqq,190-1,199,216

haqâ'iq,119,175,187

haqîqah,189

hijâb,179

hikmah,227

Hudûr,199

ibn'l-waqt,199

al'insân,177,178,181

al-insânal'kâmil,197

ikhlâs,178

'ilm,227

'ilmal-bâtin,177

al-'ilmu't-taqlîdî,173

'ilmaz-zâhir,177

imâm,225

al-îmân,177

ishârât,119

al-islâm,177

isnad,175

isti'aâ,185

al-jabarût,185,188

jalâl,216

jam',199

jamâ,216

jasad,173

kalam,175

kawnal-kabîr,194

khalîfah,221

khalwah,191

al-khawf,198

laîlahâillaAllah,179

majâlis,179

al-malakût,184,188

mihrâab,224

Muhammadunrasûlu,'Llâh,197

muqarnas,233

nafs,119,173,194

an-nûral-Muhammadî,188

qabd,199

al-qâbil,121

qalb,194

qutb,194

ar-rajâ,198

rawq,224

Rûh,119,173,186,194

rusul,231

salât,183

salawât,184

salla,183

san'ah,227

Shahâdah,195-7,231,242,246

Shahîd,122

shirk,231

sharî'ah,175

sifât,119

sirr,185

ta'ayyun,189

tajallî,188

talwîn,119

tanzih,222

tarîqah,198

at-Tasawwuf,181

tasbih,222

tawbah,178

tawhîd,184,190,215,220-1,232,245

turuq,177

'ubûdiyyah,226

'ulamâ,176

uns,199

al-wahdah,184,190

wajd,225

wahdatal-wujûd,120

al-wujûd,189,193

Al-'Arabi,179

Arabesque,227,241

Archaeology,210

Archaeopteryx,35,38

Architecture,71;

Arab,243;

Gothic,234;

Greco-Roman,234;

Hindu,229;

Islamic,228-239;

Maghribi,233;

Persian,243;

Romanesque,234;

Turkish,224,233

Aristotle,18,78,99

Art,212,216,227;

Byzantine,222;

Christian,213,228;

ClassicalGreek220;

European,211-2;

Greco-Roman,154;

Icons,112-13,211;

Islamic,210-235;

sacred,13,222,226

Artephius,138-9

Asharism,174

Ashtâpada,106,143

asûras,41,106,143

Athena,159

Attar,Fâridal-Dîin,123

avatâras,161,251

BBali,152

Bantu,153

Barong,152

barzakh,186,193-9

Being,17,19-20,34.,59,185;

Divine,20,94,118-20,188;

Unityof,39;seealsoTawhid,

Bhagavad-Gita,147

BeamsdeLiébana,102

Biblical,129;

mythofcreation,17-19;

references,FirstCorinthians(13;12),118;

SecondCorinthians(3;18),120;

stories,174;

symbolism,40

Boethius,29-30,79-81

Buddhist,251;

BuddhaandBoddhisattva,129,161;

Ch'anteachingofmirror,118;

mythology,129;

Mahayanastatues,141

CCalligraphy;Arabic,213,228-9,244-6;

Far-Eastern,240;

Turko-Arabic,243

CalvacarelaTigre(Evola),68-74

CanticleoftheSun(St.Francis),127

ChartresCathedral,77-9;

well,125

Chess,106,142-8

Chou-Kou-Tien;seeSinanthropos

Christ:Jesus,222;

representationofascension,77-8

Christendom,125-6

Christian(ity),149,251;

attitudetosacredart,222;

beliefs,97,100,111;

cosmology,17-18;

dogmas,99;

symbolism,110-11

Copernicus:heliocentricsystem,20

Cosmology,13-67;

andEvolutionism,32-45;

andGospels,19;

Greek,17-19;

Hindu,54,146;

Indo-Tibetan,41;

andModernphysics,26-30;

andModernpsychology,45-67

DDalâilal-Khairat(al-Jazûli),246

Dante,20-1,55,77,82-97,122-3,159;

referencestoworks:Convivio,77,82;

DivineComedy,82-3,87,89,92,96-7;

Inferno,83,87-8,92,94-7;

Paradiso,82,84-7,92-5,123;

Purgatorio,89-90,92-4;

VitaNuova,88,94;

andBeatrice,84,88;

andthe'Fidelid'Amore',96;

andLimbo,95;

andLucifer,21,87;

andRipheus,95-6;

andVirgil,90

ad-Darqawi,179

Darwin,Charles,35

Decalogue,233

Descartes,31

devas,41,106,143-4

Dreams,55-7,62

EEckhart,Meister,22,122

Egyptian,ancientdoctrines,154-5

Eidos,seeForm

Einstein,27-8

EmeraldTablet,the,139-40

Empyrean,the,20

Eoanthropos,101

Eskimos,153

Essence,the,57,121-2,150,186,188

Esoterism,193;seealsoIslamicesotericwritings

Euclid,28,79

Evola,Julius,68-74;

analysisofModernscience,69-70

Evolutionism,32-45;

Teilhardian,43-5

Existence,39,185

FFatîmah,Sayyidatna,197

Fez,173-182

Form,18,23-4,29,33-4,72-3

Freud,seePsychoanalysis

Fusûsal-Hikam(Ibn'Arabi),121-2

Al-Futûhâtal-Makkiyyah(Ibn'Arabi),seeMeccanRevelations

GGalen,134

Ganges,128

Al-Ghazâlû,ImamAbuHâmidat-TûsâicommentaryonDivineNames,200-9

Gnosis,117

God,21,44-5,49,86,92,95,99,120-1,178,186-7,221,235,247

Goethe,128

TheGoldenPrairies(al-Mas'ûdâ),143

GoldenSection,80

Gorgoneion,seeGreektemples

Greek(s),159;

cosmology,17-19;

temples,152

Guénon,René19,40

gunas,54,146,155

Hhadîth,175,177,181,211,214,216,228;seealsoMohammed;

qudsî,190,222

HagiaSophia,223,224

Hammurabi'scode,237

Al-Harraq,179

Harunobu,128

Hasanal-Basri,120

Hell,21,55

Hikam(Ibn'Atâi'Llâh),179,185

Hindu:architecture,153;

epics,157;

mythology,129;

sacredcow,126;

sacredtheatre,153;

scriptures,105-9;

symbolofHamsa,129;

Tejâsa,163;

Vediccosmology,229

Hiranyagharba,135

HolyGraal,106

HolyWar,147

Homer,157-9,162

Hsuyu,128

hylé,18,134

hylomorphism,33

IIbn'Arabi,Muhyi'd-Dîn,120-2,124

Ibn'Atâi'Llâh,185

Ibnal-Fârid,179

IbnKhaldun,174,228

IbnMashish*,'Abdas-Salâm,prayerof,183-192;

petitionof,190

Iconsandiconography,112-13,211,221-2

Ihyâ'ulûmad-dîn,seeRevivificationoftheReligiousSciences

Intellect19,46,48,78,98,118,186-8;

universal,24,73

Islam(ic),96,149,175,182;

artandarchitecture,210-35,241-2;

artist,211-15;

community,215;

craftsman,213-15;

education,210-18;

esotericwritings,96,193;seealsoSufiandsufism;intellectualworld,96;

perennial

valuesin,219-30;

science,182;

theology,193

JJanus,195

Januaecoeli,159

Japan,128,149,155

al-Jazûli,Shaikh,246

Jerusalem,as'heavenly'city,102-9

al-Junaid,199

Judaism,149,251

Jung,C.G.,56-67;

and'collectiveunconscious',59-64;

anddepthpsychology,64;

and'initiation',66;

and'self',65-6

Kknowledge,93;seealsognosis;scientific,32

Koran(ic),129,175,182,200,206,208,213,221-3,228-30,237,242,244-7;

condemnationofidolatry,221;

languageof,244-5;

law,222;

references(II:30),187;

(III:37ff),191;

(XV:85),191;

(XVIII:44),221;

(XVIII:10),184-191;

(XXI:18),190;

(XXVIII:85),184,189;

(XXXIII:56),183-4,191;

(XXXIII:72),222;

(XXVII:180-2),185,192;

Surahar-Rahman,193;

SurahAl-Furqan,193;

(XCIV:1),225;

(VII:31),225;

storiesoncreationofAdam,174

Krishna,153

Kshatriyas,147-8

LLatin,95,238

laya-yoga,134

LibrosdeAcedrex(AlphonsustheWise),144

Lion,137-8,154

Logos,18,222

LoughDerg,130

Lourdes,125

MMahâbhârata,157

Maharishi,SriRâmana,67

Malikism,174

Man,173;

Modern,14-15,31-2,100,124

mandalas,62,142,145-6;

ofParadiseofVaikuntha,102-9;

ofVâstu,142,144-6

Marcanton,Brother,134

al-Mas'ûdî,148

Matter,34,37;

(materia)traditionaldoctrineof,29,121,129;

materiaprima,121,129,135;

secunda,146

Mâyâ,120,162

MeccanRevelations(Ibn'Arabi),222

Medicine,179-80;

Greco-Arab,179

Mercury,132-40

Michelangelo,82

Mohammed(theProphet),25118,147,178,184,186-8,191,197,214,216,221,223,227,246;

emigration(hijrah)of,191

Monotheism,150-1

Morienus,141

Moslem,seeIslamic

Mysteries,149

NNature,224-6,130,162

NewTestament,99

Nietzsche,69

Nô,155

LesNocesChymiquesdeChristianRosencreutz(Andreae),137

Nous,98,118,188;seealsoIntellect

OOmayyads,241

Odyssey(Homer),156-63

OrderoftheTemple,96

Ouspensky,Leonid,113

PPascal,57

Persia(n),221;

art,243;

language,243

physics,Modern,26-30

Piltdownhoax,seeEoanthropos

Plato,18

Plotinus,18,52,118,188

Polytheism,149-50

Porphyry,157-60

Prajna,64

Prakriti,135

Prana,134

Prometheanism,21,46

ProphetofIslam,seeMohammed

Provençallanguage,96

Psyché,46,48,50,54,58,62,67

Psychology,Modern,45-67;

traditional,48;

'religious',198

Psychoanalysis,66,111;

Freudian,49

Ptolemy,21,79,86

Puritanism,221

Purusha,146,148

Pythagoras,78-9

QAl-Qarawîn,173-9

al-Qushairî,ShaikhAbû'l-Qâsim,197-9

Quadrivium,13,77-80

RRâhu,143

Rangda,152

ar-Razî,AbuBakr,141

Renaissance,97

RevivificationoftheReligiousSciences,The(Al-Ghazâlî),176

Rhasesseear-Razî,AbuBakr

Richard,theEnglishman,39

Risâlatu'l-Qushairîyah(al-Qushairî),197-9

Rostand,Jean,36

SSacredMask,149-55

SaintFrancisofAssisi,127

SaintPaul,118,120

SaintPatrick,130

SelimiyeMosque,226

SeventhEcumenicalCouncil,223

ash-Shâdhilî,Abu'lHasan,183

Sinan,224,233

Sinanthropos,101

SchweizerVolkskunst(Burckhardt),110

Schuon,Frithjof,164.

Science,Modern,13-17,22,29,32-3,47,173;

traditionalIslamic,174

Scientism,22,25

SealofSolomon,197

Self,Divine,48

Semitism(ic),239;

languages,95

Shakti,74,135

Shintoism,119

Shiva,145

Shustari,179

SkandaPurâna,104-9;seealsoHindu

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