FACULTY OF COMPUTER AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

PHI 454HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OS SCINCE

TITTLE :HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS

AND IT’S IMPACT ON SOCIETY

PREPARED BYFARAH IZZAH BINTI MOHD YUSAK

2011158779CS2273C

VERIFIED BY

PROF. MADYA HAJI SHAFIE MEHAD

TABLE OF CONTENT

No. ________ Content Page

1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………. 4

1.1 Objectives………………………………………………………….. 4

2.0 Introduction of computers……………………………………………….. 5

2.1 Relationships between computer, computer science and IT……….. 8

3.0 Evolution of computers generation…..…………………………………. 9

3.1 First generation……………………………………………………. 10

3.2 Second Generation………………………………………………… 14

3.3 Third generation…………………………………………………... 16

3.4 Fourth Generation…………………………………………………... 19

3.5 Fifth Generation…………………………………………………… 21

4.0 Impact of computer on society…………………………………………... 23

5.0 Human Computer Interaction (HCI)…………………………………… 27

5.1 Meaning of HCI……………………………………………………. 27

5.2 Can Machines Think? …………………………………………….. 29

5.3 Human Thinking Vs. Machine Thinking………………………….. 31

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6.0 Networking……………………………………………………………….. 32

7.0 Artificial Intelligence…………………………………………………….. 33

8.0 Conclusion………………………………………………………………... 35

8.1 What I have gained from this paper? ............................................... 36

9.0 Reference………………………………………………………………… 37

1.0 INTRODUCTION

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This term paper is to make a brief history of the development of computer also

its impact on society. We can look through the advantages and disadvantages of using

computer nowadays on society especially among children and adult. As the world is

now being conquered by development of many new technologies, we as the user

always being curious about the new technology sometimes can lead to bad influence

if we don't use it in a good way. Explores other side effects in the use of computers,

we can also learn more and can get to know how development of the computer on

how they build an idea on developing computer by generation to another generation.

This also will give us exposure about the inventor in which resulted in the invention

of the computer. Through the latest technology which lead the newest application of

computer and how they relate to the others field such as networking, architecture and

others field that related to the development.

1.1 OBJECTIVE

Objectives of the term paper:

To have an insight into the philosophical, scientific and technical

aspects of the enterprise.

To self-evaluate the learning experience.

2.0 INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTER

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Technically, a computer is a programmable machine. This means it can

execute a programmed list of instructions and respond to new instructions that it is

given. Other than that, computer is also known as a group of pieces of hardware put

together to get a job done faster. A computer is a machine for manipulating data

according to a list of instructions. Computers take numerous physical forms. Early

electronic computers were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as

several hundred modern personal computers. However, the most common form of

computer in use today is by far the embedded computer. Embedded computers are

small, simple devices that are often used to control other devices. For example they

may be found in machines ranging from fighter aircraft to industrial robots, digital

cameras, and even children's toys.

Computers are tools used to process the data according to commands that have

been formulated. Computer words originally used to describe people who work

perform arithmetic calculations, with or without a walker, but the meaning of this

word is then transferred to the machine itself. Originally, the processing of

information is almost exclusively related to arithmetical problems, but modern

computers are used for many tasks unrelated to mathematics.

Broadly, the computer can be defined as an electronic device that consists of several

components, which can cooperate between the components with one another to

produce information based on existing programs and data. The computer components

are included: Screen Monitor, CPU, Keyboard, Mouse and Printer (as

complementary). Without a computer printer can still do its job as a data processor,

but not limited to the monitor screen looks in print form (paper).

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However, Computer science is the study of the storage, design, operation of

computer hardware and software, and of the application of computer technology to

science, business, and the arts, transformation and transfer of information. The field

encompasses both the theoretical study of algorithms (including their design,

efficiency and application) and the practical problems involved in implementing them

in terms of computer software and hardware. Computer science was designated the

scientific and mathematical approach in computing. Computer science deals with the

theoretical foundations of information, computation, and with practical techniques for

their implementation and application.

Although its name contains the word science, computer science is usually

considered to be a branch of engineering. This is in sharp contrast to most of the

physical sciences, which separate the understanding and advancement of the science

from its practical applications. Science is a technique for learning about the natural

world by applying the principles of the scientific method (which includes making

empirical observations, proposing hypotheses to explain those observations, and then

testing those hypotheses); engineering is the application of science. Computers are

virtually indispensable to the field of computer science. Yet, as Edsger Dijkstra, a

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pioneering computer scientist, so aptly put it, "Computer science is no more about

computers than astronomy is about telescopes."

Computer science has its roots primarily in the fields of electrical engineering,

mathematics and linguistics. It is still a relatively young field, mainly because it was

only about a half century ago that electronics technology became sufficiently

advanced to allow the construction of even primitive electronic computing devices.

However, the beginning of computer science is generally placed in the 1940s. At that

time, World War II stimulated the development of the first digital electronic

computers, particularly for use in calculating trajectories for projectiles and in

breaking codes. Thus, it has only been a few decades since computer science became

recognized as a distinct discipline and developed its own terminology and methods.

There are several additional, commonly used terms related to the study of

computers. The most popular of these is information technology (IT), which can be

defined as the branch of technology devoted to the study and application of data and

the processing thereof. Information Technology (IT) is concerned with technology to

treat information. IT can also be thought of as applied computer systems, including

both hardware and software, usually in the context of a business or other enterprise,

and often including networking and telecommunications. The term computer science

is usually reserved for the more theoretical, academic aspects of computing. Another

commonly used term, information systems (IS), refers to the application of computers

to support the operations of businesses and other organizations. It includes the

installation, operation and maintenance of computer hardware, software and data.

In relative terms, it wasn't long ago that the Information Technology

department might have consisted of a single Computer Operator, who might be

storing data on magnetic tape, and then putting it in a box down in the basement

somewhere. IT is a wide based term and encompasses many areas. Professionals in

information technology may perform a wide variety of tasks that range from installing

computer applications to designing widely complex computer networks and

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information databases. While technology today encompasses a wide range of

individual focuses, it is becoming increasing clear that the IT field of the future will

include many more topics and more demand than ever before.

2.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPUTER, COMPUTER SCIENCE & IT

Computer is a machine that does what had been instructed. However

Computer Science is basically concerned with the study of computers. A

student of Computer Science learns about hardware and operating systems. It

is also about highly technical stuff like registers, multitasking kernels,

databases and address buses. It is said to be about the principles of computing

and about the design of the computer and its operation. Computer science is

concerned only with computers while it is not so with Information technology.

Information technology is concerned with technology to treat information.

Information Technology on the other hand is about how the computer can be

employed to various operations in life. Thus it concerned with the study of

applying computer science to day-to-day human operations in industries and

businesses.

Information Technology- Deals with the technologies used by people

and businesses every day. This includes phones, computers, networks, and

video conferencing. Computer Science- An academic field devoted to the

study of computing, including a wide variety of scientific, mathematical, and

practical problems which can be solved using computers. While Computer

Science does teach about the computer itself, it also studies the underlying

ideas behind computing and how computers can be used to study other

problems. Here’s an analogy - think of how an astronomer uses a telescope to

study the stars. Yes, the astronomer needs to know how to use the telescope

(and how they work and are built), but he is interested in studying the stars

and really uses the telescope as a tool. Thus, we are using computer as a tools

by knowledge that we learn from computer science and by using information

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technology provided we can connect to others outside the world. The same

holds for the relationship between the computer scientist and the computer.

The computer scientist uses the computer to conduct science.

3.0 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER GENERATION

 With the onset of the Second World War, the countries involved in the war

sought to develop computers to exploit their potential strategic computer. This

increased funding for computer development projects hastened technical progress.

Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development

that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly

smaller, cheaper, and powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Computers

weren't as technological and complex like the ones we know. Early computers didn't

use chips or monitors. They weren't as small nor big like the ones today. The history

of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations

of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major

technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate,

resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and

reliable devices. Read about each generation and the developments that led to the

current devices that we use today.

Development of computer architecture started as soon as the creation of

Abacus in 500BC. The development continues and improved from time to time. In

1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented loom with punched cards. Blaise Pascal

invented the first calculating machine that can do addition and subtraction in 1642.

Baron Wilhelm Von Leibniz builds a machine that can multiply and divide. In 1800s

Charles Babbage created an analytical engine that not only perform calculation but

also print the output. George Boole then developed binary theory of logic which

explains relationship between binary arithmetic and Boolean Logic.

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3.1 FIRST GENERATION

First generation was powered by thousands of vacuum tubes. The

vacuum tubes themselves were large (the size of today’s light bulb). They

required great amounts of energy, and they generated much heat.

Unfortunately, a tube failure occurred average once every 7 minutes. Since it

took more than 15 minutes to find and replace the faulty tube, it was difficult

to get any useful computing work done. Moreover, the ENIAC was enormous,

occupying 1500 square feet and weighing 30 tons. The computer’s memory

was stored on magnetic storage devices, primarily magnetic tapes and

magnetic drums. Most of the data were entered into the computers on punched

cards similar to those used in Jacquard’s process. Output consisted of punched

cards or paper. 1937 John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry created ABC, the

first binary-based machine. In 1946 John Mauchly and J. Eckert come out

with the first digital computer called ENIAC.

The ENIAC is Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer invented

by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania.

It was designed and built between 1943 and 1946. It contained 18,000 vacuum

tubes and 1500 relays. It also had 20 registers, each capable of holding a 10-

digit decimal number. The system could also provide printed output. The

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programs could not be stored internally but were hard wired with external

“patch panels” and toggle switches. ENIAC is generally considered as the first

all-electronic digital computer. ENIAC led directly to the development of

UNIVAC, the world’s first commercially available computer in 1951.

The consultant in the ENIAC project is John Von Neumann, came up

with the idea of stored program, which in published in his proposal on the

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer). Program could be

represented in digital form in the computer’s memory, along with the data.

EDVAC was developed by Mauchly and Eckert based on Von Neumann

Machine. It was developed at the University of Pennsylvania. EDVAC was

completed in1950. It stored its instructions electronically, using the binary

system for instruction coding and input. The EDVAC was one of the first two-

stored program computers. His basic design is known as the Von Neumann

Machine. It had 5 basic parts: the memory, the ALU, the program CU, and

the input and output equipment.

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The computer referred to as IAS that was built by John Von Neumann

in 1947 at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies. It was completed in

1951 and fully operational in 1952. The machine was binary computer with a

40-bit word, storing to 20 –bit instructions in each word. The IAS instructions

can be grouped into; data transfer that move data between and ALU register or

between two ALU registers, unconditional branch which normally the control

unit executes instructions in sequence from memory; this sequence can be

changed by a branch instruction, this facilities repetitive operation, conditional

branch which the branch can be made dependent on a condition, thus allowing

decision points, arithmetic where performed by ALU, and address

modifications that permits the address to be computed in the ALU and then

into instructions stored in memory. The importantly, the IAS machine was the

first design to mix programs and data in a single memory. It used about 2300

tubes in its circuitry. The addition time was 62 microseconds and the

multiplication time was 713 microsecond. It was an asynchronous machine,

meaning that there was no central clock regulating the timing of the

instructions. One instruction started executing when the previous one finished.

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The EDSAC is (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator). The

machine also having been inspired by John Von Neumann’s seminal EDVAC

report was constructed by Maurice Wilkes and his team at the University of

Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in England. EDSAC was the world’s

first practical stored program electronic computer (that honor goes to the

small-scale Experimental Machine). Von Neumann’s machine contained

every major feature considered essential to modern computer architecture.

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3.2 SECOND GENERATION

The device that characterized the second generation computers was the

transistors. In 1948, the invention of the transistor greatly influenced the

development of computers. Transistor replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in

the second generation of computers. Second generation of computers was

invented in 1947. Transistor was invented in Bell Labs in 1948 by John

Barden, Walter Brattain and William Shockley. Transistor is a small device

that transfer electronic signal across a resistor. A transistor is essentially a tiny

electronically operated switch, or gate, that can be alternate between “on” and

“off” many millions of times per second. Transistors were made of

semiconductor and controlled the flow of electricity through circuits. The

transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become

smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their

first-generation predecessors. Also fewer transistor than tubes were required

to operate a computer. Transistor was not fragile and they lasted longer than

vacuum tubes.

During second generation, the first transistor was build was The TX-0

at M.I.T. this machine was merely intended as a device to test the much

fancier TX-2. After TX-0 was build, PDP-1 was manufactured by DEC in

1961. It had 4K of 18-bit words and a cycle time of 5 microseconds. It cost

$120,000. One of the PDP-1’s many innovations was a visual display (CRT)

and the ability to plot points anywhere on its 512 x 512 screen. A few years

later DEC introduced the PDP-8 which uses a single bus, the omnibus. The

third innovation was build is IBM 7090. The performances was double that of

PDP-1. It was the fastest computers in the world at that time. It cost millions

of dollars. Later IBM introduced the 7094. Both 7090 and 7094 marked the

end of ENIAC type machine. CDC 6600 was introduced by CDC. It was

highly parallel machine. It had several functional units for and all of them

could run in parallel. The last innovation were built during second generation

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is The Burroughs B5000 that programmed in Algol 60, a forerunner of Pascal.

The idea that software also counted was born.

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3.3 THIRD GENERATION

Third generation was built during 1964-1971 which is Integrated

Circuits (IC). Integrated circuits signified the beginning of third generation

computers. The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the

third generation of computers. Unlike transistors and circuit boards that were

assembled manually, integrated circuits (ICs) were single, complete electronic

semiconductor circuits contained on pieces of silicon, sometimes called chips.

Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called

semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of

computers. ICs could be manufactured by machinery, which ultimately

resulted in a lower cost. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users

interacted with third generation of computers through keyboards and monitors

and interface with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many

different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the

memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience

because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

By 1969, as many as 1,000 transistors can be built on a chip of silicon.

Magnetic disks were improved and were used more for storage. Monitors and

keyboards were introduced for data input and output. IBM360 allow the

concept of multiprogramming to control circuits stored on chips. In 1971 Dr.

Ted Hoff introduced the micro-programmable computer chip, Intel4001.

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Individual transistor was replaced by integrated circuits. Magnetic tape

and disks completely replace punch cards as external storage devices.

Magnetic core internal memories began to give way to a new form, metal

oxide semiconductor (MOS) memory, which like integrated circuits, used

silicon-backed chips.

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Although transistors were great deal of improvement over the vacuum

tubes, they generated heat and damaged the sensitive areas of the computer.

The Integrated Circuit(IC) was invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby. It combined

electronic components onto a small silicon disc, made from quartz. More

advancement made possible the fittings of even more components on a small

chip or a semi-conductor. Also in third generation computers, the operating

systems allowed the machines to run many different applications. These

applications were monitored and coordinated by the computer's memory.

Although the transistor is in many ways the vacuum tube, but transistors

generate substantial heat, which can potentially damage the internal parts of a

computer. Quartz stone (quartz rock) eliminates this problem. Jack Kilby, an

engineer at Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC: integrated

circuit) in 1958. IC combined three electronic components in a small silicon

disc made from quartz sand. Scientists later managed to fit more components

into a single chip, called a semiconductor. The result, computers became ever

smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip. Other third-

generation development is the use of the operating system (operating system)

that allows the machine to run many different programs at once with a central

program that monitored and coordinated the computer's memory.

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3.4 FOURTH GENERATION

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as

thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in

the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand.

The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the

computer from the central processing unit and memory to input/output

controls on a single chip. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the

integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a

computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on

a minuscule chip. Due to the reduction of cost and the availability of the

computers power at a small place allowed everyday user to benefit. First came

the minicomputers, which offered users different applications, most famous of

these the word processors and spreadsheets, which could be used by non-

technical users. Video game systems like Atari 2600 generated the interest of

general populace in the computers.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in

1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the

realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more

everyday products began to use microprocessors. The number of personal

computers in use more than doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in

1982. Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used. Computer size kept

getting reduced during the years. It went down from Desktop to laptops to

Palmtops. Macintosh introduced Graphic User Interface in which the users

didn’t' have to type instructions but could use Mouse for the purpose.

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The continued improvement allowed the networking of computers for

the sharing of data. Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Network

(WAN) were potential benefits, in that they could be implemented in

corporations and everybody could share data over it. Soon the internet and

World Wide Web appeared on the computer scene and fermented the Hi-Tech

revolution of 90's. As these small computers became more powerful, they

could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the

development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the

development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

`

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3.5 FIFTH GENERATION

Fifth generation (1991 – 2005 and beyond) – Our current generation

referred to as the “connected generation” because of the industry’s massive

effort to increase the connectivity of computers. The rapidly expanding

Internet, World Wide Web, and intranets have created an information

superhighway that has enabled both computer professionals and home

computer users to communicate with others across the globe. The fifth

generation begins with the creation and use of a computer with Artificial

Intelligence. Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial

intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such

as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing

and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.

Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically

change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation

computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are

capable of learning and self-organization.

They will be able to take commands in an audio visual way and carry

out instructions. Many of the operations which require low human intelligence

will be performed by these computers. Parallel Processing is coming and

showing the possibility that the power of many CPU's can be used side by

side, and computers will be more powerful than those under central

processing. Advances in Super Conductor technology will greatly improve the

speed of information traffic. Future looks bright for the computers.

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Many advances in the field of computer design and technology are

increasingly enabling the manufacture of fifth generation computers. Two

engineering advances which are mainly parallel processing capabilities, which

will replace the non-Neumann model. Non Neumann model will be replaced

with a system that is able to coordinate many CPUs to work in unison.

Advancement is the superconducting technology that enables the flow of

electrically without any obstacles, which in turn can accelerate the speed of

information.

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4.0 IMPACT OF COMPUTER ON SOCIETY

Computers are commonly used items in many areas. It is important thing to

people, especially the people who run organizations and industry. Almost anything

you know is run or made by computers. Cars and jets are designed on computers,

traffic signals are run by computers, most medical equipment use computer and space

exploration was started with computers. Most of the jobs today require the use of

computers. These ‘mechanical brains’ made a huge impact on our society. It would be

hard if we didn’t have the compute around. Computers changed the world a lot. It

helped man step forward into the future. Thanks to computers, space exploration

came true, new design of vehicles and other transportation were made, entertaining

and medical science made more cures for diseases. Computers impacted many item in

today’s society. There are some advantages and disadvantages of computers effects

on society same goes to our industry and our self.

Computers changed the world a lot. It helped man step forward into the future.

Thanks to computers, space exploration came true, new designs of vehicles and other

transportation were made; entertainment became more entertaining, medical science

made more cures for diseases. The computers impacted our lives in many ways. You

may not notice it but they did make life a lot easier. Without computers, the world

would be a harder place to live in. Thanks to the computers, everyday life is easier for

us. Some people may disagree but most wouldn't. Some people say that computers are

taking away man power. That may be true but computers did make the impossible

possible. Computers impacted many items in today's society. One area the computer

impacted on is the business area. Business uses computers for keeping track of

accounts, money, or items that they need. You may notice business people using

computers a lot, especially the laptop computers, portable computers that can be taken

to your work area. You may see people use things like pie-charts and graphs when

they present information to other business people in meetings. Most of those charts

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were made by computers. The business field uses the computers a lot for their

companies and organizations.

Another area computers impacted on is the entertainment area. Most of the

people out there like science fiction or action movies, especially the ones with the

neat looking effects. Well, those graphics were mostly made by computers. Most of

the movies today use computer graphics to make things more realistic but not real.

Computer graphics are mostly used on spaceships, aliens, monsters, and special

effects. To the left is a picture from the movie "Godzilla." Not only movies used

computer animations and graphics. Games on the latest game consoles like the PC,

PlayStation and Nintendo 64 used the computers to make the coolest games ever. Of

course all of you heard of the game Final Fantasy VII. It was the first Final Fantasy

game to have a 3D environment and neat computer animation. It was a big money-

making seller. Games now and days use computer graphics and animations to make

the coolest games. Computer games also have their share.

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Education was impacted by computers as well. Computers help out students in

a lot of today's projects and essays. If a student were to do an essay on the planet

Saturn, they could look in an electronic encyclopedia in the computer or they could

look up their topic on the internet. They could also type their essays and reports on

what's called a word-processing program. This program allows you to type anything

out from a school essay to business papers. You can make your paper look very neat

by adding images and neat looking text to impress your teacher. Now and days,

typing out essays and reports are mandatory, especially in High School. Computers

help students in any way they need, researching, typing, and searching. Teachers use

computers as well. They use computers to keep track of grades, type out instruction

for their students, and to let students use the computer for school purposes.

An important field computers impacted on is the medical field. The computers

helped the hospitals out very much. In pharmacies, the pharmacists use computers to

keep a record of what medication to give to a patient and the amount they need. Most

computers in the hospital are used to keep data of patience and their status.

Computers also keep track of equipment placement and status as well. Scientists need

the help of computers to find cures for diseases that need cures like cancer and STDs.

Without the computers help, cures for a lot of diseases wouldn’t have been found.

Computer helped the medical area a lot and we are grateful for that since they keep

track of our health. Other areas the computer impacted on are space exploration and

designs of transportation.

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However, there are disadvantages of the computer to the society. Some of

them are that the computers make our mind lazy. People can search any information

by clicking on the keyboards and it will give many descriptions that you want

unlimitedly. Then, you used to not reading book, or researching something at the

library. Just a few key-strokes and you have your answer. Besides that, there are

physical things like carpal tunnel syndrome and other repetitive strain disorders, and

eye strain. Spending too much on computer, people can get sick such as back pain,

arm ache, and many side effect can get from spending too much in front of computer.

Others disadvantages are it takes one way from socializing with others in person

since, they always socialize through the computer with others people that they don’t

even see who they are in real live. Through computer also children especially

spending too much time playing online games or chatting over the computer instead

of reading books, taking walks, and doing homework. And after a while, the people

will soon become addicted to the games, and cannot stop from play it. It is good to

find something you enjoy and to do it to relax, but doing too much of it will also

result in negative consequences. Being on a computer too much can also lead to anti-

social behavior and depression.

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5.0 HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION(HCI)

5.1 MEANING OF HCI

Human computer interaction (HCI) is a discipline concerned with the design,

evolution and implementation of interactive computing system for human use and

with the study of major phenomena surrounding them. HCI is also involving of study,

planning, and design of the interaction between people (users) and computers. Human

computer interaction is an interaction between users and computers that occur at the

user interface which includes both software and hardware. For example, characters or

objects displayed by software on a personal computer’s monitor, input received from

user via hardware peripherals such as keyboards and mouse, and other user

interactions with large-scale computerized systems such as aircraft and power plants.

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The human computer interface can be described as the point of

communication between human and user and computer. The flow of information

between human and computer is defined as the loop of interaction. The loop has

several aspects to it including which is task environment in which the conditions and

goals set upon the user. Second is the machine environment in which the computer

connected example a laptop in a company office’s room. Third are the areas of the

interface in non-overlapping areas involving processes of the human and computer

not pertaining to their interaction. Fourth is the input flow, the flow of information

that begins in the task environment, when the user has some task that requires using

their computer. The fifth is output in which the flow of information that originates in

the machine environment and lastly is the feedback. It loops through the interface that

evaluate moderate, and confirm processes as they pass from the human through the

interface to the computer and back.

HCI is important because it is the study of our interface with information. It is

not just ‘how big should I make buttons’ or ‘how to layout menu choices’. It can

effect on effectiveness, productivity, morale, safety.

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5.2 CAN MACHINES THINK?

Can machines think like a human think? The initial successes of computers in

replicating seemingly intelligent behavior quickly led to argument and speculation

about what it would mean for a computer to be 'intelligent’. We should go back to

basic on the meaning of the computer. Originally, word computer comes from

‘compute’ means calculate. A computer is a programmable machine designed to

automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular

sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more

than one kind of problem.

Computer cannot think, there are involve of artificial intelligence algorithms

that give the illusion of the computer ‘thinking’ but it’s really just following

recognition. An important class of computer operations on some computing platforms

is the accepting of input from human operators and the output of results formatted for

human consumption.

Alan Turing asked that question in 1950 and proposed a test to determine if a

computer could think. Turing described a simple party game which involves three

players. Player A is a man, player B is a woman and player C is an interrogator. The

set-up is such that player C is unable to see either of A or B and only communicate

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with them using written media. By asking questions to player A and B , player C tries

to determine which of the two is the man, and which of the two is the woman. Player

A is to trick the interrogator into making the wrong decision, while player B attempts

to assist the interrogator. Turing proposed that player A be replaced with a computer.

The success of the computer is determined by comparing the outcome of the game

when player A is a computer against the outcome when player A is a man. Or to put it

in Turing’s words:

“The interrogator decides wrongly as often when the game is played (with the

computer) as he does when the game is played between a man and a woman, and then

it can be argued that the computer is intelligent”

As with the Original Imitation Game Test, the role of player A is performed

by a computer. The difference is that now the role of player B is to be performed by a

man, rather than by a woman. In this version both player A (the computer) and player

B are trying to trick the interrogator into making an incorrect decision. A man can fail

the OIG Test, but it is argued that this is a virtue of a test of intelligence if failure

indicates a lack of resourcefulness. It is argued that the OIG Test requires the

resourcefulness associated with intelligence and not merely "simulation of human

conversational behavior".

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5.3 HUMAN THINKING Vs MACHINE THINKING

Many of us think that computers are many times faster, more powerful and

more capable when compared to our brains simply because they can perform

calculations thousands of time faster, workout logical computations without error and

store memory at incredible speeds with flawless accuracy. The human brain, we can

only estimate the processing power of the average human brain as there is no way to

measure it quantitively as of yet. If the theory of taking nerve volume to be

proportional to processing power is true we then, may have a correct estimate of the

human brain's processing power. Human retina seems to process about ten one-

million-point images per second.

The computer the most powerful experimental super computers in 1998,

composed of thousands or tens of thousands of the fastest microprocessors and

costing tens of millions of dollars, can do a few million MIPS. These systems were

used mainly to stimulate physical events for high-value scientific calculations. The

brain has about 100 million MIPS worth of processing power while recent super-

computers only has a few million MIPS worth in processor speed. That said, the brain

is still the winner in the race. Because of the cost, enthusiasm and efforts still

required, computer technology has still some length to go before it will match the

human brain's processing power.

We must know that brains are analogue, however computers are digital.

Another difference is that the brain uses content-addressable memory, such that

information can be accessed in memory through “spreading activation” compare to

the computer refer to addressable memory by polling its precise memory address.

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6.0 NETWORKING

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of

hardware components and computers interconnected by communication channels that

allow sharing of resources and information. A network consists of two or more

computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CDs),

exchange files, or allow electronic communications. Where at least one process in one

device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote

device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified

according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the

data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and organizational scope. The

computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves,

satellites, or infrared light beams. Two very common types of networks include is

Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN). Besides that, you may

also see references to a Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN), a Wireless LAN

(WLAN), or a Wireless WAN (WWAN).

Networking allows us to share our internet connection and files to multiple

sites. It helps for internet access to be direct through our computer. There are network

topologies we can refer in computer networking.

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7.0 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of

computer science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and

design of intelligent agents” where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its

environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy,

who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and engineering of making

intelligent machines." AI research is highly technical and specialized, deeply divided

into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other. Subfields have grown up

around particular institutions, the work of individual researchers, and the solution of

specific problems and the application of widely differing tools. The central problems

of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning,

communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of computer science focusing on creating

machines that can engage on behaviors that humans consider intelligent. The ability

to create intelligent machines has intrigued humans since ancient times and today

with the advent of the computer and 50 years of research into AI programming

techniques, the dream of smart machines is becoming a reality. Researchers are

creating systems which can mimic human thought, understand speech, beat the best

human chess player, and countless other feats never before possible. Find out how the

military is applying AI logic to its hi-tech systems, and how in the near future

Artificial Intelligence may impact our lives.

Haugeland, 1985 said the exciting new effort to make computers think.

Machines with minds, in the full and literal sense. In the context of behavior Rich and

Knight, 1991 said the study of how to make computers do things at which, at the

moment, people are better. Intelligent agents are involved in AI to perceive,

understand, and act, example is speech recognition and understanding and synthesis,

image understanding and ability to take actions and have an effect.

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8.0 CONCLUSION

Computer is the most important thing in our lives. Now we are in the

technology time and everything is connected with computers. Most of colleges and

Universities have classes that deal with computers. Computer is a very essential thing

in our life. During the past 10 years, the use of computers in education has increased

dramatically and a wide range of educational computer programmed is now widely

available for individual and classroom use. The computer had made its mark

everywhere in society and built up a huge industry. The future is promising for the

computer industry and its technology.

Computers distribute a lot of function to make human life easier and faster.

There are advantages and disadvantages of using computer in our daily life, but we

have to control our self in using computer and used it wisely. However there is lots of

things to do in our life, that would not be possible by doing own self. That’s the

reason we need computer.

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8.1 WHAT I HAVE GAINED FROM THIS PAPER?

From this term paper I get a lot of knowledge about computer development

and the history of development. I know that computer have its own advantages that

we can’t deny that computer help people in many area of studies. Though, its

sometime can give a bad influence to us. Besides that, I know that machine can never

be compare to human thinking even though computer can process faster and

accurately, but it cannot think logically like human think. It also helps me know how

computer connected to the networking and artificial intelligence area to make the

computer works more technologically.

This is a very exciting time to be alive since we all get to see how quickly

computer technology is evolving, and how much it is changing all of our lives for the

better. It is a vast and exciting world that is always changing. We are lucky to be alive

to witness computers past and present.

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9.0 REFERENCES

ACM SIGCHI Curricula for HCI (Hewett et al.1992)

Michael Egnor, World Wide Web, www.evolutionnews.org

World Wide Web, www.webopedia.com

Turing A. Computing machinery and intelligence. 1950.

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Elinor Koenen, Western Michigan University, Michigan, on November 3,

2009.

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