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Telugu Literature

By

Prof C Mrunalini

Telugu, one of the four major South Indian languages is known as the Italian of the East. This is because of the melodious quality of the language. It has been hailed as the sweetest language by poets of other languages too. Telugu is spoken by nearly 80 million people in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India. It is also spoken by nearly another 70 million people in other states of India and in other countries.

Other than Andhra Pradesh, Telugu is also spoken mainly in the states of Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. And it is also spoken in countries like Malaysia, South Africa, Mauritius, America, England and France. Telugu belongs to the Dravidian language family. In India there are 4 language families. These are Indo Aryan, Dravidian, Austro Asiatic and Tibeto Burman. Dravidian language family consists of approximately 24 languages. Of these 24 languages, Telugu is spoken by majority of the people. In fact, After Hindi, Telugu occupies the second place regarding the no. of people who speak it.

Telugu is a vowel ending language. All the words in Telugu end with vowel. For the words borrowed from other languages also vowel is added. This is the reason why Telugu is more suitable for composing music. It has a lyrical quality inherent in the language itself. That explains why South Indian Karnatic music is predominantly in Telugu.

Nicolay Konti, an Italian scholar has said ‘Telugu is the Italian of the East’. The emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya said ‘Telugu is the greatest language among the languages of the nation’ The state of Andhra Pradesh is spread over 277 thousand square kilometres. Telugu language has three major regional dialects. These are Kosta, Telangana and Rayalaseema. Apart from regional dialects there are social dialects too but very few of them have script or written literature.

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Telugu script, like other Indian scripts, is syllabic. It has originated from Brahmi script. Telugu alphabet is arranged on phonetic lines. History of Telugu Literature

This language has a history of 1500 years and has recently been accorded the status of Classical Language by the Government of India along with Sanskrit, Tamil and Kannada. But the history of Telugu written literature starts from 6th century A.D. Though Telugu words appeared even during B.C in Prakrit texts, the proper Telugu text appeared in the 6th century inscriptions by the kings Renati Cholas. Telugu, though belonging to the Original Dravidian Linguistic family, slowly imbibed words from Prakrit and Sanskrit, thereby creating an original form for itself. During the reign of the very first Telugu rulers Satavahanas of the first century A.D. Telugu words appeared as part of a Prakrit text. Later from the 4th century onwards, Sanskrit took over the place of Prakrit by the kings, and this ultimately resulted in a highly sanskritised poetic work being born in the 11th century. The very first classical Telugu poet Nannaya gave this language a complete literary form, using Sanskrit words and expressions wherever appropriate. This language has 56 syllables, the first 16 called Achulu or vowels and the rest called hallulu or consonants. In the present age a few of these letters are no longer used but they are still taught in schools to retain the complete original form of the language.

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The history of Telugu literature can be seen and understood from three angles. They are:

1. The Royal dynasties 2. The Major poets 3. The Major Genres

From the Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra to the Tanjavur King Raghunatha Nayaka the patronage of kings with literary taste and generosity has encouraged the creation of great texts. The dynasties which patronized Telugu literature and even asked the poets to create a specific text are:

1. Eastern Chalkyas – the major text born in this age was the

translation of the Mahabharata 2. Reddy Kings – The major texts born during this time were

Mahabharat, Kaseekhandam, Bheemeswara puranam etc.

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3. The Vijayanagara kings – Krishnadevaraya of this dynasty himself was a great poet and scholar. This age saw the golden age of Telugu literature with 8 court poets (called Ashtadiggajalu) creating beautiful poetry.

4. The Tanjavur kings: In this age again, we have kings like Raghunatha Nayaka who were themselves poets and also patronized poetry. The special contribution of this age was the increase of women poets.

Similarly it can be understood through the major writers, like Nannaya, Tikkana, Srinatha, Peddana up to the present day poets. It can also be understood through the major genres, Itihasa, Purana, Kavya, Prabandha and modern genres. But this division is not mutually exclusive. It is better to read the history with all these three together. 11th century – 14th century Telugu literature started with the translation of the Vyasa bharata. Three poets, panning 3 centuries translated the complete Mahabharata into Telugu. These three poets were Nannaya, Tikkana and Errana. Nannaya, the very first poet in Telugu, fondly called Aadi kavi, translated the first two and a half parvas of Mahabharata, Adi, sabha and Aranya parvas. After his death, no poet took up the continuation of Mahabharata, until Tikkana appeared on the scene. Tikkana left out the parts in Aranya parva which Nannaya could not complete. He continued from the fourth parva, i.e. Virata parva and completed the 18 parvas of Mahabharat. In the 14 century, it was Errana who took up the parts left out by Tikkana and he completed the third parva. Thus these three poets who brought into Telugu the entire Mahabharata are called Kavitrayam (the poet trinity) and are hailed as the greatest poets of classical literature. The most interesting thing about the Telugu Mahabharat is that it is not verbatim translation but creative translation of the original Sanskrit text. It is often referred to as ‘Transcreation’ rather than translation. These three poets made minor changes in the text, omitting scenes and descriptions which were detrimental to the readers’ interest in the story or not consistent with the characters. They also added a few incidents and descriptions here and there which would embellish the quality of the text. The first poet Nannaya was known for his extraordinary command of language, felicity of expression and narrative skills. The second poet Tikkana was known for “showing the story’ rather than telling it. His creativity lay in dramatics. He was extremely knowledgeable in many

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fields, such as drama, dance, war tactics, philosophy and politics and that made his translation an outstanding one. The third poet Errana imbibed the qualities of both his predecessors and it is often said that in the short part he translated, he started off in the style of Nannaya whom he followed and ended up in the style of Tikkana whose work he preceded. Thus, the translated Mahabharata is not only the first major kavya, (which is actually referred to as Itihasam) but also considered the greatest book ever written in Telugu. There is also a saying among Telugu folk that the only story worth listening to is the Mahabharat. There are various theories about why the first Telugu poet chose to translate Mahabharat, a later work by Vyasa rather than the first Sanskrit kavya of Valmiki, the Ramayana. It is said that Mahabharat was meant to revive the greatness of the Hindu religion (at that time referred to as the religion based on the Vedas) which was being threatened by Buddhists and Jains. Mahabharat deals with all aspects of life and without being explicit it gives all the knowledge of the Vedas and Upanishads which contain the essence of Hinduism. That is why king Rajaraja Narendra of the Chalukya dynasty requested his court poet Nannaya to translate Mahabharat rather than any other Sanskrit text. In fact, most of the Telugu poets wrote kavyas on the behest of their kings. These kings believed that literature is the sort of medium which would enhance the quality of life of their people and impart knowledge of all kinds. Where Mahabharat is concerned it was doubly true because this epic, considered the greatest in world literature has all forms of knowledge. The Mahabharata is Telugu is written in Champu style which means a combination of poetry and prose. While the major part of the work is in poetry, in between there are passages of prose which contain connecting sentences or exclusive descriptions. This Champu form, initiated by Nannaya was followed by all the major poets of Telugu literature. Marga-Desi: the important aspect of Telugu literature in its initial stages was the difference between Marga and Desi. This is common to even Kannada literature. Marga literature is the language and form based on Sanskrit while Desi is exclusively indigenous, i.e. the form and language of the masses. Both these types of literature received huge success. While Mahabharata belonged to the Marga tradition, poetry created by the Veera saiva poets of the 12th, 13th centuries was an offshoot of the Desi tradition. The metre, the language, the stories narrated in these kavyas were all from native experience. Palkuriki Somanatha was an excellent poet in this tradition, whose Basavapuranam is a masterpiece for its Dwipada metre and Saivite narratives.

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It was in essence the influence of the neighboring Kannada speaking areas that veera shavism took roots in the Telugu speaking belt. The result was the writings of the great trio of Veera shaivism, Panditaradhya Mallikarjuna, Palkuriki Somana and Nannechoda. Among them Palkuriki somana (1160-1230) was hailed as the greatest with at least a dozen works to his credit. Nannechoda’s Kumara sambhavam was a kavya in the Marga tradition, though the content boasted of Desi characteristics. Palkuriki somana, as against the method of Nannaya, brought poetry closer to the masses with his simple form, style, language and story telling methods. The Shaiva poets did not write to please the king, but to spread the message of Lord Shiva to the masses. The Sivakavi age is an age where literature imbibed the common man’s agony in his prayer to the Lord. For instance, the characters in the narratives of Basavapuranam of Palkuriki Somanatha were all normal human beings, neither kings nor deities. Their reaction to God and description of Lord Shiva is extremely natural and down to earth. For instance, Bejja Mahadevi in Basava puranam, exclaims that Lord Shiva behaved as he did only because he had no mother to look after him. In a beautiful poem the poet says, “Thalli kalgina nela thapasi gaanichu, thalli galgina nela tala jadalgattu?” etc. which in essence means, if Lord Shiva had a mother, she would not let him wander in the wasteland, not allow him to wear snakes in his neck, she would not have allowed him to drink poison, she would not have allowed him to become a wanderer etc. This is not the learned devotee speaking, but just an ordinary mother of children wondering aloud. This human touch is the great contribution of the Shaivite poets to Telugu classical literature. These poets also wrote in the metre which was indigenous, the Dwipada, as against the Sanskrit imitations of the Poet Trinity. Thus, by the 12th century itself, simultaneously Telugu readers had two streams of literary tradition, the Marga and the Desi. The contemporary of Palkuriki and the follower of Nannaya, Tikkana brought about a great meeting point of both the traditions. In his translation of the greater part of Mahabharata, he combined both the Marga and Desi traditions, thereby attracting both scholars and commoners. His style is unique with appropriate style to appropriate situations which earned him the title “Ubhayakavi mitrudu’. (friend of both types of poets). To this day, the Mahabharat of the Poet Trinity is hailed as the magnum opus of Telugu literature itself. Though a translation of the Sanskrit text of Vyasa, it is loved by the Telugus as if its their own creation. The sound of the word in Nannaya, the dramatic effect of Tikkana are the highlights of the Telugu

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Mahabharata. The character of Draupadi with all her gestures, intonations and choice of words comes through in great detail and with clear perception in the words of Tikkana. Similarly, being a minister during the King reign, Tikkana knew the intricacies of war and his description of the Kurukshetra war indicates his mastery over the subject. Interestingly, the Bhagavadgita, the essential Hindu text does not occupy a lot of space in the Telugu version. Tikkana felt that since it was told during war time, it cannot be very lengthy; just long enough for Arjuna to get into the combat mood, reassured by Lord Krishna. Hence the editing of the slokas. When we go through the major genres of poetry during the Classical Age, we come across 3 specific ones. They are Purana, Ithihasa and Kavya. Prabandha is one more variation but it is only another, more sophisticated form of Kavya. Purana is the story of Gods, Goddesses, the different avatars of Lord Vishnu and Shiva, the story of the Creation of the world etc. Itihasam deals with the stories of and struggles between various kingly dynasties; it has its roots in history. Unlike Puranas which are highly imaginative, Itihasam deals with stories bordered on realistic environment and historical fact. Kavya is a genre which mingles both the Purana and Itihasa, but pays more attention to literary embellishment. Kavya attempts at creative beauty and excellence. The three best examples of these three genres are: Mahabhagavatham is Purana, Mahabharatam is Itihasam and Ramayana is kavya. All these three are originally in Sanskrit, but, it goes to show the innovativeness of the Telugus that, in this language all three different genres merge into one. In general terms, Telugu literature started off with Itihasam (11th -13th centuries), then came Puranas (14th & 15th centuries) and later Kavyas (15th to 18th centuries). But, as said earlier, the Telugu literary history has many variations in all ages, with Itihasa, kavya, purana being written side by side. The best example of this is Errana translating Mahabharatam an Itihasam roughly at the same time when Nachana Somanatha translated Harivamsam, a Purana written originally by Vedavyas. Similarly, Gona Budhareddy wrote Ranganatha Ramayana as a kavya. Thus, all three genres were written in more or less the same age. II Phase: 14, 15th centuries - Pothana & Srinatha The 15th century saw the emergence of two of the greatest poets in classical literature, who were miles apart in their creative genius. One was the highly charismatic, sophisticated, extrovert Srinatha; the second was the highly devotional, exquisitely poetic, introvert poet Pothana. The

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legend has it that they were close relatives but this cannot be corroborated with any evidence. Be that as it may, it is agreed that they were contemporaries and represented two divergent sensibilities of Telugu literature. Srinatha (1366-1441) was a prolific writer and many of his writings are available till date. From the Reddy kings to the earlier Vijayanagara kings, Srinatha received the patronage of many royal families and reveled in it. He was a devotee of Lord Shiva and most of his works had stories taken from Shiva puranas. A few of his works are Kasee khandam, Bheemeswara Puranam, Haravilasam. He also translated Sri Harsha’s Sanskrit kavya “Naishadham’ into Telugu. (9848466351 – sethuram. ) Srinatha brought a grandeur to Telugu language which later became the hallmark of Telugu poets. His influence on later poets was huge and it is no exaggeration to say that even modern poets poets of the 20th century were influenced by him. He was hailed as Kavi Saarvabhouma and was repeatedly honoured and felicitated by different kings and dynasties. He was also engaged in poetic battle with contemporary poets from other kingdoms, and always emerged winner exhibiting his poetic prowess. Pothana, the most beloved of classical poets in Telugu was a man of simple living and great thinking. He was a contemporary of Srinatha, but they were as different from each other as cheese and chalk. While Srinatha wrote plenty of kavyas Pothana translated Vyasa’s Mahabhagavatham into Telugu and wrote two more kavyas, only one of which is available. Pothana is best known for his musical sense in poetry and there is hardly any Telugu person who cannot repeat at least a few lines of his poetry. Pothana is also known for his humble character. He was asked by the king Sarvjna singha bhoopala to dedicate Mahabhagavatam to him, but Pothana refused. The legend goes that Pothana, a one-time devotee of Lord Shiva saw Lord Rama in his vision, where Rama asked him to translate Vyasa’s Mahabhavatham into Telugu. Since then, Pothana became a devout Vaishnavite and dedicatged his translation to Lord Rama. Palikedidi bhagavathamata, palikincheduvaadu ramabhadrundata Ne palikina bhavagaramanugana; palikeda verondu gaatha palukaganela. When Rama himself asked me to translate bhagavatam, why should I hesitate? So he moved on to translate it and dedicated it to Rama, because he considered mortals, especially the kings as rascals and did not think it

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necessary to placate them. Pothana’s Telugu is naturally rhythmic to the core and his choice of words in each poem is exemplary. “Mandara makaranda maadhuryamuna delu madhupambu povune madanamulaku Nirmala mandaakinee veechikala thoogu, raayancha janune tharanginulaku? Or Adigedanani kaduvadi janu/ adigina Tana magadu nuduvadani, nadaudugunx Veda veda sidimudi thadapada Adugidunadugidadu jadima adugidunedalan Annamacharya and Padakavitha: III Phase: 16th century - Prabandha kavya: On the one hand there was Srinatha creating great poetry as Court poet, on the other, there was Pothana who imbibed Sri vaishnavism in all its glory in his exceptionally devotional rendition of Mahabhagavatam. At the same time, in the 15th century, there emerged a unique genre and a unique poet who influence the musical literature of Telugu even today. This poet-composer was Tallapaka Annamacharya and the genre he introduced is known as Padakavita. This Padakavitha at a later age took on a new and more musically mature form of Keertha (by another Telugu great Sadguru Thyagaraja). The Padakavitha is essentially a musical genre but with excellent literary values. Annamacharya took Vaishnavism to new heights preaching Visishtadwaitha in its purest form. He is said to have written and composed more than 13 thousand songs, but only two to three thousand are available as of now. These have been repeatedly composed in various Ragas by enthusiastic Karnatic music scholars and this process is still going on with research on his kritis going on unabated. Annamayya sang the greatness of Lord Venkateswara, the great deity of Tirumala Hills (7 Hills); many of his kritis were spontaneously sung in front of the deity. The literary excellence, the combination of the Marga and Desi traditions in his language and expression make the works of Annamayya a rare contribution to Telugu classical literature. The same 15th century saw the very first Telugu woman poet, none other than the wife of Annamacharya and her name was Tallapaka Timmakka.

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Timmakka’s Subhadra kalyanam in the Desi metre, Manjari Dwipada, was the very first full-fledged kavya written by a woman. Annamacharya was, arguably, the very first poet who decried the division of the castes and the Varnasrama dharma. His kriti “Brahmamokkate, parabrahmamokkate..” talks of equality of the castes and calls for bhakti as the whole and soul of human existence which has no limitations of caste, creed or class. Prabandha, the exquisite kavya: Between the late 15th century and the onset of the reign of Sri Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Kingdom, there was a woman poet, named Aatukuri Molla whose rendition of Ramayana has made a mark in Telugu literature. For quite a considerable time, Molla was considered to be the first woman poet, until the work of Timmakka saw the light of the day. The interesting factor about Molla was that she, unlike Timmakka who belonged to a learned Brahmin community, belonged to a backward caste (the caste which made a living out of pottery), remained unmarried and wrote poetry. All this makes for a very interesting combination, since Molla mentions only her caste and the name of her father. She tells us that Sri Rama appeared in her dream and ordered her to write his story. Her Ramayana is lucid, not too long, with insightful observations on characters and very pleasant to read. Her language is very simple and effective, without the ornamental additions of her contemporary male poets. Molla Ramayana is considered one of the most accurate renditions of the original VAlmiki Ramayana. Krishnadevaraya and the Ashtadiggajas: Sri Krishnadevaraya, by far, the most celebrated King of the Telugu people, was instrumental in taking Telugu literature to new heights. He is said to have patronized Ashtadiggajas (eight major poets) who experimented in the language and literature with great innovation and creativity. He ruled the area called Vijayanagara for just 20 years (1509-1529) but these years are known as the most prolific for Telugu literature. Though belonging to a Tulu speaking family Krishna Raya was proficient in Sanskrit and Telugu and the kavya “Aamukthamalyada’ speaks volumes of his talent and scholarship. The 8 poets who were patronized by him were all extremely talented and it showed in their works. The major kavyas (or prabandhas as they are generally called) during this

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period are Allasani Peddana’s Manucharitram, Pingali Surana’s “Kalapurnodayam”, Nandi Timmana’s “Parijatapaharanam’ Ramarajabhooshana’s “Vasucharitram’ Tenali Ramakrishna’s “Panduranga mahatyam”. Dhoorjati’s “Kalahasti mahatyam’ are some of the classics of this age. The very first fictional kavya, as against others which were stories taken from the puranas, Kalapurnodayam was even hailed as the first poetic novel in Telugu. It was an age when both SAivism and VAishnavism co-existed in harmony. Krishnadevaraya himself was a VAishnavite and his Aamukthamalyada was based on the Alwar Godadevi’s devotion to Sriranganatha. At the same time Dhoorjati created a kavya with Lord Shiva as its centre. The most impressive characteristic of this age, called the Prabandha age, was the descriptive excellence, the scholarship and the presentation of the story. Prabandhas are essentially about style more than content. Each of the poets of this age possessed different narrative techniques and thus, a great variety was evident in literature of this period. For instance Nandi Timmana had a lucid and direct style of narration, Soorana weaved a complex and astounding plot, Peddana combined attachment and detachment in a romantic kavya with great felicity, Dhoorjati was at his best in expressing utter devotion, Ramarajabhooshana made each word explode in melody like a vibrant instrument. Thus, the 16th century saw an outstanding production of Telugu classics. IV Phase: Later Prabandhas: Thus, the writing was varied and prolific upto the late 16th century, but later there was a setback during the later Vijayanagara kings, with no patronage or encouragement to poets. It was in the late 17th century that the Tanjore kings brought back the lost glory of Telugu. They patronized not only male but female poets too, among whom Rangajamma and Muddu Palani made their mark in Telugu literature. The king Ragunathanayaka himself was a prolific writer. The genre which received attention during his tenure was Yakshaganam, a performing art which combined literature, music and dance to great effect. This art form is an example of both classical and people’s art; it is, at one and the same time, an art form which attracted the classes and the masses. One of the chief texts of this period, Radhika Santwanam by Muddu Palani was later, during the Victorian age, banned for being erotic. It is, by far, the only erotic text written by a female poet. It raised a lot of controversy in the age of the British, though the poet Muddu palani was a highly respected poet of her times.

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But this was the time when a different, parallel stream had started in Telugu literature which was more in tune with oral tradition and was basically message-oriented as against the physicality of court literature. Potuluri Veerabrahmendra Swamy (1608-1693) represented this stream. Belonging to a backward caste, he created songs and poems with great spiritual intensity. He was also very popular for his predictions (which, his followers claim, are coming true now) for which he was called the Indian Nostradamus. After him, emerged the great poet Vemana, who ushered in a totally different form of poetry. Vemana, the social reformer: The later 18th century saw a decline is the quality of Telugu poetry. Eroticism, unimaginative writing, lack of scholarship, cheap imitation of earlier texts was the order of the day and Telugu literature was going through a bad period, when Vemana, the very first Prajakavi emerged from the rubble. Vemana continues to be one of the most discussed poet of all times. He was totally unlike any other poet of the earlier periods. And he has been a source of inspiration and imitation even to the present generation. He lived in the late 17th century to the first half of 18th century. He wrote in simple Telugu using the Desi metre, Aataveladi and he was known for imparting great meaning through simple words. His genre was the Sataka, an exclusive Telugu literary form, where a poet writes a minimum of 100 poems (mostly it would be a few hundreds) with the last line being the same. Vemana’s was “Viswadabhirama Vinura Vema”. Hence it is only a 3 line poem with a sea of meaning, mostly criticism of the society and didactic. His capacity to use simple similes to great effect and his penchant for satire earned him the epithet “the first Modern poet of Telugu”. Uppu kappurambu Okka polikanundu Chooda Chooda ruchula jada veru Purushulandu punyapurushulu veraya Viswadabhirama Vinura vema The first two lines in his poems are about a specific thing, often poetic with a simile and the third line is a universal statement that accrues from the first two lines. It was an ingenious technique to capture the attention of anyone listening. Vemana was a wandering poet, who roamed around all over the Telugu speaking area though he belonged to the Rayalaseema region of the present State. His poetry was more spontaneous and

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belonged to the oral tradition rather than the sculpted poetry of the earlier centuries. The poem quoted above means:

Salt and camphor look similar, but closer observation shows their taste is different Among men, virtuous people stand apart Beloved of the Bounteous, Vema, listen!

Vemana’s poems invariable have a message and this has earned him the title of the first Prajakavi (poet of the masses). He had the temerity to reject and denounce the kings, the landlords, the upper castes and the celebrities of his age and thus, was considered the very first modern poet in Telugu. Other than Vemana, Sumati Satakam and Dasarathi Satakam are also extremely popular with the common man and most of the verses have become household sayings. Thyagaraja: After Vemana, during the end of 18th century was born one who can be called the Father of Carnatic Music. Thyagaraja, who is one of the trinity of Karnatic music was the quintessential source of classical music for the whole of South India. Though he was born in Thiruvayyur, a place in Tamil nadu, he was a Telugu speaking person and all his kritis are in Telugu (barring a few in Sanskrit). The present day Karnatic music owes its existence mostly to him. While Annmacharya of the 15th century was part of the ongoing vaishnava movement of the whole country, Thyagaraja lived in an age when Hindu religion was being threatened by the British and there was a general sense of depravity in the society. The late 18th century and early 19th centuries had very little to offer in the form of literature except for two people, Thyagaraja swamy and Tarigonda venkamamba. The latter can be called a revolutionary because though she belonged to a traditional Brahmin family, she refused to shave her hair after the death of her husband. She was castigated by the community but, not bothering about it, she dedicated her life to writing poetry with Lord Venkateswara as her subject. She penned many kavyas and is considered an important writer in the devotional literature. Literature in performing arts: Kuchipudi Dance: Literary values can be seen mainly in Kuchipudi dance of the 14th century, which was born in a remote village of Krishna district

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of A.P. Siddhendra yogi, the creator of Kuchipudi dance immortalized the love story of Lord Sri Krishna and Satyabhama. This was the first time lyrics were specially written to suit dance. While this dance had love songs interspersed with devotional content, later songs by Kshetrayya (17th century) contained mostly erotic matter. Nevertheless, dance literature is one of the most attractive and innovative of literature in Telugu. Harikatha: This art form of a later age combines literature, drama and music and it is one person who performs all the arts. He is basically a story teller but he sings in between the story; he enacts the roles of his characters; he becomes a critic at the same time, commenting on the story, evaluating it, comparing it to modern age happenings. Harikatha is basically the story of Lord Vishnu in all his avatars. The artist here needs to be very creative, innovative and scholarly. Adibhatla Narayana dasu is the artist par excellence in this genre. Avadhanam: This is a literary feat where one single person takes on a minimum of 8 scholars (up to a thousand) and answers their queries in poems. The questioners themselves are scholars and the poet, within a few hours creates hundreds of poems as answers to their questions. The Avadhani needs to be an extremely well-read person. He also needs to be very creative with worldly knowledge. Tirupathi Venkatakavulu, in the beginning of the 20th century set up a standard which the present scholars are trying hard to preserve. Onset of Modern Age: Modernity in Telugu literature should be approached from two angles. 1. Chronological, 2. Qualitative. Late 19th century was a period of Renaissance for nearly all Indian literatures. For Telugu literature the main source of inspiration came from a British Officer Charles Philip Brown who was an officer posted in the Telugu speaking region. He loved the language so much that he learnt to read the classics and was the first publisher of some of the greatest prabandhas of the 16th century. He also discovered Vemana and translated his poems into English. Moreover, he wrote dictionaries from English to Telugu and Vice-versa. His service to Telugu has been phenomenal and to this day the Telugus remember with great pride and gratitude the contribution of C.P. Brown. Modern Literature in Telugu

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Telugu literature acquired modern characteristics from the 1860s. The main events which inspired this were the following:

1. The Reformist movement started by Raja ramamhohan Roy in Bengal

2. The establishment of printing press and the ensuing publications of Telugu books

3. English education 4. The teachings of a) Ramakrishna math, b)Arya samaj

c)Theosophical society All these helped in broadening the thinking of the Telugu scholars; Kandukuri Veeresalingam Panthulu, generally acknowledged as the pioneer of modern Telugu literature brought about a change in both content and form of Telugu literature. The genres introduced by Veeresalingam to Telugu literature were novel, drama, one-act play, satire, column writing, autobiography, biography, and essay. The content which he brought to Telugu literature was wide-ranging and had many followers in his own life time. His themes were women’s education, condemnation of blind faith in customs, astrology, child marriages, plight of child widows etc. Veeresalingam was as much a social activist as a writer. He practised what he preached through his writings. He wrote the first novel of social manners, called Rajasekhara charitramu. Thus started in Telugu literature an age of social reform which continued up to 1920s in all genres like novel, short story, drama, satire and poetry. Social Reform in Telugu literature meant girl education, abolition of child marriages, remarriages of child widows and prohibition of prostitution in the main. Corruption in government was also an issue which was taken up by Kandukuri in his works. The interesting fact regarding the Reformist movement is that this is the only social movement in Telugu which produced literature first in the form of a novel. In all other movements it was poetry which was first written followed by short story and novel. While the concepts of Reformist movement continued during the next few decades, certain decades have been important for certain subjects and genres.

Nationalist Movement: 1920s to 1940s – Romantic Movement: 1915 to 1930 Progressive Movement : 1930 to 1950 Digambara poets movement: 1964-67

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Revolutionary Movement: 1970 -80 Feminist Movement: 1980 onwards Dalit Movement: 1980 onwards Regional movement: 1990 onwards Minority movement: 1990 onwards

These movements basically decided the content of different genres. I. Poetry in different phases of Modern Telugu Literature: Romantic Movement: The movement which captured the imagination of the Telugu poets during the second decade of the 20th century was the Romantic Movement of British literature. William Wordsworth, P.B.Shelley, John Keats, Samuel Coleridge were the poets who shaped the romantic literary movement of Telugu. Starting from Rayaprolu Subbarao, Devulapally Krishnasastry, Nayani Subbarao, Nanduri Subbarao etc. The basic concepts in Poetry of the Romantic movement are:

1. Worship of the ladylove (as against physicality of the Prabandhas) 2. Back to Nature 3. Glorification of sorrow 4. Subjectivity 5. Alienation from society 6. Lucidity in expression 7. Lyrical poetry 8. Short poems: some narrative, some descriptive

Rayaprolu Subbarao was the pioneer of this movement with his Khandakavyas Lalita, Trunakankanam, Snehalatha etc. But it was Devulapally Krishna sastry who was hailed as the Father of Romantic Poetry in Telugu. That was mainly because his poems imbibed all the qualities enunciated above. He touched the hearts of his readers like no other poet. His poetry was unparalleled in lyricism and in its use of Telugu language. This is the quality which made him a lyricist par excellence on Radio and Films too. Krishnasastry’s Krishnapaksham, Oorvasi, Pravasam and scores of other poems speak volumes of his poetic excellence. An example from his poetry for its sheer lyricism: Aakulo Aakunai, Poovulo Poovunai

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Kommalo kommanai, nunuletha remmanai Ee adavi daagipona, etulaina ichatane aagipona Ganaganane veechu chirugalilo keratamai Galagalani paaru sela paatalo thetanai Pagadaal chiguraaku therachaatu thetinai Paruvampu virichedi cinnari siggunai …ee adavi daagipona Krishnasastry was, by far the most influential of the romantic poets, so much so that even his attire and hair style was emulated by the youngsters apart form his writing style. Nanduri Subbarao brought rural beauty to romantic poetry. His fictional characters Enki and her husband Nayudubava are proverbial in Telugu household relationships. The Progressive poetic movement came as reaction to the Romantic movement. The Romantics’ pre-occupation with their lost loves and lamentations irritated the progressives. They called all romantic poetry escapist, self-centred and of no use to society. Progressive movement was obviously the result of the Telugu scholars’ acquaintance with the Leftist ideology. This started in the 1930s and the Master of this poetry was Srirangam Srinivasa rao, who was fondly referred to as Sri Sri. By far, Sri Sri is the best read and most loved poet in Telugu in the past century. His poetry collection “Maha Prasthanam’ is rated the greatest work of modern poetry. Sri Sri ‘s poetry was inspirational in all counts; it inspired poets to write new and good poetry; it inspired people to follow communist ideology; it gave Telugu poetry a status unheard of. E desa charitra choosina Emunnadi garva kaaranam Narajati charitra samastam Para peedana parayanatvam Gharma jalaaniki, dharma jalaaniki Khareedukatte sharabu ledoy Naalo kadile navyakavitvam Kaarmikalokapu kalyaananiki Sramikalokapu sowbhagyaniki Polalanannee, halaladunnee Ila talamlo hemam pindaga

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Kadam trokkuthu, padam paaduthu Hridantharaalam garjistu Padamdi podam, padamdi podaam, podam podam pai pai ki. Maro prapancham, maro prapamcham, maro prapancham pilichindi. Sri Sri brought the essence of Marxism into this one book with great poetic techniques, including mythological references as well as the history of the world. Sri Sri is considered the most powerful poet of Telugu literature. He had many followers and imitators. Many poets who were earlier writing romantic poetry changed their subject and technique after reading Sri Sri. The Progressive movement produced other good poets like Dasarathi, C. Narayana Reddy, Arudra, Narayanababu etc.

But the Progressive Movement faced decline once the major poets took to film lyrics as their profession. Nearly all the progressive poets ended up in Telugu film field and this caused a lull in progressive poetry. In the early sixties of the 20th century, there was a group of 6 poets who called themselves Naked Poets and brought back to life the ideals of progressive movement. The three poetry collections these 6 poets brought out created such an atmosphere of revolt against the inhumanity of the State, the atrocities of the upper class and upper caste that it ultimately led to the birth of Revolutionary Movement. This was the offshoot of the Naxalbari movement of West Bengal which spread to Northern Districts of Andhra Pradesh, like Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam. Revolutionary movement in Telugu literature was born with the Revolutionary Writers Organisation in 1971. It went a step ahead of the Progressive movement. Here the poets were expected to participate in the armed struggle; not sit on the bank and make observations and theories. Progressive Movement was satisfied with commitment but Revolutionary movement required involvement along with commitment. Moreover, Revolutionary poetry called for Armed Struggle against the State, the oppressive elements inherent in the society where the divide between Haves and Havenots increased day by day. A very important aspect of this poetry was the use of ‘song’ as a literary genre to attract masses. Gaddar, Vangapandu Prasadarao, K.G. Satyamurthi were some of these poets who took the struggle to the far-flung rural areas of Andhra Pradesh. Poetry of the Revolutionary Movement slowly degenerated into sloganeering, thereby losing its poetic excellence. Feminist and Dalit Poetry:

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Revolutionary literary movement had a single agenda: it believed that Marxist ideals and armed struggle were the answer to all questions and problems. The poetry spoke only about the class; it disregarded gender and caste. Members of this revolutionary movement included educated women and educated Dalits. These writers soon realized that their identity was being gobbled up in the process of eliminating Class. They argued that class was not the only point of division for society; gender and caste too played a role in the inequalities. Since Revolutionary literary organization did not give them scope to vent out their feelings, these two groups gradually left it and emerged as different identities. Thus came into being the Feminist literary movement and the Dalit literary movement. Both these movements have been extremely successful They have produced unique literature; they found new voices, new content and new expressions. Feminist poetry brought out subjects and poetry never heard of before with women writers from all backgrounds revealing their talent. Feminist poetry was basically subjective with most women recounting their own experiences in the prevalent patriarchy. For the first time, women writers took up cudgel against men and their dominance; the inequalities between man and women in society, domestic violence, the physical pain a women undergoes through childbirth, the stereotyping of women, the glorification of women’s duties etc. Women writing came out of its self-imposed and society-imposed censorship and became bold, outspoken, candid, truthful and honest. The major poets of this poetry are Jayaprabha, Volga, Kondepudi Nirmala, Patibandla Rajani, Ghantasala Nirmala, Challapalli Swarupa Rani, Anisetti Rajita etc. Feminist poetry, further added other dimensions; the caste dimension which increased the agony of women and the religious dimension, where Muslim women poets spoke out their miseries. One example of feminist poetry written by Jayaprabha in English translation: this poem is about the way men stare at a women with no decency or respect. Looks / From two eyes Dart like needles / Roam freely on flesh. The looks never / Look into the face The words never come from the heart They crawl on the body like white ants Disgust every time I see them. Those eyes / Belong to a million classes

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But their looks are all the same. On the road / In buses, classrooms Behind your every step Wounding Some part of the body / Looks tipped with poison Keep pricking you Frightened / I want to disappear Into the distant sky, into emptiness But Escape is no solution So I began to teach my eyes / The sharpness of thorns To fight those poison looks Now to chase away those eyes I fight with my eyes / Timid eyes which Cannot look straight / For two seconds Run to the underworld A day will come When women in this country have Thorns Not only in their eyes But all over their bodies. Dalit poetry, along with feminist poetry has been called a movement of Identity. These two classes, the women and the dalits were fighting for their identities; they demand respect to them as they are. Their movement is often referred to as a movement for Self-respect; they demand a life of dignity in this man-dominated, upper caste-dominated society. Some important Dalit poets are Satishchandra, Tereshbabu, Yendluri Sudhakar, Sikhamani, Challapalli Swarupa Rani, Joopaka Subhadra etc. These two streams of literature brought about a radical change in the way literature was conceived and analysed. The major achievement of the Feminist and Dalit literatures was that it looked literary theories, literary history and literary movements from their point of view, thus giving new insights into the traditional texts. For instance Mahabharat and Ramayana were re-assessed from the feminist and Dalit point of view, thereby giving new dimensions to age-old traditions.

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Thus, modern Telugu poetry started off with reformist tendencies and ended up in search for identity. Prose Genres in Modern Telugu Literature: The difference between poetic and prose genres has been not just in the form but also in content. In poetry, the successive movements decided the content but in prose genres various concepts, subjects and movements co-existed simultaneously. During the Reformist age, the novels mostly dealt with child marriages, widow remarriage and the abolition of prostitutions. The most recurrent subject for both novel and short story was female education. The major writers of this time were Kandukuri Veeresalingam Panthulu and Gurazada Apparao. Gurazada Apprao’s prose play Kanyasulkam (Bride Price) stands tallest among writings of that period. Not only in Telugu, but it has been proved as a masterpiece on all counts – theme, language, technique, characterisation and . It was written in 1897 and is still considered the best play ever in Telugu. Such is its influence on Telugu reader. It was again the same playwright Gurazada Apparao who wrote the first modern story entitled “Diddubatu” (Correction or Reformation). This is a story of how an educated woman can tackle ans solve her problems with tact and intelligence. It had all the ingredients of a story: contemporary subject, vernacular language, great technique with an unexpected ending. At the time Nationalism was at its peak came the novel Malapalli (The village of the Untouchables). This was written by Unnava Lakshminarayana, a social reformer and nationalist leader. This novel, written and first published in 1921, can be called a visionary work by a writer of extraordinary perception and scholarship. It presents in a dramatic manner the lives of the untouchables, how they became their own saviours, men of learning and men with revolutionary zeal. This novel ends with India getting Independence, which in itself is amazing, since it was written at a time when no one was had any inkling of it. It was also the first novel to use language of the masses, appropriate to the region and caste. As said earlier, the novel and short story did not confine themselves to one content or movement. In the 1920s itself, there emerged two writers who were diametrically opposite to each other both in content and style but were both trendsetters at the same time. They were Viswanatha Satyanarayana and Gudipati Venkata Chalam. Viswanatha was a spokesman for tradition and cultural renaissance of the Telugus; he believed and showed in his works that everything Hindu and Indian was good. He believed in the caste system and the gender roles of

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the old days and felt that English education was detrimental to these old values. Chalam advocated the exact opposite of this. He believed that the Hindu tradition had many inhuman practices, especially regarding women, and these need to be rejected totally. His novels and short stories spoke up for the freedom of woman, their belief in themselves and the utter failure of marriage as an institution. Chalam had many followers and imitators since 1930s up to the feminist movement. Telugu novel had experimented with different level of historical writing. While on the one hand writers like Adavi Bapiraju and Viswanatha SAtyanarayana , Nori Narasimha Sastry were writing fictional histories of dynasties starting from 1st century A.D, there were others like Maheedhara Ramamohan Rao, Dasarathi Rangacharya and Vattikota Alwaruswamy who wrote realistic novels of immediate past, i.e. The National movement, influence of Gandhi on the common man, the Telangana Farmers Struggle etc. After the 1950s, Telugu fiction saw myriad colours. The subjects in prose genres (novel, short story and drama) can be summarized as:

1. Psycho analytical 2. Marxist 3. Historical 4. Family relationships 5. Man-woman Relationships 6. Caste relations 7. Urbanization-ensuring problems 8. Farmers’ struggle 9. Youth and love 10. Middle class mentality 11. Generation gap 12. Revolutionary struggle 13. Globalization 14. Consumerism

These are some of the varied subjects dealt in modern Telugu prose genres. As for the form and technique, there have been many experiments attempted by the writers. Epistolary writing, stream of consciousness, diary writing, autobiographical writing etc. It was mainly in prose genres that women proved their mettle as writers. There was a time during the 60s and 70s when novel was referred to ad “women’s genre’. There have been proud moments for Telugu fiction in the 1950s because a story

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entitled “Gaali vaana’ (Cyclone )by Palagummi Padmaraju won an international prize conducted by New York Herald Tribune in 1952. It was selected amongst 59 stories from 23 countries.

Among the major writers of Telugu fiction were K. Kutumbarao, Tripuraneni Gopichand, Buchibabu, Ravi Sastry , Vaddera Chandidas, Vakati Pandurangarao, Navin,who brought psychoanalysis to Telugu fiction. At the same time writers like Chaganti Somayajulu, Kalipatnam Ramarao, Allam Rajaiah, Kalyana Rao and once again Ravi Sastry, who wrote mainly about the downtrodden and their exploitation. And among women writers it is Abburi Chayadevi, Illindala Saraswathi Devi, Y. Sulochana Rani, Ranganayakamma, Volga, K. Satyavathi and scores of writers who have enriched the fictional genres, novel and short story. Abburi Chayadevi needs to be mentioned specially for bringing feminist ideology using understatement as her technique into short fiction. This was carried forward by Volga, Satyavathi and many other women writers. Volga deserves special mention as the most prolific and powerful feminist writer in Telugu. She has been successful in all the genres, free verse, short story, novel, essay, column, film screenplay, drama, television serial, dance-drama and song – all with feminism at the centre.

The evolution of novel had many ups and downs; while poetry and short story never faltered on their path, the novel got caught in the commercial web. In the 1980s there was a decline in the novel, with crime thrillers and superhuman themes attracting the youth. But this trend has slowly disappeared and more meaningful writings followed.

Drama:

Telugu drama started in the 1860s. The major types of dramas were Mythological and Social. Mythological plays were performed by the Surabhi theatre which has been attracting the audience even after 100 years. The songs, poems, dialogues in the mythological plays were great crowd-pullers. The best thing about this theatre was that it had only family members performing all roles.

The social play took longer to attract the audience. Gurazada Apparao’s Kanyasulkam made a beginning but it was only in the 1940s with Acharya Athreya ushering in the critical play that social drama really arrived. Since then there has been continuous experimentation in the subject and presentation of the play. The influence of Absurd theatre and experimental theatre of Europe and Bengal are quite evident on Telugu drama.

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Literary Criticism:

When there is abundance in creative writing, criticism is necessary to keep up the standards of writing. It happened with Telugu literature too with new, modern theories of criticism bringing new perception to literature. Some of the best critics in each critical genre are C.R. Reddy, Rallapally Ananthakrishna sarma and Viswanatha Satyanarayana for formalist and aesthetic criticism, as well as sociological and cultural; Marxist critics like R. Ramachandra Reddy, Velcheru Narayana Rao, K.V. Ramana Reddy etc, psychoanalytical critics like R.S. Sudarshanam, Koduri Sri rama murthy etc. Once women writing and Dalit writing came to the fore, Telugu literary criticism has evolved and gathered more depth and intensity.

Thus, Telugu literature from its entry into the Indian literary scene has proved its originality in all spheres of literature. The translation of the Telugus has always been of very high standard from Mahabharat to Mahashweta devi. Telugus brought the best literature of the world into their language and are now exporting great Telugu works to other areas through translation. Basically a lyrical language, Telugu is easy on the ears and can reach a wider audience through audio literature too. This is being attempted now so that many Non-resident Telugus can also have the benefit of learning about Telugu literature. Literature in Telugu is continuing its journey of creativity, scholarship, versatility and social awareness.

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