TECHNOLOGY OFBOTTLED WATER

Second Edition

Edited by

DOROTHY SENIORGroup Technical Adviser

Highland Spring LtdBlackford, Perthshire

UK

and

NICHOLAS DEGESupply Chain Manager

Nestle Waters North AmericaCalistoga, California

USA

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 30.10.2004 3:41pm page iii

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 30.10.2004 3:41pm page ii

TECHNOLOGY OFBOTTLED WATER

Second Edition

Edited by

DOROTHY SENIORGroup Technical Adviser

Highland Spring LtdBlackford, Perthshire

UK

and

NICHOLAS DEGESupply Chain Manager

Nestle Waters North AmericaCalistoga, California

USA

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 30.10.2004 3:41pm page iii

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 30.10.2004 3:41pm page ii

TECHNOLOGY OFBOTTLED WATER

Second Edition

Edited by

DOROTHY SENIORGroup Technical Adviser

Highland Spring LtdBlackford, Perthshire

UK

and

NICHOLAS DEGESupply Chain Manager

Nestle Waters North AmericaCalistoga, California

USA

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 30.10.2004 3:41pm page iii

� 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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First edition published 1998 by Sheffield Academic Press

Second edition published 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Technology of bottled water / edited by Dorothy A.G. Senior and Nick J. Dege.–2nd ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-4051-2038-X (hardback: acid-free paper)

1. Bottling. 2. Bottled water. I. Senior, Dorothy A. G. II. Dege, Nick J.

TP659.T43 2004

663’.61–dc22

2004048433

ISBN 1-4051-2038-X

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Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 30.10.2004 3:41pm page iv

Contents

Contributors xiiiPreface xv

1 Introduction 1

DOROTHY SENIOR and NICHOLAS J. DEGE

1.1 Rationale for this book 11.2 The second edition 2

2 Market development of bottled waters 6

DUNCAN FINLAYSON

2.1 Introduction 62.2 The historical background 62.3 Market segmentation 92.4 Global giants and local leaders 132.5 Global review 152.6 USA 182.7 Europe into the new millennium 202.8 China 232.9 Trends for the future 26

3 Categories of bottled water 28

NICHOLAS J. DEGE

3.1 Introduction 283.2 Europe 29

3.2.1 Natural Mineral Waters 313.2.1.1 Recognition of Natural Mineral Waters 333.2.1.2 Exploitation of Natural Mineral Waters 383.2.1.3 Labelling of Natural Mineral Waters 40

3.2.2 Spring Water 423.2.3 Other bottled waters in Europe 443.2.4 Implementation of the Directives in Europe 443.2.5 Future developments in Europe 53

3.3 North America 533.3.1 Unites States 53

3.3.1.1 Federal Regulation 54

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 3.11.2004 1:22pm page v

3.3.1.2 State Regulation 543.3.1.3 Industry Regulation 553.3.1.4 Quality standards 57

3.3.2 Canada 613.4 Codex Alimentarius 69

3.4.1 Codex and Natural Mineral Waters 703.4.2 Codex and Non-Natural Mineral Waters 72

3.5 Latin America 733.6 Australia and New Zealand 763.7 Asia 773.8 South Africa 783.9 Conclusions 89

4 Hydrogeology of bottled waters 93

MIKE STREETLY, ROD MITCHELLand MELANIE WALTERS

4.1 Introduction 934.2 Understanding underground water – hydrogeology 94

4.2.1 Underground water – a key part of the water cycle 944.2.2 Recharge to underground water 944.2.3 Groundwater occurrence 954.2.4 Water levels and groundwater flow 984.2.5 Storage of water in aquifers 984.2.6 Wells, springs and boreholes 1014.2.7 Flow to wells and boreholes 103

4.3 Groundwater quality 1054.3.1 Hydrochemistry – the history of groundwater 1054.3.2 Terms, definitions and concepts 1054.3.3 Hardness and alkalinity 1084.3.4 Evolution of groundwaters 1094.3.5 Human influences on groundwater 1124.3.6 Hydrochemical classification of bottled waters 113

4.4 Groundwater source development 1154.4.1 Stages of development 1154.4.2 Resource evaluation 1164.4.3 Source definition 1184.4.4 Source construction 118

4.4.4.1 Springs 1184.4.4.2 Boreholes 119

4.5 Management of groundwater sources 1224.5.1 Record keeping 1224.5.2 Sampling and water quality analysis 1234.5.3 Control of exploitation 1244.5.4 Risk assessment and definition of protection zones 1244.5.5 Monitoring, maintenance and rehabilitation 1264.5.6 Monitoring borehole yield 1274.5.7 Changes in water quality 129

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 3.11.2004 1:22pm page vi

vi CONTENTS

5 Water treatments 132

JEAN-LOUIS CROVILLE and JEAN CANTET

5.1 Why and when water must be treated 1325.1.1 Compliance with local regulations 1325.1.2 Quality reasons 1325.1.3 Marketing reasons 132

5.2 Water treatment objectives 1335.2.1 Removal of undissolved elements 1335.2.2 Removal /inactivation of undesirable biological

elements 1335.2.3 Removal of undesirable chemical elements 133

5.2.3.1 Iron and manganese 1335.2.3.2 Ammonium 1345.2.3.3 Arsenic 1345.2.3.4 Fluoride 1345.2.3.5 Organic matter 1345.2.3.6 Volatile organic compounds and pesticides 134

5.2.4 Addition of valuable ‘elements’ 1345.3 Water treatment processes 135

5.3.1 Filtration 1355.3.1.1 Mass media filters 1355.3.1.2 Other filters 138

5.3.2 Membrane processes 1445.3.3 Adsorption 147

5.3.3.1 Activated carbon 1505.3.3.2 Manganese dioxide 1505.3.3.3 Activated alumina 151

5.3.4 Ion exchange 1515.3.5 Chemical oxidation 1555.3.6 Biological processes 1575.3.7 Microbiological treatments 159

5.3.7.1 Microfiltration 1595.3.7.2 Chemical treatment 1595.3.7.3 Ultraviolet 160

5.4 Conclusion 164

6 Bottling water – maintaining safety and integritythrough the process 166

DOROTHY SENIOR

6.1 Nature of water 1666.1.1 Physical properties 1666.1.2 Chemical properties 1666.1.3 Biological properties 167

6.2 Influencing factors 1676.2.1 Materials in contact with water 1686.2.2 Plant equipment 168

6.2.2.1 Tankers 169

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 3.11.2004 1:22pm page vii

CONTENTS vii

6.2.3 Filters 1706.2.4 Carbon dioxide 1716.2.5 Process air 1726.2.6 Packaging formats 172

6.2.6.1 Glass 1736.2.6.2 Polyethylene terephthalate 1756.2.6.3 Polyvinyl chloride 1776.2.6.4 Cans 1776.2.6.5 Cartons 1776.2.6.6 Polycarbonate 1776.2.6.7 High-density polyethylene 1786.2.6.8 Closures 178

6.3 Labelling 1816.4 Shelf-life, batch coding and traceability 1826.5 Hygiene practices 184

6.5.1 Buildings and facilities 1846.5.1.1 Internal building surfaces 185

6.5.2 Layout and process flow 1856.5.3 Ancillary facilities 1856.5.4 Cleaning and disinfection 1856.5.5 Personnel 1876.5.6 Good manufacturing practice 187

7 Filling equipment 189

FRED G. VICKERS and JOHN MEDLING

7.1 Introduction 1897.2 Filling systems 1907.3 Electropneumatic valve system 1977.4 Non-carbonated filling system 2007.5 Bottle handling 2007.6 Filler configuration 2057.7 A cleaner environment for the filling process 205

7.7.1 ‘Clean’ filler design 2097.7.2 Clean and aseptic filling 2097.7.3 Clean environment 2127.7.4 Clean bottles and closures 215

7.8 Bottle inspection systems 2157.9 Carbonation 2157.10 Flavour dosing 2187.11 Cleaning-in-place 219

7.11.1 Manual CIP system 2227.11.2 Automated CIP system 223

8 Cleaning and disinfection in the bottled water industry 227

WINNIE LOUIE and DAVID REUSCHLEIN

8.1 Introduction 2278.1.1 Why clean? 229

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 3.11.2004 1:22pm page viii

viii CONTENTS

8.2 Cleaners (detergents) 2308.2.1 Cleaning chemistry 2318.2.2 The five factors 2338.2.3 Types of cleaners (detergents) 235

8.3 Sanitizers 2368.3.1 Regulatory considerations 2388.3.2 Types of sanitizers and their uses 2398.3.3 Maximizing effectiveness 244

8.4 Types of cleaning and basics 2488.4.1 Cleaning dynamics 248

8.4.1.1 Manual method 2498.4.1.2 Mechanical methods 249

8.4.2 Master sanitation schedule 2518.4.3 Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures 252

8.5 Cleaning-in-place 2528.5.1 Automated CIP 2568.5.2 Types of CIP systems 2578.5.3 CIP control and data acquisition 2598.5.4 CIP program and programming 2618.5.5 Hot CIP safety precautions 263

8.6 The Dos and Don’ts of cleaning and disinfection 265

9 Quality management 272

DOROTHY SENIOR

9.1 Defining quality 2729.2 Quality policy 2729.3 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point 2739.4 Process control 276

9.4.1 Packaging materials in process 2769.4.1.1 Bottle handling 2779.4.1.2 Closure application 2779.4.1.3 Label application 2789.4.1.4 Coding 2789.4.1.5 Packing, wrapping and stacking 278

9.4.2 Product water in process 2789.4.2.1 pH 2789.4.2.2 Conductivity 2799.4.2.3 Chlorine 2799.4.2.4 Organoleptic evaluation 2799.4.2.5 Filling volumes and levels 2799.4.2.6 Carbonation 2799.4.2.7 Reference samples 279

9.5 Quality assurance 2809.5.1 Microbiological assessment 280

9.5.1.1 Microbiological analyses 2809.5.1.2 Plant, equipment and packaging materials 282

9.5.2 Assessment during shelf-life 2829.5.3 New product development 2829.5.4 Sensory evaluation 283

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 3.11.2004 1:22pm page ix

CONTENTS ix

9.5.5 Auditing 2849.5.6 Calibration 2849.5.7 Accreditation 284

9.6 Independent or government laboratories 2849.7 Recognition of source 2859.8 Industry networking 287

10 Bottled water coolers 288

MICHAEL BARNETT

10.1 Introduction 28810.2 World market 288

10.2.1 Europe 28810.2.2 Middle East 28910.2.3 Asia 29010.2.4 Australia and New Zealand 29210.2.5 Central and South America 29210.2.6 North America 292

10.3 Equipment development 29310.3.1 Dispensers 29310.3.2 Bottles 300

10.3.2.1 Wood and glass 30010.3.2.2 Plastic containers 30110.3.2.3 Bag-in-box containers 30210.3.2.4 Caps 303

10.4 Water categories for water coolers 30410.5 The bottling process 30510.6 Handling, transportation and service 30710.7 Hygiene 30910.8 Trade associations 311

11 Third-party auditing of bottled water operations 313

BOB TANNER

11.1 Introduction 31311.2 Conduct of audits 31411.3 Setting the criteria for the audit 31511.4 The bottling plant audit 316

11.4.1 Source 31611.4.2 Exterior of bottling plant 31711.4.3 Plant construction and design 31811.4.4 Hygiene measures and controls 31911.4.5 Plant operations 32111.4.6 Equipment and procedures 32111.4.7 Process and controls 32211.4.8 Personnel 323

11.5 Conclusion of audit and follow-up actions 323

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 3.11.2004 1:22pm page x

x CONTENTS

12 Microbiology of natural mineral waters 325

HENRI LECLERC and MILTON S. DA COSTA

12.1 Introduction 32512.2 Groundwater habitat 326

12.2.1 Physical component 32612.2.2 Chemical component 32812.2.3 Biological component: source of microflora 33012.2.4 Limits of microbiological studies 33112.2.5 Major microbiological groups 33412.2.6 Nutrient limitations and starvation survival 33712.2.7 The viable but nonculturable state 338

12.3 Bottle habitat 33912.3.1 The bottle effect 34112.3.2 Other factors influencing the plate count 34212.3.3 Growth or resuscitation 34312.3.4 Genetic diversity before and after bottling 346

12.4 Microbial community 34612.4.1 Algae, fungi and protozoa 34812.4.2 Heterotrophic bacteria 34812.4.3 Prosthecate bacteria 34912.4.4 Pseudomonads, Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes 35012.4.5 Cytophaga, Flavobacterium, Flexibacter 35412.4.6 Gram-positive bacteria 354

12.5 Inhibitory effect of autochthonous bacteria 35512.6 Assessing health risk from autochthonous microflora 362

12.6.1 Inoculation of the digestive tract of axenic mice 36212.6.2 Randomized trials in infants 36312.6.3 Virulence characteristics of bacteria 364

12.7 Assessment and management of microbial health risks 36512.7.1 Identifying microbial hazards in drinking water 36612.7.2 Assessment of microbial risks 36712.7.3 Management of microbial risks 368

12.7.3.1 Heterotrophic plate counts 36812.7.3.2 Marker organisms and enteric pathogens 36912.7.3.3 Pathogens growing in water 371

12.8 Conclusion 372

13 Microbiology of treated bottled water 388

STEPHEN C. EDBERG

13.1 Introduction 38813.2 Source water protection and monitoring 38813.3 Water treatment 38913.4 Naturally occurring bacteria 39113.5 Product safety 39513.6 Summary 398

Index 403

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 3.11.2004 1:22pm page xi

CONTENTS xi

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 3.11.2004 1:22pm page xii

Contributors

Mr Michael Barnett Hydropure Group, Hydropure House,

Alington Rd, St Neots, Cambridge-

shire PE19 6WD, UK

Mr Jean Cantet Nestle Waters MT Process Technology

Centre, 1020 Avenue George Clemen-

ceau, BP101-F-88804 Vittel Cedex,

France

Mr Jean-Louis Croville Nestle Waters MT Process Technology

Centre, 1020 Avenue George Clemen-

ceau, BP101-F-88804 Vittel Cedex,

France

Professor Milton da Costa Departamento de Bioquimica, Univer-

sidade de Coimbra, 3000 Coimbra,

Portugal

Mr Nicholas J Dege Nestle Waters North America, 865 Sil-

verado Trail, Calistoga, California

94515, USA

Professor Stephen Edberg Department of Laboratory Medicine

and Internal Medicine, Yale University

School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street,

PO Box 3333, New Haven, CT 06510,

USA

Mr Duncan Finlayson Zenith International Projects Ltd, 7

Kingsmead Square, Bath BA1 2AB,

UK

Professor Henri Leclerc Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Faculty

of Medicine, University of Lille, 1 Place

de Verdun, 59045 Lille Cedex, France

Ms Winnie Louie Nestle Waters North America Inc.,

4330 20th Street, Zephyrhills, FL

3354, USA

Mr John Medling Krones UK Ltd, Westregen House,

Great Bank Road, Wingates Industrial

Park, Westhoughton, Bolton BL5

3XB, UK

Dorothy A.G. Senior / Technology of Bottled Water Final Proof 3.11.2004 1:22pm page xiii