TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN BRNO CZECH TECHNICAL …

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN BRNO

CZECH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE

INIS-mf—14792

WORKSHOP 96BRNO, JANUARY 22-24, 1996

PART III.

Optics, Quantum Electronics and Photonics - Microelectronics - BiomedicalEngineering - Preservation and Creation of the Environment - Architecture,Town Planning and Visual Arts - Reliability - Production Systems andTechnology - Nuclear Engineering - Transport Engineering - Economics ano

1Business Activities 2 >

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN BRNO

CZECH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE

WORKSHOP 96BRNO, JANUARY 22-24,1996

PART lil.

Optics, Quantum Electronics and Photonics - Microelectronics - BiomedicalEngineering - Preservation and Creation of the Environment - Architecture,Town Planning and Visual Arts - Reliability - Production Systems andTechnology - Nuclear Engineering - Transport Engineering - Economics and

Business Activities

These are the Proceedings of the Fifth Annual university-wide seminar WORKSHOP 96which will take place at the Technical University in Brno from 22-24 January, 1996.

The aim of the seminar is to present and discuss the latest results obtained by researchersespecially at the Czech Technical University in Prague, Technical University in Brno and atcollaborating institutions.

The organizing committee has selected a total of 494 contributions divided into 22 differentareas of interest.

Part III has contributions in the areas of:

• optics, quantum electronics and photonics• microelectronics• biomedical engineering• preservation and creation of the environment• architecture, town planning and visual artso reliability• production systems and technology• nuclear engineering• transport engineering• economics and business activities

Organizing committee:

Chairman: P. ChmelaCo-chairman: M. KálalMembers: J. Baláti«, V. Brabec, M. Buchta, P. Hazdra, M. Hobza, J. Jan, M. Král,

J. Matoušek, J. Micin, P. Ondráčka, L. Přibyl, I. Ruller, A. Strejc,M. Zahrádková, D. Zatokrtská

Prague, December 1995

This book was prepared with IAT X from the input files supplied by the authors. All partialarticles were prepared with W96 - a special-purpose tóTj7;X-based environment. Program-ming WÖ6, general style, typographic corrections and the final composition of this book isby A. Strejc (CTU Computing Centre).

Published by the Czech Technical University in Prague. Printed by CTU Publishing House.Unsalable publication.

WORKSHOP 96 CONTENTS

CONTENTS

13. OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS & PHOTONICS

DIFFRACTION OF RADIATION BY A SET OF IDENTICAL OBJECTS 817J. Komrska, L. Koláčka, I. Procházka

OPTICAL TWEEZERS 819Af. Liška

ION-IMPLANTED PLANAR WAVEGUIDE STRUCTURES 821P. Hříbek, J. Král, P. Fiala, F. Foltiny, I. Hrubá

PROGNOSES ON FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH ONPHOTOINDUCED SELF-ORGANIZED NONLINEAR OPTICAL PHENOMENA. ...823P. Clnncla, J. Petráčck, F. Petras

PHOTOREFRACTIVE BARIUM TITAN ATE SINGLE-CRYSTAL RESEARCH 825P. Hříbek

NUMERICAL MODELING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF FORMBIREFRINGENTMICROSTRUCTURES 827/. Richter

PROPERTIES OF THE APE LITHIUM NIOBÁTE WAVEGUIDESFABRICATED FROM NON-TOXIC PROTON SOURCES 829J. Hradilová, J. Schröfcl, Z. Burian

NEW TECHNIQUES IN ATMOSPHERIC STUDIES, POLLUTIONMONITORING AND LASER RANGEFIND1NG 831/. Procházka, K. Hamal, S. M. Peršin, B, Sopko

LASER PROBE FOR OPTICAL DETECTION OF ULTRASONICTRANSIENT DISPLACEMENTS 833R. Dálek

MODE-LOCKING OF A DIODE-PUMPED Nd:YAP LASER WITH AOMODULATOR 835V. Kubcček, O. Guy, A. Barthclemy

ENVIRONMENTAL HIGH RESOLUTION SCANNING ELECTRONMICROSCOPY 837R. Auirala, J. Jirák, J. Spinka

STAND-ALONE SCANNING FORCE AND NEAR-FIELD OPTICALMICROSCOPY WITH UNCOATED FIBER PROBE 839P. Tománek, M. Liška, P. Dobis, L. Grmela, J. Briisllová, N. Uhdcová

CONFOCAL IMAGING BY MEANS OF AN ACHROMATICINTERFEROMETER 841R. Climclik

803


THE MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS BY ANGLE SPECKLECORRELATION II S43M. Ohlídal, J. Honec, M. Richter, P. Valenta, M. Tykal, I. Ohlídal, D. Pražák

UNIVERSAL DIGITAL INTERFERENCE MICROSCOPE FORCONCENTRATED CONTACTS STUDY 845M Hartl, I. Křupka, M. Jákl

INTERFEROMETRY OF LINE PLASMAS 847M. Kálal, B. Rus, T. Mocek, L. Pina

OPTICAL PROCESSORS 849M. Klíma, P. Dvorak, J. Rott, E. Košťál, T. Gregor, V. Jirásek, I. Galas

SELECTED FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURES FOR PHOTOAS1CS 851T. Gregor

PARAMETRIC DOWN CONVERSION USING COHERENT AND CHAOTICINPUT RADIATIONS S53P. Chmela

FAST 3D VECTOR BEAM PROPAGATION METHOD 855J. Pelráček

OPTICAL DIRECTIONAL LINKS 857V. Biolková, J. Němeček, A. Prokeš, O. Witfcrt

TOMOGRAPIIIC RECONSTRUCTION BY USING THE CONVOLUTIONAND BACKPROJECTION AND THE ORTHO- GONAL POLYNOMIALSMETHODS 859O. Samek, I. Procházka

LABORATORY FOR OPTICAL TOMOGRAPHY AND ITS APPLICATION INPLASMA DIAGNOSTIC 861L. Kovář

14. M I C R O E L E C T R O N I C S

SYNTHESIS OF LOW-VOLTAGE CURRENT-MODE FILTERS 865M, Svajda

VHDL MODEL OF MADBIST 867R. Komanec, V. Kolařík, R. Vrha

PROGRAM FOR AUTOMATED DESIGN OF IC'S RESISTORS 869C. Navrátil, M, Kejhar, M, Kirschner

USING PWL CIRCUITS FOR ANALOG SYNTHESIS OF APPROXIMATEIDENTITY NEURAL NETWORKS 871J. Kaderka

804


PROGRAMMABLE ANALOG BUILDING BLOCKS FOR FEEDFORWARDNEURAL NETWORKS 873L. Nikolič, M. Kejhar, P. Simandt, P. Holoubek

MODULAR NEURAL NETWORK FOR MOS MODELLING 875K. Žáček

A HIGH-SPEED CURRENT MONITOR 877M. Svajda

TEST-PROCESS SIMULATION FOR ANALOGUE AND MIXED-SIGNALINTEGRATED CIRCUITS 879V. Musil, J. Brzobohatý

IMPACT OF DEFECT PARAMETERS ON POWER DEVICE MODELLING 881P. Hazdra, F. Spurný, J. Vobeckij

SIMULATING OF GaAs/AlGaAs HETEROJUNCTION SYSTEM 883J. Tayari

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF HETEROJUNCTION STRUCTURES 885P. Sichrovský

15. BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

SYSTEM FOR AUTOMATED CHROMOSOME PROCESSING 889J. Voráčck

ADVANCED PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF ULTRASONIC MEDICALIMAGES 891J. Jan, P. Kilián, D. Kučera

MODELLING OF INNER EAR ACOUSTICS 893V. Stejskal, M. Navara, P. Růžička

MODELING OF THERAPEUTICAL ULTRASONIC SYSTEMS 895F. Kadlec, J. Dobcs

m

POINT PROCESSES DESCRIBING NEURONAL ACTIVITY. S97D. BuivJ, B. Kvašňák, J. Martinek, P. Havelka, P. HušekTEST, EVALUATING AND CONTROL SYSTEM TO FIND PHYSIOLOGICALPARAMETERS AND TO STABILIZE THEM 899K. Bares, V. Eck, L. Jirout

HEMODYNAMIC RESEARCH BY ELECTRICAL BIOIMPEDANCE (EBI)METHODS 901/. Uhlíř, B. Šrámek, J. Tichý, S. Trojan, A/. Hojcrová, J. Bendi, A. Parízek,J. Chyský, S. Papežova

APPLICATIONS OF Er:YAG AND Nd:YAG LASERS IN OPHTHALMOLOGY 903H. Jelínková, J. Pasta, K. Hamal, K Kubccck, I. Procházka, M. Ccch

805


APPLICATORS FOR PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY MEASUREMENTS ANDREALISATION 905A*. Novotný, J. Vrba

ELECTROMAGNETIC EXPOSURE OF MOBILE TELEPHONES USERS 907J. Vokurka, J. Vrba, R. Dlouhý

MAGNETIC DETECTION OF RESPIRED DUST 909P. Ripka, P. Navrátil

STABILITY OF HIP IMPLANTS 911M. Petrlýl, B. Pctrovičová, li. Vondrová, B. Czesaná, J, Dancšová,J. Streiblová, A. Wohlmuthova

NEW TYPE OF COMPOSITE MATRIX FOR PLATES USED IN INTERNALOSTEOSYNTHESIS OF LONG BONES 913S. Konvičková, M. Sochor, J. Vtípil

SLIDING PROPERTIES OF IBAD SiNx COATING FOR METALBIOIMPLANTS 915S. Konvičková, F. Černý, J. Suchánek, V. fínatowicz, I. Kvasirička,J. Michalce, R. Valenta

APLICATION OF CONDUCTIVE RUBBER LAYER FOR PRESSUREMEASUREMENT 917J. Volf, S. Holý, J. Vlček, U. Obrazová, D. Kunzová, J. Skořqwvá, L. Anger

THE PROJECT OF INTERNATIONAL STUDY OF SOME COURSES INSANITARY ENGINEERING 919A. Grünwald

PREPARATION OF COURSES ON MEDICAL RADIATION PHYSICS 921I. Musilek, T. Ůechák ) /-'; . 0

DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMEDICAL AND REHABILITATION f • \ • Q OENGINEERING AT THE FAC. OF MECH. ENGINEERING .....*. 923S. Konvičková • (\ ] 1) , ' | o

16. PRESERVATION & CREATIONOF THE ENVIRONMENT

PURIFICATION EFFECT OF POROUS FILTRATION MEDIUM OFARTIFICIAL WETLAND AT DECOMPOSITION OF AMMONIA 927J. Šálek, J. Malá, //. Fadrus

ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING AND INTEGRATION INTO EXISTINGLANDSCAPE OF VEGETATION BASED WATER TREATMENT PLANTS 929Z. Lhotáková, II. Ryšavá

USE OF ARTIFICAL WETLAND FOR THE TREATMENT OF SURFACEAND WASTEWATER 931J. Šálek, J. Malý, F. Martian, M. Durčák

806


REINFORCED GRASS FOR HYDRAULIC AND EARTH STRUCTURES 933L. Satrapa

AERATION OF RIVER WATERS UTILIZING THE EXISTINGINSTALLATIONS 935M. Daněk

EXPERIMENTAL SECTION PL I. OF THE PLOUCNICE RIVER.... 937J. Bern, P. Sklenář

/i/MODELLING OF UNDERGROUND MIGRATION OF RADIONUCLIDES1/ FROM CONTAMINATED RIVER SEDIMENTS ...939

A'. Slamberg, D. Vopálka, P. Beneš. O. Slavik *T> \Jtyf> 0 , *> >!J * 0'^

OPTIMIZATION OF THE DESIGN OF INTEGRATED URBAN DRAINAGE 941J. Krejčtk, Z. Koníček, K. Pryl, Z. Handová

THE STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER QUALITY INDISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 943L. Macek, A. Grünwald, P. Koubská, P. Zykan

THE INFLUENCE OF ACID RAIN ON THE QUALITY OF SURFACE WATER....945A. Grünwald, L. Macek, J. Zeithammerovd, P. Zykán

THE USE OF OZONE FOR WATER TREATMENT IN SWIMMING-POOLS 947B. Šťastný, P. Srytr, J. Sklenář and co-workers

^/DIFFUSION OF TRACE ELEMENTS AND RADIONUCLIDES IN SOILS 949A. Gosman, N. Bílá, 0. Lzbcda, L. Šustrová *"ÍC n ..•) f- 0

•O* .J'' ''FIELD PERMEAMETER FOR CHECKING OF CLAY LINERS 951L. Lamboj, J. Záleský, I. Vaniček, I. Kudrnáčová

DEVELOPMENT OF EXHAUST AND SEPARATING SYSTEM FOREMISSIONS FROM GLASS FURNACES 953F. Drkal, J. Hemerka, R. Nový

BIOMONITORING AIR POLLUTION USING ANALYSIS OF TREE BARK 955L. Musilek, T, Úechák, H. Wolterbeck, T. Verbürg

MONITORING OF LOW AGGRESSIVE ATMOSPHERES 957/. Kudláček

HEAVY ELEMENTS IN THE INDOOR RESPIRABLE AEROSOL 959J. Král, Z. Nejedlý, J. Voltr

NUMERICAL MODELING OF FLOW FIELD AND POLLUTANSDISTRIBUTION AT VEHICLE TUNNEL PORTALS 961M. Jícha, J. Katolický

CHARACTERISTIC RAINFALLS BY MEANS OF GENETIC ALGORITHMS 963J. Mičín, P. Ošmera, P. Prax, I Šimoník

807


ANTIVIBRATION EFFECT OF THE POLYMER AND THE RUBBER WASTEMATERIALS 965A. Ryndovd, M. Dahžtlek, M Vaňková, P. Bris, S. Vašuí

ENERGY EVALUATION METHODOLOGY OF EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES 967J. Cihlář, G. Gebaver

17. ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING & VISUAL ARTS

METHODS OF HUMANISATION OF ARCHITECTONIC AND URBANENVIRONMENT 971K. Schmeidler, R, Kohoutek, J. Stipanik, 1. Šenkýř, J. Kunovský

THE PARTICIPATION OF POPULATION IN THE PROCESS OF TOWNPLANNING 973A. Mansfeldová

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN FRONTIER AREAS - SUSTAINABLEREGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS LIMITS 975P. Slabý

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE BORDERLANDS - SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT 977/. Kaplan, K. Maicr

RENOVATIN OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE IN TOWNS 979F. Štědrý, J . Attlová, J. Štepaník

DEVELOPMENT OF MODELING EQUIPMENT AS AN ADDITIONALELEMENT TO 3D SIMULATION 9S1J. Pospíšil, P. Kraus, M. Chalupa

CREATIVE PROCESSES IN THE MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM . . . 983T. Ruller

SECOND INTERNATIONAL SUMMER SCULPTURE WORKSHOP ATORLÍK CASTLE 985V. Preclík

REHABILITATION OF EARTH BUILDINGS 987/. Žabičková

OLDEST PROJECTS OF VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE 9897. Skabrada, A'/. Ebel

THERMAL DATA-MODEL FOR HEAT-DYNAMICS SIMULATION OFA BUILDING 991J. Český, V. Hamala, J. Křemen, J. Neumann, M. PvcuČil

COOPERATION WITH THE UNIVERSITY OF KAISERSLAUTERN 993//. Urbasková

808


REHABILITATION AND CULTIVATION OF PUBLIC SPACES 995J. Sedlák, J. Koutný, E. Staňková, L. Lakomý

CENTRE FOH EDUCATION INFORMATION AND CULTURE AT TU BRNO 997//. Zemánkova

1 8 . R E L I A B I L I T Y

ESTIMATES OF PARAMETERS OF ASYMMETRIC DISTRIBUTIONS 1001M. Holický, M. Vorlíček

MODEL UNCERTAINTY DUE TO VAGUE DEFINITIONS 1003M. Holický

RELIABILITY AND RISK IN PROJECT EVALUATION 1005V, ßcran

STOCHASTIC OPTIMIZATION OF LAMINATED CYLINDERS 1007P. Procházka, J. Náprstek, J. Šejnoha

RELIABILITY OF LAMINATED PLATES 1009A. Feraidon, J. Šejnoha

DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF SEMI-PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURES 1011D. MakovíČka, J. Smejkal

UPGRADING OF CLAY UNIT WALL PANEL BUILDINGS 1013D. Pume, S. Modrý, V, Moucha

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MASONRY CLAY UNITS AND MORTARS.... 1015M. Holický, D. Pume, M. Vorlíček, P. Douška

LONG-TERM MONITORING OF EFFICIENCY OF BRIDGESTRENGTHENING BY MEANS OF WIRE STRAIN GAUGES 1017V. Hrdouštk, V. Kukaň, L. Podolka, J. Záruba

FEASIBILITY STUDY OF ACTIVE RAILWAY TRACK SUPPORT 1019M. Holický, F. Čermák

19. P R O D U C T I O N S Y S T E M S Si T E C H N O L O G Y

GEOMETRY OPTIMALIZATION OF COMPOUND FORMING DIES 1023M, Forcjt, J. Krejčová, R. Kapitánova

THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS AND TESTINGGEOMETRY ON THE COLD FORM ABILITY OF SELECTED STEELS 1025L. Janíček, J. Fidler, H. Hudec

EMBOSSED CIRCULAR GRIDS 1027R. Cada

809


MEASUREMENT OF ELEMENTS OF DEFORMATION NETWORKS 1029R. Cada

THE TESTING OF THE FOOTWEAR FOR DIABETICS 1031P. Hlaváček, F. Langmaier, E. Záhumenský

POSSIBILITIES OF THE PREDICTION OF THE CHILDREN FOOTGROWTH RATE 1033P. Hlaváček, M. Mládek

NEW POSSIBILITIES OF TUBE EXPANSION 10355. Borgi, M. Král, J. Čermák

INVESTIGATION OF THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS DURING DEEPDRAWING OF SHEET METALS 1037J. šanovec, A/. Král, K. Cajthaml, P. Kábrt, J. Čermák

DETERMINING QUALITY OF LUBRICANTS FOR DEEP DRAWING 1039P. Kábrt, J. Sanovec, K. Cajthaml

SOLUTION OF HYDRAULIC DRIVING MECHANISM WITH ECOLOGICFILLING 1041J, Talácko, R. Matička

DEVELOPMENT OF ALGORITHMS TO REGULATE THE DRIVES 1043P. Souček, P, Hošek, J. Kuhák

TOOL FAILURE MONITORING VIA FORCE SIGNALS 1045L Tesner, J. Mádl

ANALYSIS OT THE CONTEMPORARY STATE OF THE OPTIMIZATION OFCUTTING CONDITIONTS ON AUTOMATIC PRODUCTION LINES 1047J. Kavan, J. Mádl

INFLUENCE OF CUTTING FLUIDS ON QUALITATIVECHARACTERISTICS OF MACHINED SURFACE 1049J. Mádl, V. Koutný

STUDY OF MÍCRODEFORMATION ON EDGE OF METAL BODIES 1051P. Hofman, I. Kvasnička

CUTTING FLUIDS TESTING IN DRILLING 1053J. Mádl, V. Házek

APPLICATION OF LOGISTICS IN THE MACHINE-TOOL INDUSTRY 1055J. Urbánek, M. Jurova, A. Kocmanová, J. Mucha

THE SUPPORT OF IMPLEMENTATION OF STANDARD CSN-ISO9000INTO PRACTISE OF FIRMS 1057F. Bartes, J, Vačkář, J. Pernikář, Z. Videcká, A. Kocmanová

810


20. N U C L E A R E N G I N E E R I N G

/DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTOMATED THERMOLUMINESCENCEV READER FOR DATING OF HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE 1061

V. Dynybyl, J. Gerndt, J. Kanaval, M. Kuhelik, L. Musxleh, M. Pavlík,J. Zýma

, ENVIRONMENTAL GAMMA SPECTRA ANALYSIS VIA NEURALv NETWORKS 1063

J. Klusoů, V. Hanák, T. Ccchák, J. Losinská

ACCELERATOR DRIVEN REACTORS IN RADIOACTIVE WASTE AND'' SPENT FUEL MANAGEMENT 1065

J, Zcman, M. Hron, K. Tuček, B. Hcřmanský, S. Pospíšil, J. Kubaita,M. Mikisck

./ NEW SAFETY ANALYSIS REPORT OF TRAINING REACTOR VR-1VRABEC (SPARROW) 1067K, Matějka, E. Sklenka

/ DEVELOPiVIENT OF SOFTWARE FOR SAFETY SYSTEM OF TRAINING•' NUCLEAR REACTOR 1069

A/. Kropík, K. Matějka, T. Sejba

ij CALCULATIONS OF SPENT FUEL CHARACTERISTICS BY ORIGEN CODE,4.1071S. Polách, K. Malějka

,/ USING NEUTRON NOISE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES FOR NUCLEARREACTOR IN CORE MEASUREMENT AND DIAGNOSTICS.. 1073S. Krops

21. T R A N S P O R T E N G I N E E R I N G

ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF ELECTROMOBILES AND ELECTRICBICYCLES IN CITY TRANSPORT SYSTEMS OF BRNO AND PRAHA 1077M. Ccnck, J. Kazelle, J. Finstcrlc, Z. Pospíchal

THE ROLE OF STRUCTURAL SENSITIVITIES IN THE DESIGN OF HIGHRELIABLE INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR TRANSPORTATION 1079P. MoosTHE ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION IN CREATION OF SETTLEMENTSAND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYNERGETIC PHENOMENA 1081P. Moos, A. Mansfcldová

THE INCREASE IN RELIABILITY AND SAFETY OF ROADCOMMUNICATIONS 1083F. Lehovcc, F, Luxcmburk, J. Volf, P. Karličky, I. Vébr, P. Jirava, P. Slabý

NEW DESIGNS OF HIGHWAYS AND THEIR RELIABILITY 1085F. Lehovcc, P. Karličky, J. Volf, F. Luxcmburk, P. Jirava, P. Slabý,D. Novotný

811


THEORETICAL MODEL FOR TRAFFIC VOLUME OF HEAVY VEHICLES 10S7

THE POSSIBILITY FOR MORE PRECISE COMPUTATIONS OF ONE DAYTRAFFIC VOLUME FROM SHORT-TERM MEASUREMENT 1089P. Karličky, B. Dlouhá, B. Pipková, L Vébv, A/. Hála

DESIGNING ROAD PAVEMENTS - PAVEMENT CATALOGUE 1091L Vebr

THE USAGE OF NAT DEVICE IN MONITORING UHEOLOGICALPROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS MIXES 1093A. Zemánkova

NEW POSSIBILITIES OF BITUMEN BINDERS AND MIXES MODIFICATION... 1095F. Luxemburk

DEVELOPMENT OF LECTURES ON AVIATION AT CTU 1097K. Draxlcr, F. Mazánek, J. Věříš

22. ECONOMICS & BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

THE DEVELOPMENT OF "STUDENT-ENTREPRENEUR" INTERACTION 1101V, Koráb

INFLUENCE OF THE MANAGEMENT ON THE FINANCIALPERFORMANCE 1103P. Sáhá, A. Glogar, O. Pavelková, M. Jurova, J. Bartušek

OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKS OF INVESTMENT ON THE FINANCIALMARKET 1105B. WinklerováHOUR OVERHEAD TARIFFS METHOD - A TOOL OF CENTRE ECONOMYEVALUATION 1107M. Zralý

MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF ACCELERATED DEPRECIATION 1109M. Písek

EC TRADE POLICY WITH RESPECT TO CENTRAL & EASTERNEUROPEAN COUNTRIES 1111K červenka

COMMERCIAL RELATIONS OF THE CENTRAL AND EAST EUROPEANCOUNTRIES WITH GERMAN BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS 1113F. Freiberg, K. Macík

QUALITY AND RELIABILITY IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC 1115A/. Kavan

THE PRESENT UNEMPLOYMENT IN THE WORLD ANDUNEMPLOYMENT IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC 1117//. Pačesová

812

WORKSHOP 9G CONTENTS

THE ECONOMICAL SUPPORT AND REV1TALISATION OF TOWNS ANDTOWN PARTS-II 1119P. Dlask

REVOCATION OF URBAN FUNCTIONS AND ECONOMICS 1121V. Beran

CHANGE OF FIRM CULTURE IN PRIVATIZED BUILDING FIRMS 1123M. Grossmanová

INFORMATION SUPPORT FOR TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ANDINNOVATIVE ENTERPRISING 1125V. Veselý, O. Sašinka, J. Ilajkr

THE UTILISATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN CONSULTANCYFOR SMALL- AND MEDIUM-SIZED BUSINESSES 1127L. Drltk, V. Koráb, Z. Macura

THE BUILDING COMPANY AND ITS COMPUTER NETWORK 1129J. Hovorka

DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY 1131J. Ktvaňa, A. Junek, J. Vlček

TAX ADVISING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 1133M. Polák, Z. Sadovský, Z. Macura, K. Tomek

DRINKING WATER DEMAND IN CONDITIONS OF MARKET ECONOMY 1135/. Ciháková, M. Synáčkova, P. Zykan, V. Skvan

MODERNIZATION OF THE WATER SUPPLY NETWORKS 1137P. Šrylr, I. Macek

METHODS OF IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT OFTRANSFORMATING MARKETING 1139A. Glogar, M. Vrdbltk, V. Nováček, M. Mikulúštík, D. Pavelková, J. Kubik,F. Pavelka, V. Kozák, V. Rytíř, J. Bartušek, B. Zimota, A. Vcljinová,V. Kuba, R. Bobák, Z. Beran, L. Jurča

COMMITMENT TO CHANGE? (MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT INCZECH AND POLISH COMPANIES) 1141E. Franková, E. Helienek, J. McGoldrick

COMPANIES IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC IN THE PROCESS OF ECONOMICTRANSFORMATION 1143P. Bervid, M. Keřkovský, L. Mikulec

NEXT PAOE(S)left BLAKK

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Section 13

OPTICS,

QUANTUM ELECTRONICS

AND PHOTONICS

NEXT PAGE(S)left

WORKSHOP 96 OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS fc PHOTONICS

DIFFRACTION OF RADIATION BYA SET OF IDENTICAL OBJECTS

J . Komrska, L. Kotačka, I. Procházka

TU, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Physical EngineeringTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: Finite lattice, lattice amplitude, shape function, shape amplitude, speckles.

The sum of phasors

plays an important role in mathematical description of both Fraunhofer diffraction by a setof identical objects with the same orientation in optics and the diffraction phenomena instructure analysis. In the sum k = 2a1/A is the wave number, i ^ the position vector of thej-th object, n the number of identical objects and X the position vector in the reciprocalspace, i.e. - in a good approximation - the position vector in the Fraunhofer diffractionpattern. For the sake of its importance we have investigated systematically the propertiesof the sum S(A',n).

(i) Generally - independently on the choice of the position vectors x^\ just under theassumption that i*'1* ^ x^\ i, j = 1, ...,n and that n is finite - we may say that

- the moduls |S(X;n) | is a bounded function and its maximum value is

max|S(X;n)| = 5(0; n) = ;i,

- the origin A' = 0 is the stationary point if both S(X',n) and |S(A";n)|, i.e.

VA, S(X = 0; n) = Vjp \S(X = 0; n)\ = 0,

- the mean value

<S(A>)> = 0, i f £ W = 0 , j = l , . . . , n

or (S(X',n)) = 1, if one of the vectors ^ is the zero vector,

- the mean value of the modulus

(ii) If the objects arc situated randomly in a finite region, the function |5(A';n)|2 createsspeckles, i.e. regions of the reciprocal space, where |5(A';n)|2 > n. If the objectsare randomly distributed in a rectangular parallelepiped with edges of the lenght /,-,the average size of the speckles in the direction of the edge /,• is /l7r/(fc/i). Hence, inagreement with the reciprocity, the speckles are elongated in the direction where theparallelepiped is flattened and vice versa. (We have tried to take advantage of thisfact to measurments of the roughness of surfaces but we have not been successful upto now.)

817

WORKSHOP 96 OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS & PHOTONICS

(iii) If the position vectors arc lattice vectors of a lattice, the sum 5(-V;?i) is a periodicfunction with the periodicity of the reciprocal lattice. This periodic function is calledthe lattice amplitude. Its squared modulus takes its maximum values n2 at the latticepoints of the reciprocal lattice. As shown in [2], the lattice function can be expandedinto a multiple infinite series of the so called shape amplitudes (the Fourier transformof the shape function of the finite lattice). It is remarkable that the lattice amplitudeis well approximated by the sum of a very small numbers of shape amplitudes, evenby a single one. For one dimensional case it was illustrated in [1]. To make it usefulfor two- and three- dimensional case, we have derived algebraic expressions for shapeamplitudes [3] and studied in detail the shape amplitudes of Platonic bodies (4-5].The whole thing may have some importance for the study of the shape of diffractionspots from small crystals.

(iv) If the position vectors i^") differ from the lattice vectors by a fraction e of the latticeparametr (i.e. xjJÍ = (m-'1 + eíjJÍ) a,-, m\^ = integer, í[j) e (0,1) a random number,e € (0,0.5)), there are two distinguishable regions in the reciprocal space: In a vicinityof the origin X = 0 the sum S(X\n) resembles the lattice function of the perfectlattice (e = 0). In an outer part of the reciprocal space the sum S(X;n) resemblesthat «responding to randomly distributed objects. From the boundary of the tworegions the limit e of the displacement can be specified.

References:

[1] KOMRSKA, J.: Lattice and shape amplitudes. Workshop 95, Prague, January 23 - 26,1995. Part III. Czech Technical University in Prague k Technical University in Brno1995, pp. G45-C46.

[2] KOMRSKA, J.: The Fourier transform ojlattices. Proceedings from the InternationalSummer School "Diagnostic and Applications of Thin Films", May 27th - June 5th1991 (L, Eckertová and T. Ríižička, eds.) IOP Publishing, Bristol 1992, 87-113.

[3] KOMRSKA, J.: Algebraic expressions of shape amplitudes of polygons and potyhedra.Optik 80 (1988), 171-183.

[4] KOMRSKA, J. - NEUMANN, W.: Crystal Shape Amplitudes of Platonic Polyhedra. I.General Aspects and the Shape Amplitudes of the Tetrahedron, Cube and Octahedron.phys. stat. sol. (a) 150 (1995), 89-111.

[5] NEUMANN, W. - KOMRSKA, J.: Crystal Shape Amplitudes of Platonic Polyhedra.II. The Regular Pentagonal Dodecahedron and the Icosakedron, phys. stat, sol (a)150 (1995), 113-126.

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Physical Engineering as part ofthe research project "Diffraction of Radiation by a Set of Identical Objects" and has beensupported by TU grant No. FU 350010.

818


OPTICAL TWEEZERS

M. Liška

TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Institute of Physical EngineeringTechnická 2, 616 00 Brno

Key words: laser beam, electromagnetic force, manipulation of particles, optical tweezers

We present the calculation of he trapping force acting on dielectric sphere when itis illuminated by a focused laser beam. These forces are involved in the electromagneticvolume force density / acting in the boundary of the sphere. The i-th component is Fi =J fidV = — f Sif-n^dA [1]. Here 5,-fc is the electromagnetic energy-momentum tensor in themedium. We are in position to find the expression for the effective force dF acting on thesurface element of the sphere by a pencil of light when hits on area element dA at M. Theforce can be calculated by means of the stress tensor on the outside, the total field beingcomposed of the incident field and the reflected field [2]. The incident field is suppased tohave the Gaussian form of the intensity distribution. Thus, if t?/, u/i, and ÜT denote theunit vectors of propagation for the incident, reflected, and transmitted rays, repectively, wehave

dF = textEfdA cos i ( u/ - RuR - £ T2RkuTfl 1. (1)

there we have added the subscript / on Ei to indicate that the field refers to the incidentwave; R and T are the reflection and transmission coefficients.

The longitudinal force Fg is found by integration of the ^-component of dF over illumi-nated part of the front of the sphere, setting d/1 = p2s\n #d#d<í> [ů is the angle supplemen-tary to the polar angle 0 of M in the plane of incidence, i.e., in the plane COM in Fig. 1,$ is the azimutal angle):

Ft = 2irpicezt x

If P is the total energy flux of the incident radiation, we may write the quadratic rms fieldas

2 _ 2P [ 2/>2sin2i7]

where z = so + Z = z0 — pcosdy w(z) is the beam radius at the position z. The angle i isgiven by the relation

—o sin2i? + Rt cos ůC O S ! = — -T7T-,

819

WORKSHOP OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS k PHOTONICS

where the angle r follows from Snell's law. The upper limit dmax in Eq. (2) corresponds tothe boundary of the illuminated region. From Fig. i it is evident that Ä* = R?c — p2sin2t?,where Rc is the radius of curvature of the spherical wavefront at z.

Numerical values of the longitudinal force Ft are drawn versus longitudinal displacementz in Fig. 2. The individual curves correspond to different values of the waist radius WQ.

waist

C

a

R*^

RI\

z

Z

M

—_

JO I z

Í

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

10 12 14 10

References:

[1] TRALLI, N.: Classical Electromagnetic Theory. McGraw — Hill Book Co., Inc., NewYork 1963.

[2) LIŠKA, M.: Laser Tweezers. In: Proc. Workshop 95, CTU Praha 1995, pp. 641-642

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Physical Engineering as part ofthe research project "Laser Manipulation of Particles" and has been supported by TU grantNo. FU 350019.

820

WORKSHOP 96 OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS k PHOTONICS

ION-IMPLANTEDPLANAR WAVEGUIDE STRUCTURES

P. Hříbek, J . Král, P. Piala,F. Foltiny, I. Hrubá

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Physical ElectronicsV Holešovickách 2, ISO 00 Praha S

Key words: waveguide structures, ion implantation, mode spectroscopy

An expansion of the topical electronics into an optical region needs small, compact,and effective lasers or laser systems compatible with fiber and integrated optics that shouldbe efficiently operated in visible (blue region for data storage), and near-infrared (I, II andIII telecommunication bands) regions. A development of novel laser amplifiers and sourcesutilizing planar or channel optical waveguides is attracting great attention of researcherssince it is possible to combine a laser effect with some other (electrooptic, acoustooptic, andnonlinear) phenomena. Such devices will be interesting as an optical signal generator forsoliton fiber transmission systems, and in many of integrated optics applications.

There arc, in principle, two ways how to achieve waveguides with amplifying (laser)effect, i.e. either to create the optical waveguide in a laser active material (e.g. YAG, YAP,rare-earth doped glass etc.) or to dote high-quality optical waveguides (e.g. LiNbOa, glass)with laser active ions (e.g. Er 3 +, Nd3 + etc.).

An ion implantation may be used to produce barrier-confined optical waveguides inmany crystalline materials (YAG, YAP, GGG, LiNbO3) by decreasing the refractive indexin the nuclear stopping region at the end of the ion track or by increasing the refractiveindex in the electron stopping region. The He+ or H+ ions have been used to create op-tical waveguides in a variety of substrates. Up to 3MeV lie"** ion beams at doses up to1017 ions/cm2 are used for this purpose [1], and usually a 2-5% refractive index change ina substrate is achieved using this method [2, 3]. Elcctrooptic (LiNbOa), nonlinear (BGO,KNbO3, BaTiO3 ) SBN), laser host (YAG, YAP, GGG) substrates, and amorphous glassesheve been used till now.

The aim of the research was the theoretical study, design and fabrication, and experi-mental characterization of planar optical waveguides realized by ion implantation in an Nddoped YAG (YAP) crystal and a Nd:glass sample.

He+ or H + »on implantation have been used for waveguide formation in laser crystalsand laser glass samples. For this purpose, the 100 kV ion implantation equipment, and up to2.5 MV Van de GraafF Accelerator have been used. The single isosceles prism method basedon observing and analyzing the dark modes has been utilized for the purpose of a waveguiderefractive index profile characterization. The two lens method (end coupling) is preparedfor very small samples for modal field profile measurements. Moreover, the ellipsometrymethod has been applied for the refractive index change study in a waveguide volume. Theexperimental results obtained will be presented and discussed.

821


References:

[1] TOWNSEND, P. D.: Waveguide lasers in insulators using ion implantation. Vacuum44, pp. 267-270 (1993)

[2] FIELD, S. J. - HANA, D. C. et a b Ion-implanted Nd:YAG waveguide laser. IEEEJ. Quantum Electron. 27, pp. 428-433 (1991)

[3] FIELD, S. J. - HANNA, D. C. et a b Ion-implanted Nd:AIgO:LiNbO3 planar waveguidelaser. Opt. Lett. 16, pp. 481-483 (1991)

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physical Electronics as partof the research project "Ion-Implanted Planar Waveguide Laser Structures"and has beensupported by CTU grant No. 10048293.

822


PROGNOSES ON FURTHERDEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH ONPHOTOINDUCED SELF-ORGANIZED

NONLINEAR OPTICAL PHENOMENA

P. Chrněla, J . Petráček, F. Petras*


*PU, Fac. of Science, Dep. of Optics17. listopadu 50, 771 46 Olomouc

Key words: second-harmonic generation, parametric down conversion, self-organization,self-saturation, optical fibers, waveguide structures

The discovery of light-induced second harmonic generation (SHG) in doped-glass fibershas inspired many efforts to explain the origin of self-organized growth of second-order sus-ceptibility (x ( 2 )) grating. The main aim is to develop cheap miniatur nonlinear elementswhich could replace the conventional nonlinear crystals and would be ulilizablc in optoelec-tronical devices (smart structures). Unfortunately, the maximum SH conversion efficiencyattained has not got over a few per cent hitherto. Mostly the limitation of SH conversionefficiency is attributed to the limited effective fiber length ttiat is dominantly restricted dueto the Kcrr-induced phase mismatch. (For review, sue refs. [1-2]).

Recently, two new models have been proposed [3-4] which predict that the ratio, Ji^/I*(/w and / 2 w being the light intensities of fundamental and SII radiation, respectively) sat-urates independently of the fiber length. The theoretically predicted saturation value of

The agreement of theoretically predicted self-saturation of self-organ i zed SHG withsome former experiments was already been reported in [5]. In addition, we have evaluateda number of published experiments on self-organ i zed SHG with self-seeding and externalseeding, and we have found that the exeperimentally determined value of (huflDm rangesfrom about 0.2 x 10' 1 6 to 2x 10"1 6 m2/W [6]. The uncertainty within one order is dominantlycaused by the inaccuracy of experimental data reported.

. The relevant question arises of how the self-saturation limits the maximum conversionefficiency of photoinduced nolinear optical phenomena.

As for the self-organized SHG the maximum SH conversion efficiency predicted is(hulIJ)max t 10" l o/w in SI units. Considering the extreme peak values of pump intensitiesto be of the order of 1014 W/m2 that are used in real experiments, we arrive at (hu,/7w)mor as10~2, which is in a very good accord with real experiments. The pump intensities need forthe total or nearly total SII conversion are of the order of 101G W/m2. However, such in-tense radiations must burn the fiber. Thus the prognoses for highly efficient photoinducedup conversion processes are rather sceptic.

On the other hand, if using relatively intense SH seeding being above the saturationvalue, I{"dlll > 10~16 m2/W, an unstable state is created and the interaction is expected

823


to have a tendency to saturate. This can happen dut» to the energy transfer from theSH radiation into the fundamental radiation. In the case if I^IU""1)2 > *0~ie m2/\V,the efficiency of photo;nduccd parametric down conversion (PDC) in the saturation statepredicted is I^tput/(Pjput-h P2

nJut) % 1. Unfortunately, the strong visible (grcen/bluc) lightalone causes the erasure of ,\*2' structure created. However, we are of the opinion thatoptimum pump and seeding light intensities can be found, which are able to write veryeffectively stable x^ gratings into doped glasses using the PDC processes. It seems verylikely that the effective x^ gratings were formed due to the self-organized PDC in someexperiments reported, if the SH seeding radiation exceeded considerably the saturation value(see discussion in [6]).

A successful and unambiguous experimental demonstrations of very effective self-orga-nized PDC proposed would be a goal thai could radically reverse the further developmentof the research on photoinduccd self-organized nonlinear optical phenomena in doped-glasswaveguide structures. Many potential applications are envisioned, especially for new kindsof self-shaped amplifiers or frequency down converters.

References:

[I] CIIMELA, P.: Self-organized nonlinear optical phenomena in Optical fibers, in ModernNonlinear Optics, Part. 1, cds. M. W. Evans and S. Kielich, p. 2-19 (Wiley, New York,]993).

[2] DIANOV, E. M. - STARODUBOV, D. S.: Photoinduccd second-harmonic generationin glasses and glass optical fibers, Optical Fiber Technology 1 (199<1), 3.

[3] ANDERSON, D. Z. - M1ZRAHI, V. - SIPE, J. E.: Model for second-harmonic gen-eration in glass optical fibers based on asymmetric photockctron emission from defectsites, Optics Letters 16 (1991), 796.

[4] CIIMELA, P. - PETRÁCEK, J. - ROMOLINI, A. - PASCUCCI, T. ct al.: Com-ments on directional pliotoionizalion model of second-harmonic generation in dopedglass fibers, Optics Communications 113 (1994), 305.

[5] CHMELA, P. - PETRÁCEK, J.: LiuMing efficiency of self-organized second-harmonicgeneration in dopcd-glass fibers by self-saturation, in Workshop 95, p. 637 (Czech Tech-nical University, Prague, 1995).

[6] CHMELA, P. - PETRÁCEK, J. - ROMOLINI, A. - PASCUCCI, T. et al.: Evaluationof saturation of photoindnccd second-harmonic generation in doped glass fibers, OpticalFiber Technology 1 (1995), in press.

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Physical Engineering as a part ofthe research project "Photoinduccd nonlinear optical phenomena" and has been supportedby TU grant No. FU350036.

S24


PHOTOREFRACTIVEBARIUM TITANATE

SINGLE-CRYSTAL RESEARCH

P. Hříbek

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. k Phys. Eng., Dcpt. of Physical ElectronicsV Holcšovičkách 2, 180 00 Praha S

Key words: nonlinear optics, photorcfractive materials, barium titanate

The BaTiO3 is a photorefractive material which exhibits strong optical nonlinearityat low laser powers, and is therefore of interest for a variety of potential applications, asare optical phase conjugation, signal processing, image processing, image amplification,optical data processing, dynamic optical elements, locking of laser diodes, new technique ofinterferometry etc.

The origin of the photorefractive effect in BaTiOg, i.e. the exact nature of microscopiccenters responsible for this effect is still a matter of research. Many different dopants(Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Fe+Ni, Rh) and different technologies are used to change the quality ofBaTiO3 crystals. A study of characteristics and behavior of these crystals in the TWM,SPPC, DSPPC, and other nonlinear processes is a way of characterization of these crystals.Many investigations like this have been realized in the visible part of optical spectrum wherethe crystal response has tended to be the mosL efficient.

A progress in the optical communications and laser technique drown attention on apossibility to extend the crystal response into the near infrared (NIR) region.

We will present the results of an experimental investigation of undoped and dopedBaTiOa single-crystals. Particularly, we will show the results of research on propertiesof these crystals at the SPPC process. The research has been realized in visible spectralregion (430-650 nm) and NIR regions (720-835nm, and 855-1004 nm) separately, at slightlydifferent experimental conditions.

A systematic study was undertaken at 633 nm and G47nm for the undoped crystal. Theresults obtained will be compared with those measured at SOOnm for the doped crystal [1].Our experiments were carried out at the wavelength where we had a possibility to opticallyisolate the crystal from the laser source. We measured the dependence of phase conjugatereflectivity on a horizontal beam position on the entrance face (.?), on the external angle ofincidence (0), and on the input power (7^n).

Nearly 80% SPPC reflectivity was achieved for the undoped BaTiOa crystal and theangle of incidence of 65° at 647 nm pump laser light; and 75% reflection at 800 nm andBrcwstcr's angle of Incidence for the doped crystal [1].

Sensitivity of SPPC process for small vibrations will be shown, and some possibleapplication of the SPPC will be discussed as well.

When SPPC processes were compared in undoped and doped crystals, they have shownquite different properties, especially in a difference in the character of SPPCR. Moreover,there is not correspondence with J. Fcinbcrg's Two Beam Interaction Region model ofSPPC [2], and also others.

825


Experimental results obtained will be presented, and some physical explanation of thephenomena observed will be discussed.

References:[1] ROSS, G. W. - HŘÍBEK, P. - EASON, R. W. ct al.: Impurity enhanced self-pumped

phase conjugation in the near infrared in "blue" BaTiO$, Optics Comm. 101, pp. 60-64(1993)

[2] MACDONALD, K. R. - FEINBERG, J.: Theory of self-pumped phase conjugator withtwo interaction regions, J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 73, pp. 54S-553 (1983)

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physical Electronics as partof the research project uPhotoinduced nonlinear optical phenomena" by TU grant numberFUS50036.

826


NUMERICAL MODELINGAND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

OF FORM BIREFRINGENTMICROSTRUCTURES

I. Richter

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Physical ElectronicsV Holcsovickách 2( 180 00 Praha s"

Key words: high spatial frequency gratings, form birefringence, bircfringent computergenerated hologram, effective medium theory, rigorous coupled wave analysis,artificial anisotropic dielectrics

Diffraction characteristics of high-spatial-frequency (HSF) surface-relief gratings madeof an isotropic dielectric material are studied and evaluated with the relation to the potentialfuture application in birefríngent computer generated holograms (BCGII) [l]. Two differentapproaches, second order effective-medium theory (EMT) [2] and rigorous coupled-waveanalysis (RCWA) fM] are usnd. The reflectivities for both TE and TM polarized wavesand the phase difference between these waves are investigated in terms of various inputparameters, and results obtained with EMT and RCWA are compared. It is shown thatwhile the reflection characteristics can be accurately modeled using the EMT, the phasedifference created by form birefringence for TE and TM polarized waves requires the use ofa more rigorous, RCWA approach.

The EMT model is based on the uniaxial nature of a HSF grating. Such a grating has asmall period-to-wavelength ratio such that high diffraction orders are evanescent, and onlythe zeroth order can propagate. Thus, a surface-relief grating of an arbitrary profile can bemodeled by a stack of homogeneous anisotropic thin layers with generally different equivalentdielectric constants for each layer, determined with the degree of accuracy required (zerothor second order EMT) from the solutions of the transcendental equations. Finally, classicalmethods of wave propagation in stratified media are employed to obtained the diffractioncharacteristics. It should be noted that the correct results from EMT may be obtained onlyif the period-to-wavelength ratio is so small that all higher than the zeroth diffraction ordersare evanescent. In contrast, the rigorous approaches, based on the exact electromagneticwave theory, can provide correct results for arbitrary period-to-wavelength ratio, althoughthe numeric implementation itself is much more computationally intensive. The RCWA, alsoused in this paper, was first introduced in Ref. 3 to analyze the diffraction properties of TEpolarized light in lossless surface-relief gratings. We treat the case of TM light polarizationin a similar manner, modifying the coupled wave equations for this polarization. To avoidnumeric calculations instabilities, a modified algorithm for solving the boundary conditions,as recently presented in [<1], was successfully implemented.

The coexistence of form birefringence and antireflection properties in IISF gratings cre-ates a new dimension in designing optical bircfringent components. Unlike the anisotropic

827


thin film that exhibits fixed birefringence, the birefringence of the HSF grating microstrtn* •ture can be controlled by changing one of the grating parameters (e.g. the surface profileand/or duty cycle). In addition to form birefringence, the HSF microstructures possesantircflcction characteristics which can also be considered and used in designing opticalcomponents. However, since the birefringence and the antireflcction properties of HSF mi-crostructurcs are interrelated, design optimization will be required for applications that relyon both properties (e.g. single substrate BCGH). Despite these advantages in design flexi-bility, to fabricate such a HSF microstructure remains to be a challenging task, especiallyfor operation in the visible wavelength region. Existing techniques can provide minimumfeature size close to the required sub-micron range, however not without loosing the gratingshape design flexibility and accuracy.

Design considerations of HSF gratings for the possible use in a single substrate BCGHare also discussed [5]. Two major requirements on IISF gratings arc imposed by BCG1Iapplication: large form birefringence and minimum reflectivity for both TE and TM polar-ized light. Although these two performance characteristics were found to be contradictory,it is possible to formulate simple design criteria of an optimum grating profile that can pro-vide the desired phase difference and simultaneously reduce the reflectivity. Tins techniquecan be used to optimize properties of HSF gratings according to the particular applicationrequirements, e.g. to the single substrate BCGH.

References:

[1] XU, F. - FORD, J. E. - FAINMAN, Y.: Polarization selective computer generatedholograms: Design, fabrication, and applications Appl. Opt. 34, 25G (1995).

[2] RYTOV, S. M.: Electromagnetic properties of a finely stratified medium. Sov, Phys.JETP2,466 (1956).

[3] MOHARAM, M. G. - GAYLORD, T. K.: Diffraction analysis of dielectric surface reliefgratings. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 72, 13S5 (1982).

[4] CHATEAU, N. - HUGONIN, J. P.: Algoritmfor the rigorous coupled-wave analysis ofgrating diffraction. J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 11, 1321 (1994).

[5) RICHTER, I. - SUN, P. C. - XU, F. - FAINMAN, Y.: Design considerations of formbirefringent viicrostructurcs, Appl. Opt. 34, 2421 (19%).

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physical Electronics as part ofthe research project "Modeling and Design of Artificial Anisotropie Dielectric Structures''1

and has been supported by CTU grant No. Í00J8294.

828


PROPERTIES OF THE APE LITHIUMNIOBÁTE WAVEGUIDES FABRICATEDFROM NON-TOXIC PROTON SOURCES

J, Hradilová, J. Schröfel*, Z. Burian*

Institute of Chemical Technology Prague, Dept. of Inorganic ChemistryTechnická 5, 166 28 Praha 6

*CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of MicroelectronicsTechnická 2, ICG 27 Praha C

Key words: integrated optics, planar waveguides, channel waveguides, lithium niobáte,proton exchange, adipic acid, cinnamic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid

Proton exchange technique is a simple and low temperature process, compared to aconventional titanium indiffusion method, that has been recently recognized.

The process itself involves a chemical reaction between the substrate and the protonsource, in which protons II+ diffuse into the bulk substrate and lithium ions Ü + diffuseout of the surface of the substrate. The next step is a postexchange annealing of the as-exchanged waveguides, which improves significantly the waveguides parameters, esp. whatconcerns their electro-optical coefficient and stability.'

The most commonly used proton source has been so far benzoic acid. However, this acidis known to be extremely volatile at higher temperatures, corrosive and possibly canceroge-nous, so that there is an increasing interest in using othctr proton sources, both inorganicand organic acids. However, the results published deal mostly with Z-cuts of lithium niobáteand systematic studies are lacking also for other crystailographically oriented substrates.

We report, the results of our systematic comparative investigation of the waveguidesfabricated from adipic, cinnamic, palmitic and stcaric acids in X-, Y- and Z-cut.s lithiumniobáte.

Properties of all the prepared waveguides exhibit the following general trends:

- waveguide depth and number of supported modes increase with longer times andhigher temperatures of proton exchange and annealing

- positive value of the extraordinary index change Anc decreases with higher annealingtemperature

- doping of the acidic melt with an appropriate lithium salt makes the proton exchangeprocess slower, the waveguides arc then shallower and support less number of modes.In the case of cinnamic acid and for longer exchange times also of adipic acid forX- and Y-cuts the doping of the melt prevents the samples surface damage.

Evolution of refractive index profile for all acids and for comparison also for bufferedbenzoic acid is shown in Fig. 1 (PE: 2h, 215°C; A: 1-2 h, 350°C) and Pig. 2 (PE: 4h, 215°C;A: 1-2h, 350°C). It is seen, that under the same experimental conditions pure cinnamicacid behaves as the strongest proton source, while doped benzoic acid resembles morcless

829


the proton source much weaker than stearic acid. It is obvious that diffusion constants forthe cuts are different, with the relation DA* > Dz

Fig. 1: Evolution of refractive index profiles Fig. 2: Evolution of refractive index profilesfor various proton sources in Z-cut for various proton sources in X-cut

Electrooptical properties of APE LiNbO3 waveguides prepared from the adipic acidhave been studied using interferometric method. Planar waveguides have been for Z-cutsmeasured with the Mach-Zehnder interfeio meter setup and for channel waveguides with theFabry-Perot resonances. The measured values of r33 are 27 ± lpm/V at 633 nm in planarwaveguides and 30 ± 1 pm/V at 1150nm in channel waveguides, this value is close to thevalue of bulk LiNbO3.

We expect similar results for the waveguides fabricated from other acids as well.Conclusions. It has been demonstrated that adipic, cinnamic, palmitic and stearic acids

can be in principle used for fabrication of good quality opticul waveguides in lithium niobáte.For a routine waveguide fabrication cinnamic acid is rather inconvenient, being potentiallycancerogenous due to its aromatic character. The most suitable proton source has appearedto be adipic acid, either pure or doped with its lithium salt.

References:

[1] JACKEL, J. L. - RICE, C. E. - VESELKA, J. J.: Appl. Phys. Lett. 1932, 41, 607

[2] LONI, A.: Laser Focus World 1991, 183

[3] JACKEL, J. L.: SPIE Vol. 15S3 Integrated Optical Circuits 1991, 54

[4] CANALI, C. ct al: J. Appl. Phys. 19S6, 59, 2634

This work has been supported by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic with ContractNo. 102/93/0783

830

WORKSHOP 9G OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS k PHOTONICS

NEW TECHNIQUESIN ATMOSPHERIC STUDIES,POLLUTION MONITORING

AND LASER RANGEFINDING

I. Procházka, K. Hamal, S. M. Perfiin*, B. Sopko**

CTU, Fac. of Nud. Sei. & PJiys. Eng., Depl. of Physical ElectronicsBřehová 7, 115 19 Prague 1, Czech Republic

*Space Research Institute,Moscow, Russia

**CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of PhysicsTechnická 4, 1G6 07 Praha 6

Key words: lidar, photon counting, altimetry, dust monitoring, aerosol monitoring, laserranging, eye safe laser

We arc presenting the results of the technology transfer and applications of space laserrangefindmg techniques to the atmospheric remote sensing, lidar and pollution monitoring.Our department has been working on the subject of high precision satellite laser rangingsince beginning of this technique. Thanks to the technology improvement the satellite laserranging precision has improved from several meters in early seventies down to subcentimetervalues in nineties. All the recent applications arc based on the in house built all solid statephoton counting detector with picosecond timing resolution [1]. To be able to model theatmospheric refraction and hence to calculate the millimeter accuracy laser ranging correc-tion we have been introducing the multiple wavelengths laser ranging technique employingthe picosecond resolution photon counting receiver [2]. The system has been developed incooperation with the Technical University Graz and Space Research Institute of AustrianAcademy of Sciences and is operated on the Satellite Laser Station Graz, Austria. It permitsto verify the existing atmospheric refraction range correction models down to subcentimeteraccuracy. For the space to ground two wavelengths laser ranging we have proposed therangefinder package based on the diode pumped high rcprate mode locked NdYAG laseroperating on the fundamental and second harmonic frequencies, photon counting receiverand data processing.

For the Russian MARS mission balloon probe we did develop the laser altimeter basedon the laser diode transmitter and a photon counting receiver [3j. According to the groundbased tests, the device may be used as a lidar for Mars atmosphere aerosol and dust mon-itoring, as well [4]. The capabilities and possible application of such a system in groundbased experiments have been investigated. Supported by the GACR grant 102/96/0379 theCompact Lidar has been developed and tested. The device is based on the laser diode gener-ating 90 nsec pulses, 200 nano Joules with the repetition rate up to 5 kHz at the wavelengths820 to 914 nanometers (different diodes may be selected) as a transmitter and the SinglePhoton Avalanche Diode as a detector. The transmit and receive optics Itave a diameter20 millimeters. The whole system, including the control computer is hand transportable.

831

WORKSHOP 9G OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS fe PHOTONICS

An atmospheric pollution monitoring using the Compact Udar has been performed.The pollution aerosol clouds from industrial plants, cars and ships engines have beentraced [5]. The lower cloud boundary heights have been measured up to the one kilometer(night time). The atmospheric visibility can be measured in arbitrary direction within ex-tremely wide range. The possibility to employ two laser transmitters operating on differentwavelengths has been tested with the aim to trace the atmospheric humidity profile. Thephoton counting detector itself has been used to construct the sensor to monitor the dustpollutants concentration in the industrial exhalations.

The recent achievements of our group in solid state photon counting in the near infraredis opening a new application areas: the ranging techniques listed above may be operatedat the wavelength up to 1600 nanometers. The high power laser transmitters may beemployed still maintaining the complete eye safety. The experimental picosecond laserranging over a long horizontal atmospheric path has been accomplished in cooperation withthe Communication Research Labs, in Tokyo, Japan [6].

It is expected, that multiple wavelength picosecond laser ranging in the near infrared willcontribute to the refining of the existing atmospheric refraction models. The new satellitemission ADEOS scheduled for launch in 1996 from Japan will enable even more extendedatmospheric remote sensing based on the Re I ro re flee tor In Space (RIS) experiment.

References:

[1] PROCHÁZKA, I. - HAMAL, K. - KIRCHNER, K. G. - SOPKO, B.: Pholodiodcfor Subccntimetcr Satellite Laser Ranging Operating at Room Temperature and SinglePhoton Level Technical Digest Series, Optical Society of America, Vol. 7, WashingtonDC, 1990, pp. 139

[2] HAMAL, K. - PROCHÁZKA, I. - JELÍNKOVA, II. et. al: Atmospheric DispersionMeasurements Using Two Wavelengths Satellite Laser Ranging Technical Digest SeriesVol. 9, International Quantum Electronics Conference, Vienna, 1992, pp. 64

[3] PERSHIN, S. M. et.al - PROCHÁZKA, I. et. al: Spaccborn Altimeter Based on Semi-conductor Laser Transmitter and a Single Photon Diode Receiver Proceedings of theConference on Lasers and Electro Optics '91, Technical Digest Series Vol. 10, Washing-ton DC, 1991, pp. 520

[4] PERSHIN, S. M. et. al: Compact Eye Safe Radiation Level Lidnr for EnvironmentalMedia Monitoring SPIE Vol. 2107, pp. 336-3G4, 1993

[5] PERSIIIN, S. M. et. al: Spatio-Tcmporal Picture of the Atmospheric Pollution withAerosols over Volga River Optika atmosféry i okeana 7, No. 1 (109-1), pp. 5-18-555

[6] KUNIMORI, H. et.al - HAMAL, K. et. ah Stthcentimctcr eyesafe ranging Conferenceon Lasers and Electro Optics, CLEO Pacific Rim '95, Chiba, Japan, July 12-15, 1995,to be published in IEEE

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physical Electronics as part ofthe research projects "Compact LI DAR for Ecology and Meteorology" supported by GACRgrant No. 102/96/0379, the high precision satellite laser ranging has been supported, amongothers, by the grant of the European Space Agency grant ERS-1/7831/91-4 provided by GFZPotsdam.

832


LASER PROBE FOR OPTICALDETECTION OF ULTRASONICTRANSIENT DISPLACEMENTS

R. Bálek

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of PhysicsTechnická 2, 1G6 27 Praha 6

Key words: laser, interferometer, ultrasound, displacement

A heterodyne optical interferometer used for measuring transient mechanical displace-ment is described. The sensitivity, achieved is 0,07 nm in a bandwidth of 50 MHz,

This interferometer was set up for research work on chemical sensors, based on aninteraction between acoustic wave, propagating along thin chemical layer, and changedchemical characteristics of this layer. This interaction can influence propagation of acousticwaves, their diffraction, absorption, local reflection and changes of velocity [1],

This method has the advantage of probing a small area, requiring no mechanical con-tact. Transient measurements give a lot of information. Wave excited by a pulse are readilydistinguishable as they travel with different velocities. Measuring a displacement amplitudeof 0,07nm in 50 MHz bandwidth requires sensitivity better than lO^nmHz" 1 ' 2 . Our ar-rangement is similar to set-up published in [2], hut the drawback of necessity of collinearcell is overcome.

To summarise the principle of operation see Fig. 1.Two beams arc obtained from the polarised He-Ne laser - LA, and Bragg cell

modulator - B and driver - BD. The reference beam - R, frequency shifted by (/L ± JB)is directed through a special prism - P, and polarising beam splitter - PBS, toward thephotodiodc - D. The direct beam - S, is reflected by vibrating sample- 0 , driven withgenerator - OD, causing a modulation of the beam phase and changed in polarisation by amean of A/'l plate - PL. The beating of the two beams - R and - S on the photodiode - D,results in currents at frequencies JB, JB ± JA- Where fA is the vibrational frequency of thesample. An analyser - A (polariser), oriented '15° relative to the two polarisation vectors,extracts from the two beams two polarisation components that arc parallel. The require-ment in angular alignment for the two beams incident on the photodetcctor is very strict.The focusing of the probe beam onto the object by a mean of lenses - L, has several advan-tages: defining the spot more precisely, collecting a larger amount of reflected light, makingthe instrument less sensitive to the tilt of the sample. The unwanted beams are spent inoptical absorbers - OA.

The ofT-ccntering the laser beam improves the operation of the probe. It eliminates thespurious signals that come from the reflections on the splitter interface of the - PBS cube.These come on the one hand from the probe beam, on the other hand from reference beam.These beams are prevented from returning to the laser and then from being reflected backto the photodiode.

Signal processing of the phase-modulated photocurrcnt is very simple. The outputsignal of the photodiode is split into two parts. One of these goes through a filter which

833

WORKSHOP OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS k PHOTONICS

selects the carrier frequency at fB and is JT/2 phase-shifted by a mean of a coax cable ofsuitable length. The mixing of this component with the other part of the photodetectorsignal gives the acoustic signal at JA and a signal at 2/B. The system is not sensitive tothe vibration of the bench because the high frequency components arc eliminated with alow-pass filter. The signal is displayed on the screen of oscilloscope.

By a mean of this sot-up we are able to investigate the transient vibration of thevibrating surfaces caused by bulk or surface acoustic wave transducers. We used this methodfor measuring short ultrasonic pulses in fluids and air too. The optical phase shift of theprobe beam is proportional to the acoustic pressure integrated along the light path.

LA

Fig. 1: Optical arrangement of the interferometer

References:

[1] BÁLEK, R.: Vliv tloušťky hliníkové vrstvy na rychlost povrchové vlny v LiNbOz*25.Akustícká konference, Ultrazvuk 86, Bratislava 198G, pp. 157-15S.

[2] ROYER, D. - DIEULESANT, E-: Optical Detection of Sub-Angstrom Transient Me-chanical Displacement. 19SG Ultrasonics Symposium, pp. 527-530.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physics as part of the researchproject "Chemical sensors" and has been supported by GAÚH grant No. 104/95/0709.

834


MODE-LOCKING OFA DIODE-PUMPED NdrYAP LASER

WITH AO MODULATOR

V. Kubeček, O. Guy*, A. Barthelemy*

CTU, Fac. of Nud. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Physical ElectronicsV Holešovičkách 2, ISO 00 Praha 8

*1RCOM, Universite de Limoges, Equipe Optique123 av.A.Thomas, F-87060 Limoges, FRANCE

Key words: solid state lasers, mode-locking, diode-pumping

Actively mode-locked diode pumped solid state lasers are of great interest. Whencompared to conventional (lamp-pumped) mode-locked lasers, they provide shorter pulses,better stability and significantly reduced timing jitter. Diode pumped lasers are typicallyend pumped with the gain medium at one end of a standing wave cavity. The other keycomponents are the mode-lockcr and the output coupler, which are both located at the otherend of the cavity. With the use of conventional active mode-locking schemes, pulse widthsof 12 ps have been demonstrated for frequency mode-locked Nd:YAG lasers [1] and less than10 ps for AM and FM mode-locked Nd:YLF lasers [2]. It has been shown, that significantlyshorter pulses could be obtained in diode-pumped lasers in the FM case (12 ps as oppositeto 55 ps for AOML Nd:YAG) [3] or using a special design high frequency acousto-opticsmode-lockers (7.5 ps from AOML Nd:BEL laser) [4].

In this paper we investigate the feasibility of using a diode-pumped neodymium-dopedYAP (Nd:YAIOa) for ultrashort pulse generation. NdrYAP is a biaxial material with anemission spectrum known to consist of several sharp lines spread over 50 nm from 1050to 1105nm. The effective cross section of the strongest component is comparable withthat for NdrYAG and occurs at 1079.5 nm for light polarized along c-axis (Pbnm notation).Nd:YAP is a robust crystal, that lias properties generally comparable with NdrYAG but itdoes have certain advantages. For the ultrashort pulse generation the wider luminiscencehandwith of NdrYAP (7-11 cm"1) as compared to NdrYAG (6.5cm"1) shows its potentialto generate shorter pulses. Another advantages of Nd:YAP in comparison with NdrYAGare that thermally induced birefringence at high power ir. ».ot a. problem because of naturalbirefringence and a large branching ratio for the 4F3/2-'1Iii/2 transition makes it attractivefor operation at 1.34/mi. However, an important consideration at high pump power is thesignificant thermal induced astigmatic focussing for which the laser cavity must be designed.The advantages have been demonstrated mainly in flashlamp pumped lasers and there areto our knowledge no data about cw diode pumped actively-mode locked operation of thismaterial. The diode pumping of NdrYAP is possible in relatively broad absorption regionaround SQO-SIO am, unlike for Nď.YAG there is no single dominating absorption line.

In our experiment we have used a three mirror folded resonator similar to the popularastigmatically compensated cavity used in most diode pumped laser systems. The 4Wlaser diode array (Spectra Diode Laboratories Model 2382-P1) was wavelength selected andtemperature controlled for operation near S10 nm. The pun.p radiation was focussed through

835

WORKSHOP 96 OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS fe PHOTONICS

flat end into the 10 mm long Nd:YAP rod with diameter of 4 mm (Preciosa Turnov, CzechRepublic), with its axis cut along the b-crystallographic axis. The flat end of the rod washigh reflection coated for l.OS/jm and antireflection coated for 810 nm to avoid any spuriousetalon effects inside the cavity. The rest of the cavity consisted of a high rejecting 500 mmradius of curvature turning mirror and a C percent transmitting wedged output coupler. Theangle of the folded cavity compensated for the astigmatism introduced by the "standard"Brewstcr angle cut AO inodc-lockcr (Intraaction covp.) operating at 75MHz with RF inputpower of 2 W, placed near to the output coupler. For the pump power of 2000 mW fromthe laser diode incident on the laser crystal, the average output laser power was 200 mW atwavelength of 1079.5 nm. The pulse width was measured using an scanning autocorrolatorwith noncolinear second harmonic generation. FWHM of the autocorrelation trace wasequal to 16 ps, which corresponds to the pulse duration of 10.3 ps for a scch2 autocorrelationfit, showing a very good coincidence with the measured curve. The output laser radiationwas "linearly polarized along the c-axis of the Nd:YAP rod. The spectral profile measuredwith a spectral analyzer was a smooth curve with FWHM of 0.2 nm which is near to theresolution limit of the instrument. The free-running spectrum was 2-3 times wider withseveral peaks.

For comparison, from the Nd:YAG crystal operated under the same experimental con-ditions the calculated pulse duration was 16ps but assuming Lorcnzian pulse shape (FWI1Mof the autocorrelation trace was of 32 ps) with an average output power of 350 mW. Thereason for higher output power is higher absorption of the SOSnm pum]) radiation insidethe Nd:YAG rod.

In conclusion, we have demonstrated that a diode-pumped acousto-optically mode-locked Nd:YAP laser can be used for generation of pulses with duration of 10 ps at wavc-lengtht of 1079.5 nm. Pulses are substantially shorter than pulses from AO mode-lockedNd:YAG laser and are nearly as short as the pulses from the AO mode-locked Nd:YLF laserreported in [2].

References:

[1] MAKER, G. T. - FERGUSON, A. I.: Frequency-modulation mode-locking of a diodc-pumped Nd:YAG laser Opt. Lett. 14 (19S9) 7SS-7SÍ0

[2] Introduction to Diode-Pumped Solid Stale lasers. Technical Information No. 1, Light-wave Electronics USA, 1993.

[31 MAKER, G. T. - KEEN, S. J. - FERGUSON, A. I.; Mode-locked and Q-switchcdoperation of a diode laser pumped Nd:YAG laser operating at 1.064 fim. Appl. Phys.Lett. 53 (18) (19SS) 1675-1C77.

[<!] LI( K. D. - SHERIDAN, J. A. - BLOOM, M. D.; Picosecond pulse generation inNd:BEL with a high frequency acousio-optic modc-locker. Opt. Lett. 16 (1991) 1505-1507

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physical Electronics as part ofthe research project "Picosecond Solid State Lasers with Nonlinear Mirror" and has beensupported by Grant Agency of the Czech republic grant No. 102/94/03S1.

836


ENVIRONMENTAL HIGH RESOLUTIONSCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

R. Autrata , X Jirák*, J. Špinka*

Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Scientific InstrumentsKrálovopolská 147, 612 64 Brno

*TU Brno, Faculty of Electrical Eng. and Comp. Sei., Department of Elect rot echnologyAntonínská 1, 662 19 Brno

Key words: ESEM, detection in ESEM, material or topographic contrast

Scanning electron microscopy operating at higher pressures in the specimen chamberbecomes, owing to some of its merits, the subject of interest of some manufacturers ofelectron optical devices. Most of them (JEOL, LEO, HITACHI) design their devices fora pressure range of up to 270 Pa. At tins pressure, a restriction of the so-called chargingeffects takes place for a majority of insulating specimens. These effects hinder the users ofclassical scanning electron microscopes from observing the specimens without using specialpreparation techniques. The design of our device is based on the possibility of observingspecimens at pressures above the mentioned value. The limiting pressure in the specimenchamber is assumed to be 2000-5000 Pa. Moreover, a higher pressure gives a possibility ofdirect observing wet specimens (their drying is restricted) and provides conditions for theuse of the so-called ionization gas detector for the detection of signal electrons. A part of theexperimental work carried out within the grant is aimed at the verification of the propertiesof the so-called double paired scintillation detector [1], Its merits can be summarized asfollows:

• The detector simultaneously acts as the pressure limiting vacuum diaphragm necessaryfor separating the chambers with different gas pressures.

• The paired detector permits the separate recording of the signal from its left and righthalves. This, together with the computer image processing, is the prerequisite forincreasing the topographic or the material contrast in the recorded image.

• The upper stage of the detector permits an efficient signal detection even at very smallworking distances of the specimen from its bottom stage. Small working distances aresuitable for observing specimens at higher pressures.

• The scintillation single crystal of the bottom stage of the detector permits preparationof an electrode system for the ionization gas detector.

The results of observation of specimens at pressures above 200 Pa confirm the advan-tages of the design of the double paired scintillation detector [1] and [2]. First experiencewith the use of the ionization gas detector has been obtained. Experiments which are inprogress now are aimed at the verification of the performance of the ionization gas detectorand of the optimization of the electrode system.

837


To achieve a higher resolution limit, a conception of an environmental scanning electronmicroscope with an electron optical system of a new design is considered. The microscope issupposed to be equipped with a CeB6 cathode with a higher current density, and with thedetection system to be simultaneously verified. Part of this conception is a new objectivelens of the microscope in which a space is available between the pole pieces which permitsrealization of the so-called differential vacuum evacuation. The design of this part of theoptical system with a theoretical value of resolution below onm was presented in [3].

References;

[1] AUTRATA, R. - JIRÁK, J. - SPINKA, J.: Detection of backscattercd electrons inenvironmental SEM. Proceedings of 1CEEM 13, Paris, 1994, p. 127-12S.

[2] AUTRATA, R. - JIRÁK, J. - SPINKA, J.: Detection of signal electrons in ESEM.Proceedings of MCEM 2, Stará Lesná, 1995, p. 113-1M.

[3] FlSER, J. - CHMELÍK, J.: Objective lens for environmental SEM. Proceedings ofMCEM 2ř Stará Lesná, 1995, p. 107-108.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Elcctrotechnology as part of theresearch project "Environmental High Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy" and hasbeen supported by TU Brno grant No. 450047.

838


STAND-ALONE SCANNING FORCEAND NEAR-FIELD OPTICAL

MICROSCOPY WITH UNCOATEDFIBER PROBE

P. Tománek, M. Liška*, P . Dobis,L. Grmela, J . Briistlová, N . Uhdeová

TU, Fac. of Electrical Eng. & Comp.Sci., Dcpt. of PhysicsTechnická S, GIG 00 Brno

*TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dcpt. of Physical Eng.Technická 2, 616 G9 Brno

Key words: scanning probe microscope, surface topography, lateral resolution, nano-sour-ce, nano-tletector, distance control, tip fabrication

For overpassing classical limits of lateral resolution in optical microscopy it is necessaryto detect a diffracted signal from small details of the object in the non-radiative near-field.The near-field light waves interact with the object details and then can be used to determinea topography and/or an optical image of object [1-2]. The solution consists of frustratingthe evanescent field existing in the vicinity of the object surface for instance by means ofoptical fiber probe. We present here a new super-resolution hybrid shear-force and near-fieldoptical microscope in a compact configuration using two 5mW laser diodes (A = 790 nm)

A prototype which works in reflection mode SKOM has been built [3]. The principalstage of the proposed set-up is made of an existing STM device (Tescan Brno). The con-trol unit, (I ,T/, z) - piezo-actuator and control electronics are the same as those used in"conventional" STM work. The working area is about 30 x 30 /im.

The difference appears in the organization of the microscope head. It consists of twodifferent parts. Optical part is composed of a pigtailed laser diode and a fiber coupler inplace of beam-splitter. An vibrating fiber operates as a nano-cmitor and a nano-collectorto perturb locally an evanescent field. An optical isolator prevents the reflection from theprobe and object to enter to the laser cavity. Elimination of spurious interferences betweentwo fiber extremities is also essential to improve signal-to-noise ratio [4].

The force microscope is based on fiber optic intcrferometric system [5]. This allows onea compact design and, as only cantilever and fiber have to be scanned, a stand-alone instru-ment. Unlike force microscopes based ob beam deflection, the light detection is separatedfrom the head.

One of the most important characteristics of the microscope is a signal dependancc onthe tip-sample distance that must be held within a few nanometers not only for the reason toreach an optimal resolution as well as to preserve the sample surface or a probe Up ovit fromthe risk of scratching or deterioration [6]. The solution consists of the using a shear-forcecontrol when a vibrating fiber is illuminated horizontally by other laser diode. The imagediffracted by fiber is projected onto an auxiliary detector to ensure a feedback control of thefiber position.

839


Whole head with two concentric piezo tubes is installed on the sample holder stage ofthe conventional optical microscope. The instrument offers several ways to adjust the fibertip with respect to the cantilever. For a coarse lateral adjustment, the cantilever holdercan be displaced manually. By displacing the conical part in the upper portion of themicroscope, fine lateral movement of the fiber is achieved. The coarse vertical adjustmentis ensured by classical optical way - «sing a CCD camera installed on the microscope andTV monitor we obtain a magnified image of the object surface. Inner piczo z-elcctrode isused for the adjustment of the working point of the interferometer.

The dimension of fiber tip represents a key problem in lateral resolution of the mi-crosocpe. The latter is proportional to the radius of curvaliue of the fiber extremity whichcould be, in ideal case, monoatomic. Moreover, due to the fragility of fiber probes in prac-tical applications, it is necccsary to control a reproductible manufacturing of probes toensure the similar results on the same portions of sample surfaces. There exist two differ-ent modes of probe fabrication: mechanical pulling while heating the fiber, and chemicaletching in buffered hydrofluoric! acid. Using the method of appropriate selected etching wehave received the reproducible probes with apertures less than 100 nm [7].

While the first tests were done in reflection SNOM mode (illumination and collection ofthe light through the fiber), the microscope could be us«! also in STOM/PSTM operationby collecting the light through the fiber. Both modes can be combined with different forcemicroscope operation modes as contact, non-contact or tapping mode.

References:

[1) POHL, D. W.: Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM), in: C. II. J. SIIEP-PARD, T. MULVEY (Eds.): "Advances in Optical and Electron Microscopy", vol. 12,pp. 243-312, Academic Press, London, 1991.

[2] BETZIG, E. - TRAUTMAN, K. J.: Near-Field Optics; Microscopy, Spcctroscopy, and

Surface Modification beyond the Diffraction Limit, Sciunce, 257. pp. 1S9-195, 1992.

[3] TOMÁNEK, P. et al.: Twinned STAJ/SNOM Setup, in: P.TOMÁNEK (Ed.): "NearField Optics and Related Techniques", EOS Topical Meeting, vol. 8, pp. 77-7S, EOSParis, 1995.

[4] TOMÁNEK, P. - GRMEI,A, L.: Signal-to-Noisc Ratio in Scanning Tunneling Reflec-tion Optical Microscopy, in V. PALENSK1S (Ed.): "Fluctuation Phenomena in PhysicalSystems", pp. 345-349, Vilnius University Press, 1994.

[5) COUIUON, D. - BAINIER, C. - BAIDA, K.: Seeing inside a Fabry-Pcrot Resonatorby means of a Scanning Tunneling Optical Microscope, Optics. Comm., 110, pp. 7-12,199-1.

[6] TOLEDO-CROW, R. - YANG, P. C. - CHEN, Y. - VAEZ-1RAVAN1, M.: Near-FieldDifferential Scanning Optical Microscope with Atomic Force Regulation, Appl. Phys.Letts., GO, pp. 2957-2959, 1992.

[7] TOMÁNEK, P.: Fiber Tips for Reflection Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy,in: D.W.POHL and D.COUKJON (Eds.): "Near Field Optics", pp. 295-302, NATOASI Series, 242, Kluwcr Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1993.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physics as part of the researchproject "All-Fiber Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscope" and has been supported by TUgrant No. 45005 t.

S'10


CONFOCAL IMAGING BY MEANS OFAN ACHROMATIC INTERFEROMETER

R, Chmelik

TU, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Physical EngineeringTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: confocal microscopy, confocal imaging, achromatic interferometer, broad-source holography

Confocal imaging is a microscopy technique that has significant advantages comparedwith the conventional microscopy. Confocal image is formed by dual scanning of the object:Scanning by an image of a point source of light takes place in synchronism with scanning byan image of a point detector [3]. Then, the amplitude PSF of the resulting imaging processtakes the form

A = AiAa, (1)

where h\t /ij are the amplitude PSFs of the first and of the second particular imaging

process, respectively. Confocal imaging exhibits following typical features [1-3]:

1. Almost 95% of scattered light is removed. Consequently, imaging through diffusedmedia is possible by the confocal technique.

2. Lateral resolution is enhanced, which follows from the form of cq. (1) for the amplitudePSF.

3. Confocal imaging system exhibits the capability of the depth discrimination. Theout-of-focus parts of a specimen appear dark in the confocal image. Consequently, thespecimen volume may be optically sectioned.

In 1994, Sun and Leith proved experimentally [2] that images produced by a broad-source image plane holography technique have all the significant properties typical for theconfocal imaging process. In this respect, the two imaging processes are equivalent. Theholographic technique uses coherence properties of light rather than the tandem scanningsystem. Moreover, both amplitude and phase informations may be detected in the outputconfocal signal.

Our work has been inspired by the Sun and Leith experiment [2] and it is focused tothe construction of a microscope based on the holographic imaging process, but modifiedto the form of current confocal microscopes (i. e. observation in reflected light, illuminationby a collimatcd beam). At present, the central part of the whole optical system - thedouble grating achromatic interferometer - has been completed and adjusted to producehigh contriist interference fringes in incoherent light (cf. Fig. 1). Experiments with variouslight sources (light bulb, mercury discharge lamp, laser with a rotating diffuser) provedthat the fringes appear uniformly inside a laterally broad but very thin layer. This type offringes localization is necessary for a correct performance of the microscope in a confocalmode. In accordance with our expectations, the incoherent illumination totally removes

841


speckle patterns from resulting images (cf. Fig. 1) leaving unchanged the fringe visibility.Interference fields were observed and analysed electronically by CCD camera instead of a"wet processing" used by Sun and Leith in their experiments. The possibility of electronicalrecording and reconstruction of interference patterns is important for achieving the real timeoperation of the designed microscope.

Fig. 1: Interference fringes observed in the output plane of the achromatic interferometer ina coherent illumination (left) by a collimated laser beam, and in an incoherent illumination(right) by a collimated light from a mercury discharge lamp.

References:

[1] SHEPPARD, C. J. R., COGSWELL, C. J.: Three-dimensional Imaging in ConfocalMicroscopy. In: Confocal Microscopy (T. Wilson, ed.). Academic Press Ltd., London1990.

[2] SUN, P.-S., LEITH, E. N.: Broad-source image plane holography as a confocal imagingprocess. Appl. Opt. 33 (1994), 597-602.

[3] WILSON, T.: Confocal Microscopy. In: Confocal Microscopy (T. Wilson, ed.). Aca-demic Press Ltd., London 1990.

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Physical Engineering as part of theresearch project "Confocal Microscopy by means of an Achromatic Interferometer" and hasbeen supported by the grant of Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, TU, No. FP 359 554.

842


THE MEASUREMENTOF SURFACE ROUGHNESS

BY ANGLE SPECKLE CORRELATIONII

M. Ohlídal, J . Honec*, M. Richter*, P. Valenta*,M. Tykal**, I. Ohlídal***, D. Pražák

TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Institute of Physical EngineeringTechnická 2, G1C 69 Brno

*TU, Fac. of El. Eng.and Comp. Sei-, Inst, of Automatic Control and InstrumentationBožetěchova 2, 612 66 Brno

**Military Academy, Dept. of Mat. and Special Prod. TechnologiesKounicova 65, 612 00 Brno

***Masaryk University, Dept. of Solid Slate PhysicsKotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno

Key words: optics, light scattering, surface quality, image processing

In the previous report [1] the modification of the measurement of the surface roughnessby angle speckle correlation has been described [2-4]. Spccklcgrams are recorded by meansof CCD camera, digitized and processed using computer in that method. Now we willconcentrate our attention to that record processing and, in accordance with the target ofthe project, to the assessment of an information content of the method for surface roughnessevaluation, the assessment of suitability of its utilization and its link-up to the surfaceroughness etalon (the ensurance of the consistency and the correctness of the measurement).

Processing of specklegrams. A pair of spccklcgrams generated by the randomlyrough surface under study after the incidence of the laser light with two different angles ofincidence are step by step recorded by means of the CCD chip. These records are addedand two dimensional power spectrum of the sum is calculated. The Young's fringes createdin that way have a noisy appearance. The broadband noise is caused by fluctuations ofeach specklegram spectra and can be reduced by some method of numerical filtering. TheWiener filter has been used in that case. In the following step the cross section is selectedperpendicularly with respect to the Young's fringes. The best fit of this cross section andthe slightly modified relations (21) or (25) [3j is then found by means of the least squaresmethod. Corresponding values of the rms deviation and the correlation length of the surfaceheight fluctuations are the values sought.

The information content of the method for surface roughness evaluation, suitability ofUs utilization and its link-up to the surface roughness etalon.

Irregularities of surfaces created by means of an arbitrary technology are distributed inspace and their spatial evaluation would be very difficult. In the classical way the evaluationis performed only in the cross section of the plane perpendicular to the surface under study.The two dimensional surface profile is obtained in that way. Us position can be selected in

843

WORKSHOP 9C OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS & PHOTONICS

an arbitrary place of the surface which has been created by sufficiently stable technologyprocess. It is necessary to select an appropriate length of the profile.

The surface roughness parameters are defined on the section of the basic length alongthe mean line of the profile. The parameters art usually measured and determined from thelength of the profile which is five times longer in comparison with the basic length. The leastsquare method is used for that purpose. Surface roughness measurement is carried out bythe diamond stylus following the surface profile in the cross section plane. The movementof the stylus in the direction perpendicular to the surface is transformed into the electricalsignal which is filtered. Values of standard or nonstandard parameters are determined interms of the adequate criteria. This method lias a lot of principal inefliciencies.

The optical method proposed in the project has a lot of advantages with respect to theclassical diamond stylus method: •

- the basic information is obtained from an area ( not only from a line )

- the method is contactless hence nondestructive

- the measurement can be performed in real time.

Current insufficiency of a surface roughness evaluation is a limited connection betweensurface roughness parameters obtained by means of classical diamond stylus method andthose ones obtained by the method proposed. It implies only limited link-up of the methodto the surface roughness etalon. The link-up is ensured only by rms deviation and correlationlength of surface irregularities.

References:

[1] OHLÍDAL, M. - HONEC, J.: The measurement of surface roughness by speckle anglecorrelation. In WORKSHOP 95, Prague (1995) pp. 649-650.

[2] LÉGER, D. - MATHIEU, E. - PERRIN, J. C : Optical Surface Determination UsingCorrelation Technique. Appl. Opt. 14 (1975) pp. 872-377.

[3] OHLÍDAL, M.: Comparison of the two-dimensional Fraunhofer and two-dimensionalFresncl approximations in the analysis of surface roughness by angle speckle correlation.I Theory. J. Mod. Opt, 38 (1991) pp. 2115-2135.

[A] OHLÍDAL, M.: Comparison of the two-dimensional Fraunhofer and two-dimensionalFresncl approximation in the analysis of surface roughness by angle speckle correlation.II Experiment. J. Mod. Opt. 42 (1995) pp. 2031-209*1.

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Physical Engineering, Fac. ofMechanical Engineering, TV Brno as part of the research project "The Measurement ofSurface Roughness by Angle Speckle Correlation" and has been supported by TU Brno grantNo, 25/9J and CA Cli grant No. 101/94/0555.

844


UNIVERSAL DIGITAL INTERFERENCEMICROSCOPE FOR CONCENTRATED

CONTACTS STUDYM. Hartl, I. Křupka, M. Jákl*

TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Institute of DesignTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

*TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Institute of PhysicsTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: elastohydrodynamic lubrication, optical interferometry, microscopy

The great majority of tribological systems operate in conditions of fully or partiallyelastohydrodynamic (EIID) lubrication. At high contact pressures, high temperatures orlow speeds the lubrication films become extremely thin, less then 50 nm. On this conditionsthe film-generating capability is significant for correct function of these systems.

Optical interferometry applied to model elastohydrodynamic lubrication contacts hasbeen used to study not only film thickness but also it is able to provide some insight intothe physical or physical-chemicals processes within such contacts. The monochromatic orchromatic Fizcau interferometry is the most extended method for determination of theshape and film thickness but it has got two fundamental limitations: First, it cannot beused to measure lubrication film thickness less than the separation corresponding to thefirst destructive interference fringe at monochromatic interferometry (i.e. 52 nm for wave-length 675 nm, angle of incidence 0°, phase change 1,76 rad and refractive index 1,44) andthe first constructive interference at chromatic interferomery (i.e. 100 nm). Secondly, onlycertain discrete thicknesses of lubrication film can be determined (spaced at least 120 nm atmonochromatic interferomerty and 50 nm at chromatic interferometry). The first problemcan be overcome by using a solid spacer layer when a coating of transparent solid of knowthickness is deposited on top of semi-reflecting layer. For silica spacer layer thick 150 nm thefirst constructive interference occurs at separation 15 nm. The second limitation at chro-matic interferometry is due to the inability of human beings to perceive colors precisely andaccurately. It can be overcome using spectrometer grating or prism in order to produce bandspectrum or using CCD camera with image analyzer. The worse resolution at monochro-matic interferometry can be improved by photo-electrical conversion of interference patternand their subsequent numerical processes.

The methods based on phase-locked or phase-shifting interference technique play mainrole in determination of topological and chemical changes of the real rubbing surfaces. Theoptical profiler working with these technique achieve accuracy better then 1 nm.

One of the aims of our research is to develop universal digital interferometr which canbe used for study film thickness and topographical and physical-chemicals changes of therubbing surfaces in elastohydrodynamic contacts. Its construction makes possible using thefollowing interference techniques:

845


1. Monochromatic Fizeau interferometry with or without spacer layer,

2. Chromatic Fizeau interferometry with or without spacer layer,

3. Phase-shift Interferometry (Linnik or Michelson).

U-J

Fig. 1: Interference microscope

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Design as part of the researchproject "The Measurement and Study of Very Thin Lubricant Films Formation in Elastohy-drodynamic and Boundary Lubrication" and has been supported by TU grant No. F-13-95and by Grant Agency of the Czech Republic grant No. 101/95/0330.

846


INTERFEROMETRY OF LINE PLASMAS

M. Kálal, 3 . Rus*, T. Moček*, L. Pina

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Physical ElectronicsV Holešovičkách 2, 180 00 Praha S

*CAS, Institute of Physics, Dept. of Gas LasersNa Slovance 2, ISO 40 Praha S

Key words: interferometry, plasma, laser, analysis, CCD

In June and July 1995 the first active diagnostics (interferometry) of a laser producedplasma in the Czech Republic was performed as a part of a more complex experiment aimedat the investigation of line plasmas created by laser pulse of moderate intensity ranging from5 • 109 to 10" Wem"2 on the surface of slab targets [1].

The experiment was carried out at the iodine laser system PERUN at the Instituteof Physics in Prague. Tins laser supplies up to 50 J over »400 ps PWHM pulses, at thefundamental wavelength of 1.315/nn. The output 84 mm diameter beam may be frequencydoubled or tripled using DKDP crystals with S0% and 60% efficiency, respectively, toprovide emission at 658 nm (red) or 43Snm (blue) wavelength. The mutual ratio of thethree harmonics may be adjusted over a wide range and any combination can be used for afront- or side-illumination of the target.

A Nomarski interferometer [2] setup (Fig. 1) was used in a configuration in which theplasma is shone through down the plasma column axis (Fig. 2) by a 43S nm beam. The 1 mmlength of the column was chosen as compromise between the adverse effect of refraction of theprobe beam and the plasma end boundary effects. According to the simulation of refractionin the expected plasma profile, this becomes negligible for density scalelength > 150/im.Assuming the refraction effects are negligible, the electron density ne along the probe beamtrajectory in the plasma of length I is constant and the relative phase shift is given as

2TT.

where ne is the critical electron density for the 438 nm light, n c w 6 - 1 0 2 1 cm" 3, and (i,y)denote the coordinates in the plane perpendicular to the plasma axis.

The interference patterns were detected by a CCD camera StarTrek ST6 (375 x 242pixels 23 x 27/im, cooled down to -15°C, 16-bit output data). Algorithms used for mathe-matical processing of the interferograms were described elsewhere [2, 3] with typical resultsdemonstrated in Fig. 3.

References:[1] RUS, B. et al.: A high efficiency soft X-ray laser in the S5~30nm spectral region. Proc.

of High Power Lasers-Science and Engineering, NATO ASI (1995), in press[2] KALAL, M. - LUTHER-DAVIES, B. - NUGENT, K. A.: Phase-amplitude imag-

ing: The fully automated analysis of megagauss magnetic field measurements in laser-produced plasmas. J. Appl. Phys. 64, 3845-3850 (1988)

847


[3] PISARCZYK, T. - ARENDZIKOWSKI, R. - PAItYS, P. - PATRON, P.: Polari in-terferometer with automatic images processing for laser plasma diagnostic. Laser andParticle Beams 12, 549-561 (1994)

target /owoclivo/ f 2 0/ f=20mm \

ptolnrtlon blpibmgkiss

30 35 55 54 • * • < •

Magnification: -10

. tonsI •* 160 mm

CCDcciineruSI/i

700

Fig. 1: Interferometer setup in the target chamber

Experimental setup:

forger

Detectionplane

„» 1.74. in 'W

Diive laser: Cylindrically focused t... (1.315 mm) beam

to intensities —5x10-1.3x10' Wem'

Piobe beam: 3m (438 nm) injected 4 or 10 ns alter

the peak of the In beam

Elements investigated: Zn. Cu, Fe

Fig. 2: Probe beam path down the plasma Fig. 3: Example of interferogram analysis:column axis Cu target, 4 ns delay, / = 1.33*10" Wem"*2

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physical Electronics (CTU) andthe Department of Gas Lasers (CAS) as part of the joint research project "A High EfficiencySoft X-ray Laser in the 25-30 nm Spectral Region" and has not been supported by any grant.

848


OPTICAL PROCESSORSM. Klíma, P. Dvořák, J . Rot t , E. Košťál,

T. Gregor, V. 3irásek, I . Galas

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of RadioclectronicsTechnická 2, 166 27 Praha 6

Key words: optical processing, photonics, opt. computing, spatial modulators, correlators

Optical information processing techniques are becoming very efficient and useful toolsin the field of signal or image processing. These enable extremely high computational powerand data throughput because of its massive parallelism and fast performance which can reacheasily and even exceed the performance of recent electronic systems. During the past 30 yearsthis technology has been exploited mostly in special applications because of the associatedhigh price. Recently, however, these systems have became more widely used in generalcivil implementations. The main effort in this work has been devoted to the experimentalverification of an optical correlator based upon an acoustooptic spatial modulator.

The fundamental part of any optical processing system is the spatial optical modulatorused for conversion of the processed electrical signal into an image. There are numerousprinciples which can be applied for necessary conversion - the eled.rooptic effect, LCD panel,magnetooptic effect etc. Our approach is based on the acoustooptic effect and originatesfrom more than 15 years of experience in the field of acoustooptic units and modulatordesign. Our experimental acoustooptícal correlator is based upon an acoustooptical spatialmodulator (see Fig. 1) with a central frequency 75 MHz and a theoretical resolution around3000 pixels. In the development of system we have tested various reference transparenciesto understand the features of the setup. First of all as a test the standard barcode slide wasapplied to verify the performance of the setup and to establish the signal to noise data levelassociated with the output. For this initial case a signal-to-noise ratio was roughly estimatedat 20dB. The second test was performed using a LCD panel (18 bars) as a reference and apseudorandom sequence was supplied to the input of acoustooptic unit. Finally a real set ofexperimental data extracted from a fingerprint was used and a calculation of autocorrelationfunction has been done (see Fig. 2). In all experiments we have used the argon laser ILA 120with an optical power output ofSOOmWon the strongest line4SSnm. As part of the researchan impulse sequence generator and a LCD panel driver was designed and constructed. Bothof these devices are controlled by a standard PC. We have also designed a single line anda multiline versions of optical correlator. The multiline version can analyse four separatedlines in a processed image simultaneously with an estimated computational power as highas25MIPS.

The results of the research outlined above were presented on the 29th IEEE Interna-tioiiiil Carnahan Conference on Security Technology [2] in Sanderstead, England and someother conferences e.g. [1].

The whole project has been carried out in a cooperation with the Dcpt. of ExperimentalPhysics and the Dept. of Computer Science, St.Patricks College, Maynooth in the Republicof Ireland.

The second part of optical processing research has been devoted to the initial study ofpossible optical implementations for selected neural networks. Therefore we have continued

849


a preparation of optical hardware including two different high resolution static TFT LCDpanels which are currently under tests now in the two optical laboratories in Prague and inIreland.

In cooperation with grant No. 102/95/1157 of the Czech Grant Agency (E. Košťál,coordinator) the initial study period for a design of the 2nd generation of photoASICs hasbeen done. Our effort was oriented to the design and testing of "smart pixels" structure- phase sensitive pixel array and convolution array. These smart structures are expectedto be implemented in future optical processing systems [3] and/or in smart image sensors.Originally the two chips were designed in 2/im CMOS technology (FORESIGHT process,company ORBIT Semiconductors) to verify some selected CCD and sensing and signalprocessing structures. Recently however we have moved to O.S/mi BICMOS technology(company AMS, Austria) and a new chip is being designed. We use a design packageL-EDIT.

Fig.l.:Acoustooptic SOM asa parallel multiplier

Fig.2.;Fingerprint cut identification

References:

[1] KLÍMA, M. - DVORAK, P. - ROTT, J.: Experimental mode! of aconstooptic correlatorwith LCD reference; Photonics 95, Annual EOS Meetings Digest, Praha, August 1995,Vol. 2B, pp. 534-437.

[2] KLÍMA, M. - DVORAK, P. - ROTT, J, - MCKENNA-LAWLOR: Experimental Modelof a Combined Optical Processing Correlation System; IEEE Proceedings of the 1995International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology, Sundcrstead, Surrey, Eng-land, October 1995, pp. 38S-390

[3] GREGOR, T. - JIRÁSEK, V. - VAVftINKA, M. - KLÍMA, M.: Experimental photo-ASICs: design, experience and results; Photonics 95, Annual EOS Meeting Digest,Praha, August 1995, Vol. 2A, pp. 373-376

This research has been conducted at the Dcpt. of Radio electronics as part of the researchproject "Optical Processors" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 10038888. Ourparticipation at the IEEE Carnahan Conf. was also supported by the CTU Foreign RelationsSupport Fund and by a donation form the Foundation of J., M. and Z. Hlávkových.

850

WORKSHOP 9G OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS fe PHOTONICS

SELECTED FUNCTIONALSTRUCTURES FOR PHOTOASICS

T. Gregor

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of RadioclectronicsTechnická 2,166 27 Praha 6

Key words: ASIC design, CCD, BCCD, CMOS, image sensing, A/D conversion, signalprocessing, motion detection

Under cooperation with the Image Sensing Group, PSI Zurich a photoASIC was de-signed and fabricated using process Foresight from ORBIT Semiconductors. It containsseveral different experiments exploiting the BCCD feature of the Foresight process:

The differential imager. Many algorithms used for motion detection and estimationuse simple subtraction of two succeeding image frames with some tresholding to obtain theresulting image with motion information. From such an image the vector of motion canthen be simply derived. This operation requires a large number of subtractions (one foreach pixel). Digital processing can be omitted with the use of a differential imager, thatprovides the differential image on its output.

The subtraction of two succeeding image frames can be performed in many ways. Anefficient method relies on the subtraction of the two image frames on the whole output.This newly proposed technique lias been realised in a differential imager with 16 x 16 pixels.It consists of the image area, where photoelectrons are integrated, and two storage areas,where odd and even image frames are stored before they are read out simultaneously. TheVideosignals representing the two frames can then be simply subtracted from each other.

The frame transfer setup Is widely used in high-resolution sensors for the effectivity ofchip area utilisation. In general, the differential imager uses the same scheme with additionof the second storage area and second horizontal register, thus it is only less than onethird larger than a conventional imager with the same resolution. For image devices withgreater resolutions il would be about one fourth. The frame transfer is accomplished bythe standard four-phase scheme in all three frame registers (image area, storage area 1,2).This arrangement allows bi-directional charge transfer and, in contrast to the bi-directionalthree-phase system, it has a better fill factor and less problems with pixel nonuniformity(the process used for fabrication offers only two polysilicon layers).

The most complicated structures used in the ]mager are the horizontal and compensa-tion registers. They have to work as a parallel interface between the image and storage areasin the frame storage period, and as a horizontal shift register with a parallel input withinthe readout period. The layout of the horizontal registers was carefully designed with re-spect to the design rules of the fabrication process to minimise loss in the transfer efficiency.Therefore, triangle-shaped transfer electrodes were used. The output source followers areintended to work at readout frequencies about 1 MHz (1900 frame-pairs/sec), which is fastenough to track a flying bullet.

Charge transfer efficiency CTE of the horizontal registers docs not exceed 99.66% with11.5 V clock-voltage swing and 99,73% with 25% fat zero, which is a rather disappointingresult. The small CTE of the horizontal registers corresponds to the CTE of the much

851


simpler linear BCCD, which is described below, that is approximately 90.9% with 11,5Vclock-voltage swing and 99.92% with 15 % fat zero. These results show, that the fabricatingprocess used is suitable for non-critical BCCD applications with a small amount of chargetransfers. There appeared unexpected problems with the fabrication yield as well. Onlylarge BCCD registers (image area, storage areas) were affected by randomly distributedbreakthroughs in the thin gate oxide causing leakage currents. It means, that these tmagcrswere partially or completely unusable.

The analog signal processor CDS. The on-chip CDS (correlated double sampling)processor was implemented to examine the basic function of the well-known CDS scheme andwas specially designed for an on*chip implementation with high-performance BCCD imagedevices. The big advantage is its relative simplicity and good kTC-noise and white noiserejection at high readout rates. However, optimum parameters can be achieved only afterthe optimisation process considering the noise models of the active dements used. Sinceneither the DC, AC nor noise models of buried channel MOSFETs hr the fabricating processused were available, the design process was restricted to PSPICE transient simulations andoptimisation of the given circuitry by use of enhancement MOSFETs. The general rules fornoise minimising were respected.

The real CDS design is directly coupled to the floating-diffusion output of the four-phase I3CCD. One more identical four-phase BCCD line with 10 elements and a standardfloating-diffusion source follower output is implemented as a reference. The experimentalevaluation of this circuit is at the time under study.

T h e successive approximation CCD/CMOS A/D converter. The newly pro-posed A/D converter tries to exploit Uie key features of CCD registers, namely the hightransfer efficiency and the non-destructive sensing oí the charge. The well known principleof the successive approximation technique has been implemented. Only one stage of theA/D converter is designed representing one bit A/D conversion. In a real application thepipelining of such stages is intended. It means, that the whole byte would be convertedduring one working cycle. The number of bites (stages) would then be restricted only ac-cording to the achievable signal-to-noise ratio and by the chip area available. The PSpicesimulation was performed with a working cycle rate of 1 MHz. Currently this experiment isunder evaluation.

References:[1] GREGOR, T. - KLÍMA, M.: Nábojově vázané struktury v aplikačně specifických in-

tegrovaných obvodech s optickým vstupem; Conference RAD1OELEKTRON1KA 95,pp. 97-100, Brno, 1995.

[2] GREGOR, T. - JIRÁSEK, V. - VAVfUNKA, M. ct al.: Experimental PhotoASICs -Design, Experience, Results; Conference PHOTONICS '95 EOS Annual Meeting Di-gest, Vol. 2A, pp. 373-376, Prague, August 1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Radioclcctronics as part of theresearch project "Selected Functional Structures for PhotoASICs" and has been supportedbxj CW grant No. 10038284.

852


PARAMETRIC DOWN CONVERSIONUSING COHERENT AND CHAOTIC

INPUT RADIATIONS

P. Chmela


Key words: parametric down conversion, light statistics, intermodal correlations

The evolution of efficiency and classical second-order light statistics in coherent para-metric down conversion (PDC) with coherent and chaotic input radiations was calculatedfor arbitrary values of the time or space parameter.

The normalized classical quantities, namely the "photon numbers" Nj representing ei-ther the numbers of photons in an ideal optical resonator or photon fluxes in the normaldirection to the nonlinear plate boundaries, and the dimensionless parameter r standingfor the time evolution of the field or the normal distance from the first nonlinear mediumboundary, respectively, were used for the description of evolution of the field in PDC pro-cess [1],

The classical evolution of stochastic photon numbers in the signal (s), idle (i) and pump(p) interacting radiation modes is described by the following equations [1]:

N*t C) = J W {/, [K(/) + (A'po + N30)hc]}, (1)

respectively, where sn(/,x), cn( / , i ) ,dn( / ,x) are Jacobi elliptical functions with the param-eter / = [NpQf{NpQ+N30)]2, Np0 and jV,0 being the stochastic input photon numbers, K(/)represents the complete elliptical integral of the first kind and g is the coupling constant.

Relative mean photon numbers {NJ(T))K = (NJ(T))/{NPQ), normalized variances ofphoton numbers (1&NJ(T)]2)JÝ ~ (NJ(T))/{NJ(T))2 ~ 1 a n ^ intcrmodal correlations( A ^ M A t f f c W ) ^ = mr)Nklr))/W(T)){Nk(T)) - 1 Ü,* = W Í i ^ *)t were calcu-lated by averaging the appurtemant quantities over the initial photocount distributions inthe generating input radiation modes.

The pump and signal input radiations were considered as coherent or chaotic [2].The coherent radiation obeys the Poisson photocount distribution and it holds in the

classical approach that,

Pcok(Njo) = ^ M p exp(-(/VjQ)) = 6(Ni0 ~ W-a», i = P ía. (2)

The chaotic radiation possesses the Bose-Einstein photocount distribution that can be, inthe classical approach, approximated by the Gaussian distribution,

-*- exP ( - ^ _ ) , j = P , , . (3)

853


Using the above described procedure, we have computed the evolution of relative meanphoton numbers, normalized variances of photon numbers and intcrmodal correlations inPDC for equal pump and signal mean photon numbers, and for strong pump and weaksignal input radiations possesing either coherent or chaotic pholocount distributions. Anexample of our results is shown in Fig. 1. The complete results will be published in [3].

Fig. 1: Classical evolution of Relative mean photon numbers (curves s, i, p), normalizedvariances of photon numbers (curves ss, ii, pp) and intermodal correlations (curves si, ps,pi) in PDC with strong coherent pump and weak signal input radiations.

The results attained were discussed from the point of view of photon clustering in theradiation exhibiting classical light fluctuations, as well as of intermodal correlations beinggenerated in the course of PDC, and some general conclusions were drawn [3].

References:

[1] CHMELA, P.: Úvod do nelineární optiky I (Introduction to Nonlinear Optics I) (Uni-verzita Palackého, Olomouc, 1982).

[2] LOUDON, R.: The Quantum Theory oj Light (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1973).

[3] CHMELA, P.: Evolution of classical light statistics in coherent difference-frequencygeneration, Czech. J. Phys., to be published.

This research has been conducted in the Institute of Physical Engineering as a partof the research project "Evolution of classical light statistics in coherent nonlinear opticaldifference-frequency generation" and has been supported by the grant of Fac. of MechanicalEng., TU, No. FP359553.

854


FAST 3D VECTOR BEAMPROPAGATION METHOD

J . Petraček


Key words: beam propagation method, finite-difference, optical wave-guide

The beam propagation method (BPM) is an important tool for a modeling of theelectromagnetic wave propagation in fotonic devices. For a long time the "classical" scalarBPM [1] was the only algorithm used for this type of simulation. The method is basedon a numerical solution of scalar wave equation by means Fast Fourier Transformation(FFT) [1]. The field and its derivatives are assumed to be continuous across all boundaries.This restricts the application of the method to cases in which the variations of refractiveindex over the transverse dimensions are small.

Modern waveguides often involve abrupt index change and thus their properties arepolarization dependent. The birefringence originates from either material or geometry. Inaddition, the geometry of three-dimensional (3D) waveguide causes the coupling amongvarious field components. That is why a variety of techniques have been developed toimprove scalar BPM.

The semivector BPM treats optical modes as predominatly polarized in given direc-tion [2]. The polarization dependent properties of waveguide devices are taken into accountbut the polarization coupling is neglected. The numerical implementation of this techniquecan be very efficient [3].

Recently several papers have dealt with a vector beam propagation method (VBPM).The VBPM is based on vector wave equation [4-5] without the neglect of the couplingterms. However numerical investigation of 3D waveguide structures by the application ofthese vector schemes is calculation-time consuming. The finite-difference (FD) scheme usedin [5] requires the iterative solution of large pentadiagonal system of equations. In iiddition,the scheme is not always stable. As the FD technique is generally faster and more accuratethen the FFT technique [6] we do not expect better performance of the FFT algorithm usedin [4].

The aim of this letter is to introduce novel and efficient finite-difference vector beampropagation method for three-dimensional waveguide structures. The method uses a vectorelectric field E propagating, for example, along the -r*-axis in an inhomogeneous mediumunder slowly varying envelope approximation (SVEA). A time and space dependence ofthe field is therefore assumed to be of the form E(2,x,j/)exp(—inQkz -f iw£), where k iswavenumber in vacuum, n0 is a properly chosen constant called a reference refractive indexand w is the angular frequency. The refractive index n(a:,y,i) of medium is supposed tobe slowly varying along z in order to avoid backreflcction which can not be described whenusing SVEA. Under these assumptions the coupled evolution equations for transverse electricfield components Ex and Ev can be derived, see for example [5].

855


The equations include the both vector properties - the polarization dependent propaga-tion and the coupling between Ex and Ey. At once Ex and Ey are determined on given planez = const the longitudial field component E. can be found by solving elliptic equation [4].

The evolution equations can be solved using a finite-difference method. The propagationdistance is divided up into steps of length Az and E(s-f A.S,X,T/) is calculated from knownE ( Ä , 2 \ J / ) . The common FD schemes (as the Crank-Nicholson scheme) would require tosolve a large system of equations. We have already mentioned the problems connected withthe other approaches. Our proposed scheme removes these difficulties. The basic idea issplitting of the propagation step into two steps of size Ar/2. In first snbstep we propagatethe field without the influence of the coupling terms, i.e. we perform the scmivcclor step,similarly as described in [3]. Then the coupling terms are evaluated and their double usedin the next full vector substep. The order of substeps is reversed for the each polarizationcomponent of the field so that the coupling terms are always treated with the implicit wayand the scheme is stable. Since the resulting FD equation is tridiagon.il, it is very efficientto solve.

In order to test the VBPM we simulated the wave propagation in a number of structures:optical fiber, single rib waveguide, ARROW rib waveguide and tapered wavrguidc [7]. Theresults does not show up any instabilities and numerical dissipation is negligibly small.The algorithm is very fast: the required time on PC with a Pentium CG MHz CPU for onepropagation step is 1 s in case when number of mesh points is 101 x 101.

We conclude that the newly developed VBPM is a powerful tool for the modeling ofwave propagation in 3D intergated-optics structures.

References:

[1] FEIT, M.D. - FLECK, J.A.: Light propagation in graded-index optical fibers, Appl.Optics 17 (1978), 3990.

[2] STERN, M.S.: Scmivectorial polarized finite difference method for optical waveguides

with arbitrary index profiles, IEE Proc. Part J, Optoclectron. 132 (19S5), 56.[3] LIU, P.L. - YANG, S.L. - YUAN, D.M.: The Semivectovial Beam Propagation Method,

IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 29, No. 4 (1993), 1205.[4] LIU, J.M. - GOMELSKY, L.: Vcctorial beam propagation method, J. Opt. Soc. Am.,

A 9, No. 9 (1992), 1574.[5] HUANG, W.P. - XU, C.L.: Simulation of Three-Dimensional Optical Waveguides by a

Full-Vector Beam Propagation Method, IEEE J. Quantum Electron., 29 (1993), 2639.[6] YEVICK, D. - HERMANSSON, 13.: Efficient beam propagation techniques, IEEE

J. Quantum Electron., 26 (1990), 109.[7] BOARDMAN, A.D. - SINGH, K. - XIE, K. - PETRÁCEK, J. ct al.: Advanced optical

waveguide structures, in Fabrication, Properties and Applications of Low-DimensionalSemiconductors, eds. M. Balkanski and I, Yanchev, p. 241 (Kluwer Academic Publish-ers, New York, 1995).

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Physical Engineering as a partof the research project "Modeling of fotonic devices using a full vector beam propagationmethod" and has been supported by FS grant i\'o. FP3Ö9555.

856


OPTICAL DIRECTIONAL LINKSV. Biolková, J . Němeček*, A. Prokeš, O. Wilfert

TU, Fac. of Electrical Eng. and Informatics, Dept. of RadtoelectronicsAntonínská 1, 662 09 Brno

*Military Academy, Dept. of Air ForcesKounicova 65, PS 13, 612 00 Brno

Key words: optical communication, atmospheric transmission medium, safe laser opera-tion

Optical directional link (ODL) means a communication system with optical carrier inatmospheric transmission medium (ATM), whose radiated power is concentrated into a pen-cil beam and which is specified for communication with the digital modulation [1]. Essentialpositive properties of ODL are: high directivity of beam (elimination of the information dis-sipation in non-requested direction), high bit rate (inaccessible with the microwave wirelesslink), absence of legislative inconveniences and easy installation. The negative propertiesof ODti arc: the dependence of the link quality on the weather and the necessity of certaincarefulness with laser ODL operation.

Our activities in the field of research of ODL are oriented to: measurement of the timedistribution of the received monitoring signal caused by ATM and determination of theconditions of safe operation with laser ODL.

Measurement of the time distribution of the received monitoring signal has to do withthe measurement of the ODL fading, which is included in the metropolitan computer networkin Brno. The distance between the transmitter and receiver of the ODL was L ~ 33 m.(The range of the ODL with LED is 300 m.) The level of the received monitoring signal wasregistered by a personal computer. The obtained graph is presented in Fig, 1.

Fig. 1: Fluctuations of the received monitoring signal (during three days).

The time distribution of the received monitoring signal (its rapid variation - fading)was analyzed and evaluated. The fading may be caused by some atmospheric effects. The

857

WORKSHOP 9G OPTICS, QUANTUM ELECTRONICS fc PHOTONICS

atmosphere influence on the ODL consists in its pollution (gasses/aerosols attenuation),turbulence (wind influence and local temperature non-homogeneity), refraction (unstableatmospheric conditions like temperature inversions). Another effect of the fading is deviationof the beam due to mechanical deformation of the console.

In Fig. 1, periodical drops (each day from 16:05 to 20:30) of the signal arc caused by thetemperature increase of the console. During this time interval, the console was irradiatedby the Sun. Excepting this interval, the time distribution is in good agreement with thetheory [2].

ODL with laser diode belongs the next groups of devices [3]: laser optical communi-cation systems, modulated lasers, laser devices placed in outdoor environment. From thesafety point of view of the ODL operation it is ncccesary to judge atmospheric and opticalfiber parts.

The assumption of the ODL safety operation is the classification of the given lasersystem to the corresponding class by means of the Accesiblc Emission Limit (AEL), deter-mination of the Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE), the Nominal Optical Hazard Area(NOHA) and the Nominal Optical Hazard Distance (NOIID). The instructions for resultfrom the classification of the system "into the Class.

AEL is the maximum reached emission level allovable in the given class. MPE is thelaser radiation level to which the persons can be expossed at normal situation when theunfavourable effects from radiation would occur. NOHA is the area in which the intensityof radiation or radiation exposure overcomes corresponding MPE of cornea. NOIID is terange in which the intensity of radiation or radiation exposure corresponds to MPE for thecornea.

The individual quantities depend on the output power and wavelength of the laserradiation, on the geometric parameters of the laser buatn and on the time dependence ofthe laser radiation intensity.

Prom the safety point of view the critical part of the ODL is the atmospheric part.Because of the ODL determination it can be suposcd that the laser diode with the power18 mW and with wavelength radiation 850 nm will be used.

The elipse beam formed by the output optical system will have the divergence 0.12 mradand 0.97 mrad in corresponding planes. The supposed transmission power is 155Mb/s. Dueto mentioned parameters the ODL will be in the Class 3B m which the AEL is 0,5 W. In thiscase NOHD is 140in. If the telescoope with input aperture is for example 20mm for theaiming of the ODL is used then so called "expanded NOHD" is 840 m. NOHA, respectively"expanded NOHA", depends on the given construction of the positioning and the fixingmechanism.

References:

[1] WILFERT, 0 . - KOLOUCH, J.: Adaptive Digital Atmospheric Optical Link. In: Pro-ceedings of the 40th International Scientific Colloquim, Ilncmau, 1995, pp. 262-267.

[2] UTTAMCHANDANI, D. - ANDONOVIC, I.: Principles of modern Optical Systems.London, Artech House, 1992.

[3] CSN EN 60 825 Radiation Safety of the Laser Devices, Classification of the Devices,Requirements and Direction for Use. 1995.

TA is research has bctn conducted at the Dept. of Radio electronics as part of the researchproject "Optical Directional Links" and has been suportcd by TU grant No. FU450056.

858


TOMOGRAPHIC RECONSTRUCTIONBY USING THE CONVOLUTION AND

BACKPROJECTION AND THE ORTHO-GONAL POLYNOMIALS METHODS

O. Samek, I. Procházka

TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Inst, of Physical EngineeringTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: tomographic reconstruction, convolution and backprojection method, orthog-onal polynomials method, tomographic reconstruction setup

With respect to the future investigation of asymetrical types of transparent objects suchas plasmas, air and fluid flows, the authors aim was to develop and test an optical setupwhich allows a tomographic study of inhomogeneous phase objects. The multidirectionalholographic interferometry along with two mathematical methods of computed tomographywere employed in order to determine three-dimensional distributions of the index of refrac-tion, temperature and electron density for an investigation of the object to be completed.For that reason the convolution backprojection method was used in present experiment toestimate three dimensional index of refraction and temperature distribution with a candleas a testing object in different parts of the flame. Simultaneously, the novel orthogonalpolynomials method was investigated in the same manner with a good agreement.

Tomographie setup - the setup for multidirectional holographic interferometry is de-scribed in [1] which enables an observation of phase object by using three holographic platescovering ISO degrees range. On the other hand, we modified the setup in [2], which enablesus to use only one holographic plate for tomographic reconstruction. In present setup weused a rotating stand in order to rotate object by beforehand given steps. Moreover, a lowpower He-Nc laser (up to 20 mW) can be used instead of a high power Ar laser [1] becausethere is no point in splitting the laser beam.

To obtain three dimensional reconstruction of temperature and index of refraction byusing the above mentioned methods one needs to know the phase distribution across thefield of view. The phase acquisition method and setup are described in [2].

Computed tomography methods - the mathematics of transmission computed tomog-raphy, or the theory of reconstruction from projections, has itself acquired the status ofattracting attention as an independent research area. The literature is enormous and therealready exist many excelent books, such as [3]. The most popular reconstruction techniqueis convolution backprojection method, it is an efficient, easy to implement and fast method.The orthogonal polynomials method presented here is, to our knowledge, the first attemptto apply this method in the optical tomography calculations. It was A. M. Cormack [4-5]who for the first time proposed to use the orthogonal polynomials for three-dimensionalreconstruction from projections. Cormack was conccrcd in his work with the followingproblem: is it possible to determine the absorption coefficient af an object knowing theX-riiy absorption from different directions? In order to solve it he employed the orthogonal

859


polynomials namely the Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind and the Zernike polyno-mials. The method was further developed eg. by E. Zeltler [6-7] who added the third setof orthogonal polynomials - the Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind. Zeitler alsoshowed the relation which connects all three sets of orthogonal polynomials. Moreover, headapted the resulting equations to the discrete nature of the input data using Gaussianquadrature.

References:

[1] VUKlCEVlC, D. et al.: Tomographie reconstruction of the temperature distribution ina convective heat flow using multidirectional holographic interferometry. Appl. Opt. 28(1989), 150S-1516.

[2] LIŠKA, M. et al.: Holografická interjeromdrie. JMO 39 (1994), 321-324.

[3] HERMAN, G, T.: Image Reconstruction from Projections. Academic Press, Inc., NewYork, 1980.

[4] CORMACK, A. M.: Representation of a Function by Its Line Integrals, with SomeRadiological Applications. J. Appl. Phys. 34 (1963), 2722-2727.

[5] CORMACK, A. M.: Representation of a Function by Its tine Integrals, with SomeRadiological Applications. II. J. Appl. Phys. 35 (1964), 2908-2912.

[6] ZEITLER, E.: The Reconstruction of Objects from Their Projections. Optik 39 (1974),396-415.

[7] ZEITLER, E.: Reconstruction with Orthogonal Functions. In: Electron Tomogra-phy: Three-Dimensional Imaging with the Transmission Electron Microscope (ed. byJ. Frank). Plenum Press, New York 1992, pp. G3-S9.

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Physical Engineering as a part ofthe research project "Holographic tomography" and has been supported by the grant of Fac.of Mechanical Eng,, TU, No. FPS59556.

860


LABORATORY FOR OPTICALTOMOGRAPHY AND ITS

APPLICATIONIN PLASMA DIAGNOSTIC

L. Kovář

TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Inst, of Engineering PhysicsTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: plasma, holographic interferometer, three-dimensional object, plasmatron

A variety of optical techniques in optical tomography laboratory, ranging from trans-mission electron microscopy and medical radiography to holographic interferometry canproduce data providing a projection of an object field on a plane or a line.

The determination of three-dimensional object fields from such projection data is cur-rently becoming considerable attention. When the object field can be considered to beradially symmetric, it can be determined by using the inverse Abcll transform, a well-knowprocedure. In this case, the projection on a single plane provides sufficient range of data.When the field does not have radial symmetry, it can be determined for example by usingthe inverse Radon transform, which is considerably less familiar.

In order to visualise the phase object, the holographic interferometer is used which,according to its working principle, can be considered to be a holographic variant of Mach-Zehnders interferometer, the working principle of which is described elsewhere [2]. Interfer-ometer of this kind was used, e.g., to the diagnostics of an electric discharge. The essentialproblem concerning analysis of phase object represents the interpretation of obtained in-terfcrograms. The starting form of the ideal interferometric equation is relatively simple.Determination of the refractive index coarse from the interference field phase distribution,however, can be simply made only in case of two-dimensional objects. In order to determinethe refractive index distribution in case of 3D objects, a plausible approximations are to beintroduce. Some methods of interferogram useful in case of rotationally symmetric objects,where published previously [3-6].

In the framework of our project we focus on the optical tomography. The aim of thisresearch is to develope not only an experimental apparatus appropriate for visualization of3D phase objects but, particularly, to find methods for the 3D phase objects reconstructionbase on their projections [7-8].

In the first part of the project: "Laboratory for Optical Tomography and its Applicationin Plasma Diagnostics" the plasmatron was assembled which produce a plasma useful asan inhomogeneus phase object. This plasmatron is water-cooled and burns in nitrogen. Itssmall size (9 x 13 cm) presents an advantage in using in a laboratory. As a plasmatron input,the source for electrical welding was used. Moreover, optical elements (space filters, mirrorsetc.) for extension of our holografical interferometer were developed. These elements areappropriate for the analysis of 3D phase objects.

861


References:

[1] VUKICEVIÓ, D. - JÄGER, H. - NEGER, T. - PHILIPP, H.: Tomographie Reconstruc-tion of the Temperature Distribution in a Convective Heat Flow using MultidirectionalHolographic interferometry. Applied Optics 2S, 19S9, S, 1S0S-1516.

[2] LlSKA, M. - KOVAfl, L. - SAMEK, O.: Holograftcká interferometrie plazmatuobloukového výboje. Jemná mechanika a optika, 39, 1994, 9-13.

[3] HAUF, W. - GR1GULL, U.: Optical methods in Heat Transfer. London, AcademicPress 1970.

[4] PAVELEK, M. - LlSKA, M.: Interferogram Evaluation of Axially Symmetric PhaseObjects. Optica Acta 30, 19S3, No. 7, pp. 913-954.

[5] VEST, C. M.: Holographie Interferometry. New York, John Willey, 1979.

[6] VEST, C. M.: Interferometry of Strongly Refracting Axisymmetric phase objects. Ap-plied Optics, 14, 1975, No. 7, pp. 1C01-1606.

[7] ZEITLER, E.: The Reconstruction of Objects from their Projection. Optik, 39, 1974,No. 4, pp. 396-415.

[8] INA, M. T. H. - KOBAYASHI, S.: Fourier-Transform Method of Fringe - PatternAnalysis for Computer-based Tomography and Interferometry. J. Opt. Soc. Am., 72,1982, pp. 156-160.

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Engineering Physics as part ofthe research project "Laboratory for Optical Tomography and the Us Application in PlasmaDiagnostics" and has been supported by TU grant No. FU 3500J2.

862

Section 14

MICROELECTRONICS

NEXT PAGE(S)left BLAN*

WORKSHOP 96 MICROELECTRONICS

SYNTHESIS OF LOW-VOLTAGECURRENT-MODE FILTERS

M . Švajda

VUT, Fac. of Electrical Eng. and Comp. Science, Dept. of MicroelectronicsÚdolní 53, 602 00 Brno

Key words: analog circuits, continuous-time filters, current-mode, low-voltage circuits,integrated circuits

Economical reasons force designers to integrate complex electronic systems in a singlepackage - chip (ASIC). Evolution in technology permits each year device sizes shrinking andthus larger scales of integration for CMOS and BiCMOS technologies. Smaller dimensionscause increased intensity of electric field inside devices. Hence, modern VLSI systems arenot able to withstand high power supply voltages. Currently, the common trend is to godown from 5 V to 3.3 V supply voltages for ASICs. This raise many problems associatedmainly with the analog designs.

Basically, ASIC is a mixed signal analog/digital circuit where the main part of signalprocessing functions is performed in the digital core (e.g. by Digital Signal Processor - DSP).General structure of a typical signal processing chain in ASIC is shown in Fig. 1.

InputInterface

Antialiasing•••'jV.Riltrtr ••••",•,

A/D

analog part

DSP D/A

digital core

SmoothingFilter

OutputInterface

analog part

Fig. 1: Typical Signal Processin Chain in ASIC

Analog parts arc required to maintain input/output interfacing, antialiasing/smoothingfiltering, and optionally some preprocessing. A novel technique - switched-current circuits -capable of low-voltage operation was introduced in recent years. Switched- current circuitsare used for A/D converters and high-order filters gaining the advantage of compatibilitywith standard digital CMOS process. Unfortunately, this circuits cannot be used for an-tialiasing/smoothing filtering because of its sampled-data nature. Furthermore, they needan antialiasing filter for proper operation having the output current as a signal variable.This paper deals with synthesis of the continuous-time current-mode low-pass filter suitablefor low-voltage antialiasing (smoothing) applications.

Several circuit solutions arc available for implementing monolithic continuous-time fil-ters and can be found in many designs in the recent time: Acťive-RC, MOSFET- C, OTA-C,Tranconductance-C, and Current-Conveyor structures. The classical approach is is synthesisof the low-pass filter in the voltage domain with input transresistance (I/V conversion) andoutput transconductance (V/I conversion) amplifiers which leads to large area consumingcircuits and worse distortion and frequency performances. To avoid redundant current-voltage conversions the current-mode adjoint filter structures can be found to their classical

865


voltage-mode counterparts [1]. In this paper this approach to a canonical gyrator-RC bi-quadratic low-pass filter, which permits simple implementation based on transconductors, ispresented. Circuit diagram of the voltage- mode canonical gyrator-RC biquadratic sectionis shown in Fig. 2. Its current-mode adjoint network is illustrated in Fig. 3.

'.I c. ) C cb

Fig. 2: Voltage-fode gyrator-RC filter Fig. 3: Current-fode gyrator-RC filter

The corresponding transfer function for both structures is:

av_\ 9a92>) + s2CaCb K '

where gai Qb are the conductances of Ro> Rb and g\, gi are the gyrator constants. Identifying(1) with the transfer function of a general second-order section with practical assumptionfli=S2=5o:=Si» and Ca—Cb gives auto-setting of maximally flat - Butterworth - approxima-tion, which is desired for antialiasing filters. In actual implementation resistances are simu-lated by transconductors. The filter structure based on transconductors is shown in Fig. 4.

C a 1* l i

•—i

G,

G ? ( 1 1

• •

LK=1

)Gt

J\ K'2

I»

- IT.

Fig. 4; Transconductor implementation of gyrator-RC current-mode filter

In the final structure in Fig. 4 a multiple weighted output 12 (K=2) of tranconductor G4is used to compensate inherent attenuation of the filter. Using the available transconductordesign [2] the current-mode fully balanced version of the presented filter was simulated for5 V power supply voltage. For the transconductances of 5.4 /iA/V and capacitances of 24 pFa cutoff frequency of 60 kHz and total harmonic distortion of 0.03 V for 1 Vpp (correspondsto 8/iA) amplitude of signal were observed. The next step in the future will be the designof linear transconductors capable to operate with 3.3 V supply voltage.

References:

[1] ROBERTS, G. W. - SEDRA, A. S.: All Current-Mode Frequency Selective CircuitsElectronics Letters, pp. 759-761, 1989

[2] SVAJDA, M.: Low* Voltage Transconductance Amplifier for Audio-Frequency Filter De-sign. Proc. of EDS'94, Brno, Vol. 1, pp. 206-208, 1994

This research has been conducted at the Department of Microelectronics as part of theresearch project "High-Speed Analog Circuits in Current-Mode" and has been supported byFVU VUT Brno grant No. FU J50016

866


VHDL MODEL OF MADBISTR. Komanec, V. Kolařík, R. Vrba

TU Brno, Faculty of El. Eng. k Comp. Sc, Department of Microelectronics

Key words: MADBIST, BIST, VHDL, design for test, testability

There are several state-of-art techniques for BIST (Built-in Self-Test) of Mixed-SignalIntegrated Circuits. This paper deals with Histogram-Based MADBIST (Mixed-SignalAnalog-Digital BIST) introduced by the team of Dr. Roberts in [1-2].

We have developed a VHDL model of the testing structure implied by using the abovetechnique, which can be used in simulation of the self-testing circuit. The following pictureshows the overall structure of the IC (or a block in larger structure).

SigGea.DACFilter

s

Una " j

. • ADC\ ! AAF

\ *

Fig. 1: Chip structure

The VHDL model decribes the DT (Digital Test) Block. Fig. 2 presents schematic andVHDL representation of the block.

entity DTB i sport I

CLOCK: in b i t ;CHECK: in b i t ;

ERROR DATA: i n b i t v e c t o r (MWIDTH d o w n t o 0) ;ERROR: out b i t ;

) ;end DTB;

Fig. 2: DT Block

867

WORKSHOP 9G MICROELECTRONICS

The DT Block performs the following fully synchronous operation:

• counts DATA values when CHECK high

• checks these values against predefined range of correct (allowed) values

• outputs ERROR high/low after CHECK goes low when the test conditions were vio-lated/met

Another VHDL description would have to be used for the synthesis of this test-structure,especially as the topics of area usage, block reuse and system integration are involved.However, our modn] is sufficient for the simulation purposes

References;

[1] LU, A. K. - ROBERTS, G. W.: A BIST Technique for a Frequency Response and In-termodulation Distortion Test of a Sigma-Dclla A DC in Proc. of IEEE ITC Conference1994, pp. 60-65

[2] TONER, M. - ROBERTS, G.: Histogram-Based Test for Distortion and Gain Trackingof a Mixed Signal 8-bit PCM Chip in Workshop on New Directions for Testing, May1992, Montreal, CA, pp. 97-112

This research has been conducted at the Department of Microelectronic as a part oflarger research project "TANTAL" and has been supported by GACR grant # 102/95/0875.

868


PROGRAM FOR AUTOMATEDDESIGN OF IC'S RESISTORS

C. Navrátil, M. Kejhar, M. Kirschner

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of MicroelectronicsTechnická 2, 166 27 Praha 6

Key words: analog integrated circuits, design automation, passive components

Recently, CAD tools for digital integrated circuit design have reached considerablyadvanced stage and are widely used for industrial purposes. On the other hand, the toolsfor automation of analog integrated circuit (AIC) design are rather in their infancy. Thiscontrast has provoked considerable attention of researchers to this field [1]. Recently somespecialized AIC design tools have appeared [2-3]. However, those tools are devoted to designof active components or a particular class of circuits. In many applications it is not possibleto avoid the passive components and often these components determinate final propertiesof designed circuits. According our knowledge, there are no tools for design automation ofpassive components. Thus our effort is aimed to fill this gap.

The effort is concentrated into three areas. First, development, definition and descrip-tion of the resistor models suitable for design purpose. Secondly, development and design ofmethods an test structures for passive elements characterization. And thirdly, the creationof program system which will contain the obtained component models and utilize them forthe automation of their design. Our contribution presents the latest mentioned area, theprogram system for the passive component automation.

The program system consists of several subprograms. These can be executed in batch orinteractive mode. In a case of batch mode execution the required system variables, filenamesand paths are read from the current system environment or from the system default file.The user is allowed to redefine the filenames or add his local paths right on the prompt linewhile invoking the program by means of program arguments. When started, the programreads the resistor specifications from the input file whose name is assigRcd as default nameor can be reassigned by the designer on the prompt line. Thereafter the transformation andevaluation of input specifications and further determination and suggestion of the realizationis carried out by the subprogram RJ3ELECT. Finally the subprogram R_CALCUL, whichcalculates the actual resistor size for selected realization, is called in the batch mode.

When running the interactive mode, the Graphical User Interface (GUI) is launched.The GUI combines all subprograms for setting the filenames, paths, environment variablesand the program for inserting the user required set of input specifications of the resistor.The subprogram R.SÍ3LECT will be embodied into the GUI as well as the subprogramR-CALCUL is linked into the GUI to calculate the parameters for generation.

GUI is built up in XWindows environment and is ready to be integrated within thearbitrary design system. Presently our program for automation is considered to be inte-grated within the CADENCE design system. For this implementation the calculation of thelayout structure realization is assumed to be performed by means of the internal CADENCEprogramming language SKILL [4].

869


The programs RJ3ELECT and R.CALCUL exploit the technology file to extricate nec-essary information for calculation. Also the technology layout design rules-are used for theresistor realization in program R-CALCUL.

The utter version of the program should provide the entire automated design flow forresistors in IC down to the layout representation either fully automatically in batch modeor interactively.

Massive Design Automation

FILE RESISTOR TECH-FILE

Fig. 1: Main window of the program for Passive Elements Design Automation

References:

[1] TSIVIDIS, Y. P.: R&D in Analog Circuits: possibilities and needed support, pp. 1-15.Proc. ESSCIRC 1992.

[2] ISMAIL, M, - FRANCA, J.: Introduction to Analog VLSI design Automation. KulwcrAcademic Publishers, Boston/Dodrecht/London, 1990.

[3] HARVEY, J. P. - ELMASRY, M. I. - LEUNG, B.: STAIC: An interactive frameworkfor synthesizing CMOS and BiCMOS analog circuits. IEEE Transactions on computer-aided design of integrated circuits and systems, Vol 11, pp. H02-1417, 1992, No. 11

[4] Reference Manual: SKILL Language, EDGE - Integrated design system 1989 by Ca-dence Design Systems, Inc.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Microelectronics as part of theresearch project "Design automation of passive components for analog integrated circuits"and has been supported by GAČR grant No. 102/93/219^.

870


USING PWL CIRCUITS FOR ANALOGSYNTHESIS OF APPROXIMATE

IDENTITY NEURAL NETWORKS

J. Kaderka

TU, Fac. of Electrical Eng. and Comp. Sc, Department of MicroelectronicsÚdolní 53, Brno

Key words: Approximate Identity Neural Networks, PWL Circuits, Supervised Learning

This paper deals with designing of an analog circuitry of the 1-D Approximate IdentityNeural Networks (AINN). It is shown that using of Piccewise Linear (PWL) approach issuitable.

The AINN, shown in Fig. 1, can be represented by equation

N

A(x,otA,Ar) = £w(x»ai»'*J»*i) (1)

The transfer function of an analogue neurone (AN), shown in Fig. 2, of AINN is de-scribed by equation

Vi = i . * * (\jM - Aj) + 1| + | i . ( * - A ) - 11 - 2 . | I (x - Aj>|) (2)

Fig. 1: AINN Fig. 2: Transfer function of AN

The AINN have the ability to approximate an input-output mapping to any degree ofaccuracy. It is now given some results which is important to learning or setting weights ofthe AINN.

The function A involves 3 sets of parametres: a,A and k. The p.irametres A are setlineary on R. In the learning phase a and k are choosen such that the square of the error

í^B/Ow-Afo))' (3)(=1

871


be minimized. A commonly used learning algorithm is the method of steepest decent inwhich the incremental changes of parameters Aoy and A/y are proportional OE.

dE

(4)

(5)

7/a and ty are positive-valued constant that regulates the degree of adjustments madewith each gradient move. The principles of learning are involved in solving of equations (4)and (5). The number of the analogue neurones of A1NN influence on a degree of aproximatcaccuracy.

The architecture of the analogue neurone, shown in Fig. 3, and AINN is composed ofthe PWL rurcuits. This solution can be easy implemented using VLSI technology.

Fig. 3: Circuit of AN

References:

[1] CONTI, M. - TURCHETTI, C : "Approximate Identity Neural Networks for AnalogSynthesis of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems." IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Sys-tems: Fundamental Theories and Applications, vol. 41, pp. 841-858, December 1994

[2] KADERKA, J.: "Universal Approach to the Modelling of the Analogue Neurone." Pro-ceedings SYS 95, pp. 34-37, June 1995

This research has been conducted at the Department of Microelectronics as part of theresearch project "High-Speed Analog Circuits in Current-Mode" and has been supported byFondem vedy a umeni, grant No, FU

872


PROGRAMMABLE ANALOG BUILDINGBLOCKS FOR FEEDFORWARD

NEURAL NETWORKS

L. Nikolic, M. Kejhar, P . Simandl, P . Holoubek

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dcpt. of MicroelectronicsTechnická 2, 1G6 27 Praha 6

Key words: analog programmable neural networks, VLSI design

The goal of this paper is to present some building blocks that can be used in analog,programmable artificial neural networks. Analog neural networks have many advantagesas high-speed or small die area, but also some limitations. Great attention should be'paid to computing accuracy. Sufficient accuracy can be achieved by careful circuit design.Programmable analog weights are the most critical part of neural network design. In thiswork two programmable analog weights and comparator as hard-limitcr transfer functionsare described.

Programmable weights. Two multiplying circuits are presented bellow. ImprovedGilbert multiplier is shown in Fig. 1. Finite R0/fim ratio, where Il0 represents the transcon-ductor output resistance and /?,•„ input resistance, causes current gain error. To reach 8-bitaccuracy basic current mirrors should be replaced by cascotled mirrors. Voltage swings forinputs are 2 V for 12 V of power supply.

Fig. 1: Improved Gilbert multiplier

Fig. 2 shows a multiplying D/A converter that can be used as ncuro weight. One inputis digital other is analog current. In this case problem of RofRin ratio is avoided by forcingthe same voltage on the input and on the output of the circuit. Improved Gilbert multiplieroccupies smaller die area but for triple cascoded mirrors 12 V power supply is required. D/Amultiplier can work on 5 V of power supply.

873


Fig. 2: D/A multiplier

Neuron transfer function. Several mathematical functions can be used as transferfunctions, influencing learning capabilities, convergence, speed, etc. Some of them can berealised in hardware too, using non-linear I-V characteristics of transistors or a piecewiscapproximation in the current-voltage space, but if high-speed, high-resolution analog neuralnetworks are required a small change in the slope of the characteristics, due to the variationsof device parameters, can lead to big lost in accuracy. The hard-limiter transfer functionis compromising solution for neural networks working with high-resolution on high-speeds,which are on the border of technological capabilities. From the analog point of view thisfunction is a high-speed, high-resolution comparator.

A high speed, high resolution CMOS comparator is presented, Fig. 3. The comparatorconsist of a folded cascode circuit with a current-triggered latch, output stage, second gainstage and a flip-flop on the output. The sampling rate of the comparator is 50 MHz with a1 mV differential input for the 4 V input voltage swing.

Vdd

Fig. 3: The comparator

References:[1] CHOI, J. - BANG, S. H. - SHEU, B. J.: A Programmable Analog VLSI Neural Net-

work Processor for Communication Receivers. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks,Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 484-494, May 1993.

[2] BETTA, G. D. - GRAFFI, S. - KOVACS, Z. M. - MASETTI, G.: CMOS Implemen-tation of an Analogically Programmable Cellular Neural Network. IEEE Transactionson Circuits and Systems, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 206-213, March 1993

874


MODULAR NEURAL NETWORKFOR MOS MODELLING

K. Žáček

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of MicroelectronicsTechnická 2,166 27 Praha 6

Key words: neural networks, modelling

In our work we deal with using mapping neural networks as universal approximationtools for modelling of electron devices. In [lj we demonstrated a model of MOS transistorbased on 3-layer feed-forward neural network. One neural network is used there to coverthe input space [Vgst Vds] over all operating regions of transistor (such as subthreshold,linear and saturation). This contrasts to SPICE model which uses switching of equations fordifferent operating modes resulting in the loss of first derivative continuity, precision etc. [2].Neural model [1] ensures smooth transients between different operating modes which mayhowever be paid by certain loss of accuracy.

LEARNING

PERMISSION

Fig. 1: Competitive learning of modular network.

In this work we propose to use multiple neural networks known as modular network [3]to improve the accuracy of approximation in problematic regions. Our model consists ofseveral independent networks each approximating limited amount of measured data. Thisleads to partitioning the whole model into partial models. Mostly important however is thefact that partitioning of the model is by no means pre-defined. It is carried out purely bymeans of self-organization known as competitive learning.

Fig. 1 illustrates the principle of the model consisting of N neural networks. In everylearning step each network is supplied with the training data and evaluates its output. Onlythat network with minimum difference between its output and the target value is allowed toperform one learning step over the appropriate input/output pair. This leads to spontaneousself-distribution of input data between particular networks.

875


Fig. 2: Phases of learning modular network. Each colour corresponds to one sub-networkoccupying part of input space area [VgstVds].

After sufficient number of iterations (trials) the whole input space [Vgs, Vds] becomesdivided between networks and the equilibrium in distribution is established as it is shownin Fig. 2. The frame in Fig. 2 corresponds to the [Vgs} Vds] plane. Different levels of grey-scale correspond to different neural networks. In the real model networks are continuouslyswitched by classification (switching) network that is not solved here.

Results: We have designed and trained modular neural network to investigate possibil-ities of improving behaviour of ncur&l model of MOS. Used modular network was composedof 8 sub-networks each containing only one neuron to avoid the need for back-propagationalgorithm. Even with that simple networks the maximum relative error per network didn'texceed 10%.

References:

[1] ŽÁČEK, K.: Model of MOS Transistor Based On Mapping Neural Network. Poster 95,p. 120, CTU Pragur, 1995.

[2] TSIVIDIS, Y. - SUYAMA, K.: MOSFET Modelling for Analog Circuit CAD: Problemsand Prospects. IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits, 3/1994.HAYKIN, S.: Neural Networks. Springer Verlag, 1994.[3]

876

This research has been conducted at the Department of Microelectronics.


A HIGH-SPEED CURRENT MONITOR

M. Švajda

VUT, Fac. of Electrical Eng. and Comp. Science, Dept- of MicroelectronicsÚdolni 53, 602 00 Brno

Key words: testability, current monitors, Idd testing, integrated circuits

High-Speed Current Sensor for Test Purposes Testing of integrated circuits is an im-portant step in the fabrication process. Functional and structural tests can be recognizedas the basic test methodologies. Increased number of devices per package and complexityof modern ACISs makes complete functional test extremely time consuming. Structural ap-proach allows to reduce test duration but not all faults are generally covered within the testprocedure. A measure for reliability of the test results, test coverage, is necessary to considerin this case. Iddq testing as a structural approach has been successfully implemented fortesting of digital CMOS integrated circuits. This method is based on the measurement ofquiescent current in the power supply rail, and faulty circuits exliibit a significant increase ofthe supply current. With this technique a high coverage of realistic faults is reached with avery reduced set of test patterns. Current testing has been recently extended to analog andmixed analog-digital circuits [1]. The measurement of consumed current is performed by thecurrent monitor. Current monitors can be realized either as an oiT-chip device (Fig. 2) forcooperation with standard automated test equipment (ATE), or can be integrated togetherwith the section under test (SUT) as an on-chip device (Fig. 2).

Vdd Vdd

I Monitor j —pass/fail

CUT circuit sectionunder test

VssFig. 1: OfF-Chip Current Monitor Fig. 2: On-Chip Current Monitor

Off-chip monitors have in general worse performance (lower speed and accuracy, worsedetectability of faults) but they do not require extra silicon area on the chip under test andcan be easily incorporated into the standard ATE. Theirs versatility can be quaranteed bythe recently available standard of QTAG [2]. On-chip monitors, on the other hand, havebetter resolution and higher speed. Unfortunately, they need extra pins and occupy extraarea on the chip. On-chip monitors are suitable mainly for built-in self test applicationsand concurrent testing. The main problem for implementing the current testing in analogsections is the influence of the current sensor to the performance of the circuit under test.There are two basic structures for the sensor realization - the MOS transistor in linearregion or the current mirror. Aim of this paper is to present a fast current observer suitable

877


for testing of analog sections in mixed mode circuits. Proposed monitor, consisted of alow-voltage current mirror and a current comparator, is illustrated in Fig. 3.

+Vdd

pass/fail

-VssFig. 3: Low-Voltage Current Monitor

Low-voltage operation of the current mirror is accomplished by a buffer with a DClevel shift connected between the collector and base terminals of an input mirror transistorQl [3]. Parasitic lateral bipolar transistors in CMOS process or vertical npn-type transistorsin BiCMOS process are be used for devices Ql-3. Transistor Ql operates with the minimumcollector-emitter voltage. Cascode transistor Q3 improves the linearity and the outputimpedance of the sensor. For the simulations 1.2um CMOS process parameters were used.Proposed current sensor is expected to perform built-in Iddq tests at rates of tens of MHz.The speed can be increased when high-performance bipolar transistors are used within theBiCMOS technology. In this case, this current sensor can be used also as an oflf-chip monitor.

References:

[I] MATEO, D. et al.: An Approach to the Analysis of the Current Testability of IC Inte-grated Circuits Proc. of ATS 93', Beijing, 1993, pp. 82-87

[2] BAKER, K.: Requirements Specification for the QTAG Monitor Description FormatPreliminary Version for Comment, Philips Research, 1994

[u] RAMIREZ'ANGULO, J.: Low voltage current mirrors for built-in current sensors Proc.of ISCAS 94', 1994, pp. 529-531

This research has been conducted at the Department of Microelectronics as part of theresearch project "Testability of Analog and Analog-Digital Integrated Circuits" and has beensupported by Grant Agency of the Czech Republic grant No, 102/95/0875

878

WORKSHOP 9G MICROELECTRONICS

TEST-PROCESS SIMULATION FORANALOGUE AND MIXED-SIGNAL

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

V. Musil, J . Brzobohatý*

TU, Faculty of Electrical Eng. and Comp. Sc, Department of MicroelectronicsÚdolní 53, Brno

Key words: Testing, Analogue and Mixed-Signals, Integrated Circuits, HSPICE

The aim of this paper iis to model circuit defects and simulate a test process for thesedefects on a circuit (transistor) level. The procedure developed is based on the HSPICE cir-cuit simulation package and M ATLAB package for the data conversion and post-processing.This procedure is combined with to the design of fault models, test stimuli and their im-plementation. Three circuits are studied in detail; a two-transistor CMOS invcrtor, aneleven-transistor CMOS operational amplifier, and a flash amiloguc-to-digital converter.Nine input stimuli with varied frequency spectra are generated and used in the simulations.The simple MOS transistor hard fault model and gate oxide short model were designedand implemented in the circuit. After completing the multisweep simulations, the resultsarc post-processed by a maths program in both time and frequency domains. Results aregraphically compared to obtain conclusions. There are two levels for comparison: a low-level(comparison of responses) and a high-level (comparison of macromodels).

On Fig. 1 we can see the flowchart of the simulation system. Only MOS circuitsare simulated. Each transistor is replaced by Its model for shorts and opins. For circuitsimulation the IISPICE programme is used. As outputs we can assume four characteristics:supply current in time and frequency domains as well as output voltage in time and frequencydomains. First TR analysis runs for fault free circuits with parameter variation usingMonte Carlo analysis for both supply current and output voltage. Then we can estimatetolerance intervals for supply currents and frequency signatures. Now TR analysis runsfor all possible (or supposed) faults. By comparing faulty characteristics with toleranceintervals and frequency signatures we obtain the final result - detcctability for each fault(faults coverage).

A larger circuit can be modelled on a high level as a mathematical description of itsbehaviour. The fault free circuit and its tolerance envelope are transferred to the highlevel as a point with a sphere around. The idea was to do the same procedure to modela faulty circuit by using the fault-free model. On the transistor level the faulty and fault-free circuits are represented by different connections (added or missing). This circuitrydifference will be shifted to the high level as a parameter difference. The faulty behaviourcan be placed to the same board as the fault free behaviour. Each fault is displayed as apoint. The manufacturing parameter variation of the faulty circuit can be transferred andplaced around the fault as a probability density cloud (the tolerance band is not defined forthe faulty circuit). If the fault free envelope (tolerance band) and faults are put together, asimple detection strategy can be found. The faults which are situated inside the envelopeare "potentially" nondetectable. Faults that are placed outside arc "potentially" dctactable.

879


This simple comparison does not demonstrate degree of detectability or respective non-detectability. To add this scaling, the variation of manufacturing parameters for fiiultydevices has to be taken into account. The variation for a faulty device follows a Gaussiandistribution. This enables us to calculate the probability of in- or out- envelope occurcnce foreach fault separately. The probability of occurence, defined as the integral of the probabilitydensity function apart from the envelope, is equal to the potential detectability of the fault.By using the principles above the faults were transferred one by one to high-level spacewith their parameter variation. The results are placed onto a two dimensional map asprobability density clouds, and on a three dimensional map with probability density onz-axis. The potential detectability is calculated by a Monte-Carlo integration, the integralis given as the ratio of the points in the envelope to the total number of points. The mapcan be made only for two parameters but the calculation is n-dimensional generally.

Ümicioniodd K

í'-h 11 No.m»l.«l.on j. - - r<cl«i»tMl«fl«

NitrilxmainInirrMHrhinl

i

Fig. 1: IISPICE based flowcliard of the modelling system

This research has been conducted at the Department of Microricctronics us a part ofthe research project "High-Speed Analog Circuits in Current Mode" and has been supportedby Fond vedy a umeni, grant No. FV 450016.

880


IMPACT OF DEFECT PARAMETERSON POWER DEVICE MODELLING

P . Hazdra, F. Spurný, J . Vobecký


Key words: radiation defects, semiconductors, capture cross sections, lifetime control

Recently we presented the original way of simulating behaviour of silicon devices thatwere subjected to hydrogen and helium irradiation [1]. The simulation procedure comprisesprimary defect generation by means of Monte-Carlo simulation code TRIM-90, re-scalingof the primary defect profiles into appropriate deep-level profiles by use of experimentallyoriented database, and the device simulation with full trap dynamics involved [2]. Thisapproach provided a good qualitative agreement when applied to hydrogen, helium, andelectron irradiations and their combinations [3]. The main role of the experimentally ori-ented database, which is a key element of the simulation, is to predict the resulting defectelectronic structure and its spatial distribution from primary damage deposition and in-formation about both the material and irradiation procedure. At present, our attentionis focused on influence of particular parameters and re-scaling procedure on simulation re-sults. The sensitivity analysis we performed and its careful comparison with experimentprovided us with information which parameter and re-scaling factor is crucial for the properprediction of device operation and winch is irrelevant. Now, we are interested in accurateexperimental determination of those defect parameters which we found the most important.

MEASUREMENT SIMULATION

12McV lie2* irradiation

-150

- 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4

TIME (u.s)

Fig. 1: Reverse recovery of He2* irradiated power diode - simulation and experiment.

The device under test was p+pnn+ 370/«n long, 16 mm diameter (2.5kV/100 A) powerdiode fabricated on (111) FZ NTD llOflcm n-type silicon. The double-diffused p-layer(8/mi, NA = 3 • 1019cm"3, 50/mi, NA = 5 • 10 l7cm"3) and diffused n-Iayer (15/im,No — 1021 cm"3) formed JJ+ and n+ emitter, respectively. The diode was irradiated fromthe anode side with defocused He2+ cyclotron beam with final energy 12MeV at differentdoses ranging from 8 • 10° to 6 • 10Iocm"2.

881


The magnitudes of starting input parameters used for the simulation procedure [2](defect activation energies, capture and introduction rates) were chosen according to our ownexperimental results and carefully verified results from [4-5]. Simulated output parameters(forward voltage drop VF, reverse recovery current lTT (see Fig. 1.), soft factor 5 , etc.) werechosen according to standard measurements available.

In order to identify the influence of particular defects, the simulations were performedfor the following cases: all generally accepted defect levels resulting from helium irradiation(El, E2, E3, H5) [2] are involved, two levels that are believed to be the most important ones,i.e. El (V0 w ~ J ) and E3 (VVW->), arc involved, and these levels are involved individually.The comparison of experimental and simulated results clearly showed that the VO pair isof the major importance for given starting material. It puts a clear insight into a widelydiscussed question concerning the defect take over from the angle of both the ON-statc andreverse recovery parameters. Next parameters under investigation were the electron and holecapture rates c^, cp the magnitudes of which are presented in publications with a rather bigscatter. The simulation clearly showed that namely c,, is important to know accurately whengood prediction capability of simulation is required. This invoked our further investigationsoriented to detail identification of radiation induced deep le\*cl capture rates. For thisreason a new experiment using special planar ;i+mi+ diodes was designed. The diodeswere fabricated by implantation of U B + at 100keV with the total dose of 1 • 1016cm~2 into240ftcmNTD F Z ( l l l ) ii-type silicon followed by activation at 300°C for 120 minutes. Thediodes were subsequently subjected to high energy ion (H+, lle?+) and electron irradiationwith various doses and energies. DLTS measurements performed on varius experimentalsetups were used to monitor the carrier capture on various radiation induced deep levels.The influence of experimental conditions, evaluation methods [5, C] and temperature oncarrier capture rate magnitude is under investigation. The results provide us with detailinformation about the realistic values of cn and cn » f(T) dependencies. These informationenable us to predict the irradiated device performance with excellent accuracy (sec Pig. 1)and to extend our studies within wider temperature range.

References:

[1] HAZDRA, P. - VOBECKÝ, .1.: Modelling of Localized Lifetime Tailoring in SiliconDevices, Simulation of Semiconductor Devices and Processes, Vol. 5, Springer VerlagWien, pp. 437-440, 1994.

[2] HAZDRA, P. - VOBECKÝ, J.: Accurate Simulation of Fast Ion irradiated PowerDevices, Solid-State Electronics, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 127-134, 1994.

[3] VOBECKÝ, J. et al.: Accurate Simulation of Combined Electron and Ion IrradiatedSilicon Devices for Local Lifetime Tailoring, Proc. of the 6th ISPSD'94, Davos, pp. 265-270, 1994.

[4] HAZDRA, P. - HASLAR, V. - BARTOŠ, M.: The Influence of Implantation Tem-perature and Subsequent Annealing on Residual Implantation Defects in Silicon, Nud.Instr. Mcth. Phys. Res. B55, pp. 637-641, 1991.

[5] KESKITALO, N.: A Charge Carrier Lifetime Model for Proton Irradiated Silicon,Licenciáte of Technology, Dept. of Radiation Sciences, Uppsala University, 1994.

[6] PONS, D.: Accurate Determination of the Free Carrier Capture Kinetics of Deep Trapsby Space-Charge Methods, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 3644-3657, 1984.

882


SIMULATING OF GaAs/AlGaAsHETEROJUNCTION SYSTEM

J . Tayari

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of MicroelectronicsTechnická 2, 166 27 Praha 6

Key words: quantum well, CV profiling, simulation

In this paper several results are shown of my simulating GaAs/AlGaAs planar hetcro-junction system with modified lateral with quantum well. This structere we have measuredby capacitance - voltage (C-V) profiling via depletition method. Samples were grown inInstitute of Physics A.SCR by MBE.In the following part of this paper we will present someresults of simulation performed by Silvaco TCAD simulator Atlas II.

We try to calculate an apparent concentration of measured structure from C-V profilingdata. The simulation resolve if this way give a applicable results for this type of structure.Cross-section through the measured structure is shown on Fig. 1. Upper layer was dividedinto two same regions, which were contacted by Au. On first contact - Schottky - reversebias voltage was applied. The second one was working under ohmic regime. I tried tosimulate structure from Fig. 2 by Silvaco TCAD simulator Atlas II. I looked for edge of thedepletion layer.

Fig. 1: Cross-section of studied structure

At first I simulated two dimensional (2D) model of structure. Because this structure wasdifficult for our simulator I had to use ID model in order to get serious results. In Fig. 2 wepresent electron concentration of 2D and ID models, for different potentials on electrode A.Then we have calculated the apparent concentration of our structure from simulated data(Fig. 3). Silvaco TCAD simulator does not calculate quantum effects in structure and fromthe Fig. 1 and Fig. 3 we can see that the measured peak describes interface between the

883


doped and undoped AlGaAs layers and not the triangular quantum well located on the edgeof AlGaAs.

É • -

Co

XT

. I.

.J..1

..T..1

\í\

1t_4 {Mm tn l/i*)l

—• ta-jí•— b-»—^ la-rr

•'• <U >i »it *t . i* »• «SiDistance along cuiiine |jimj

('• . J O'j l". . 1 •'•

Distance along cuiline [jitn]

Fig. 2: Electron concentration of 2D (left) and ID (right) model

Fig. 3: Calculated concentration from simulated data

This way do not ßive a applicable results for this type of structure.

References:

[1] SUNDARM, M. - GOSSARD, A. C : Capacitance/voltage profiling though graded het-crojunction, J. Appl. Phys. 1, 251. (1993)

This research has been conducted at the Department of Mathematics as part of theresearch project "Fill in the Name of the Project Here" and has been supported by CTUgrant No, 1234.

884


EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OFHETEROJUNCTION STRUCTURES

P. Sichrovský


Key words: C-V profiling, heterostructures, quantum well

It is known that the base of thinlayer and quantum well structures is its production. Atpresent we can use some modern perspective epitaxial techniques like MBE and MOCVD.But it is well known too that next important part of development of new systems and devicesis characterisation of this produced structures. One useful method among characterisationtechniques is C-V profiling of course. We can say that C-V profiling through hetcrojunc-tions or quantum well structures is powerful and simple method of determining free-carrierdistribution in a semiconductor systems. We can't get real free-carrier distribution usingthis method, but apparent concentration of free carriers Napp only. We get it from measuredC-V data by using final equation (1), what we can get through general relationships.

where

" = 4 (2)As it was mentioned above, we can obtain by equation (1) apparent concentration of

free-carriers only. The reason of this fact is influence of screening effect. A parameter whatdescribes this effect of screening is called Debye screening length £j>. We can express it like:

We can say that Debye screening length is the distance needed to screen of defect ofbalance level of free-carrier concentration. Extreme case is zero level of Debye screeninglength, LD — 0- In this case influence of screening doesn't exist and the concentration offree carriers is the same as doping concentration. We can see from equation (3) that thiscase can be for T = 0. The calculated values of Debye screening length are shown in Fig. 1.

At last period we carried out all measurements at room temperatures. One of the goalsof our project was to rebuild measuring system for measurement for lower temperaturesthan the room one. We have established this goal to suppress influence of screening and toreduce Debye screening length.

We have collaborated with Institute of Physics CAS and for validation of mentionedfacts we have measured on RT diodes and on structures grown on semüzoiating substrate andconducting one too. Results of our measurements will be carded out by speech presentationat the conference.

885


. -2013 '221 N[m-3]

T M 50 24

Fig. 1: Calculation of Debye screening length (LQ) from temperature (T) and doping level(N) data. We can see lower level of LD for low level of T and/or high level of N.

References:

[1] SICHROVSKÝ, P.: Measurement on AlGaAs IIEMT structure. Proceeding of EDS '95confetence, 28.6.1995, Brno, Czech Republik.

[2] SICHROVSKÝ, P. - TAYARI, J.: Study of GaAs/AlGaAs hcterojunction system,experiment and simulation. Proceeding of HEAD '95 conference, 15.-19.10.1995,Smolenice, Slovak Republic.

[3] KROEMER, H. - CH1EN, W. Y.: On the Theory of Dehyc Averaging in the C-VProfiling of Semiconductors. Solid-State Electronics, vol 24, J9S1, pp. 665-660.

[4] SUNDARM, M. - GOSSARD, A. C : Capacitance- Voltage Profiling through GradedH'eterojunctions; Theory and experiment. Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 73, No. 1,1993, pp. 251-260.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Microelectronics as part ofthe research project "Experimental Study of Semiconducior Hctcrojunction Structures withQuantum Well." and has been supported by CTU grant No. 10038210.

886

Section 15

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

NEXT PAGE(S)loft BLÄH;l

WORKSHOP 96 BIOMEDIGAL ENGINEERING

SYSTEM FOR AUTOMATEDCHROMOSOME PROCESSING

J . Voráček

TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Foundry Eng.Technická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: chromosome, mitosis, analysis

Computer processing of mitotic chromosomes has already confirmed history [1-2]. Var-ious algorithms were developed and subsequently implemented in commercial systems.Whereas this problem solution requires not only good theoretical background, but alsoexcellent technical equipment, it was almost impossible to realise system able to compete inour country during last years. The origin of described research project was elicited especiallyby following facts:

• practical needs of complex chromosome analyser are still increasing. This fact corre-sponds with rapidly growing number of genetic diseases (Down's syndrome, tumoursetc.),

• high prices of nowadays offered systems makes them inaccessible for routine laborato-ries,

• fast rate of cytogenetic research requires open, easily expandable software system,which helps to certify scientific theories.

In presented project our department co-operates with Biophysical Institute of Academyof Sciences, Research Institute of Veterinary Medicine and with Children's Hospital. Firsttwo organisations are our leaders in genetics and in hospital obtained results are practicallytested on a hundreds of specimens. Our working group cares for complex automation ofmicroscopical preparations processing.

This activity includes next stages:

• comprehensive control both mechanical and optical functions of microscope. For cor-rect evaluation of all glass area it is necessary to actuate scanning object stage directlyfrom the computer,

• standardisation of image parameters on all examined area requires feedback control ofsharpening and light intensity per the camera,

• finding the maximal number of applicable chromosome clusters (mitosis) on the glassarea. This operation is the most significant for the practice, because its time con-sumption is considerable. That's why is necessary to solve it at first by hardwarepre-processing and subsequently analyse selected images by proper algorithm,

• single chromosomes recognition with help of knowledge based system [3]. This taskplays only auxiliary role, because genetics prefer personal evaluation of questionablesamples.

889

WORKSHOP 96 BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

Present state of our research and development activities can be characterised by thesefinished operations:

• dedicated optical microscope is fully connected to computer. We control steppingmotors of X and Y actuatois by standalone microprocessor system, special unit furimage sharpening (Z-axis motion) was added to eliminate mechanical tolerances givenboth actuators and preparations unaccuratenesscs.

• number of simple algorithms for sharpening and mitosis finding was created. Theseprocedures are derived directly from the brightness function and after comparativetesting we suppose to realise the best one by hardware device

• interactive, user friendly environment, working under MS Windows system is finishedand permanently utilised in co-operating institutes. It includes basic pixel and spec-trum oriented image operations, statistics and database functions. We can processbanded and hybridised chromosomes including coloured objects. Interaction, enablesmanual operations with selected parts of digitised picture, is popular with laboratoryworkers.

• first steps with chromosome recognition are made now with promising results. Weare creating robust training set for each type of chromosome, which is necessary forclassification accuracy increasing.

This grant ought to be finished next year with, as we hope according to its presentresults and cytogenetics7 experts interest, interesting theoretical and practical results.

References:

[1] MENDELSOHN, M. Í L - MAYALL, B. H.: Unman chromosome metodology. AcademicPress, New York 1974.

[2] HORWATH, W. J. - TOLLES, W. E.: In Situ Hybridisation - Theory and Practice.Pergamon Press, New York 199*1.

[3] VORÁČEK, J.: Design, Properties and Applications of Neural Tree Classifier. Pro-ceedings SEHE'95, Alicante, Spain 1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Foundry Engineering as part ofthe research project "Pig genoma in situ hybridisation" and has been supported by GACligrant No. 514/94/1051.

890


ADVANCED PROCESSINGAND ANALYSIS

OF ULTRASONIC MEDICAL IMAGESJ . J a n , P. Kilián, D. Kučera

TU Brno, Fac. of Electrical Eng. and Comp. Science, Dept. of Biomedical EngineeringPurkyfiova 91a, 612 00, Brno

Key words: ultrasonic imaging, speckle suppression, Wiener filtering, correlation, attenu-ation correction, edge detection, image segmentation

Three main problems were solved in frame of the project:

• speckle suppression and resolution enhancement by Wiener filtering, with a filter basedon correlation analysis,

o automatic correction of attenuation in different types of tissues,• advanced edge extraction and segmentation.

The model of the imaging process is composed of convolution reflecting the width of theultrasonic scanning beam and multiplicative noise due to speckle producing wave interfer-ence. To this inner model, a strong nonlinearily is superimposed due to envelope detectionfollowed by logarithmic dynamic range suppressing amplification. This nonlmearity canbe considered the first stage of a homo mor phi c filter, transforming the multiplicative noiseinto an additive one. Though the convolution is thus transformed into a more complicatedoperation, the practical experience shows that the resulting additive mixture of the unsharpsignal and speckle noise can effectively be processed by a modified Wiener filter.

The presented design procedure [2] of the modified Wiener filter is more formally con-trollable than in [1] and provides better filter estimates. It is based on correlation analysisof the expected original image x (set of "point" targets) and its replica y provided by theultrasonic scanner. So far rather encouraging results were obtained for the modified pseu-doinverse part derived as the ratio SXJ//SUV of the cross- and power- spectra of a low noiseset of the used scanner PSF measurements. The original image can be pre-modified by con-volution with a Gauss shaped function of a chosen variance which produces a measurableand sufficient modification so that almost none further arbitrary changes are needed. It isexpected that, using noisy ("speckled") PSF measurements (yet to be provided) it shouldbe possible to design the complete filter in the described manner.

A tool called time gain compensation (TGC) is used for the depth attenuation cor-rection of the beam travelling through a human body. A TGC profile, which is a curvedescribing the required gain of the incoming echoes as dependent on the time delay of theechoes, is usually in the form of an exponential function routinely used for all the beamsforming the image, as if the tissue were homogeneous in the lateral direction. However, thissimplification is not acceptable for some purposes (contrast enhanced imaging, backscatterenergy calculations, etc.), because in real situation each ray is going through different organs,so that it is differently attenuated. The ideal solution for suppressing this artifact is settingthe correction profile individually for every line according to the real attenuation of the path

891


the ray travels through. We developed the algorithm using so called attenuation map (AM)approach for the accurate attenuation correction incorporating the lateral non-homogeneityalso. The principle of the method consists in building the AM and its subsequent utilizationfor the calculation of the TGC profiles specific for each beam. Different approaches for con-structing the AM were tested, both based on simple automatic segmentation of the imageand assigning the attenuation coefficients to the regions as well as on automatic estimationof the attenuation directly from radio-frequency data parameters.

The visualization of extracted 3-D anatomic structures in time sequences has beenpossible only after a tedious and time-consuming manual outlining of the tissue bordersin hundreds of images. Developing a software* tool that would save user's time is of greatpractical importance. One step in this direction is to utilize information from geometricallyadjacent images taken at one time moment (slices) or time adjacent images taken fromone geometrical view (frames). The information in geometrically or temporarily adjacentimages is highly redundant and hence very robust to degradation, such as signal dropoutalong surfaces parallel to the ultrasound beam or high level of speckle noise. Consequently,structures degraded in one image can be present in some of the other images. In the paperwe focus on the detection of the endocardium in time sequential ecliocardiogmphic imagesacquired in a fixed geometrical position.

A method [4] of segmenting cchocardiography images based on three dimensional (twospatial and one time) surface was developed and tested on transcutaneous images from 3Spatients and a four dimensional (three spatial and one time) traiisesophagea) scan of onepatient. Active contour models with finite elements representing the curves in the imagingplanes and finite difference description linking curves from time frame to time frame wereemployed. Region-based external forces were incorporated into the framework of the modeland an analytical procedure for estimating the values of most of the model parameters wasdeveloped and used.

References:

[1] JAN, J. - KILIÁN, P.: Modified Wiener Approach to Restoration of Ultrasonic Scansvia Frequency Domain. Proc. SC1A'95 - 9th Scandinavian Conference on Image Anal-ysis, Uppsala (Sweden) 1995, publisher SSA1A, pp. 1173-11S0.

[2] JAN, J. - KILIÁN, P.: Correlation Based Design of Modified Wiener Filter to SuppressSpeckles in Ultrasonic Tomograms. Proc. MDD'95 - Model Based BiomcasurementconfM Stará Lesná (Slovakia) 1995, Slovak Ac Sei-, pp. 195-197.

[3] JAN, J. - KILIÁN, P.: Design of Wiener Filter via Correlation Analysis of UltrasonicPhantom Scans. Proc. SymbÍosís'95 conf., Gliwice (Poland), 1995, p. 6.

[4] KUČERA, D. - MARTIN, R. W.: Segmentation of Sequences ofEchocardio graphic Im-ages Using A Simplified 3-D Active Contour Model with Region-Based External Forces.Submitted to: Medical Imaging and Graphics.

This project has been supported by the grant No. C-94/80 (FV450015) of the rector'sgrant agency of the Technical University Brno and also by the grant no, 102/94/0374 ofthe Grant Agency of the Czech Republic. The third part of the work was also supportedin part by grants from the National Institute of Health , Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute,IIL41464, and R43RR07741, The John L Locke, Jr. Charitable Trust (Seattle, WA), andthe Futbright Commission.

892


MODELLING OF INNER EARACOUSTICS

V. Stejskal, M. Navara*, P. Růžička

CTU, F.1C. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of MechanicsKarlovo nám. 13, 121 35 Praha 2

*Fakultní nemocnice Královské Vinohrady,Srobárova 50, 100 34 Praha 10

Key words: inner ear, acoustic pressure, interaction, frequency, cochlea

The dynamical process of hearing is very complex phenomenon which is not yet ex-plained in full, for better understanding of the process of hearing our research is focussedon the establishment of reliable mechanical mode! of the phenomenon. It is well known thatthe sound in the audible frequency range is transmitted to the hair cells into the inner earvia ossicles (maleus, incus and stapes). For the proper modelling of middle ear transmissionsystem it is necessary to know mechanical properties of the system (masses, moments ofinertia, stiffnesses of ligaments etc.) and last but not least the acoustic impedance of ovalwindow which create a passage to the inner ear.

The starting point of our research is the computation of the acoustics impedance of ovalwindow. The problem is closely connected with the propagation of sound waves in perilymphfluid in the cochlea. The relation between the orientation of acoustic pressure gradient andmembrane position is of special interest for explanation of sensibility to the signal of certainfrequency. For the modelling the phenomena mentioned we use finite element approach.

The first numerical experiments were done using system ANSYS. The aim of the com-putation was to find the distribution of acoustic pressure amplitude in planar model ofcochlea based on the harmonic excitation by stapes. Mechanically speaking we deal withthe problem of interaction between mechanical part and acoustic environment. Mechanicalpart consists of stapes connected with oval window and oval window membrane. Acousticenvironment is perilymph fluid in cochlea.

The stapes was modelled as a piston by planar quadrilateral finite elements PLANE'12.The following material constants of stapes were used: density 2000 kg.m"3, Young modulus2.1 • l0 9 Pa, Poisson ratio 0.25. The membrane was modelled using LINK 11 elements ori-ented in the line perpendicular to piston motion. The membrane constants were: densitylOOOkg.m"3, Yorng modulus 4 • 105Pa, Poisson ratio 0.5. The acoustic cavity was mod-elled having perfectly rigid limits. The inner part of the cavity was modelled using acousticelements FLUID29 of two kinds. Fist of them - elements in contact with the mechanicalpart of the system - has two degrees of freedom, the second which is not in contact withthe mechanical part has only one degree of freedom. It is supposed that the cavity is filledby water-like liquid which is characterized by following constants: density lOOOkg.m"3 andsound velocity 1500 m.s" 1. The result of computation for the simplified straight model ofcochlea is presented in Fig. la. This describes the distribution of the acoustic pressure am-plitude caused by harmonic excitation the frequency of which is 8300 Hz. The distributionof the acoustic pressure amplitude gradient along the central line of the model (the position

893


of this line coincides with the position of bazilar membrane) regardless to the value of thegradient is shown in Fig. lb.

Fig. 1a Fig. 1b

sss

The place of the sharp change of gradient direction is in a good agreement with theplace of the change of pressure distribution. This place changes its position and is frequencydependent. For higher frequencies the place moves towards the inlet to the acoustic cavityand vice versa. Accordingly moves the place of groat change of the amplitude of bazilarmembrane vibrations. This result is in agreement with well known fact saying that thehigher frequencies are detected by Corti organ near from the inlet to cochlea and the lowerfrequencies are on the contrary detected on the far end of cochlea.

The second step of our research was the more realistic planar model which respectedthe curvature of the acoustical cavity. Figs, 2a b show that the curvature docs not influencethe former results essentially.

Fig. 2b

From the results obtained we are able to gain good estimation of acoustic impedanceof cochlea. It is the starting point for the realistic modelling of vibration of ossical chain inthe middle ear.

References:

[1] VOLDRICH, L. - ULEHLOVA, L.: Cochlcar micromechanics. Acta Otolaryngol(Stockholm) 1987, 103,661-664.

[2] VALENTA, J.: Biamechanika. Academia Praha 1985.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Mechanics as part of the researchproject "Modelling of Acoustic Energy Transmission in Inner Ear" and has been supportedby Grant Agency of Czech Republic grant No. 100/95/1134.

894


MODELING OF THERAPEUTICALULTRASONIC SYSTEMS

F. Kadlec, J . Dobeš

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of RadioelcctronicsTechnická 7,166 27 Praha 6

Key words: ultrasonic system, ultrasonic transducer, equivalent circuit

Modeling of ultrasonic systems for medical therapeutic purposes is based on the elec-troacoustical and electromechanical equivalent circuit with distributed elements. For analy-sis and synthesis of ultrasonic transducers, the Circuit Interactive Analyzer (CIA) programhas been used. The CIA is generally used for simulation of multilevel electronic circuits,making it suitable for work with the distributed parameter elements of ultrasonic systems.By application of appropriate electrical analogies to each mechanical elements, CIA enablesthe design and detailed analysis of the ultrasonic system.

Ultrasonic systems consist of an ultrasonic transducer connected to a .uniform ornon-uniform solid state waveguide. Piezoelectric transducers are described, according tothe Mason model, as three port networks, whose input is an electrical terminal with out-puts corresponding U> two mechanical ports. The piezoelectric transducer is loaded onboth ends with waveguide extensions, the ends of which are loaded with the mechanicalimpedances of the working medium. Equivalent circuit models of solid state waveguides,used as radiators or concentrators of ultrasonic transducers, can be considered as a T or IItwo port networks, in which the longitudinal and transverse impedances take the form ofeither a trigonometric or hyperbolic function [1]. The equivalent circuit of the solid-stateuniform waveguide may be considered as a T network having the longitudinal impedancesZ\ and the transverse impedance %i

ZiH = JPcSUn ~ , 2,(w) = -JpcS-t-r , (1, 2)

where p is the material density, c is the propagation velocity, S is the cross-section area ofthe waveguide, / is the length of the waveguide and u is the angular frequency.

Replacement of the imaginary, frequency dependent impedances by con-trolled voltage sources. A typical frequency dependent impedance such as that of an in-ductor, Z = jwL, may be used in the modeling of ultrasonic transducers as describedby formula (1). The comparison of Eq. 1 and Z = jwL gives the following expression forthe frequency dependent inductor

2j(w) = jpeStan— = juZ,t , Zq(u>) = J ~ t a n 2 ^ • (3> 4)

The CIA program is able to create an arbitrary voltage or current, source dependent onvoltages or currents, as well as the derivatives of voltages or currents with respect to time,frequency or other parameters [2]. The frequency dependent inductor L(ui) may be substi-tuted by the functional controlled voltage source in the following way

895


t/M-<H§. (a)Using Eqs. 4 and 5, the longitudinal impedances Zx of the electrical equivalent of

the cylindrical waveguide may beteplaced by controlled voltage sources

(6,7)

(8)

and the transverse impedance %2 by the controlled voltage source

dt dt

frequency

Design of ultrasonic transducers. In thecurrent work the modeling of piezoelectric trans-ducers and waveguides outlined above has beenused in Lhcdescription of a complete medical ul-trasonic systems. Using the CIA program, we candetermine the parameters of the ultrasonic trans-ducer in terms of the input impedance, the trans-fer functions, etc. As an example shown in Fig. 1,we present parameters of the ultrasonic systemwith the backing (the cylindrical waveguide), thepiezoelectric disc and the radiator (the cylindricalwaveguide). Fig. 1 has one horizontal axis - thefrequencies from 25kHz to 40 kHz and two verti-cal axes. The first (1) and the second (2) curverepresent the transmissibility modulus (accclera-

—i Lion/input voltage) in decibels and the input elec-trical impedance of the ultrasonic transducer, re-spectively.

Fig. 1: The graphs of the electrical input impedance and the transfer func-tion of the example of the ultrasonictransducer.

References:

[1] ŠKVOR, 2.: Vibrating Systems and their Equivalent Circuits. Amsterdam, Elsevier

Science Publishers, 1991.

[2] DOBES, J.: Circuit Interactive Analyzer. User's manual. Prague, 1990-1995.KADLEC, F. - ŠKVOR, Z.: Ultrasonic Transducers and Their Design. Proceedings ofNordic Acoustical Meeting. Oslo, Norway, 22-24 June 1992, pp. 235-240.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Radioclcctronics as part of theresearch project "Generation and monitoring of acoustic fields in the sonic and ultrasonicrange" and has been supported by GACR grand No. 30310IS

S96


POINT PROCESSES DESCRIBINGNEURONAL ACTIVITY

D. Suta*/**, E. Kvašňák**, J . Mart inek*,P. Havelka*, P . Hušek*

*CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of Control EngineeringKarlovo nám. 13, 121 35 Prague 2

**AS CR, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Dept. of Auditory NeuroscienceVídeňská 1083, MO 20 Prague 4

Key words: neuron, Poisson process, point process, fractal

Information in the neural system is coded by occurrences of action potentials - shortimpulses with constant amplitude and shape. Therefore, an action potential is usuallyconceived as a unitary point event. It is possible to full describe the activity of a neuron asa train of events in time or as a train of inter-spike intervals. Such a presumption makes itpossible to apply point processes for modeling of neuronal activity - the spike occurrencesare considered as a realization of a point process.

Traditionally, the Poisson process and its modifications arc applied to modeling ofneuronal activity [3]. In the most simple case, the intervals between two spike events aredescribed as the homogeneous Poisson process with a constant intensity A. With respect tophysiological reality, the intensity of the Poisson process A(i) is a function of time:

where i_i is the time of the previous spike. Function r ( r ) reflects the refractory period;it is zero during the absolute refractory period and recovers during the relative refractoryperiod. The value of r (r) is equal to one at the end of the refractory period and thereafter.The stimulus-dependent factor is expressed by the function s (i)i the value of which copieschanges in the level of spiking activity, e.g. during stimulation.

Analysis of activity recorded over a long period of time showed its highly irregularcharacter, which is typical for fractal processes [4]. The firing patterns are characterized asfractal because the spike-rate fluctuations are self-similar over a large range of integrationtimes. To investigate the fractal character of activity in higher parts of the auditory path-way, the activity of neurons in the medial geniculate body (MGB) of guinea pigs has beenrecorded and analysed [2]. Obvious characteristics (the Fano-factor curve and the fractaldimension) have been derived and compared to the simulated dead-time modified Poissonprocess (DTMP) and data from the auditory nerve [4]. The above-mentioned characteristicssuggest a different temporal structure for real neuronal activity in comparison to that of theDTMP, which is not evident from the inter-spike interval distribution.

The application of point processes is frequently combined with other approaches (ase. g. compartment modeling [1]) to make adequate and relatively simple models for variousphenomena in neuronal activity.

897


References:[1] SUTA, D. - POPELÁŘ, J. - SYKA, J.: Study of the synoptic configuration of W

neurons using a compartmental model. Abstract Book of the Meeting of EuropeanNeuroscience, Amsterdam, p. 76, 1995,

[2] SUTA, D. - KVASŇÁK, E. - SYKA, J.: Fractal character of spike trains in the auditoryihalamus. Neuronal Coding, Prague, p. 55, 1995.

[3] SUTA, D.: Modelování neuronové aktivity se zaměřením na sluchovou dráhu. Dok-torandská písemná zpráva, katedra řídící techniky FEL CVUT, 1995.

[4] TEICH, M.C.: Fractal neuronal firing patterns. In: McKennaT., Davis J.,ZornetzerS.(Eds.): Single Neuron Computation, pp. 589-625, Academic Press, 1992.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Control Engineering as part ofthe research project "Modeling of Neuronal Activity Focused on the Auditory Pathway" andhas been supported by CTU grant No. 10038279/95.

898

WORKSHOP 96 BIOMED1CAL ENGINEERING

TEST, EVALUATING AND CONTROLSYSTEM TO FIND PHYSIOLOGICAL

PARAMETERS ANDTO STABILIZE THEM

K. Bares, V. Eck*, L. Jirout**

Charles University, 1. Faculty of Medicine, Psychiatric ClinicKe Karlovu 11,12808 Praha 2

*CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of Control EngineeringKarlovo nám. 13, 121 35 Praha 2

**Skoda Prague, Instrumentation and ControlMilady Horákové 109, 160 41 Praha 6

Key words: physiological parameters, operator, psychophysiological state, state stabiliza-tion, polygraph measurement

Test evaluating and control system to find some physiological parameters of operatoris described in this paper. The task is to estimate the psychophysiological state and tostabilize them applying the biofeedback.

The main task is to check some psychophysiological parameters, estimate the influenceof the disturbing effects on the performance of the operator. Subjective experience wascompared with the physiological parameters. These investigations have been done to beapplied in practice for testing of the attention and efficiency of the operator.

The abilities of the tested person to concentrate and to keep their attention during thesolving of the task were estimated. Several kinds of examinations in different conditionshave been done. To ecaluate the examinations it was necessary to do the examinationswithout the disturbing stimuli and to do them under the stimuli.

The performance of the operator can be evaluated from the physiological parameterswhich can be measured by EEG, ECG, blood pressure, skin potential response and EMG.Some of these parameters were measured by polygraph (EEG - 12 channels, 1 channel forECG and 1 channel of EMG). The advantage of polygraphic method is to measure severalparameters at once. The correlation among them can be estimated.

The estimation lias been done without disturbing conditions and afterwards performingdifferent tasks. The measurement was repeated under disturbing conditions.

The state of the operator can be estimated from the physiological parameters whichcan be measured by electrical activity of the operator's body.

H is possible to eliminate the subjective influence of the checking person by using theelectrophysiological measurement. The data obtained are real time processed and used forfeedback to stabilize the state of the operator. It is not possible to exclude the distortionof some data and this can be improved by multichannel measuring of various physiologicaldata.

899


The vector of measuring data contains the following body response to the presentedteats. For example:

• heart activity (EEG)• respiration• skin potential response• blood preasure• eye moving (ENG, EOG)• brain potentials (EEG)

The psychophysiological state of the operator is reflected by the combination of thesephysiological parameters. The operator behaviour is characterized by vigility, perceptionand attention, memory and learning, thinking and speech, feelings - instincts and will. Thefollowing states during vigilance are:

• watching• memorizing (learning)• thinking• moving activity• feelings

These psychophysiological states can be generated by choosing from the set of tests.This should be enabled by testing, evaluating and control system.

Our goal is to stabilize or control the psychophysiological state of operator by changingthe psychological load and the application of relaxation methods eventually by pharmakothe-raphy.

The project is supported by the fund for development of universities and it is called:The influence of materials on the human physiological parameters. This project is solvedby the department of control engineering with the co-operation of the physics departmentand the department of electrotcchnology at CTU in Prague. The biological aspects of thisproject were solwed by physiciens from the clinics of the Charles university.

References:

[1] YOSHIKAWA, H. et a).: Development of Diocybernetic Analysis System (BIOCYS) forAflMI-Rclated Cognitive Factor Analysis, pp. 51-55. Lékař a technika, 26, 1995, No. 3.

[2] YOSHIKAWA, H. et ah: Concept on Mutual Adaptive Interface and the Related Exper-imental Study. Japan-U.S.A. Symposium on Flexible Automation, July 11-18, 1994,Kobe, Japan Fill in more information (journal, pages, publisher, year etc.) here.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Control Engineering CTUPrague as part of the research project "The Influence of Materials to the Human Physi-ological Parameters" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 32031003

900


HEMODYNAMIC RESEARCH BYELECTRICAL BIOIMPEDANCE (EBI)

METHODSI. Uhlíř, B. Šrámek***, J . Tichý**,

S. Trojan*, M. Hojerová**, 3. Bendi*,A. Parízek*, J . Chyšky, S. Papežova

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng.,Technická 4,166 07 Praha 6

*First Medical Faculty of Charles University,Albcrtov 5, 120 00 Praha 6

**Instittit for Medical Prevention and Care,Politických vězňů 9, 110 00 Praha 1

***Cardiodynamics International Corporation,19211 Edgchill Dr., Irvine CA92715, USA

Key words: hemodynamics, hepatorheography, pregnancy

1) The tests of the prototype of an universal test equipment (I-10-lOO-lOOOmV at theanalog output of 1V) was continued. The new version of equipment based on modernintegrated circuits was developed.

2) A prototype of an universal switching equipment was designed for measuring andevaluating values with the above-defined parameters. The switcher is controlled byPC computer, eight inputs - measurement current: 2.5mA/70kIIz eight outputs -range from 0 to 1V AC

3) The software for automatic measuring and evaluating with grafics interface "is madenow.

4) The tests of designed switching equipment vas started in Institut of Medical Preventionand Care. Program of tests for other partners is prepared.

5) The measuring for hepatorheography and hemodynamic assessment in pregnancy wascontinued with goal to get more values for statistical evaluation,

6) The part rheography of the gum and teeth attachment continued with develop of newteeth sensor because the results using the old sensor was not reproduceble.

Expectations for 1996: Ending the technical and medical parts of research project andthe new nolidgcs apply in practics.

References:

[1] ŠRÁMEK, B. - VALENTA, J. - KLIMEŠ, F.: Biomcchanics of the Cardiovascularsystem. Mexican Congress of Cardiology. 12/1994, Veracruz, Mexico

[2] TICHÝ, J. A. - HOJEROVÁ, M. - UHLÍft, I.: Neivazivni hemodynamickc vyšetření(bioimpedance-přehkdnc sdělení}. Časopis lékařů českých, č. 21/1995

901


[3] TICHÝ, J. A. - HOJEROVÁ, M. - ČERVENKA, V. - UHlJft, I.: Juvcnilm typ hyper-tenze ve stáři Medicína sportiva (v tisku)

[4] TICHÝ, J. A. - UHLÍŘ, I. - SLAVÍČEK, J. - K1TTNAR, O.: Changes of heart electricfield and hemodynamics at the treated primary arterial hypertension. Mczin. kongres,Euromission, 21.10.1995 Bioimpcdance I (seriál na pokračováni).

[5] TICHÝ, J. A.: Bioimpedancc (Informativní sdělení). Počítače ve zdravotnictví, Praha1995

7%i* research has been conducted at the Dep. of Etcctrotcchnical Eng. of CTU as partof the research project "Research of The llemodynainics by using of The ElcctroimpcdancesMethods" and has been supported by Grant Agency of Czech Rep. grant No. 106/94/1554*

902


APPLICATIONS OF Er:YAGAND Nd:YAG LASERS

IN OPHTHALMOLOGYH. Jelínková, J . Pasta*, K. Hamal,V. Kubeček, I. Procházka, M. Cech

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Physical ElectronicsBřehová 7, 115 19 Praha I

*MHÍtary Hospital, Dept. of OphthalmologyU nemocnice, 160 00 Praha. 6

Key words: Er:YAG laser, Nd:AG laser, ophthalmology, tissue penetration depth, oph-thalmic microsurgery

Medical applications of various types of lasers are based on the results of the interactionof their radiation with a tissue. This interaction mainly depends on the penetration depthof the radiation into the tissue (given by the radiation wavelength) and on the duration ofthat interaction (continuous versus pulsed regime), on the energy, length of pulse, radiationpower, etc.

The interaction processes can be divided into primary and secondary effects. Theprimary processes include spectral reflection, spectral absorption, and transmission of radi-ation. The secondary effects are thermal, photochemical and acoustic phenomena, multi-photon absorption, Raman and Brillouin scattering, etc. In the primary processes, spectralabsorption plays the main role in the biophysical interaction.

As water is a prominent component of biological tissues, the interaction of radiationwith tissue (tissue penetration depth) is mainly given by the absorption of radiation inwater. A summary of the dependencies of medical applications on parameters of a giventype of laser has been made by Bouluois in [1]. From a dependence of the tissue penetrationdepth on laser wavelength it follows that a wavelength of 1.06/im (Nd:YAG laser)-due to itsdeep penetration into the tissue-is more suitable for cutting or destroying internal layers oftissue. On the other hand, the radiation of 2.94/mi (EnYAG), 0.25//m or 0,31 /im (excimerlaser KrP and XeCl resp.) should be used for treating upper layers of tissue. The wavelengthof 1.44 pm or 2.1 /im (Nd:YAG (1.44/xm) or Cr:Tm:Ho:YAG (2.1/im)) is between these tworegions and can be used for upper layers of tissue for some application where fiber deliveryis needed.

In the pioneering years, laser radiation in ophthalmology was used mainly for retinacoagulation (ruby laser, argon laser). With the discovery of other types of lasers, radia-tions of different wavelengths have been tested even for different ophthalmology treatments.Ophthalmic microsurgery (secondary cataract) uses a high power laser with the shortestpulses to generate plasma breakdown for removing the secondary lens capsule tissue. Fromthe radiation penetration curve into the eye it follows that it is possible to use the radiationof visible or near infrared region. In case of the solid state lasers, the Nd:YAG or rubylasers are suitable for this purpose, and therefore a simple laser unit which can generateeither nanosecond or picosecond pulses is needed. Our Nd:YAG laser system (1.06/im) for

903


ophthalmology microsurgery allows to select cither a Q-switchcd or mode-locked regime ofoperation [2]. In clinical practice this system is used mainly for eye microsurgery - forcapsulotomy or iridectomy treatment [3].

For the experiment with anterior segment of the eye, an Er:YAG laser drilling machinewas designed. The system consists of a laser head with an articulated arm, water cooler,and power supply with automatic control. A special design of the resonator enables togenerate the output energy up to 700 mJ in a free running - long pulse mode - regime. Thelength of the generated pulses was measured to be 200/isec. By the articulated arm theradiation is incited on the investigated place and focused by the CnF2 lens ( / = 55 nun)on the tested samples. The radiation was also delivered by a special (low water) fiber.Cadaverous human eyes were placed into a special stand and then tissues of the anterior eyesegment were irradiated by the EnYAG laser. Direct external interventions were realizedand photoablation was initiated in a scaled anterior chamber.

For comparison, the effects of Nd;YAG laser radiation operating at wavelength of1.44/im [4] were investigated.

From tiie results with the eye tissue treated by an EnYAG laser it follows that thismid-infrared radiation will be applicable in eye surgery namely for sclerostomy, where apermanently opened space is created, and for paracentesis. A possible use of Nd:YAC(1.44/mi) laser in ophthalmology is discussed.

References:

[1] 13OULNOIS, J. L.: Photophysical Process in Recent Medical Laser Developments:A Review Lasers in Medical Science, Vol. 1, lf)SG.

[2] JELÍNKOVA, H. - HAMAL, K.: Selectable Q-swtchcd or mode-locked Nddascr Tech-nical Digest of Optical Society of America, CLEO, Anahaim, USA, I9SS.

[3] PASTA, J. - JELÍNKOVA, II. - HAMAL, K. - CIGANEK, L.: Nd:YAG laser forophthalmology. Lasers Light. Ophthalmology, 2, 4, p. A-29, 19S9.

[4] KUBECEK, V. - JELÍNKOVA, H. - HAMAL, K. - ZANZOTTERA, E.: Dual Wave-length I.44 ftm/t.06 {tin N'l:YAG laser for medicine. Technical Digcst-Conf. on Laserand Electro-Optics CLEO EUROPE'94, IÍ5EE Cat. No. «MTH0G14-8, CWF24, p. 213,Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1994.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physical Electronics as part ofthe research project "ErtYAG Laser for Ophthatino-Surgcryran<l has been supported by CTUgrant No. 1ÖÜ48S07.

904

WORKSHOP 96 BIOMEDICAl ENGINEERING

APPLICATORSFOR PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY

MEASUREMENTS AND REALISATION

K. Novotný, J . Vrba

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of Electromagnetic FieldTechnická 2, 166 27 Praha 6

Key words: Fiber applicators, Phototherapy, measurements

Introduction. The new and very perspective region of the photodynamic therapy isthe medical treatment of small baneful cancerous tumors. Most of the times the therapy isapplied through the fiber applicators in connection with photosensitive chemical prepara-tions. The optical energy is conveyed in the attacked tissue by the specially adapted opticalfiber with various output-end geometry. Laser as a source of the intensive optical radiationis used. The key problem of this method is the need for required space distribution andaccurate dosing of optical radiation in agreement with the geometry of the tumor center.

The special fiber applicators measuring equipment. The optical fibers for appli-cators are special fibers with a great core diameter (a. few hundreds microns). The plasticcladding of the fiber is often used. An automatic measuring device for a simple measuring ofvarious tissue irradiating sounds was produced last year. The device enables us to measureilluminating characteristics of various types of fiber applicators. It consists of two sourcesof illumination on the wave length 670 and 830 microns, that fed the tested applicator. Themeasuring sound is made from a photodiode and a fiber sound of the size 50/125 microns(core/cladding). The sound is mounted on a movable arm that is controlled by a stepper-motor. The motor is operated and the results of measurements are recorded by a speciallydesigned and single-purpose software.

The need of accuracy of measured characteristics forced us to redesign the measuringdevice in a following way: The measurements take place in a liquid that by its characteristicsis very similar to a real irradiated tissue. That way we arc able to simulate an environmentof a living tissue. The source of illumination, laser diode (Toshiba - Told - 9200S ), is forthe purpose of measurement modulated by the frequency 2,6 kHz. Modulation reduces theinfluence of daylight on the measurement.

Results of measurements. The constructed device enabled us to measure spacedistribution of photo illumination in the area surrounding the applicator that is placedin the liquid simulating the blood. The fiber probe, with the core diameter 600 micronsand the thickness of cladding 30 microns (H-UV600-Dupont), was on the illuminating endadapted so that in the length of 6 mm the cladding was removed, that way a radiator witha relatively wide illuminating characteristics was created. A microlens is attached to theend of radiator (see Fig. 1).

The probe was used for the testing of the relation between radiation characteristics andthe parameters of model environment (liquid). The equivalent depth of the penetration ofradiation to the blood (pork blood) is three times smaller than that of penetration to saltwater. Our experiments proved that the distribution and intensity of the radiation strongly

905


depend on the wave length of the used radiator. That is especially true for a non-transparentenvironments.

Conclusion. The constructed equipment enable the simple and effective measure-ments of radiation patterns of optical applicator in liquid media. The measurements haveproved that it is necessary to simulate exact parameters of a living tissue, including thetransparency, in order to acquire measurement results useful for practical therapy.

c l a d d i n gm i c r o l e n s

Fig. 1: Fiber-end geometry.

References:

[1] NOVOTNÝ, K. - VRBA, J.: Applicators for Phoiodynamic Therapy, pp. 703-704.

Workshop CTU, Praha 1995.

[2] SCHROFEL, J. - NOVOTNÝ, K.: Optické vlnovody. SNTL/ALFA Praha 19S6.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Electromagnetic Field as partof the research project "Applicators for the photodynamic therapy. Measurements and Re-alisation" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 10038193.

906


ELECTROMAGNETIC EXPOSUREOF MOBILE TELEPHONES USERS

J . Vokurka, J . Vrba, R. Dlouhý

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of Electromagnetic FieldTechnická 2,166 27 Praha 6

Key words: digitalized model of human haed, FDTD method, absorbing boundary condi-tions

The application of mobile telephones is growing very fast for the public as well asfor the private communication purposes. Operators who often use those telephones arefrequently exposed to the radiation produced by the antenna. The radiated power is lowenough to prevent thermal effects but athermal effects could be important as well. In eachcase knowledge of the electromagnetic field inside the operator head can help to interpretthe possible biological effects. In this connection we concentrated our effort into followingproblems:

a) to create a realistic computer model of the human head especially in the region of themiddle ear

b) to calculate the EM field in such a nonhomogeneous medium by numerical methods

c) to use an accurate near-field source consisting of thin monopole on the conductingbox.

Creating the model of the human head we started with a simple sphere model of thebrain with a 5 mm thick layer of the skull. Next was an elliptical form still with only twotype of tissues. Then we add eyes, formed the brain only in upper part of the skull andput a simple form of the mouth cavity and the throat. Now we prepare a 3-D EM modelwhich will be derived from NMR images. White and gray brain matter, muscle, CSF, fatand bone will be distinguished from the NMR images by using a semiautomatic computeralgorithm. We shall use a 3-D data set which consists of a weighted contrast. The in-planeresolution of 256 x 256 pixels will be reduced to 64 x 64 pixels by the spatial averaging ofthe data, resulting in an in-plane voxel size of 5 mm in both directions. The image distanceis also 5 mm. The set of images will be processed sequentially. Regions with a well-definedcontrast and corresponding to different tissues will be outlined automatically. The contoursof the other regions will be drawn manually, according to our knowledge of the physiology.The pixels within the contours will be set to a value corresponding to a tissue type, eachhaving different electrical parameters. The density of cuts or better the resolution in theregion of the middle ear will be higher (lmm) to be able to model the individual parts ofit esspecially the cochlea. This model of the head is worked out in the cooperation with agroup of specialists from the Department of Computers at FEL CTU in Prague.

For its capability for treating the EM field in such a nonhomogeneous space like thehuman head the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method has been chosen. Even if itsbasic algorithm is known for long time [1] to have a powerfull code takes or lot of money(6,000$) or lot of time. We developed our own code in the course of the last two years and

907

WORKSHOP 96 BIOMEPICAL ENGINEERING

we are in the position to be able to calculate the EM field of rather complicated sources inthe presence of the nonhomogeneous obstacle in the open space. The head and the antennaare placed in a limited space-box on surface of which the absorbing boundary conditionsare applied. We use the second-order conditions first published by Mur [2]. The space wasdiscrctized in 90 x 90 x 60 cubic cells with the grid size of 5 mm. The calculated EM field onthe surface of the near-field space is used to determine the far-field. To get the field valueson the integration surface, appropriate field values, including those from nearby cells, arespatially averaged. For efficiency the surface currents at each time step is summed andtheir contribution to the future time (delayed by the distance) far-zone vector potential isdetermined. In this way we can get the radiation pattern of following configuration: themonopole on a metallic box in presence of the absorbing human head.

Special attention has to be done to treat objects which are very small in at least onedimension like a wire (dipóle) [3]. Maxwell's equations in the integral rather than thedifferential form were used. The integrations are carried out so as to include the sub-cell geometry and field effects, and the corresponding FDTD update equations are thenobtained. The dipóle is excited using the electric-field component on the wire axis at thefeeding gap. In order to include the effect of the wire diameter, the electric field is updatedby the magnetic field surrounding the wire having the 1/7* dependence in its vicinity. Insimilar fashion the absorbing sheet has been included.

From the calculations we can determine the influence of the head on the radiationpattern of the mobile telephone as well as the induced field in the head. The head stronglydisturbs the symetry of the pattern. By absorption and reflection of the power incidenton the head, the far-field radiation in the direction of the head decreases. The box of thetelephone produce a four-lobe pattern in comparison to the two lobes of the half-wavelengthantenna. This lobe effect has a negative influence on the antenna performance. The softwaretool will be further used to design new configurations that offer a better performance.

References:

[1] YEE, K. S.: Numerical solution of initial boundary value prohlevis involving Maxwell'sequations IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop., AP-14, pp. 302-307, 1966

[2] MUR, G.: Absorbing boundary conditions for finite-difference approximation of thetime-domain clcctromagnctic-ficld equations IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat., EMC-23, pp. 377-382, 1981

[3] UMASHANKAR, K. R. - TAFLOVE, A. - BEKAR, B.: Calculation and experimantalvalidation of induced currents on coupled wires in an arbitrary shaped cavity IEEETrans. Ant. Prop., AP-35, pp. 1248-1257, 1987

This research has been conducted at Ike Department of Electromagnetic Field as part ofthe research project "Electromagnetic Exposure of Mobile Telephones Users" and has beensupported by CTU grant No. 8199.


MAGNETIC DETECTIONOF RESPIRED DUST

P. Ripka, P . Navrátil

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of MeasurementTechnická 2, 166 27 Praha 6

Key words: magnctopneumography, magnetic properties, specific remanent moment

Magnetopneumography is a diagnostic method to detect the amount and eventuallyspatial distribution of the ferromagnetic contaminants in the lungs by measuring the re-manent magnetic field after DC magnetization. This method is suitable for screening ofworkers exposed to ferromagnetic dusts and fumes such as miners, welders and grinders.

Magnetic properties of inhaled dust particles were examined using various in-vitro tech-niques: susceptibility was measured using cappabridge, remanence as a function of theapplied DC field was measured by spinning magnetometer (Rockgenerator), complete hys-terezis curves were obtained by VSM (Vibrating Sample Magnetometer). Mossbauer spec-troscopy and chemical analysis of the samples gave additional information about respireddusts.

Both the simulated and measured results have shown that the recently developed flux-gate gradiometric system is capable to replace SQUID magnetopneumometers in the case ofwelders, grinders, iron miners and other professions exposed to highly ferromagnetic dustsand aerosols.

The fragments of lungs tissue and dust from lungs of known weight were suffused intoacrylic cube of 20 x 20 x 20 mm dimcnsions.These specimens were measured by the spinningsample magnetometer (rockgenerator).This device give results in the units of remanentmagnetic polarization (ItMP) but measures effectively the remanent magnetic moment.Since it was impossible to reach the same weight of lung tissue in each cube, specific remanentmoment ma defined as

m, = J r • V • ~m

where Jr is remanent magnetic polarization [T], m weight of sample [kg] and V volume ofcube [m3], was used to obtain comparable results.

The relation between the specific remanent moment and the magnitude of externalmagnetic DC field was determined for all specimens (tissue and dust).The samples weremagnetized in DC field of the electromagnet.The amplitude of the magnetizing field was0.5 T to 1T for tissue specimens and 0.8 T to 1T for dust specimens.The dependence of thespecific remanent moment of tissue samples vs DC magnetizing field is on Fig. 1.

The remanent magnetization curves of the tissue samples have shown that the ampli-tude of DC field required for deep magnetization is only 200 mT. 80% of the saturationvalue of the specificic moment was reached even for 100 mT field. Four variants of magneticcircuits of the magnetization of the whole lung volume in vivo were designed: electromag-net, permanent magnet from NdFeB, D330H ferrite and permanent magnet of asymmetric

909


construction from D330 ferrite. After the price/performance comparison the last variantwas selected. The dimension and shape of the permanent magnet are on Fig. 2.

a 467o 357t 464x 233O 405• 428

100 M.igiwtuno «üd B [roT] 1000 1 0 0 MaQfieüzina field B [mTJ 1000

Fig. 1: The dependence of specific remanent moment vs DC magnetizing field

240

300

60

150

1

I300 ^ p

510

e—

135

300

Fig. 2: The dimension and shape of the permanent magnet

References:

[1] BLAHA, J. - RIPKA, P. - PODLESÁK, J. - JEŘÁBEK, J.: Measuring system forstudy of micromagnetic properties of various subjects, Abstract book of BEMS confer-ence, p. 166, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1994.

[2] RIPKA, P. - BLAHA, J. - JERABEK, J.: Fluxgate gradiometer for magnetopncumog-raphy. IMEKO World Congress, Torino 1994, Proceedings pp. 1527-1531.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Measurements as part of theresearch project uMagnctopr%ůumomctrics" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 8195.

910


STABILITY OF HIP IMPLANTSM. Petr tý l , B. PetroviČová, R. VonOrová, B. Czesaná,

J . Danešová, J . Streiblová, A. Wohlmuthová

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Structural MechanicsThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: hip implants, bending rigidity, femoral bone, strain

The stability of hip implants in femoral canals belongs to the problems which have notbeen solved very satisfactorily yet. It occurs with approximately 20 % of patients who hadan artificial prosthesis of the hip joint implanted that it becomes loose after several yearsor there are even cases of failure of of the artificial hip prosthesis stem can be summarizedas follows:

1. Excessive rigidity of the artificial prosthesis stem increases a bonding rigidity of thesystem "bone-implant" substantially and by this it extremely decreases the strains.In consequence of high rigidity of the system "bone-implant" rcsorption of bon.

2. Excessive rigidity of the implant makes the adaptability of the stem of the implant inthe femoral canal impossible and so it decreases the degree of fixation of the stem inthe femoral canal.

3. A negative influence of biocorrosion occurs with some implant alloys, the results ofwhich are necroses.

4. The resorption of spongious bone on the level of resection (under the collar of the neckof the implant) as a result of the presence of PLE-polymer elements (arising from thefriction of metal or ceramic head of the implant in the PLE pít).

Generally we can say that clastic qualities of new hip prostheses should be similar tothe elastic qualities of a bone.

The aims of the research hase been focused on the verification of relative stress/strainstates in the lateral femoral walls taking into consideration the cases of rigid/elastic stemswith different conditions for their fixation in the femoral canal. Some main results can besummarized:

1. A displacement of the initial section of fixation (i.e. in the resected section) of thestem in the distal direction initiates the decrease of strain/stress states in the lateralwalls.

2. Appropriate strain/stress states in lateral walls have been determined in the caseswhen the proximal third of the stem (or 2/3 of the stem length) is in permanentcontact with the cortical bone.

3. Applications of rigid implants initiate an effective lossening of strain/stress states inlateral walls of the proximal parts of femora1 diaphyses.

The main results presented (as well as other subresults) have their importance for thedesign of physiologically suitable femoral implants.

911


References:

[1] PETRTÝL, M. - VONDROVÄ, R. - CZESANÁ, B.; Adaptation of the cortical femoralbone due to the external load. In: Proc. Workshop 95, Diomedical Engineering, CTU,Prague, pp. 693-694, 1995.

[2] PETRTÝL, M. - VONDROVÄ, R- - CZESANÁ, B. - FAJMAN, P.: Stability of humanhip prostheses. In: Proc. Workshop 93, CTU, Prague, pp. 15-16, 1993.

The research has been realized under the support of Grant No. 32011320/13230 given bythe GA Cli and Grant No. 1019/13213 given by the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Praguein 1995.

912


NEW TYPE OF COMPOSITE MATRIXFOR PLATES USED IN INTERNAL

OSTEOSYNTHESIS OF LONG BONES

S. Konvičková, M. Sochor, J . Vtípil

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Elasticity & Strength of MaterialsTechnická 4, 166 07 Praha 6

Key words: internal osteosynthesis, plate, composite materials, animal trials

Research aimed at developing a semi-rigid carbon-fibre-reinforced plates for fixation oflong bone fractures reached a very satisfactory progress in 1995:

1) Strength and stiffness of the bone-plate system were calculated taking into accountloading conditions based on statistic gait spectra;

2) A modification of the matrix composition used in the plate C/E-composite has beendeveloped enabling a gradual change in the C/E-plates stiffness through the time ofexposure in situ (in tissue);

3) Plates made of the new type of matrix were used in animal trials.

The computation of the bone-plate system included two modes:

o the composite plates (CP), and• steel plates (SP), screwed on to bone.

The plate was modeled as a bridging type over an osteotomie of the human femur,Aplied on the bone was a load corresponding to the maximum load produced in normalhuman gait. The composite plate was considered as a C/E-composite having 19 layers. Thecomputation showed that neither CP nor SP is able to bear the applied load (due to paininvolved a patient with such a plate implanted is kept in a resting state). CP is able tobear about 12 load. From this obtained result it follows that only the plate-bone systemcomputation for a later healing stage has a practical meaning when a gradually ostificatingcallus bridges over the gap between the both bone parts and when the patient starts upona gradual loading of the fractured limb. The assessment of the mechanical characteristicsof the callus: the actual loading spectrum; and a complex numerical simulation of the bonehealing process arc planned as the further research objectives.

The above-mentioned modification of the matrix composition is based on a number ofcombinations of various types of epoxy resins filled with selections of special additives. Thisresearch involved extensive cooperation with a chemical specialist. The obtained result inthe matrix composition should enable achieving a controlled creep of the composite whenexposed for longer duration in the tissue enviroments. An endevour has been exerted toachieve a dominating creep in compression and to surpress it in tension. The new developedcomposition of the matrix was tested for cytotolcrance and biocompatibility with, subse-quently, admissible results and then a series of the C/E-compositc plates were manufactured.

913


Closely connected with this procedure was a continual testing of the material mechanicalcharacteristics: firstly on thin composite plates and finally on the C/E-plates themselves.A considerable effort in the year 1995 was focused on animal trials in dogs. This programmeis still in progress. The plates have been implanted on the dogs' hind leg femurs after a clearosteotomie. After the operation is finished the implanted leg is X-rayed with the secondX-ray control ensuing a month later.

References:

[1] KONVlCKOVÁ, S, - SOCHOR, M. et ah: Application of Semi-rigid Carbon-fibre-reinforced Plates for Fixation of Unman Fractures. In: Workshop 95. Prague : CzechTechnical University. 1995. p. 695-696.

[2] KONVlCKOVÁ, S. - SOCHOR, M. - VALENTA, J. et al.: Research Direction inthe Field of Biomechanics of Man, In: Technology Exchange Symposium on MedicalBiotechnology. Budapest: 1993. - ISBN.

[3] VALENTA, F. - SOCHOR, M.: Diomechanics of Inner Osteosynthcsis. In: Proceedingsof Workshop '93. Prague: Czech Technical University. 1993. p. 21-22

[4] KVÉT, V. - KílENA, J. - SOCHOR, M. - TOUZIN, G.: The Research of SynergicEffect in Advanced Composite Plates Applied in Orthopaedics. In: Proceedings of MPC'91. Praha. CSAV-ÚTAM (CSAS). 1991. p. 355-357.

[5] KVÉT, V. - VALENTA, R - SOCHOR, M. et al.: The Application of CompositePlates in Orthopaedy (poster). In: 1st World Congress of Biomcchanícs. University ofCalifornia. San Diego CA. USA. I990.

[6] VALENTA, S. - SOCHOR, M. - KVĚT, V.: Application of C/E Composite platesto Pigs. In: Proceedings of the international conference "Biomechanics of Man '90".ÚTAM-CSAV (CSAS). Liblice. 1990. p. 193-195.

[7] VALENTA, F. - SOCHOR, M. et al.: Application of C/E Composite Plates to Pigs.In: Research report No. 211-90-9 for research programme of "Biomechanics of Man".CTU-FME in Prague. 1990. 37 pp.

[8] SOCHOR, M. - VALENTA, F.: Application of Composite Plates. In: Research reportNo. 211-83-5 (J013). CTU-FME in Prague. 1934. 84 pp.

This research has been conducted at tht Department of Elasticity & Strength of Ma-terials as part of the research project "The Composite Materials and the Surface Modifi-cation of Bioimplants to be used in Ostcosurgery" and has been supported by GACR grantNo. 106/94/1701.

914


SLIDING PROPERTIES OF IBAD SiNx

COATING FOR METAL BIOIMPLANTSS. Konvičková, F. Černý*, J . Suchánek**, V. Hnatowicz,

I. Kvasnička***, J . Michalec, R. Valenta

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Elasticity & Strength of MaterialsTechnická 4, 166 07 Praha 6

*CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of PhysicsTechnická 4, 166 07 Praha 6

**SVUM a.s.,Opletalova 25, 113 12 Praha I

***CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Machining & Process PlanningTechnická 4, 166 07 Praha 6

Key words: IBAD method, SiN r coating, metal bioimplants

Metal prostheses, e.g. hip joint prostheses, need to have good sliding properties andsimultaneously should be resistant to corrosion in body fluids. The SiNx coating appearspotentially suitable for these applications [1].

Recently we prepared the SiNx coating on a silicon substrate by means of the IBAD(Ion Beam Assisted Deposition) method [2]. In this method the SiN r coating was createdby evaporation of silicon and simultaneous bombardment by nitrogen ions. In the previousstage of the work some physical and chemical properties of the IBAD SiNx coating wereinvestigated. As part of this work we prepared new series of samples and tested their slidingproperties winch are important for bioimplanl applications.

The IBADSiN r coatings were produced on samples of a kind of steel similar to that usedin hip joint prosthesis. Coatings were prepared in the same experimental arrangement andunder similar experimental conditions, which are described in the prevoious work [2]. Ratiosof the fluxes of nitrogen and silicon were chosen so as to approximately create stoichiometric,substoichiometric and slight overstoichiometric silicon nitride in the deposited layer. Theaverage ratios of the quantity of nitrogen and silicon in the nitride layer were measuredby the Rutherford backscattering method (RBS). In this method protons with a energy of2.4 MeV were used. The resulting ratios of the quantity of nitrogen and silicon, i.e. valuesofxof SiNr layers, were as follows: nearly stochtometric l,3,substochiometric 1, and slightlyovcrstochiometric 1.4.

The sliding tests were carried out on a tribomcter HEF. The dependence of the frictioncoefficient on the load was investigated. This dependence was investigated at low slidingvelocity, at which thermal effects are negligible. A sliding distance of 240 mm was chosenfor every load. The measurement was carried out along the same pathway. During the testthe load was gradually increased in the range 25-500 N. Dry tests and a tests with J4 oilwere carried out. The second part of the sliding couple was the bearing steel 14209.

The results are plotted in Figs. 1 and 2. For comparison, also plotted are results for theunmodified substrate and for the substrate modified by nitrogen ion implantation.

915


Q3

Q2

— - 'M, subst;-.•;•!.— - 5.N.slo.ch•- -• SiN,ovöfStoiCh.•—» N implanlalion•—• unmodified

0 50 100 200 300 £00 500MN!

Fig. 1: Dependence of the friction coeffi-cient fi on the load Fjv in the dry test

O M 100 200 3G0 iOO 500

FHINI

Fig. 2: Dependence of the friction coeffi'cicnt (i on the load F/y in the test with J4oil lubricant

From the result it may be concluded that amorphous thin SiNx film is benefical for loadvalues up to 100 N. At higher load values the coating does not provide any improvementin comparison with substrate modified by nitrogen ion implantation or, either, even withunmodified substrate. The influence of the composition ratio is not yet clear and needed isadditional work in this direction, especially for low load values. At load values higher than100 N the values of the friction coefficient /i for the coatings with different composition ratiodiffer only slightly, but, during friction without lubricant, the values of /* for substochio-metric coating are the lowest. In the test with lubricant, meanwhile, in comparison withdry tests the values of ft were not decreased for coated substrates.

References:

[1] SELLA, C. - MARTIN, J. C. - LECOEUR, J.: Mater. Sei. Eng. A139 (1991) 49[2] KONVICKOVÁ, S. - ČERNÝ, F. - VALENTA, R. et al.: The Development of Gra-

dient Coatings SiNT by ÍBAD Method for Improving Properties of Metal Bioimplants.Workshop 95, Prague, January 23-26, 1995, p. 697

This research has been conducted at the quoted workplaces of the autors of this workas a part of the research project "The Composite Materials and Surface Modification ofBioimplants to be used in Osteosurgery" and has been supported by the Grant Agency of theCzech Republic, No. 106/94/1701

916


APLICATION OF CONDUCTIVERUBBER LAYER

, FOR PRESSURE MEASUREMENTJ . Volf, S. Holý*, J . Vlček, H. Obrazová,D. Kunzová, J . Skořepová**, L. Anger**

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Electrical EngineeringTechnická 4,1C6 07 Praha 6

*CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Elasticity & Strength of MaterialsTechnická 4,1C6 07 Praha 6

**Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic, Institute of Rock Structure .and MechanicsV Holešovičkách 41, 182 09 Praha 8

Key words: pressure, measurement, tactile, sensor, transducer, biomechanics

Practical application described in [1] has proved full applicability for biomechanicalpurpose by research of human locomotion. The response of resistance to pressure by walk-ing is so quick so that time dependent changes of resistance of the conductive rubber [2]transducer could be quite neglected. But by quasistatic loading some phenomenons have ap-peared. For this reason short- and long lasting measurements were performed, with voltageand current electrical feeding of the transducer. Fig. 1 shows time course of the resistance ofthe pressure transducer of the active area 4x4 mm. Voltage feeding gives results practicallyconstant differences by loading and unloading. Resistance value is time dependent with aflow aiming to the same limit (with accuracy of 2%). Similar phenomenon is described [3].

For dynamic loading with the basic frequency of about 0.1 Hz one can use the start-ing part of the measured characteristic (Fig. 1) without necessity of time or temperaturecorrections. For long tasting loading of static character one must take into account timedependent relation of deformation under pressure (exponential course), which influences thechances of the transducer resistance according to the Fig. 1. Constant value of the trans-ducer resistance is achieved after approximately 2 hours of operation (Fig. 2). Constants,taken for this time, can be used for long lasting measurements. This is in accordance withdata and information in [4].

Conclusions: 1) Considerable time changes of the measured pressure transducer arein the starting parts after mechanical loading and unloading. 2) Above mentioned responseby loading and unloading are different. 3) Time course of the transducer resistance has anexponential character. 4) Accuracy by long lasting operation (loading) is lower. 5) As therequired el. circuits are few the cost of measurement can be brought down. 6) For betterknowledge of this hopefull transducer it is necessary to perform further research of the basiccharacter, as resistance response on deformation of the layer of the conductive rubber.

References:

[1] VOLF, J. - HOLÝ, S.: Application of Tactile Sensor Carj)et for Pressure DistributionMeasurement Workshop'95, CTU Seminar, Praha 1995, Part III. pp. 633-684

[2] Technical docum. of the conductive rubber CS57-7RSC Yokohama Rubber Co. Ltd.

917


[3] ISH1KAWA, M. - SHIMOJO, M.: A Tactile Sensor Using Pressure - Conductive Rub-ber. Proc. of the 2nd Sensor Symposium, Japan, Tsukuba 19S2. pp. 189-192

[4] 2IVCÁK, J. - ŠIMŠÍK, D. - KNEŽO, D.: Experimental Testing of Local Muscle Dispo-sition Sensor. Control in Robotics ISMCR'95, Slovakia, Smolenice 1995. pp. 543-546

Tesi ol transducer resistivity changes

Ipow

Upow

8 8.8 5

S SS 3

S 8S 2

8 S 8 8 8

10,00

B.OQ

0,00

Time in minutes

Fig. 1:

Test of stability R(t)

Ipow

Upow

S 8 S S S S S S S S 8 8 8 S

Time in houres

Fig. 2;

This rcscawh has been conducted at the Department of Electrical Engineering and atthe Department of Elasticity and Strcngkt of Materials as part of the research project "TheDiagnostics of Pressure Distribution on Surface Sole" and has been supported by CTU grantNo. Í0028252.

918


THE PROJECTOF INTERNATIONAL STUDY

OF SOME COURSESIN SANITARY ENGINEERING

A. Grünwald

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept, of Sanitary EngineeringThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: education, sanitary engineering

The new access to the solutions of practical problems in water management now re-quires more knowledge from the sanitary engineers than before. This fact requires betterorientation in the respective branch, an understanding of the problems and their broaderconnections, and the utilization of these.

It is well known, that one of the most important sources of information in our country isthe study of foreign technical literature and the understanding of appropriate terminology.

This results of the last sociological investigation with the students of our faculty showeda raise in interest for the study of some sources in the English and German languages. Theseresults led to the idea of starting a project which would assist the professors in their coursepreparation and facilitate the students in mastering the appropriate technical terminology.

Within the framework of this project, syllabi and study texts of selected sources insanitary engineering were prepared. Collegues from two institutions from abroad with whichour faculty has long-term relations also took part in this activity. These institutions are asfollows:

• Institute for Water Quality and Waste Management, Technical University of Vienna,Austria

• Swis Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology (EAWAG), Duben-dorf, Switzerland

Courses in foreign languages that have been prepared are as follows:

In English:

— Water Supply Engineering (L. Macek)— Impact of Urban Drainage on Environment (K, Pryl)— Transport Processes (Z. Ilandová)— Experimental Methods in Sanitary Engineering (Z. Koníček)

In German:

— Water Chemistry (A. Grünwald)— Water Treatment and Waslewater Treatment (A. Grünwald, M. Mach)— Urban Networks (P. Srytr)

919


In the first stage of the preparations the necessary foreign literature was acquired. Also,mimeographed texts provided by both partner institutions from abroad and selected articlesfrom technical reviews in Prag's State Technical Library were available.

The form of prepared texts were not prescribed in an attempt to avoid suppressing the'individual professors's ideas on the best solution. The students of the 2nd and 'Rh schoolyears were also involved in this activity.

The activities will continue with the collaboration of the mentioned partners fromabroad. For the next year, the special form of repeated seminars in the Czech Republicand Austria have been clioosen. This project can be observcťl as a contribution to theProject of International Study in the Czech Technical University in Prague, which wasadopted in the academic year 199-1/95 and is still pursued to the present.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Sanitary Engineering as part ofthe research project "Project of International Study of sonic Courses in Sanitary IHngÍ7ieer-ing" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 350 110 10.

920


PREPARATION OF COURSESON MEDICAL RADIATION PHYSICS

L. Musílek, T. Čechák

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Dosimetry & Appl. of Ionizing Rad.Břehová 7, 115 19 Praha 1

Key words: medical radiation physics, radiotherapy, nuclear medicine, radiation protectionin medicine, MSc level courses

The development of modern diagnostic and therapeutic methods in medicine has sti-mulated the need to supplement working groups at medical installations with highly qua-lified physicists and technicians. The lack of such staff is also remarkable in those medicalspecializations where ionizing radiation is applied (radiotherapy, nuclear medicine, X-raydiagnostics).

A recent European Conference on Postgraduate Education in Medical Radiation Physics(Budapest, 11-14 November 1994) showed that the problem of a proper educational systemfor radiation physicists is felt all over Europe. The shortage of specialists in this area isespecially critical in most Central and Eastern European countries, where medical depart-ments and clinics suffer from frequent losses of physicists to private companies, where theycan receive much higher salaries for their good knowledge of instrumental and computerequipment and its applications. This situation also exists in the Czech Republic [1].

Some graduates from the Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering, espe-cially those specializing in dosimetry and application of ionizing radiation, are employed indepartments of radiotherapy and nuclear medicine. It is therefore logical to use the curriculaof this specialisation ÍVS a basis for preparation of i study programme directed specificallyat the needs of radiation physicists in medical departments. The present programme of thisspecialisation provides very good knowledge of the applied mathematics and physics neededby medical radiation physicists. However, graduates are left to study medical topics in thecourse of their medical work. Moreover, their knowledge of physical methods in medicineis also not deep enough to allow them to be equal partners with physicians from the be-ginning of their professional life. On the other hand, there is at the moment no course atany Czech university that provides a more suitable education for specialists in the use ofionizing radiation in medicine.

The proposed curricula for the specialisation in medical radiation physics combine ba-sic courses of mathematics and physics at the Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and PhysicalEngineering with basic medical courses, which are the part of study programme arrangedfor students of CTU Prague in collaboration with the 3rd Faculty of Medicine of CharlesUniversity in the project "Biomedicinc for students of CTU". Specialised courses deal withnuclear radiation physics and protection and radiation applications in medicine. Gradua-tion as MSc level from this specialisation is intended to provide a good basis for work asa physicist in nuclear medicine and radiotherapy and, after some clinical experience, forreaching the level of a "Medical Physicist as a Qualified Expert in Radiophysics" in thesystem adopted in EU countries.

921

WORKSHOP 9Q BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

The proposed curricula contain basic courses in mathematics and physics and morespecialised courses in radiation physics, detection and dosimctry of ionizing radiation. Greatattention is paid to radiation protection as an important part of care, both for patients andfor staff. The medical syllabus consists of basic lectures on human biology, anatomy andphysiology, biophysics, biochemistry and social psychology, and also specialised lectures onvarious radiation methods in medicine, radiation sources and instrumentation, mathema-tical processing of signals and images, dose assessment and quality assessment. Specialisedtopics will be taught partly by FNSPE's own staff (especially by some members of theDepartment of Dosimetry and Application of Ionizing Radiation who have good experiencein medical radiation physics from their appointments abroad), and partly by external co-workers, physicians and physicists with experience in relevant subjects.

The proposed curricula preserve the traditional participation of Htudents in researchprojects at FNSPE. They will start with a report based on a search of literature in the6th semester, and will continue with a report evaluating their own research project in the4th year, which they will defend before the examination commission. Finally, they willpresent a thesis on the same subject as their earlier work. This system calls for a very broadexperimental and practical basis. In the conditions of the technical university, which hasno medical faculty and hospital of its own, it calls for broad collaboration with the medicalfaculties of Charles University, with hospitals and research institutes.

The first year of the programme started in October 1995. It is too early for anyevaluation. However, the response of specialists in radiation medicine is positive, and it ishoped that the first graduates will improve the unsatisfactory Situation mentioned above.The next step, if the programme at MSc level is successful, might be to develop a programmeleading to studies at PhD level.

References:

[1] 2ÁCKOVÁ, H. - MUSÍLEK, 1. - HUSÁK, V.: Medical radiation physics in the CzechRepublic. Medical Radiation Physics - a European Perspective (C. Roberts, S. Tabákoví,C. Lewis - Eds,). London, King's College School of Medicine and Dentistry, 1995,p. 55-C2.

This programme has been conducted at the Department of Dosimctry and Applicationof Ionizing Radiation and supported by CTU grant No. 350J1003 of the Fund for CTUDevelopment.

922

WORKSHOP 9G BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

DEVELOPMENT OFBIOMEDICAL AND REHABILITATION

ENGINEERING ATTHE FAC. OF MECH. ENGINEERING

S. Konvičková

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical ling., Dept. of Elasticity & Strength of MaterialsTechnická 4, 16G 07 Praha G

Key words: biomedical engineering, education, study branch, biomechanics, medical tech-nology

Biomcdical Engineering is one of the most important developing trends at the Facultyof Mechanical Engineering, as well as in the whole of CTU Prague, similarly as in manyadvanced western countries. The development of this multidisciplinary branch of science ispossible oidy in connection with the research programmes at the individual faculties andthe creation of a parallel educational conception in this field.

The Centre of the multidisciplinary brancli of Biomcdical and Rehabilitation Engineer-ing was founded at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. This Centre coordinates theeducation and research in this field and is the quarantce of the development of this branch.

With the support of the board of our faculty, all tasks of the grant project were ful-filed. Lessons in the new accredited branch "Biomedical and rehabilitation engineering" wasstarted in the school year 1995/9G. This new branch includes two specializations:

a) Biomechanics of manb) Medical technology and rehabilitation engineeringIn the framework of this task, a conception of the education of the "Biomedical Engi-

neering" for undergraduate students was prepared and with the support of the grant thenecessary materials for this study along new literature were obtained. A substantial partof the grant is to be used for the modernization of the computational laboratory belong-ing to the branch of Applied Mechanics, the specialization of Biomedical Engineering. Theequipment of the laboratory backed by modern hardware will enable solving particularly thespatial and anisotropic problems from a range of "Biomechanics of Man". These obtaineddevices have already been utilized in the udertaking of the department's research task en-titled "Residual Stress in Blood Vessels and Myocardium and Tissue Behaviour ModellingBased on the Theory of llyperelaslicity", where the hypcrclastic behaviour of the livingtissue was mathcniiitically modeled with respect to the aging process. Further, the grantmeans have secured the purchase of necessary materials used for student diploma projects,the professional literature and the teaching softwares and have supported the membershipin international scientific societies. These means arc also enabling us to bridge this difficultperiod until such time we manage to finance the biomedical research from other sources. Co-operation with the medical departments was secured by a long term agreement concerningreciprocal lectures to be held in the fields of Biomcdical Engineering.

923


This grant support enabled our students to participate in the XXII Congress of theEuropean Society for Artificial Organs and to carry out their short stays at an outstandingbiomechanical department - Orthopädische Univestätsklinik Balgrist in Zürich and the Lab-oratory for Ex peri ment a! Surgery at the Swiss Research Institute in Davos. The expensesof the lectures in hemodynamics to be held by prof. Dr. Üo Sramck, BoMed Medical mtg,California, will be covered by the grant means. Our department, in the framework of thesetask activities, will stage his lecture entitled "Electrical Bioimpcdauce in the Research ofthe Cardiovascular System". This lecture is proposed for the undergraduate students andfor profesionals in the field of Biomcdical Engineering.

In order to develop this educational branch, cooperation has been carried on withuniversities both in the Czech Republic and abroad. The following institutions colaborateand cooperate with our department:

- Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi- Columbia University of New York- New York City University- University of Palras in Grcce- Orthopädiche Universitätsklinik, Balgrist, Zürich- Mic University TSU, Japan- Czech Academy of Science (CAS), Inst, of Theoret, and Applied Mechanics Prague- CAS, Institute of Hydrodynamics.- University of California in San Diego, Institute for Bioinedical Engineering- Faculty of Electrotechnicai Engineering- Faculty of Civil Engineering- Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Charles University Dopt, of Biomcchanics- 1st Medical Faculty of Charles UniversityOur research results obtained in the field of the biomcchanics of man have been pre-

sented at several international conferences both in the C.R. and abroad (Berlín, Tresť,Amsterdam, Brno, Prague).

At the same time, we succeded in the foundation of an experimental workstation des-ignated for biomedical engineering at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering by using thegrant means for the repair and renovation of certain apparatuses.

References:

[1] IIRUS, T. - VALENTA, J.: Residual Stress in the Blood Vessels, In: XXII Congressof Artificial Organs. Berlin. 1995.

[2] KONVICKOVÄ,S.: Výzkum frikčních vlastností různých druhu lubrikantů. In: ZprávaFS ČVUT č. 211-95-1.

[3] KONVlCKOVA, S. - SPANIEL, M. - VALERIAN, D.: Výpočet napjatosti keramickéa sendvičové jamky kyčdntho kloubu. In: Zpráva FS ČVUT č. 211-95-3.

[4] ČERNÝ, F. - M I C H A L E C , J.: Surface Layer for Metal Bioimptants. Transaction ofTUK No. 3-4. 1995. Cambridge. England.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Elasticity & Strength of Mate-rials as part of the research project "Development of "Biomcdical and Rehabilitation Engi-neering" at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering" and has been supported by GTU grantNo. 35Q2100Ó.

924

Section 16

PRESERVATION AND CREATION

OF THE ENVIRONMENT

NEXT PAGE(S)left BLANK

WORKSHOP 96 PRESERVATION & CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

PURIFICATION EFFECT OFPOROUS FILTRATION MEDIUM

OF ARTIFICIAL WETLANDAT DECOMPOSITION OF AMMONIA

J . Šálek, J . Mala*, II . Fadms*

TU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Landscape Water ManagementŽižkova 17, 662 37 Brno

*TU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of ChemistryŽižkova 17, G£>2 37 Urno

Key words: vegetative root zone method, artifical wetlant, wastcrwatcr treatment

We have recorded the course of purification effect of artificial wetlands with horizontalflow of water, found the purification effect of porous filtration medium and searched forcauses of low purification effect at decomposition of ammonia since 1993.We carried out ourstudy at following artificial wetlands with horizontal flow of waste water;

a) Artificial wetland with horizontal flow in Brno- K ní nicky

b) Artificial wetland in Osová Bityška

c) Artificial wetland in Nčmčičkyd) Artificial wetland in Olší nad Oslavouc) Model experimental base in Březina u Tišnova where we have started our pilot-plant

studies.

We have evaluated published results of our and foreign authors provided at similarartificial wetlands at the same time. Results of SCIIONBORN et al. (1995) who compiledmeasurements of IIABERL from 2GS artificial wetlands show efficiency of 30% at decompo-sition of ammonia. VYMAZAL (I995) found by detail measurements at 5 of our wetlandsefficiency of 8.9-75.6%.

Results of our measurements carried out in cooperation with VUV Brno in winter period199-1/1995 show efficiency of 10.5-54.3% at artificial wetland in Osová Bityška, 9.4-27.2%in Nemčičky, in two cases even negative values (—3.2 and —12.-1%).

At the model experimental plant of FAST in Bnio-Kníničky we studied purificationeffect with respect to the time, to the distance from inlet of the filtration field and to thecomposition of waste water. Purification effect at ammonia was max. 45.9%, the courseof purification was uniform all over the length of the model artificial wetland. In winterperiod 1994/1995 we studied the course of decomposition of ammonia at artificial wetlandof Osová Bityška for M days. At serial interconnection of two filtration fields we foud thatcontent of ammonia decreased by 10.4% at the first filtration field and by 12.8% at thesecond filtration field.

We carried out similar measurements at the same plants in October 1995. The purifica-tion effect at ammonia was at artificial wetland in Osová Bityška at paralell interconnection

927

WORKSHOP 9G PRESERVATION fc CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

48.8% at the first field and 55.7% at the second field. The purification effect in Olší nadOslavou was 33.3%. In Nemčičky at high organic loading it was only 19.4 %.

Contemporarily with studying the purification effect we studied also temperature ofwaste water in filtration field and especially content of oxygen. We found by detail mea-surement at all localities that content of oxygen in filtration field is minimum - zero.

Results of purification effect at ammonia are not fully satisfactory and it is necessaryto search the reasons of existing situation and to propose precautions for its improvement.

The main reasons of lower purification effect of artificial wetlands arc:

• anaerobic conditions in the major part of the porous filtration medium,• lack of oxygen which is necessary for normal course of nitrification processes,• low temperature of filtration medium in winter period.

We proposed many precautions in oi-der to improve tlio existing situation. We havechecked them in detail within the framework of FU 250023. It concerns especially thefollowing precautions:

Impuls filling and discharging system and corresponding level moving and aeration ofporous medium, combination of artificial wetlands with subsurfacial horizontal flow andartificial wetlands with vertical flow, using of aeration cascades at artificial wetland outlet,artificial aeration modes.

Results of these precautions reached in the first year of the research are very hopefuland we are preparing possibilities of their use in practice.

References:

[1] ŠÁLEK, J. - MALÝ, J. - FADRUS, H.: Provozní funkce vegetační kořenové čistírny.VUT Brno, 1995, 70 p.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Chemistry as part of the researchproject "Vegetative Root Zoon Method Wastewatcr Treatment" and has been supported byTU grant No. FU 25Ü023, GA/1787/93

928


ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING ANDINTEGRATION INTO EXISTING

LANDSCAPE OF VEGETATION BASEDWATER TREATMENT PLANTS

Z. Lhotáková, H. Ryšavá*

TU Brno, Fac. of Architecture, Dcpt. of Constr. and Environmental Technolog,Poříčí 5, 662 S3 Brno

*TU Brno, Fac. of Architecture, Dept. of Manifacturing and Utility Construct.Inst.Poříčí 5, GG2 S3 Brno

Key words: vegetation, ecological, architectural

Vegetation-based methods of treatment of servage arc amongst the new ecological tech-niques of cleaning and final Sedimentation of servage water in this country. In the ad-vanced European countries (Germany, Denmark, Holland, Great Britain) and in the U.S.A.and Canada, the vegetation -based treatment methods have been successfully used for sometime. Their use is particularly suitable for sinali scale applications such as individual leisureprojects, hostels, farms, hotels and restaurants. They are also suitable for smaller scalecountry settlements (villages), alternatively as final sedimentation technique connected withsmall mcchano-biological water treatment plants.

Many of our users have low quality water supply which results from the untreated wastefrom the municipal, industrial and agricultural servers discharging into our waterways. Inthe case of smaller villages and country settlements the installation of standard servagetreatment plants is unrealistic particulary because of the high cost. Alternative methodsof water treatment are advantageous because of their simplicity and their installation andrunning costs. Above all their integration into existing landscape and countryside is mucheasier than in the eise of traditional treatment plants. The choise between traditional andvegetation-bused treatment plant can not be solely based on the land area requicreinents.It is important to consider an optimal alternative, which is based on an objective evaluationof local conditions as well as on the particular and specific requirements which influencethe final choice of the type of the treatment plant. The principal idea of vegetation-basedtreatment plants is based an technology comparative to the natural processes of water pu-rification. This takes place in water and soaking tanks where the self-cleansing action resultsin purification while passing through poreous none with concurrent effect of vegetation. Themain advantages of such alternative methods arc: simpler construction process, low energydemand, limited need for a specialist equipment and technology, the ecological nature oftho treatment plant and an easier integration into the existing landscape. The shortcomingsare: a need for a larger area of land, the dependence of the plant on climate (particularlyduring winter), and that the areas of vegetations need relatively high degree of maintenanceupkeep.

Amongst the criteria influencing the choice of vegetation-based servage treatment plantis the suitability of a building site. It is necessary to consider wider aspects, such as ur-

929

WORKSHOP 96 PRESERVATION fc CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

banistic balance, existing traffic connections and protected areas of natural beauty. As thedemands on land areal of vegetation-based treatment plants arc high, the most suitable sitesare those not considered needed for buildings or agricultral use. In terms of planning of avegetation-based plant, the main considerations are the local conditions such as terrain aswell the need to secure a constant water flow.

As for as the water flow is concorned, there are two types of vegetation-based plants.First type has a horizontal water flow, the other has a vertical water flow. The main designparameters of the design of such treatment plants are: the required land area, the volumeof the root treatment section, the period of containment, the cross section of the filtrationlayer and the levelling through the poreous filtration '/one. The plan can be designed in theform of regular or irregular forms. In the case of irregular form a great attention has to bepaid to the careful evaluation of inlets and outlets. Aparet from the horizontal arrangement,the individual tanks can be arranged as cascades in naturally or artificially created slopingterrain. In all cases the arrangement of each plan has to respond to the locality in terms offunctions as well as in terms of improvement of the environment. Equally important is theselection of planting for water tanks, the improvement of surroundings and the planting ofintegrated green areas (ie. low level greenery, conifers and so on).

References:

[1] SÁLEK, J. - KOCKOVÁ, E.: Vegetační kořenové čistírny odpadních vod. Ministerstvozemědělství CR.

[2] SALEK, J.: Přírodní způsoby čištění odpadních vod. Životní prostředí pro XXI století,ENVI Brno 1992.

77tí$ rcscai'ch has been conducted at the Department of Constr. and EnvironmentalTechnolog, as part of the research project "Vegetační způsoby cisteni odpadnych vod" andhas been supported by FUS50023-GX251787

930

WORKSHOP 96 PRESERVATION k CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

USE OF ARTIFICAL WETLANDFOR THE TREATMENT OF

SURFACE AND WASTEWATER

J . Šálek, J . Malý*, F. Marcián, M. Durčák

TU in Brno, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Landcape Water Management2ižkova 17, 662 37 Brno

*TÜ in Brno,Fac. of Civil Eng., Dcpt. of ChemistryŽižkova 17, 662 37 Brno

Key words: vegetative root zone method, waslewater treatment, artifical wctlant

Natural purification of runoff and wastcrwater is based on process naturally taking placein the soil, wetland and water media in the presence of vegetation, where the impurities arebound, decomposed and mineralised. The main types of natural wastewater treatmentinvolve the vegetative root '/one method, the use of wastewater for irrigation and biologicallagoons.

In contrast to others, the advantages of these methods are their simplicity, low constuc-tion costs, absence of special hightcch equipment, the wastewater purification is effectivefrom the very beginning of the operation, particulary if the wastewater load is low, the meth-ods make it possible to remove besides nitrogen and phosphorus also heavy metals and todiscontinue the process for shorter or longer periods; the respective surface and wastevatertreatment plans (WTP) can easily become nearly natural components of the landscape andcan be used for different purposes.

However, using such methods is also associated besides advantages with some disad-vantages: a relatively large area of the WTP is required for each inhabitant (EP); theeffectiveness of the puruficalion process depends on climatic conditions, particulary tem-perature and intensity of solar radiation, which means that the purification process can berelatively less effective in winter when the porous filtration medium and other objects of thevegetative root zone {RZ) wastewater treatment plant can get froze; the filtration mediumis liable to clogging; inappropriate construction and operation as well as breakdowns canresult in the contamination of both surface and ground water and the release of stenchjtheoxygen input is relatively low and a relatively long delay is required for the dissapearanceof ammonia.

In our work we have paid attention to some drawbacks and problems deserving moreunderstanding:

• The course of purification within the filtration medium with respect to the length ofthe filtration path.

• The course of climitating the ammoniacal pollution.• The temperature regimen within the porous medium.• The oxygen regiment within the porous medium.• The development of new types of root zone metods.

931

WORKSHOP 96 PRESERVATION fe CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The results of our study allow for the following conclusion:• The purification process takes place mainly within the inlet zone, i.e, along the first

3-6m of the porous filtration bed, where both BOD and COD dcsf.rcase substantially.• Neither the volume nor the material nonuniformity of the flow have a notable effect

on the resulting purification.• The nitrification process decreases considerably the lack of oxygen within the porous

filtration medium.• The decomposition of ammonia proceeds very slowly and gradualy increases towards

the end of the filtration bed.• The oxygen content within the filtration bed of the RZ WTU is very low and ap-

proaches zero.The overall results of studies carried out during the last three years allow us to draw

the folloving general conclusions:

• Since desicive purification take place in the front part of the filtration bed, it will beuseful to build the RZ WTPs as cascades, i.e., to connect several shorter filtrationbeds in series, instead of using a single Jong bed. The lendth of individual filtrationbeds should be 8 to 12 m.

• The grain size on individual filtration beds should gradually decrease. A thoroughmechanical cleaning is a prerequisite of such an arrangement.

• Enhanced oxygenation can be provided by means of a suitable regiment of the sub-surface water level within the porous medium.

• Best results were obtained wiyh a pulsation system where the water level was alter-natively decreased and increased, which is associated with a favourable suction effecton the aeration.

• An alternative solution of the problem is represented by a combination of two systemsof water flow. The waste water spreads over a flood bed in a thin layer at first,providing so for a good oxygenation and retention of most of the suspended matter.This is followed by the porous bed with the pulsating subsurface water level. Arelatively deeper reservoir where denitrificatiou processes can take place is proposedas the final unit to he passed through by the subsurface flow.

• As an up to now not fully proved alternative can be mentioned the aeration with microbubbles applied directly to the distributor pipe at the inlet to the porous filtrationbed. The volume of air delivered by small and lowprcssurc turbochargcrs dependsupon the BOD.

The results of studies presented here in the form of short conclusions point to the advan-tages but also to some restrictions associated with the operation of runoff and wastcwatertreatment plants which exploit natural processes taking place in the root zone of porousbeds planted with reed and other wetland species. Newly proposed concepts and organisa-tion remove step by step weak points of the method, particularly the shortage of oxygen,the possibility of silting, etc. The research continues.

References:

[1] SÁLEK, J. et al: Provozní funkce kořenové čistírny . VUT Brno, 1994, 40 p.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Landscape Water Managementas part of the research project "Vegetative Root Zone Method Wastcwatcr Treatment" andhas been supported by TU grant No, FU 250023.

932


REINFORCED GRASS FOR HYDRAULICAND EARTH STRUCTURES

L. Satrapa

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of HydrotcchnicsThákurova 7,16G 29 Praha 6

Key words: dam safety, emergency spillway, reinforced grass, geotextile, grass carpet,ecological technologies

Problem definition. A new group of problems concerning the dam safety arises nowin the field of dam control and dam maintenance. The number of dams (especially smalldams and pond dams) was recognized not to be safe enough from difFerent points of view.The most frequent reason for the low safety of a dam is the inadequate capacity of anemergency spillway or other facilities for the safe diversion of flood discharges. Developpedtextile sandwich for spillway construction reconstruction and new reinforced grass carpetare the advisable technologies for the increasing of a dam safety. The textile sandwich isvery easy to manipulate at a site and four or five times cheaper in comparison with concreteblocks. Mentioned textile sandwich can be used for erosion protection of earthen slopes andsoil structures and for river bank protection as well. Reinforced grass carpet is useful forimmediate use and is stable enough for an earth structure protection and erosion control.First spillway protected by proposed textile sandwich is constructed at two dams of drypolders for flood control in Pelhřimov.

Solution possibilities. We can improve the safety of a dam by the reconstruction of anexisting spillway or by the construction of a new spillway. The using of clasical technologiesfor (concrete, stone) the construction or reconstruction of a spillway could be very expensive,laborious and not very appropriate to the surrounding nature. The new solution taking bothtechnical and environmental aspects was proposed by dam constructors in United States andin Great Britain.

Main features of our solution. The geomembrane application for emergency spillwayrequires the recovering of this geomembrane by noncohesive material after each flood event.The reinforced grass application can't provide the erosion protection before the grass growsup. We try to propose a technology which is nature friendly and which is able to protectthe earth structure immcdiatelly. Geotextile sandwich for the oj ill way construction couldbe characterized by following properties: - short term erosion protection of the earthenspillway trough before the grass grows up, - long term erosion protection of spillway troughwith reinforced grass, - fast and easy technology of a revetment application, - low costof the reinforced grass spillway in comparison with clasical methods, - material suitabilityfrom the ecological point of view.

The properties of reinforced grass carpets are similar to the textile sandwich. They arcmore useful if higher erosion protection is necessary immediatclly after the application onsite.

Design of the desired textile sandwich. To follow the material properties mentionedabove it was necessary to recognize the possibility of the Czech textile and chemical industry.The application of foreign materials was refused because of prize minimalization. Two

933

WORKSHOP 96 PRESERVATION fc CREATION OF TUB ENVIRONMENT

different materials were necessary ío find out: - textile material with a short life whichcan ensure the short term protection of an earthen slope, which can carry grass seeds andwhich is disintegrated by natural processes without ecologicaly harmful components andcompositions, - reinforcing long life textile material which is able to withstand the open airnatural conditions without the significant change of mechanical properties.

Only one suitable material for short term erosion protection was found. This nonwoventextile material is made from a waste during the working up of flax (short fibre tow). Thistextile is disintegrated to high quality mould after the chosen time. Reinforcing durablematerial can be used in the respect to desired resistance of earthen spill way. The follow-ing materials were found in Czech industry: I) materials for high resistance to hydraulicand erosion forces: Polynet-nonwovcn textile net made from polyethylen, Dren-nonwovcngeotextile with high density made from polyethylen, 2) other suitable materials; PerlinkaPOP-polyprophylen net, 067052-technical textile (PES net covered by PVCJ.The proposedtextile sandwicli consists in two short life textiles and one long life textile. Two flax layerscover the reinforcing layer from both sides and can carry grass seeds, fertilizer and hy-groscopic granules hclpig the grass grow up in dry periods. Succssful application of thereinforced grass for a spillway protection depends on the selection of a convenient grassmixture. Grass mixtures with special properties convenient for different nature conditionsare available.

Design and production of reinforced grass carpets. Reinforcing materials arc mentionedabove. The carpet is compact sandwich of grown grass, reinforcement and earth. The carpetis produced by specialized factory. The depth of an earth layer is approx. 5 cm. The lengthof carpet strip is 10 m max. The strip can be 1.5 m wide (max.). Grass strips arc transportedfrom the production factory to the site in the form of rolls. A crane or similar machine isnecessary for the handling of heavy rolls (tlie weight of 10m long and 1.5m wide roll isapprox. 1000 kg).

Conclusion. Developpcd textile sandwich and reinforced grass carpet for spillway con-struction and reconstruction are the advisable measures for the increasing of a dam safety.They fills the properties mentioned above. The textile sandwich is very easy to manipulateat a site and four or five times cheaper in comparison with concrete blocks. Mentionedtextile sandwich can be used for erosion protection of earthen slopes and soil structures andfor river bank protection as well. Reinforced grass carpet is able to protect the earth struc-ture immediatelly after the application. A laboratory model of emergency spillway is underconstruction now to set design criteria and parametres for mathematical design procedure.After the previous failure of the model in laboratory (bad condition for grass growing) thenew one is constructed now in Terezín (field laboratory of Povodí Ohře). It is supposedto apply the described erosion control methods for the protection of river banks in Krušnéhory. Special interest is now focused on the design, application and use of reinforced growngrass carpets.

References:

[1] SATRAPA, L.: Použití vegetačních upevňovacích prvků při výstavbc a rekonstrukci hrázíPřehradní dny Tábor 1992, str. 154-160, CSPV 1992

This research has been conducted at the Department of Hydrotechničtí as part of theresearch project "Reinforced Crass for Hydraulic Structures and Earth Structures" and hasbeen supported by CTU grant No. 10018239.

934


AERATION OF RIVER WATERSUTILIZING THE EXISTING

INSTALLATIONS

M. Daněk

Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Managmcnt Research InstituteRekreační 1, 635 00 Brno-Kníničky

Key words: ecology, hydrology, river hydraulics, aeration

The project included a study of aeration and oxygenation effect of existing river instal-lations, enhancement measures and economic considerations.

A university team, two turbine manufacturers and two water authorities participated.Dissolved oxygen conlcns measurements on rivers, laboratory experiments of model instal-lations in a flume allowing for water flow, airflow and oxygen contents measurements withhead to 1.6 m, water flow to 0.15 m2/s with poor oxygen water supplied the data.

High oxygen deficit appears in Czech Republic mostly in summer at low discharge -high temperature combinations, downstream of dams, waste water treatment facilities, andsugar refineries during campaign.

Pelton and Michcll (Ossberger, Banki, Cink) types of turbines bring appreciable oxy-genation. Other types require costly modifications involving loss of cfficcncy making thisapproach uneconomical.

The weir is a good oxygenator reaching oxygenation effectiveness values of 50% from1 meter head upwards at certain discharge/tailwater depth combinations. An attachmentof perforated metal sheet appreciably increases oxygenation effect at low discharges and lowhead values.

The smooth spillway gives roughly one half of the weir's oxygenation effect at 1 meterhead but is better at extremely low head/discharge values. Inclined smoothly overflownsteps and skew turbulators have little effect. Staggered ladle shaped stream splitting andspray forming elements have a very good oxygenating effect bringing the spillway on thelevel with a simple weir and better at extremely low head/discharge values.

The vortex generators with central air intake installed in a dam form big bubbleclouds but are poor oxygenators when the outlet is submerged and naturally sucked air isfree to enter. They become good oxygenators when the outlet is above the water surfaceforming a spray cone or when the air supply is closed and the air is sucked in backwardsthrough the vortex ousting on the water surface. This arrangrnent is costly, needs protection,maintenance and has a low capacity.

The bottom outlet followed by a hydraulic j u m p is a good oxygenator not much worsethan the weir. The nearer the jump is to the outlet the better.

In the investigated range of phenomena there has been a poor correlation between theamount of air entering the water in the form of bubbles and the resultant oxygenationeffect. In one case less air meant better oxygenation. Even clouds of fine bubbles under1 millimeter diameter were poor and slow oxygenators. Intensive mícroscale turbulencewith moderate air/water ratio or fast moving and splitting drops of water in air seem to be

935

WORKSHOP 9C PRESERVATION fe CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

the main oxygenation contributors. The research priorities were changed from aeration tooxygen at ion.

Activities bringing more oxygen into rivers are highly recognized but little paid for.Effective on-the-spot waste water treatment is highly subsidized by the state and preventsthe worst. The river authorities must use the cheapest approaches.

In the river development planning more and smaller evenly distributed steps meanmore oxygen. In the case of weirs with more than one individually operated parts much canbe gained by proper individual operation. When discharge is very low the weir or spillwaymodifications may help appreciably. The results may be of value also in the waste treatmentand drinking water processing plants.

References:

[1] GABRIEL, P. - CABELKA, J. - TREJTNAR, K. - MEDftICKÝ, V.: Předpokladya možnosti zlepšování kvality vody na labské vodní cestč. Vodní hospodářství G/1992,pp. 162-169.

[2] MARKOFSKY, M. - KOBUS, H.: Unified Presentation of Weir - Aeration Data.Proceedings of the ASCE - Journal of the Hydraulics Div. Vol. 10-1, No <!, 197S

[3] CHANSON, II.: Predicting oxygen content downstream of weirs, spillways and water-ways. Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs Wat., Marit. and Energy, 1995, 112, Mar., 20-30.

The project was sponsored by the Czech Grant Agency (grant No 103/93/0335).

936


EXPERIMENTAL SECTION PL I.OF THE PLOUCNICE RIVER

J . Bern, P. Sklenář

CTU, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Hydraulics and HydrologyThákurova 7,166 29 Praha 6

Key words: river re-naturalization, field measurements, bank protection, vegetative lining,experimental reaches

Environmental processes in natural channels are very complicated and generalization ofknowledge is not still reliable. Empirical and semi-empirical regime relationships describingthese processes show theoretical insufficiency and their application is usually limited to theregion where they were derived.

Therefore, it is desirable to broaden number of observations and field measurementsin channels and collected data process with aim to obtain qualitative relationships charac-terizing fluvial processes. This sort of knowledge is vital to re-naturalization of rivers. Atthe same time the draw up of the methodology of the environmentally acceptable technicalinterference with fluvial system, which respects principles of the environment protection, isneeded.

The team of the Department of Hydraulics and Hydrology of the CTU in Prague carriedout in 1992 the pilot study of the Ploučnice river near Česká Lípa [3] as a particular workwithin the framework of the CTU grant RevÍUtilization of Trained Rivers. It was the mainsource of inspiration for the successive experimental project [2], which consists of 29 lo-cal corrections, vegetative structures and particular enhancements in almost natural buttroubled section of the Ploučnice river of the total length 2.7 km. 20 various types of thevcgctational structures of the bank protection are used.

In the course of the 1994 the most demanding stage 1 of the whole project of the length0.53 km was worked out. The holder of the grant was in charge of the project inspector. InDecember 1994 the licence of the constructing works completion was issued for stage 1 ofthe project.

In this year the documentation of the real accomplishment of the particular structureswas carried out and any differences from the project design were recognized. The pho-tographs and the video films were collected to document any changes in morphology of thechannel or geometry of the vegetative structures with time. In co-operation with the Boardof the Ohre River Control and in compliance with intention of the project 2 experimentalreaches arc sel up. One, which is set in straight section of the river, consists of 3 gaugeprofiles and is intended for evaluation of the hydraulic flow resistance raised by surfaceroughness and by sediment banks. Another experimental reach is located in meanderingsection of the river and morphological processes and effect of the flow resistance due tocurvature of the stream can be studied there. 4 surveying works concentrated on a detailedgeometry description of the structures in its initial condition were performed.

In 1996 the primary survey in all profiles will be undertaken and systematic observationwill be started.

937

WORKSHOP 96 PRESERVATION Sz CREATION OF TUE ENVIRONMENT

The whole stage 1 route was divided into 3 independent observing sites located atthe meander cutting, channelized meandering section and cut-off meander respectively. Atthe first two sites 14 observing and gauge cross sections were established. As the cut offmeander has at its upstream end own hydraulic connection with the river via a culvert thelast observing site was intent on monitoring of both work of the culvert and environmentalprocesses present there. Ail the gauge cross sections were connected by levelling, S crosssections were sounded in detail by a rod probe, in 3 cross sections detailed measurementsof the velocity fields were taken. During the field measurement in middle of June 1995 themaximum peak stage and flooding in entire flood plain was recorded.

One could say, period of one year is very short and amount of collected and evaluateddata is too small to make objective conclusions, nevertheless, preliminary can be drawn:

• Break in elevation of the right hand side bank at the first observing site led to preco-cious flooding in entire floodplain.

• Sediment transport is such intensive that the control sill is silted after its short workby fine sand deposits. It is a reason for the loss of water head in the culvert that docsnot work properly as was expected.

• In channelized meandering section the excessively deep scours were discovered.• Protection of upper parts of the channel slopes by dcgradablc geotextile proved to be

good.• Stability of the double fence of the laths on the right hand side bank should be perma-

nently inspected and riprcp stone should be added when the stability of the structureget worse.

• It seems to be necessary to revitalize some vegetative structures (log cabins, fascine-gravel drums) by willow fascines and seedlings as plants did not strike roots well.

Investigation and field measurements are continued in co-operation with the Board ofthe Ohře River Control for next '1 years. They result in overall evaluation of accommodationof particular vegetational structures to effort of the channel enhancement. At the same timethey should lead to recognition of the convenient and environmentally acceptable types ofvegetative structures which could be extensively used with success in the river engineeringbranch.

Simultaneously further primary research is carried out in the experimental reaches.Postgraduate and undergraduate students are involved in the research project.

References:

[1] MARES, K. - DEM, J. - BÉMOVÁ, I. - SKLENÁŘ, P.: Návrh pilotního experimentál-ního úseku na Ploučnici. Studie pro Povodí Ohře, a.s., Stavební fakulta ČVUT, Praha1993.

[2] BÉM, J. - MAREŠ, K. - SKLENÁŘ, P. - V02ENÍLEK, A.: Úprava Ploučnice v pi-lotním experimentálním úseku u Žhntkova. Projekt pro Povodí Ohře, a.s., Stavebnífakulta ČVUT, Praha 1993.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Hydraulics and Hydrology aspart of the research project "Experimental Section PL I. of the Ploučnice River" and hasbeen supported by CTU grant No. 1001S237.

938


MODELLING OF UNDERGROUNDMIGRATION OF RADIONUCLIDES

FROM CONTAMINATEDRIVER SEDIMENTS

K. Stamberg, D. Vopálka, P. Beneš, O. Slavik*

CTU, Fac. of Nud. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Nuclear ChemistryBřehová 7, 115 19 Praha I

"Research Institute of Nuclear Power Stations,Okružná 5, 91S 64 Trnava

Key words: migration, ground waLcrs, river sediments, Cs-137, Sr-90, modelling

Introduct ion. Accidental releases of waste waters from the first Czechoslovak nuclearpower plant Al caused contamination of sediments of the Dudváh river flowing into theVáli river in Slovakia. Rather high concentrations of 1 3 7Cs and ^Sr (2150 Bq/dm3 and215 Bq/dm3, respectively) were found in bottom sediments of a former estuary of the re-cngincered river body at a distance about 250 m from a village Siladice with water supplyingwells. Themain task of our study consisted in the prediction of the time and space dependentconcentrations of 1 3 l Cs and ^Sr in the seepage water percolating through the contaminatedsediment and the geological bed of gravel from the Váli to Siladice.

Site Characterization. The modelled site consists of two modules (layers), the firstof which is the contaminated body of bottom sediments and the second one is the part ofgeological bed of gravel between the Váli and Siladice. The contaminated body lies nearthe right (west) bank of the Váli river and it can be regarded as a right-angled prism withthe dimensions: approx. 800 x 14.5 x 0.2m (length x breadth x depth, respectively). Theconsidered part of gravel bed has the same shape and dimensions, only its breadth equals to250 m. The elevation of the upper surface of contaminated body corresponds approximatelywith the year-averaging elevation of water level of the Vah. IQ values of sorption/desorptionprocesses of both radionuclides for sediment material and gravel were determined using thebatch reactor technique with phase ratio V/m in the range 2-3ml/g, by means of themethod described in [1]. Taking into account the conservative approach to the simulationof migration processes in the studied body we assume that the gravel fraction above 10 mmdocs not contribute to the sorptiou of both radionuclides.

T h e Calculation of Phreatic Line and Water Flow Rates. The real water flow inthe area of potential contaminants' migration is very difficult to describe in the full spatialand time variability. The analysis of hydrological situation in the area showed that thevertical flow of rain water in the unsaturated zone had considerably lower importance incomparison with the dominantly horizontal flow of seepage in the upper part of saturatedzone. This seepage through the river bank in direction to Siladice results in the migrationif the contaminated body lies under the phreatic line. The values of rate of water flowreferred to one running meter of the bank [ n r ^ ' m " 1 ] , Darcy's velocity [m/s], the range ofseepage [m] and the shape of phreatic line were calculated using the Darcy's law and the

939


Dupirit-Forchheimer discharge formula [2-3] assuming that a steady unconfined flow existsin the neighbourhood of a water reservoir or a river.

The shape of the phreatic line calculated for the most conservative value of hydraulicconductivity kj s= 0.003 m/s has practically linear character. The value of the mean hy-draulic gradient, /at, influencing indirectly the range of seepage, is taken from the literature[3] and corresponds to the beds of coarse sand and gravel. According to this reference]ai = 0.003-0.005 m/m, from the point of view of simulation under conservative conditionsthe lower value was used.

Simulation of Migration Process and its Results. The original layered model wasused for the simulation of migration process (4), It deals with the one-dimensional partialdifferential equation, describing the convective-diifusion mass transport in saturated zonewith sorption and/or desorption under equilibrium conditions and radioactive decay, whichwas solved numerically using a finite difference method with Crank-Nicolson differentia]scheme.

The results of simulation were calculated as time dependent concentrations of 137Csand ^Sr at distances 50 and 250 meters from the contaminated body. Let it be completed,that the highest concentrations of I3'Cs and ÖOSr in the effluent from contaminated layer ofsediments amount to 307Bq/m3 and S2Bq/m3, respectively.

The difference between both nuclides is evident: 137Cs migrates substantially moreslowly than ^Sr so that the leakage concentrations at both the distances considered arehigher than approx. 0.001 Bq/m3 only if kj = 0.003 m/s (or greater). In this case themaximum of radiocesium concentration appears in the distances 50 and 250 meters afterapprox. 50 and 150 years, respectively. In the case of radiostrontium, the concentrationsand times of leakage depend on the value of kj. Radioactive decay has very strong effecton the transport of l37Cs and °°Sr. The effect is similar for both the radionuclides, as theirdecay constants arc almost the same.

It is important that all the calculated concentrations lie deep below the MPC valid forwaterworks sources in the Czech Republic (i.e., 500 Bq/m3 137Cs and 300 Bq/m3 ^Sr+^Y) .

References:

[I] BENES, P. - STAMBERG, K. - STEGMANN, R.: Study of the Kinetics of Inter-action of Cs-137 and Sr-85 with Soils Using Batch Method: Methodological problems.Radiochimica Acta C6/67, 1994, pp. 315-321.

[2] BEER, J.: Hydraulics of Groundwater. McGraw-Hill International Book Company,New York 1979, p. 78.

[3] KOLÁÍI, V. et a!.: tlydrautika. (in Czech), Published by SNTL, Prague I960, p. 652.

[4] VOPÁLKA, D. - STAMBERG, K.: Modelling of Contaminants Migration in the RealBody Using a Modified ID Model. WORKSHOP 95 - Part III, Czech Technical Uni-versity, Prague 1995, pp. 729-730.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Nuclear Chemistry as partof the research project "Modelling of Contaminants and Radionuclides Migration in Soils— Development of Mutticomponent Models of Fundamental Processes and 2-D Models ofSorption-Desorption Dynamics" and has been supported by CTV grant No. 4S215.

940


OPTIMIZATION OF THE DESIGNOF INTEGRATED URBAN DRAINAGE

J . Krejčík, Z. Koníček, K. Pryl, Z. Handová

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Sanitary EngineeringThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: infiltration/inflow, integrated urban drainage, HD modelling, optimization,receiving waters, WQ modelling, waste water treatment plant (WWTP)

For an accurate decision or evaluation leading to an optimal and complex solutionof integrated urban drainage, a detailed description of the behaviour of each part of thesystem is necessary. The fundamental part of present research project was to describe theperformance of the catchment and sewer system in dry weather and wet weather periods.The further aim is to find an optimal proposal for catchment management. In order toachieve optimum design and to establish Real Time Control (RTC), both hydrodynamic(HD) and water quality (WQ) simulation is essential. The successful application of thesimulation models for HD and WQ modelling is required.

A detailed description of the catchment (127 ha total area, 30% impervious) was madeto meet the need for input data for simulation models. Maps, aerial and satellite images,field investigations, etc. were used for the description of the catchment. Sewer system inputdata (combined sewer system; 17.5 km lenght, 6000 m3 volume) was obtained from varioussources including the municipality sewer system maps together with experience gained frommaintenance. Many pipe connections have had to be checked because of the range of datafrom various sources. Use was made of hydromformatics tools (GIS, databases etc.) whichare able to process and control input data with high efficiency and accuracy, and a simplifiedsewer system was created.

First results of simulation confirmed the experience that the pipe diameters in almostwhole system have been overestimated. On the other hand the underestimation of the partsewer network which caused even flooding were identified. In addition the simulations of thesewer discharge and WQ measurements within the system was done. Conclusions from thesefirst measurements showed out higher discharge of low polluted water to WWTP causedby huge of infiltration/inflow. For the purpose of model calibration and evaluation of theproblems mentioned above it was necessary to find sources and volumes infiltration/inflowand also to measure the performance of the system during rain events.

In order to identify the infiltration/inflow sources samples were taken at night at anumber of manholes around the whole catchment. WQ parameters such as amonium ions,COD, conductivity, pll and suspended solids were determined at each sampling point. Inaddition to the WQ analyses the inlet to the WWTP was measured. In order to find out thevolume of infiltration/inflow, the discharge coming into the WWTP at night was measuredas well as the water level in the selected sample points. The major sources of the inflowwere identified in the Kbely catchment. The discharge from these sources varied from 15 to25 1/s which is more than 50 % of dry weather flow coming to the WWTP.

In order to optimize the sewer system performance the calibration and verification ofthe simulation model was carried out. For the purpose of calibration the water level in the

941


selected branch was measured during rain events. For the verification 10 rains were selectedand the model was verified by comparison of the computed and measured inflow to WWTPduring these rain events.

The simulations by calibrated model were made in order to evaluate the problemsmentioned above. The total volume of infiltration/inflow was distributed to the sourcepoints and were included in the model together with the domestic waste water discharge.The results of simulation by calibrated model for selected longitudinal profiles are shovn inFig. 1. The surcharged flow in one main sewer coming to the WWTP as well as the freecapacity in the other one is obvious- In order to use the capacity of the main sewers optimallythe structure where these sewers will be collected and the discharge will be distributed bycontrolcd gates is proposed. The selection of the optimal control stategy will be the nextstep.

Fig. 1: Results of the hydrodynamic simulations by MOUSE model. Water level in twomain sewers of the sewer system within Kbely catchment

The problems in investigated catchment arc totally different from predictions based ona traditional approach. The problem in this catchment is not only drainage of heavy stormwaters but the huge amount of infiltration/inflow as well. Ncverthless, sower systems and/ortreatment facilities which serve Uic habitations in the Czech Republic lias been designedand developed mostly according to the traditional approach. With respect to this matterof fact it is necessary to find out possibilities how to make use an existing state from thepoint of view - water quality improvement as a main goal of waste water management. Apossible solution how to reach this goal is to optimize the performance of existing systemleading to the real time control approach.

References:

(I] HALOUN, R. - KHEJCIK, J. - POUPOVA, E. - PRYL, K.: The Modelling and Moni-toring of the. Impact of Urban Htiaojf on Receiving Waters in Smalt Catchments. Proc-eedings of the 7th Junior Scientist Workshop, Ceniice, C'A, 199-1

[2] IIALOUN, R. et. al: Monitoring and Modelling of Urban Dvainngc Impact on ReceivingWnler. NOVATECH 95, Lyon, Krauce.1995

This research has been conducted at the Department of Sanitary Engineering as a partof the research project UGACR grant No. 103/93/0637" and has been supported by CTUgrant No. 10018243.

9-12

WORKSHOP ac PRESERVATION k CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

THE STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENTOF WATER QUALITY

IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

L. Macek, A. Grünwald, P . Koubská, P . Zykan

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., DepL of Sanitary EngineeringThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: water quality, water distribution, free chlorine

Biological and physicochcrnical stability of drinking water in distribution system is nowone of the first priorities of research in the water industry. The main rcasonS for this factarc THE various forms of induced pollution caused by the technological proccessES of watertreatment AND the corrosion products and bacterial regrowth. Bacteria can form continousbiofilm on the walls of the pipes even when high concentrations of disinfectants are present.The methodology to determine organic carbon was developed by Cappellierct al. (1992).

Kt^crioir Kailov (Moving Average)Distribution iyslcm (Mo v

Fig. 1: Distribution of water samples inthe pressure zone Karlov, water source PragPodolí in the years 1973-1992.

Fig. 2: Changes of free chlorine concentra-tion in the years 1973-1992, pressure zoneKarlov, water reservoir and distribution sys-tem, moving averages.

Cohen and Visser (1992) described the on line quality monitoring in distribution sys-tems. The on line monitoring enables the control of water quality in distribution systems.At the Amsterdam waterworks, a monitoring system was also developed to support thestrategies of water quality control in the distribution system, mathematical simulations andfeedback. Monitoring on líne and hydraulic and water quality modeling enables waterworksto develop new ways to operate water distribution systems. Another approach, described

943


by Mathieu (1992), is to build testing circuits of water pipes, where the changes of bacterialgrowth and desinfection by products can be exactly studied. The tise of material samples inthe water mains is also very common. The main parameters influencing the water quality inthe distribution systems are: the residence time of water, type and dose of the disinfectant,quality of the inner surface of the pipes and the waler quality of the ireatco water.

Our research was focused this year on the analyses of the time series oi water qualityin the existing distribution systems. Data of water quality from three different pressurezones in Prag during the period of 1973 to 1992 were used. The pressure zone Karlov(water mainly from the water treatment plant Podolí from Vltava river and network about120 years old), Kozincc (water uniquely from the Zeüvka Reservoir) and Bruska (a mixtureof all the sources) were studied. In Fig. 1 the distribution of water samples in the pressurezone Karlov are ilustrated. The number of samples is represented by the size of the circlesat the particular localities: the regular water quality sampling and the samples at the placesof customers complains. For the analyses both the data from regular and irregular samplingwere used.

The time series on the Fig. 2 shows tlie moving averages of free chlorine concentrations.The average concentration of free chlorine in the reservoir was 0.2Smg/l in contrary withthe 0.21 mg/1 in the distribution systems. Water temperature increa.se in the distributionsystem was 2.74°C.

The study of the changes of water quality in the distribution system enables the speci-fication of genera] changes that can be found from the existing lime series of water quality.The decrease of free chlorine concentration and the increase of water temperature in allstudying zones as well as the increase of iron concentration in the Kozincc water in distri-bution system, where pipes are made of raw iron are observed. The research conliues in thefield measurement of hydraulic parameters and decay of free chlorine concentration in thewater mains.

References:

[1] COHEN - WISSER: The Development and Application of Monitoring Systems for theDistribution of Drinking Water. Aqua, Vol. -11, No. 0, pp. 352-359,1992.

[2] M ATM EU, L. el a!.: Paramdrcs gouvernant /« proliferation bactcricnnc d'un reseauexperimental de distribution d'enu. Revue des Sciences de l'Rau, 5, 399—114.

[3] MEYERS et al.: Analyse des sous-produits dc la chlorinaiion ct dr.s preenrsenrs dctrihatomdhanes, J. Francais d'Hydrolog'ie

('1] CAPPELL1ER1M.-PICOCHK1C.-I)EQUINIA.: Dcvenir dn CODE dans tcs rescauxdc distribution. Revue des Sei. de L'Eau, 19912, 51-07

[5] KERNEIS, A. - MARTIN, S. C. - »EGUIN, A.: Hydraulic Analysis for the. Qualifi-cation of Distribution Networks. Special subj. M Managing and MaiuUinning WaterQuality in Distribution. Proc. 20. Int. Congress IWSA, pp. SSM 1-7.

[6] ABOUZID, II. - EL MGIIARI TAB1B, M. - LARAKI, L. - BENABDALLAH, S.: De-velopment of Water Quality in a Distribution Network: a Case Study from the BonznikaCentre. Morocco. Proc. 20. Int. Congr. IWSA, 1995, pp. SS1012-19

TVJJ'S research has been conducted at the Department of Sanitary Engineering as part ofthe research project "Changes of water quality in water distribution system" and has beensupported by GACfi grant No. W39507SS.

944


THE INFLUENCE OF ACID RAINON THE QUALITY

OF SURFACE WATER

A. Grünwald, L. Macek, J . Zeithammerová, P . Zykán

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Sanitary EngineeringThákurova 7, 16G 29 Praha 6

Key words: water quality, acidification, acid rain, aluminium

Acidification of surface water is a well-documented problem in many montainous andforested regions of Europe [1-4]. It represents the last link in the ecosystematic chain, wherethe acid atmospheric pollutants react with vegetation and soil and become transformed be-fore reaching surface water and groundwater. Although the direct input of the atmosphericpollutauts into frcshwaters is usually not significant, during snow melting and heavy rainincidents, a large portion of the acid precipitation reaches surface waters unchanged bysurface run offs, without having major contact with soil and rocks.

A major consequence of surface water acidification is elevated concentrations of inor-ganic aluminium. At pH values below 5.5 Al is an important pll buffer. Through directprecipitation or adsorption, Al may alter the cycling of phosphor (P), organic carbon (C),sulfáte or trace metals. Aluminium-induced coagulation of particulates and organic mattersin water reservoirs and lakes may increase transparency and alter their thermal structures.Finally, elevated concentrations of inorganic Al are potentially toxic to aquatic organisms.Very often the level of aluminium in drinking water is associated with Alzheimers disease,a form of dementia [5l.

|£>B2 19H3 1934 1985 1980 1987 199B 1999 19&0 1991 1992 1993 199-1 1EYear

Fig. 1: Average year values of pH in Černá Děsná, Jizera Mountains

945


We have encountered the problem of elevated level of aluminium in many streams ofthe Jizera Mountains region.

These streams are as follows: Jizerka, Černá Sinedá, Bílá Smcdá, Ocrná Děsná, Jedlová,Blatný potok, Kamenice and Černá Nisa. The water quality in all of these streams simiiiarmarks in many of the parameters. The main characteristics of these waters are the lowvalues of pH, alkalinity, dissolved solids and metals. From the metals, only aluminiumpresent a serious problem because its concentration is higher than the guideline value forthe drinking water (0.2mg/l).

As an example the results of the study in the Ccrtiá Děsná streams arc given (Fig. 1and Fig. 2).

1ÖB3 1534 TS35 IS8C

Fig. 2: Average year concentrations of Al in Černá Děsná, Jizera Mountains

It can be seen from the pictures, that the year average values of pi I has not changeddramatically during the last ten years and that the situation over all can be characterizedas a steady state. However the values of aluminium content show a slight sinking tendency.

References:

[1] DILLON, P. J. - EVANS, II. E. - SCHOLER, P. J.: The effects of acidification onmetal budgets of lakes and catchments. Biogeochemistry 5, 1988, 201-220

[2] SCIIOEN, R.: Water acidification in the Federal Republic of Germany proved by simplechemical models. Water, Air and Soil PoIIut. 31, 19S6, 1S7-I9S

[3] KRUG, E. C : Review of acid-dcpositionscatchment itcraclion and comments on futureresearch needs. Journal of Hydrology 128, 1991, 1-27

[4] MACH, M. - AT ALL: Study of the metal content in (he waters of (he protected regionof the Jizera Mountains Arch. Hydrobiol. Beih. 33, 1989, 339-34-1

[5] REIBER, S. - KUKULL, W. - STAND1SH-LEE, P.: Drinking water aluminium andbioavailibity Journal AWWA 5, 1995, 86-100

This research has been conducted at the Department of Sanitary Engineering as part ofthe research project "Effect of Acid Deposition on the Quality of Surface Water" and hasbeen supported by CTU grant No. WO 1S241.

946

WORKSHOP 9G PRESERVATION & CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

THE USE OF OZONE FOR WATERTREATMENT IN SWIMMING-POOLS

B. Šťastný, P. Srytr, J, Sklenář and co-workers

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., üept. of Sanitary EngineeringThákurova 7,166 29 Praha 6

Key words: swimming-pool, ozonization, ozone generator, and filtration

This is a bvief overview of a. study which is dealing with ozonization of swimming-poolwater and problems associated with this process. The first step of the study was focused onthe elfectiveness of ozonization, the role of ozone by purification and the ozone applicationsystem (see Fig. 1).

1- FILTER

2. FILTER CONTROL

.V WATER HEATER

4-CYCLING 1'UMI1

5- DOSE PUMP

Ď- PUMPING TANK

7- MONITORING SYSTEM (CI;., Ill I. ORP)

g-DOSING O! : CIILOUINE AND NaiICIO

. 9- OZONE GESERA TOK

10- OZOSE COST HOI

U-OVHRrLOW TROUGH

12- WATER VACUUM CLEANER

Fig. 1: Schematic ozone application system to swimming-pool water treatment

The ozonization of recycled swimming-pool water was considered the best possibletreatment for elimination of contamination.

In the second part of the study under the specified conditions,thc checklist for ozonesystem design,(adapted from a document of the European Committee of International OzoneAssociation) was used to compare the different ozonization methods. It was applied toevaluate the effects of operation especially the advantages and disadvantages in the casestudy area of Swimming-Pool Podoli. The company Wedeco, is the fictional company usedto compare the other two technologies. Co. Wedeco utilizes a combination of ozonizationand UV radiation. Summary of results of evaluation tests for different companies' methods,including fictional, are summarised in the table (see Fig. 2). Weighted evaluation criteriawith a maximum of 100 were estimated for each company. To have more accurate evaluationsmore evaluatovs arc needed. As shown in the Figure 2 there are no marked differences

947


between the results from the Company 2 and the fictional.According to the results weconluded that, compared to the others, the Co. 2 method is more convenient for area-thcPodoli.

Ozonization is proposed for reducing the level of contamination followed by final desin-fection treatment with chlorine to ensure complete elimination of bacteria at a lower chlorinedosage. Flocculation and filtration stages may be used in addition, and several combinationsare proposed.

References:

[1] LAGLAIS, B. - RECKHOW, D. A. - BRINK, D. R.: Ozone in Water Treatment.Second Printing by AW WS Research Foundation, USA 19Ö1.

[2] ŠŤASTNÝ, B. - SRYTR, P. - SKLENÁŘ, J.: Evaluation of Applying Ozonhation inSwimming-pool Podoli. Study, 41 p, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Prague 1995-

[3] TIEFENBRUNER, F. H. - MOLL, H. G. - GROIIMANN, A. - SEIDEL, K.: OzoneTreatment of Swimming-pools. Science and Engineering Vol. 112, No. 4, pp. 393-400,1990.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Sanitary Engineering as partof the research project "New ecological technologic in swimming-pool water treatment" andhas been supported by CTU grant No.

N.

1.

2

j .

4.

5,

G.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

EVALUATIONCRITERIA

OZONE PRODUCTION

O/.ONE DOSE

APPLIED CONCENTRATION O,OZONE DECOMPOSITION Oi

CONTROL SYSTEM ANDAUTOMATION

DEVALUATION

Of'f-KATING AND MAINTENANCECOSTS

FEASIBILITY OF AVAILABLESYSTEM OPTION

GUARANTEE

REFERENCES

LOCATION CRlTERlA-PODOLl

O/.ONE GENERATION DESIGNCRITERIA

REALISATION OF INTENTION

SUMMARY

METHODS

COMPANY 1 IťOMPANV 220

802050

80

50

304020

70

80

40

60

40

680

80

05050

90

60

605090

SO

90

70

80

90

1000

ICT1ONAI.100

10090100

80

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50

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955

NOTICES

(Evaluated on the principles ofresults of TAD.I. *(Evaluated on the principles ofresults of TAB.I.Evaluated on the principles oflocal conditionsEvaluated on the principles oflocal conditionsEvaluated on the principles oflocal conditionsEvaluated on the principles oflocal conditions

Evaluated on the principles oflocal conditionsEvaluated on the principles ofuiven informationEvaluated on the principles ofpiven informationEvaluated on the principles oflocal conditionsEvaluated on the principles oflocal conditionsEvaluated on the principles oflocal conditions

Fig. 2: Summary of results of evaluation test

948


DIFFUSION OF TRACE ELEMENTSAND RADIONUCLIDES IN SOILS

A. Gosman, N. Bílá, O. Lebeda, L. Šustrová

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Nuclear ChemistryBřehová 7,115 19 Praha I

Key words: trace elements, radionuclides, diffusion, sorption, moisture, soils

Convection and diffusion are the two main basic mechanisms of migration of contami-nants, trace elements and radionuclides in the environment. Convection is much more rapidthan diffusion, but it is short. Diffusion is slow, but it acts continually. The environmentin which diffusion acts can be characterized as a non-homogeneous poly functional systemwith differing adsorption characteristics.

Most diffusion data in soils are obtained under laboratory conditions. Diffusion flowsare usuallly measured in dependence on parameters of moisture u>, sorption (defined bydistribution coefficients Aj), pH, behaviour, and composition of the soils. Soil samples arewetted by water or by solutions of known composition. The environment in which diffusionis studied can be, e.g., sand, forest soils, agriculture soils, and clays. Mi grating-diffusingsubstances are represented by contaminants,some trace elements, radionuclides, chemicalsubstances, etc. For measuring the diffusion of these substances we used special capillarymodification of the thin-layer method [1]. This modification consists in minimizing thediffusion cells to glass capillaries (length approx. 2cm and inner diameter of 0.3-0.4cm).Radionuclides (labelled trace elements, chemical substances) diffuse from an infinitely thin-very thin-layer into the medium in the capillary. After the chosen diffusion time ť, thin layersof thickness approx. 0.05 cm were pressed out by a special device. Diffusion parameters Dejwere calculated on the basis of equation where a — aoexp(—x2/ílZ?c/ť)/(7r/)c//)1^2, where aand a0 are specific activity at distance x, and initial specific activity in the thin layer at thedistance x = 0, respectively. The modification shortened the necessary diffusion time t toone or several days only (other methods need weeks - months). To evaluate the dependenceof Dej on the above conditions Prochorov's simple model [2] De/ = DQ(S/S0)/(\ + Kd/w)was used, where Do is diffusion coefficient of the labelled substance in an infinitely orreasonably diluted solution, 5 and So are cross sections of the liquid phiise in soil and of thediffusion cell. The soils used were from Lesní potok (Central Bohemia, locality of Jcvany).

The previous communication [3] provided some typical important results (8SSr,137Cs):the values of Kd and Dej increase with increasing moisture. Subsequent results (compari-son of the 6 5 Zn, 8 5Sr, l 3 7 Cs diffusion) confirmed these dependences and it was found thatDej(

X37Cs) - within w corresponding with w for 6 5Zn and 8 5Sr - values are substantiallysmaller than £e/(

65Zn) and £>e/(85Sr). The values of A'd(

l37Cs) are by one oder greaterthan /Cf(65Zn) and Kd(

8SSt). Comparing these results for Dej and I<d it follows that thecontribution of the flow of adsorbed 137Cs to the total diffusion flow of 137Cs is greater thanthe corresponding contribution of the flow of adsorbed 65Zn and 85Sr ions. The increaseof Kd and Dej values with increasing w can be explained in the above model by greatercontribution of 5/So compared with 1 + K^fw at increasing w (change of tortuosity insoil). Almost in all cases the experimental and calculated values of Dej are of the same

949


order and in many cases the numerical Dej values are quite close. The following impor-tant experiments included the determination of Dej dependence on inlet concentrations ofthe solutions used for wetting the soils. The Dej values increased with increasing NaCI,CaCl2 and SrCh concentrations. In these cases /?c;(

65Zn) and Z?e/(sr'Sr) are of the sameorder and compared with £)c/(

l37Cs) arc substantially greater. The increase in noticable upto concentrations of 0.1-0.2 mol/1. Further continued increasing of the salt concentrationexerts a small influence on Dej [Dej does not change or is very slowly decreasing). Theexplanation consists probably in that competitive ions of the electrolyte suppress sorption ofthe radionuclide in the soil and thus tlie greater part of the riulionuclide migrates in the soilsolution where diffusion coefficient is higher than in the solid phase. Considerable attentionwas paid also to the Dej dependences on pH of the soil. H was found that at constant mois-ture w (about 22.3-23.9 wt.%) the Of/(SrS5) values are decreasing from 2.572- 10~9cmV1

upto0.5S2'10~8cm2s~ l during increasing pH from 3.S up to 9.2, respectively. The decreaseof Dej during increasing the pH corresponds to literature data.

Conclusions and results;

a) the method of measuring the diffusion parameters in soils was verified;

b) Z?e/(G5Zn), Z?c/(

85Sr), Dc/(137Cs) values in the dependence on moisture, sorption find

inlet concentrations of the solutions used for wetting the soil samples were measured;

c) it was found that the /}e/(8ll"'Sr) values decrease with the increasing pH volucs;

d) experimental and calculated values of Dtj were compared - and a good correspondenceof the data was found;

e) from the verification of the method of studying the diffusion in soils there probablyfollows the possible use of the method for determining the diflusivity of radionuclidesin materials to be used as scaling and backfill in the near-field of proposed deeprepository of spent nuclear fuel.

References:

[1] GOSMAN, A. - BLA2ÍCEK, J.: Study of the Diffusion of Trace Elements and Ha-dionnclidcs in Soils. Capillary Modification of the Thin Layer Method, Diffusion of137Cs. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chcin., Articles, Vol. 182, No. 2(199-1), pp. 179-191.

[2] PROCHOROV, V. M.: Diffuziju ionov v adsorbirujuščej dispcrsnoj sredc. Kolloidnyjzumal, XXV, No. 1 (19G3), pp. G0-G5,

[3] GOSMAN, A. - PĚTKOVÁ, L. - SUSTROVÁ, L. - KOSATKOVÁ, N.: Diffusion andSorption of Trace Elements and Iladionttclides in Soils. W O R K S H O P 95 - Par t III,Czech Technical University, Prague 1995, pp. 735-7:iG.

This research Jius been conducted at the Department of Nuclear Chemistry as a partof the research project "Modelling of Contaminants and Iladionuclidcs Migration in Soils— Development of Mullicompancnt Models of Fundamental Processes and 2-D Models ofSorption-Dcsorption Dynamics" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 48215.

950


FIELD PERMEAMETER FORCHECKING OF CLAY LINERS

L. Lamboj, J . Záleský, I. Vaniček, I. Kudrnácová

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of GeotcchnicsThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: hydraulic conductivity, field permeametcr, mineral liner, landfill construction

Clay liners are generally accepted as main protection barriers for sanitary and industriallandfills. During the quality control the permeability is one of the most important factors.For an engineered barrier the coefficient of permeability should be less than of 1.10"9 m/s.Determination of the rca! hydraulic conductivity is rather difficult.

The large scale laboratory pcrmeameter [1] was used for testing the reliability of themodified sealed single ring perincametcr (MSSRP).

For our experiments we have used clay with low plasticity CL and with the followingcharacteristics:

pa = 2730 kg/m3 JP = 13.8%wL - 32.1% wopt = 15.5%wP = 1S.3 % ^ , m a P = 1816 kg/m3.

The results of permeability in a large scale penneamctcr are in the range of Jfc == 1.55 • 10"9-6 • 10" I 0rn/s. During 6 months no significant changes with time were ob-served.

Several types of pcrmeamctcrs for in situ checking of mineral liners are available. Insitu permeameters arc used to provide parallel tests to laboratory testing [2].

The modified sealed single ring permeametcr was choosen for comparative testing be-cause of its simple construction and easy site operation. Two similar permeameters (diam-eters of inner ring being 50 mm and 100 mm) were tested in the large scale permcamcter.

Layout of the MSSRP is on Fig. 1. The body, the inner and the protective outer ringare pushed in the liner (approx. 10 mm or more). Area between rings is filled with originliner soil enriched by bentonite, (+5 to 10% of dry bentonile, mixture being soft/stiff orbentonitc slurry).The mineral liner inside of the inner ring is covered by gravel or gcotextileand filled with water. Inner ring cap with fitted PE slandpipc is fixed with screws to theinner ring. The standpipe is filled with water.

The relationship between time and water level is checked in 2 hours intervals, approxi-mately. The test could be finished when the permeability is close to constant.

Results of four tests carried out with the MSSRP arc presented in Fig. 2. The differencesbetween Jb-values could be explained by local non-homogenities of the liner being compactedwith the use of a one-man operated Wacker compactor. Tests No. 2, 3 and 4 indicate anapproximately constant value of k and the possibility of short time testing. Test No. 1 istime dependent with a small decrease of permeability with time.

The results obtained by tests with a modified sealed single ring permcameter showedin average as a good agreement with the permeability obtained in laboratory stand, so thatthe usage of this field permeametcr can be accepted. Differences between individual resultsarc relatively high and probably due to local non-homogenities of compacted soil.

951


C*» to »trfttt

( f Uvil it l.

Fig. 1: Layout of the modified sealed single ring pcrmeameter

Raid permeameter tests, dla. 50/100mm

to isTim« [daytj

- • - N.i,dlaJOnvn -A- N3.dlaSOmm - « - N3,dIa.l00mm-»^N.41dla.1Mmni

Fig. 2: Results of tests carried out with the modified sealed single ring pcnncamctcr

References:

[1] VANÍCEK, I. - LAMBOJ, L. - ZÁLESKÝ, J.: Large scale penncamctcr for mineralliner testing. In: Proceedings CTU Seminar 94, Praha 1994, pp. 27-28.

[2] ZÁLESKÝ, J. - KUDRNÁCOVÁ, I. - SALÁK, J.: Permeability of mineral liners andits testing Workshop 93 - Environmental Engineering. Proceedings CTU Prague 1993,pp. 147-148.

This researe/i has been conducted at the Department of Gcotechnics as part of the re-search project "The Influence of the Initial Wet Contact and Mineral Liners under MunicipalSolid Waste Heaps" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 10018235.

952

WORKSHOP 9C PRESERVATION & CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

DEVELOPMENT OF EXHAUST ANDSEPARATING SYSTEM FOR EMISSIONS

FROM GLASS FURNACES

F. Drkal, J. Hemerka, R. Nový

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Environmental EngineeringTechnická 4, 166 07 Praha 6

Key words: environmental protection, exhaustion, separation of emissions, glass works

Glass furnaces are sources of dust emissions with a reasonable contain of lead. Recu-perative furnace tanks are heated with natural gas - flue gases in contact with the surfaceof the melted glass contain vapours of matters which form the glass batch, especially PbO.As a result of condensation of these vapours an aerosol is formed, which is the main part ofhygienically harmful emissions. The composition of emissions depends on the compositionof glass batch and used fuel.

According to the Czech Clean Air Act No. 309/91 for new and reconstructed glassfurnaces the emission limit for solid toxic particles is 10mg/m3. Such a low limit can beachieved only with the use of high efficient separators. An electrostatic separator is usedwith respect to the heavy operating conditions.

In the Czech Crystal Glassworks Chlum near Trebon there are operated three furnacesand flue gases were naturally exhausted without separation of emissions into two chimneys.The glass furnaces are continually operated and individual furnaces are cut out only becauseof general reconstruction each 2-3 years.

The main requirements and assumptions for solution of the exhaust and separatingsystem were:

• possibility of back change of the forced exhaust system into the natural exhaust systemto the chimneys in case of the crash of any part of the forced exhaust system,

• use of one source of exhaustion (a fan) and one separator only.

The following conditions for the technical solution result from the above mentionedrequirements:

• system has to be efficient for the wide range of operating conditions (flow rate of theflue gases),

• automatic control has to keep the exhaust system in conditions according to the tech-nological requirements,

• any change of the flue gas (low rate from any furnace must not influence the changeof the flow rate from other furnaces,

• the flue gas temperature in the inlet of the electrostatic prccipitator has to be in therange of 250 to330°C,

• the volume concentration of the carbon monoxide must not exceed 0.8%.

The conception of the originally designed exhaust and separating system was in theDepartment of Environmental Engineering submitted to the criticism and it was concludedthat this draft cannot ensure tin; reliable function of the exhaust and separating system when

953


the operating conditions in the individual furnaces change. The junction of the individualexhaust pipes into a small mixing part of the duct with a relatively high dynamic pressureand the control of the flue gases flow rate by means of the number of fan revolutions (whichare controlled by the static pressure in the mixing part) could not ensure that changes ofthe flow rate in the individual exhaust pipe (caused by the technological requirements -temperatures in the furnace, changes of flow rate during starting and cutting out the fur-naces,. .) will not influence the constant flow rate in the other exhaust pipes. This conclusionis in contradiction with the main requirement on the stability of thermal conditions in thefurnaces, which directly influences the quality o{ the melted glass.

As a result of our development work we proposed a new element of exhaust systems -mixing chamber with constant static pressure.

The principle of the mixing chamber with constant static pressure is based on minimi-sation of the dynamic pressure in the chamber to the values of several Pa. In our solutionthe mixing chamber with the cross section 1.8 x 2.<1 m and net height of 2.5 m was designed.For the flow rate of 25,000 m3/h (300 °C, OSkPa) the dynamic pressure is less then 1 Pa.

When the pressure Josses in one pipe are changed, the condition for the constant flowrate through the other pipes is to hold the constant total pressure in the mixing chamber.From the Bernoulli equation follows, that when the dynamic pressure and its changes arenegligible, the condition mentioned above can be simplified to hold the constant staticpressure in the mixing chamber.

The designed control system comes from the static underpressure measurement in thechamber and in our case this was about 800 Pa. The error of the simplification can beestimated by the ratio of the possible changes of the dynamic pressure (much less than1 Pa) and the static underpressure in the mixing chamber (about 800 Pa).

The control system is also equipped with the cooling system by the outdoor air, whichis led to the mixing chamber when the temperature in the outlet of the mixing chamberexceeds 330 °C. This cooling system was designed from the reason of the optimal functionof the electrostatic precipitator.

The designed control system is equipped with the monitoring of all important operatingand technological data.

The new exhaust and separating system has been operating since December 1994. Thestability of the designed system was fully verified under the changes of the outdoor climaticconditions as well as under the changes of the technological parameters.

According to the installed emission monitoring the concentration of the toxic solidparticles in the outlet of the electrostatic precipitator is permanently less then 10mg/m3

and the stringent required emission limit is fulfilled.

References:

[1] DRKAL, F. - IIEMERKA, J. - NOVY, It.: Exhaustion and cleaning of flue gases fromglass furnaces in the Czech Crystal Glassworks Chlum near Trebon (in Czech). SilicaNo. 6, pp. 243-245, 1991.

(2) DRKAL, F. - HEMERKA, J. - NOVY, It.: Putting into operation of the system of thecleaning of flue gases in the Czech Crystal Glassworks Chlum near Trchon (in Czech).Fina! report, Faculty of Mech. Eng. CTU in Prague, 1994.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Environmental Engineering asa project in the cooperation with industry No. IIS 203793.

954


BIOMONITORING AIR POLLUTIONUSING ANALYSIS OF TREE BARK

L. Musilek, T. Cechák, H. Wolterbeek*, T. Verbürg*

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. Äs Phys. Eng., Dept. of Dosimctry k Appl, of Ionizing Rad,Břehová 7, 115 19 Praha 1

"TU Delft, Intcrfaculty Reactor Institute, Dept. of RadiochemislryMckclweg 15, 2G29 JB Delft, The Netherlands

Key words: environmental pollution, bioaccumulaÜon, X-ray fluorescence, bark samples,area monitoring, activation analysis

This research project was started more than two years ago, with the aim of mappingthe area of the Czech Republic from the point of view of air pollution by various harmfulchemical elements [1-2]. The idea of carrying out this project was derived from similarmapping in the Netherlands at the cud of the 80's (see, e.g. [3]). However, at the start ofthe project there were sonic doubts as to whether the method applied in the Netherlandswould be well transferable into the conditions in the Czech Republic, with its much morecomplicated topology. The initial phase of the project was therefore devoted to verifica-tion and modification of the method. The conclusions from this part of the project aresummarized in this presentation.

The Dutch mapping was based on bioaccumulation of trace elements in epiphyticlichens. However, the presence of lichens in some parts of the Czech Republic is verylimited because of high pollution by SO2. Therefore, it was necessary to replace the lichensby some other proper biomonitor. Tree bark is it possible choice, though the sensitivity (i.e.,concentration of trace elements) is about one half of the sensitivity of lichens.

The correlation between the content of various elements in tree bark and in soil wasinvestigated to exclude the possibility of a contribution from element content in soil. Theresult was negative, no correlation ,vas found. This means that tree bark is a good repre-sentative of air pollution and can be applied as a biomoiiitor for this purpose.

The choice of tree species depends mainly 0/1 their presence in the country. To confirmthe necessity of using one species, samples were taken in one location from various treespecies (oak, pine and false acacias). Concentrations of some trace elements differed sub-stantially, for certain elements (Ca, Sc, Cr, Se, ?•%*, Sr, Ba, Hf and others) even by a factorof four. False acacias seemed to be the most sensitive for nearly all measured elements, andconcentrations of most elements were lowest in pine. However, the sensitivity of all treespecies is satisfactory for application. Finally oak was chosen as the widely occurring treein most parts of the Czech Republic Some other species in regions without oaks can be ap-plied only after recalibration, taking into consideration their different absorption capability(i.e., normalized to oak).

Westerly winds prevail in the monitored region. It is possible to expect that theremight be some shielding by hills and similar terrain formations, the influence of whichwould not affect the application of the method in the flat Dutch landscape. Samples werecollected under various conditions to evaluate or exclude this influence (various sides of an

955


isolated hill, a moderately hilly area, mountains). No results of measurement showed anysuch shielding effect, which confirmed the good applicability of the method even in Czechconditions.

A rather unpleasant fact for the application of such a biomonitoring method lies in therelatively high local differences in concentrations (i.e., concentrations in samples taken fromvarious trees growing in the area serving as a single point of the monitoring network). Themean quadratic deviation is of the order of tens of percentage points. For representativeresults it is therefore necessary to take the mean value from several samples as a single pointin the final mapping.

As the results of these preliminary surveys confirmed the good applicability of tree barkas a biomonitor of relative concentrations of various elements in air in the conditions of theCzech Republic, this year we started to collect samples of oak bark from the whole areaof the country in order to make maps of relative pollution. The standard Mid-Europeancoordinate grid MTB with a field of 10x6 geographic minutes (about 132 km2) was chosen asa basis. Analyses are carried out by instrumental neutron activation analysis at the researchreactor of the Delft University of Technology and by radionuclide X-ray fluorescence analysisat FNSFÜ CTU Prague. At least 6 samples are collected from each field serving as a singlepoint of the resulting data system, the mean value being accepted as representative for thepollution in this field.

References:

[1] MUSlLEK, L. - CECHÁK, T. - WOLTERBEEK, H. T. - KUIK, P.: Preliminary studyof environmental contamination using radioanahjtical methods. In Proc. of the CTUPrague Seminar 94, Seminar 94 - Environmental Engineering, p. 33-3-1.

[2] MUSÍLEK, L. - CECHÁK, T. - WOLTERBEEK, H. T. - KUIK, P.: Application ofradioanatytical methods for environmental monitoring. In Proc. of the CTU Pragueand TU Brno Workshop 95, Workshop 95 - Environment & Its Creation, p. 719-20.

[3] SLOOF, J.: Environmental lichenology: Biomonitoring trace element air-pollution.PhD Thesis, IRI TU Delft, September 1993.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Dosimetry and Application ofIonizing Radiation as a part of the research project "Application of ionizing radiation formeasurement of environmental contamination" and has been supported by GA Cfí grantNo. 202/94/0868

956


MONITORING OF LOW AGGRESSIVEATMOSPHERES

I. Kudláček

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of ElectrotechnologyTechnická 2, 166 27 Praha 6

Key words: aggressive atmosphere, corrosive product, degradation process

In spite of running short at gradual disparaise pollution of extraneous atmospheregas exhalation, degradation of technical equipment don't lower automatically. This factcan be observed at electronic apparatuses especially. Corrosive aggressiveness of intrinsicatmosphere is not important as aspect of engineering appointments or build marbles butcan be considerably danger for generation, traffic, and storing of electronic apparatuses.Insignificant quantity of corrosive product outwards electronic parts can embarrass theiravailability, or completely displace them from their capacity.

This is the reason why recently the problem of corrosion electronics into low aggressiveenvironment, especially in connection with mass amplification of computing technique andapply regulation and control electronics under in all operating environment has got in frontof interest. Concerning things joint along with cognition of degradation processes especially,definition of relation laboratory courses, or testing the level of corrosive aggressiveness at-mospheres.

Problematic of testing corrosive aggressiveness atmosphere is getting to be more andmore important. Classification system [1] is becoming actual worldwide. Corrosive aggres-siveness of atmosphere according to that process is being evaluated based on increase ofcorrosive layer on tag chosen during exposure in existing atmosphere. The size of labora-tory tag is 10 x 50 mm. They are created of Ag, alternatively Cu. They are exposed inthe testing atmosphere for the minimum 28 days. Corrosive increase is assigned by cathodereduction. Disadvantage of this exact procedure is complicated plotter course, and basedon our experiences, a big scatter of attained test data as well.

Practically apparatuses and appointments for direct measuring of corrosive aggressive-ness about low levels are going to by applied. Direct measuring is on of modalities atconversion of concrete number data about corrosive aggressiveness atmosphere. If this pro-cess should by practically applied some cardinal requirments must be kept. Apparatuses fordirect measuring of corrosive aggressiveness atmosphere should match following requirments:

- to measure extremely lows standard of aggressive matter- to offer indication, what would be relevant at value accounting into ANSI/ISA.

On domestic market apparatuses suitable of these requirments are not acccssibled.As far as they are offered, they do not match one of above mentioned. On worldwide itis possible to acquire broad ranges of apparatuses, allowing comparatively and certainlydeclarete concentration of corrosive aggressive matters into atmosphere with assistance ofelectrochemical conversions. For example the apparatus ONGUARD SENSOR (producerPURAFIL, U.S.A.) can be mentioned. The apparatus is intended for monitoring of corrosive

957


aggressiveness atmosphere. It is able to aptitude detection of surge corrosive layer below10~9 m. Test data can be either in form of cumulative corrosive incremental, or corrosiveincre mental depending on time. In scale apparatus ISA level Gl, G2, G3 and GX can beset up. Overrun of 70% setting level is automatically signalised.

Price availability practically restricts greater amplification of these apparatuses. Theapparatus for monitoring low aggressive atmosphere based on our research effect indicativegrain (developed and from off-certificated into frame insidc-him grant CVUT) seems to bean applicable solution how to furniture industry by simple but enough sensitive equipment.

The base of this indicator is a fashion circuit stepped in company in full encapsulatedpiezoelectric resonator. Piezoelectric resonator is composed with crystal cut at conformationextremely short cylinder together with steamed silver electrodes. Whole configuration isdeposited in capsule, which isn't completely closed. Corrosive aggressive atmosphere, whichpenetrates below envelope, courses enhancement of mass silver electrodes. It leads to cut-down of resonance frequency of resonator. This fact has been obscrvcted in simulationexamples into low aggressive atmosphere and sufficiently corresponded with data obtainedby methodology of cathode reduction.

References:

[1] Environmental conditions for process measurment and control systems: aihorne con-taminant. ANSI/ISA-S 71.0*1-19S5.

[2] Laboratory programs for the electric and electronic elements. MIlrSTD-202.[3] KUDLÁČEK, I. ct. ah: Experimental attestation influence of corrosive atmosphere in

electronic systems. VZ ENVIRO 2/93.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Elect rot cchnotogy as part of theresearch project "Electronic Equipments in Lowe Aggressives Atmospheres" and has beensupported by CTU grant No. 1003S270.

958

WORKSHOP 9G PRESERVATION k. CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

HEAVY ELEMENTS INTHE INDOOR RESPIRABLE AEROSOL

J. Král, Z. Nejedlý, J. Voltr

CTU, Fac. of Nud. Sei. k Phys. Eng., Dept. of Physical ElectronicsV Holešovičkách 2, ISO 00 Praha S

Key words: air pollution, heavy elements, respirablc aerosol, elemental analysis, PIXE,indoor air quality, air conditioned environment, ion beam analysis

Most people spend a lot of time in an indoor environment, cither at home or at a work-place. The environment is directly influenced by human activity. Manufacturing processesmay be particularly strong sources of pollution of the indoor atmosphere. Even any move-ment whirls fine dust particles, which remain in the air of the limited indoor space for along time. Fine airborne dust particles may be harmful for humans if inhaled; especially,if they contain some poisonous heavy elements. The rooms of the Campus of mathematicsand physics at Troja, Prague S are air conditioned. The main objective of this project is toinvestigate the effects of this air conditioning system on the indoor air-quality. An aerosolmonitoring study lias been carried out on campus with the following goals:

1) to determine, which heavy elements and what concentrations arc present in the res-pirablc aerosol,

2) to find out their changes in time, and

3) to follow a correlation of the indoor and outdoor aerosol composition.

A respirablc aerosol sampler has been developed [1], The sampled particles are size-segregated by an jmpaction stage: particles greater than a preselected value are removedfrom the air flow and the fine participates are collected on the polycarbonate Nuclcporemembrane filter. In most cases, the sampler with about 5 ftm aerodynamic diameter cut offhas been used. The collected sample then contains the essential part of the respirable aerosolaccording to the respirable convention of the European Standard EN 4SI on the filter. Insome studies, the samples arc collected also with a 2/zm cut off. Two similar samplershave been constructed to enable us to perform simultaneous comparative measurements,e.g., monitoring of indoor and outdoor environments.

Elemental analysis of the aerosol samples is performed by the Proton Induced X-rayEmission (PIXE). In the used setup, the PIXE measures elements between aluminum andlead. The PIXE facility is calibrated by a set of MicroMatter thin film single- and double-element standards. The X-ray spectra are evaluated by the GUPIX software package [2].Given the precision of the standards and the uncertainties of PIXE databases, the overallprecision may be estimated by about 10%.

An extensive quality assurance protocol has been adopted. As a reproducibility checkon the PIXE data, selected aerosol samples measured at the beginning of the batch are thenre-analyzed at the end. To assess the overall comparability of the aerosol data from the

959


two samplers (including deviations in particle size separation, errors in flow rate measure-ment, and the analysis itself), several pairs of samples have been collected in parallel undersupposedly identical conditions. Data from the two samplers agreed within 5%.

A series of pairs of aerosol samples has been collected with different particle size cutoffs; one of the two samplers collected participate matter with aerodynamic diameter lessthan 2 urn (PM 2) and the other collected PM 5.2 in parallel. Experimental conditionswere essentially the same; the sampler inlets have been about 20cm apart. The resultscorresponded with our expectations: the anthropogenic elements like Pb, S, and Zn weremostly in the fine mode and the soil elements including Ti, Cn, Fc, and Si were in botiithe fine and the coarse mode. The most abundant elements measured by P1XE were Si,S, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fc, and Zn, with sulphur dominating the spectra. Other elements, e.g.,Ni, Cu, Br, Pb, Ti, and V were commonly observed in lower concentrations. The signal ofbromine originated mainly from the material of tiie Nuclcpore filter, as it followed from themeasurements of blank filters.

To observe the impact of the air conditioning system on the indoor rcspirable aerosol,series of pairs of aerosol samples have been coUccted simultaneously. One sample of eachpair was collected outdoors at the inlet of the air conditioning system and the other wascollected indoors in a laboratory.

Aerosol monitoring in the air conditioned offices, laboratories, and classrooms continuesalong with their analysis. The measured clement concentrations will give us a better pictureof the indoor iiir pollution.

References:

[l] KRÁL, J. - VOLTR, J.: Setup for monitoring of a respirablc aerosol. In Workshop '95,Part III, CTU Prague 1995, p. 717

[2] MAXWELL, J. M. - TEESDALE, W. J. - CAMPBELL, .J. L: The Guelph PIKEsoftware package II. In Nucl. Instr. and Metli. B 95 (1995) 107-421

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physical Electronics, Faculty ofNuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering as part of the research project "Heavy elementsin a respirable aerosol in air conditioned rooms of the campus MFU in Troja" and has beensupported by CTU grant No. 8209.

9C0

WORKSHOP 9C PRESERVATION fc CREATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

NUMERICAL MODELING OFFLOW FIELD AND

POLLUTANS DISTRIBUTION ATVEHICLE TUNNEL PORTALS

M. Jícha, J . Katolický

TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Department of ThermodynamicsTechnická 2,616 69 Brno

Key words: environment, numerical modeling, vehicle tunnel, pollution dispersion

The project focuses the modeling of flow field and temperature field and distributionof pollutants inside a vehicle tunnel and at both portals as well.

Three model tunnels have been chosen of different lengths, namely 50, 100 and 200 m,respectively. The tunnel is inclined by 5° from horizontal. The height of the tunnel is 5 m.The heavy trucks are modeled inside the tunnel with a specific distance from each to other.Every vehicle is modeled as a block-off region with appropriate injection ports - sources ofmass, momentum, energy and concentration of pollutants at the outlet from the exhaustpipe.

Typical winter conditions arc modeled with the temperature on both portals of —3°C,the interior surface of the tunnel has the temperature of +8.5 °C. Exhaust gases arc specifiedwith the velocity of 70 m/s and temperature of 350°C. The solution domain is extended onboth ends of the tunnel by an open area of the length of 25 m to allow for the setting of thepressure boundary conditions on free boundaries.

The flow field is described by a set of conservation equations for mass, momentum,energy a species for 2D incompressible turbulent flow. Boussinesq approximation is intro-duced to model the buoyancy force in the momentum equations. Turbulence is modeledusing the standard k-£ model with wall functions. The equations are discrctized by thecontrol volume method and then solved using the SIMPLER algorithm enhanced with theblock correction. A large grid dependence test was performed to set an optimal standardgrid size.

Due to a various intensity of heating of the air inside the tunnel by natural convection,also Nusselt numbers are calculated on both - upper and lower walls of the tunnel, showinga very interesting distribution.

From the velocity field at both portals the flow rate is calculated which is shown inTab. 1.

The results of the velocity field show that inside the shorter tunnels of 50 m and 100 m,respectively, the cold air flows from the upper portal towards the lower portal, whereas inthe longer tunnel of 200 m the flow direction reverses and due to the higher heat input intothe air the buoyancy force dominates and the air flows in the opposite direction. Also verysignificant differences can be observed inside the tunnels without and with local injectionports. Some of results arc presented in Fig. 1 and 2.

961


The results of the calculations provide a very useful information on the velocity, tem-perature and concentration distribution at the tunnel portals. These information then canserve for the modeling of pollutants dispersion into the surrounding areas.

channel number of flow rate averagelength inj.ports Im3/s] Nu[m ] and obst. inlet outJcl doivmvard upward

facing walls

5050100100200200200

0204088

(reversed injection)

2.752.513.272.840.780.Ö71.62

2.762.573.292.98U.800.911.87

6427656178557878475764226919

67897147810495926190679413003

Tab. 1: Flow rate and average Nusselt number.

50m2 ooooo 50m S23 A***ů100mA *'»«*100m S4

200m6 *****200m S87 »*«««(200m S8

(rsvarcadIn JacLton)

1.1 0.6 0.U-vclocity [m/s

Fig. 1: Tunnel inlet velocity profiles

0.2 0.6 1.0U-vclocity tta/s]

Fig. 2: Tunnel outlet velocity profiles

This research has been conducted at the Department of Thermodynamics as part ofthe research project uCity Road Tunnel and Impact on Airn and has been supported by theCOST project CITAIR, Action 615 and as the research project "Dispersion of Polutantsfrom Vehicle Tunnel" supported by TU grant No. FP359J30

962


CHARACTERISTIC RAINFALLSBY MEANS OF GENETIC ALGORITHMS

J . Micin, P . Osmerá*, P. P r a x , I. Simonik*

TU of Brno, Fac. of Civil Eng., Institute of Municipal Water ManagementŽižkova 17, 662 37 Brno

*TU of Brno, Fac. of Mech. Eng., Inst, of Automation and Information TechnologyTechnická 2, 610 69 Brno

Key words: rainfall data for urban drainage design, continuous historical series of raindat, genetic algorithm (GA), optimization of the rain phenomena by GA, realtime control

The paper presented deals with a methology for optimization of the design rainfalls forthe needs of urban drainage, by means of Genetic Algorithms (GA). This new approach isbased on processing tens of actual events from a historical series of rain data in the form ofa catalogue which will consist of several categories of characteristic rains. By characteristicrain we understand the rain of timedependent varying intensity that aproximates a truepicture of the rainfall events in the area under investigation. The contribution that followsdeals with research on synthesis of design rainfalls by means of a genetic algorithm.

The knowledge of the distribution of the design rainfall intensity, i, expressed as a func-tion i = /(ť,£, j/) is continuously being improved. At this time, a chronologically arrangedseries of historical storms is still considered as the most reliable rainfall inputs. Such inputsare then used in continuous simulation with a PC by means of rain fall /run off models, whichwere beforehand calibrated and verified. Simulation results are then subject to a statisticalanalysis and evaluated against the existing regulations. However, this approach is rathertedious and expensive, particularly when considering the size of most urban areas in CR.For planned (i.e. not yet built) sewer systems, no model verification is possible and thisadversely affects the reliability of simulation.

For these reasons, our proposed grant research focuses on a generally valid methodologyfor the development of design rainfall data, by analyzing historical rainfalls by means ofGA. The underlying principle consists in classifying the actual rainfall events into severalcategories, which are defined according to the event duration and total rainfall depth. Forindividual categories, the design rainfall is generated by means of a GA program describedbellow. This procedure will result in a catalogue of rainfall events for the studied region,in which each selected group will be represented by one characteristic rainfall. The limitsof the selected categories were established by a statistical analysis of rainfall data using aprogram SELECT in C++ developed for easier classification. Currently, statistical analysisof parameters of the generated characteristic rainfalls is under way and will be used as afeedback to verify the criterion functions in the program KMD VIEW.

Program KMD VIEW serves for viewing the rainfall data files and also as a problemsolver for finding the so called characteristic rainfall. From the application point of view,the characteristic rainfall is possess a general shape with four corners (nodes), constructedfrom a set of actual rainfalls. Individual nodes in the plane have arbitrary positions except

963


for two constraints; the first node must be on the y-axis (i.e. x = time. = zero) and the lastnode must be on the x-axis (y = rainfallintensity = 0). The positions of the remainingtwo nodes are completely arbitrary and, consequently, the characteristic rainfall graph canhave a shape of a rectangle, trapezoid, or triangle (if the two unrestricted points coincide).Because the first point may have y > 0, the resulting characteristic rainfall could be even apentagon with at least one right angle. It follows from (lie above that we are dealing withan optimization problem with six parameters. The goal of the optimization algorithm is toselect those six parameters in such a way that the resulting rainfall will best represent theset of actual rainfalls in a given category. For this purpose, the program includes a neededcriterion function, which weighs the following parameters:

1. The location of the centroid of the characteristic rainfall with reference to locations ofall centroid of the samples in the category, 2. The total rainfall depth of the characteristicrainfall, 3. The total duration of the characteristic rainfall vs. the average duration ofrainfalls in the category, 4. The maximum intensity of the characteristic rainfall vs. themaximum intensities of individual rainfalls in the category.

Absolute values of the individual differences arc summed and assigned weighing co-efficients according to the importance of such parameters for sewer network. This givenfunction makes it possible for the GA to distinguish, which proposed solution is better andwhich is worse. In this case, higher values of the function mean worse results. As statedabove, a subject oriented library was used for optimization by genetic algorithms. Theparameters of the genetic algorithm can be easily varied directly in the dialogue boxes ofthe program. It is possible to vary the sizes of population and elite, number of points ofcrossover and the probability of mutation. For the whole process, a LOG record is keptwith numerically evaluations of individual optimization steps processed by the algorithm.Simultaneously, the design rainfall is plotted on the screen and the individual samples inthe category are displayed for visual control of the characteristic rainfall.

Among those should be "Characteristic rainfalls", which in spite of their very limitednumber will realistically reflect the hydrology of the studied region. In our work, we areusing a dynamically evolving scientific disciplines of NS and GA. The results obtained sofar in our optimization analysis with GA of rainfall input data, to be used in sewerage, arcgood and indicate further possibilities for their application in this field. Such applicationswould include the use of GA for short-time forecasting of the routing of the runoff wave inthe sewer network.

References:

[1] MICÍN, J. - PRAX, P. - OSMERÁ, P. - MARŠÁLEK, J.: Strategy of the Control ofLarge Sewer Systems, Odpadní vody 95, International Conference Brno 1995, p. 65-72

[2] OSMERÁ, P. - PRAX, P. - MICÍN, J. - SlMONÍK, I.: The Characteristic RainfallDesign for Assessing Urban Drainage Network by Means of Genetic Algorithms, Inter-national Conference MENDEL-95, Brno 95, p. 117-121

[3] SlMONÍK, I. - OSMERÁ, P.: Genetic Algorithms for Multilevel Structures, Interna-tional conference MENDEL-95, Brno 95, p. M9-154

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Municipal Water Management aspart of the research project "Cataloguing Characteristic Rainfalls" and has been supportedby TU Brno grant No. FU250029.

964


ANTIVIBRATION EFFECTOF THE POLYMER AND THE RUBBER

WASTE MATERIALSA. Ryndová, M. Doložílek, M. Vaňková,

P. Bris*, S. VaSut**

TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Physical EngineeringTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

"TU, Fac. of Technology Eng., Dopt, of Leather Technology**TU, Fac. of Technology Eng., Depl. of Physics and Material Engineering

nám. T. G. Masaryka 275, 7G2 67 Zlín

Key words: damping materials, loss factor, polymer and rubber waste

According to statistic data, noisiness in the environment lias been increasing approxi-mately 1 dB a year. The reasons are very different: from traffic expansion to the introductionof highly powerful machines and devices, which are also noiser as a rule. The tendency (toapply) light-weight machines and buildings often cause the increase of mechanical vibrationsand sound radiation. The construction improvements and application of the damping lay-ers are the most important means of noise reduction. The application of the antivibrationlayers is common in the mechanical engineering and automobile industry. The perspectivesof the practical applications of damping materials are also in the building industry, for thesound insulation shields and air distribution systems. Commonly used damping materialsare mostly expensive. Using the recycled polymer and rubber waste for the manufactur-ing of the antivibration elements and damping layers seems to be a very perspective andprogressive way of the economical and ecological liquidation of the unburncd polymer waste.

The damping layers provide greater sound insulation as a result of increasing the surfacemass and decreasing the radiated factor. The quality indicators of the damping layers arcthe physical parameters, which evaluate the efficiency of transformation of the mechanicalenergy into heat, i.e. the loss factor TJ and the complex modulus of elasticity E. A typicalconfiguration for practical noisecontrot application usually consists of a basic plate of metalto which one or more layers of a viscoelastic damping material are attached. The lossfactor of the whole system depends on the physical properties of the single components. Forbending waves we obey: .-, . ?

Eihia' .V = V2~^-~ , (1)

where °7] is the loss factor of the whole system (a basic plate with one layer of the damping

material)i)2 is the loss factor of the attached layer

Ei is the real part of the modulus of elasticity of the attached layerAj is the thickness of the attached layera is the distance from the neutral fiber of the basic plate to the center line of the attached

layerD is the bending stiffness of the whole system

965


Damping properties of the damping layer are given by the magnitude of the productThis parameter has been studied for 10 different materials, which were made from

rubber and polymer waste in rubber and footwear industry. The loss factor and bendingstiffness of the beam samples made up from the basic metal plate and layer of recycled wastematerials have been measured by a resonance method.

No.

S1AS2AS4A

S5AS6A

S7ASSB

S9C

S10A

Composition of the layer

Recycling rubber footwear wasteRecycling rubber footwear and tire wasteRecycling ethylenvinylacetatecopolymer EVAC - 2DARecycling buladienstyrene compositionRecycling ethylcnvinylacetate copolymer REICH - EVAcRecycling polyethylen, POROTENRecycling ethylenvinylacetatecopolymer with cork granule, KORKFANTRecycling rubber crushed mater.bonding with liquid rubber, AB15Recycling rubber crushed mater.bonding with liquid rubber, AB55

lh(mm)

4.24.64.9

4.94.9

5.04.S

5.S

8.2

VH

0.010.020.01

0.010.01

0.010.01

0.01

0.01

B(Nm)47.452.336.7

41.933.9

35.541.3

42.1

42.3

T/2Í2(AlPa)

17.21S.34.0G

8.725.59

4.4S7.11

3.63

2.13

Tab. 1: Antivibratiou of the recycle polymer and rubber waste

SlA,... ,S10A — steel sheet with attached layer; the following indicate is the same as in theequation (1).

Conclusion. Results of the loss factor and bending stiffness measurements make pos-sible to classify the damping effect of the tested materials. Layers from rubber and polymerwaste have good antivibration parameters, however they do not achieve the values of thecommonly used viscoclastic layers as Gumoasphalt, Tlumcx and Antivibral. The product772/22 is relatively the greatest for samples 1A and 2A. For tiie other layers it would be likelypossible to reach the better damping properties by means of suitable ingredients would thatincrease the modulus of elasticity.

References:

[1] RYNDOVÁ, A. ct a].: Studium akustických vlastností materiálů z polymerního odpadu.Výzkumná zpráva řeSeíií grantového projektu Fondu dynamického rozvoje VŠ c. 0952 T.o.2, 1994.

[2] VASUT, S. ot al.: Polymcnj a kompozity s polymcná matricí pro snižování hluku a vi-brací. Výzkumná zpráva grantového projektu GR 0292, VUT Zlín 1992

[3] CREMER, L.: Structure - Horn Sound. 2. vydání, Heidelberg 19SS

This research has been conducted at the Department of Physical Engineering, jacnltyof Mechanical Engineering TU of Brno and has been supported by TU grant No. 350045.

966


ENERGY EVALUATIONMETHODOLOGY OF EDUCATIONAL

FACILITIES

J . Cihlář, G. Gebauer

VUT, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of TEBÚdolní 53, 602 00 Brno

•VUT, Fac. of Civil Eng., DepL of TEBÚdolní 53, 602 00 Brno

Key words: heat, internal climate, savings

Introduct ion. Economicaly advanced countries concentrate on efficient utilizationof energy (EUE) in their development with the aim following economic trend which fixesthe attention on permanent maintaining growth of economy. This trend is only realisticon condition of minimal utilization of available natural resources. The problems of EUEbecome dominant phenomenon, which forms the trends of research, designing and follow-upimplementation in energy difficult areas of the national economy.

The research task, which concentrates on problems of energy savings in forming internalclimate with the systems of technical equipments, which consist of heating systems andpreparation of warm water in educational facilities, follows above-mentioned directions.

To achieve mentioned intentions of research task, the complex approach which goes outfrom analysis of connected problems, which is possible to characterize as dynamic processthat is formed with technical, hygienical and sociological factors of primary and secondarysphere of energy economy, is required.

The primary sphere consists of production of the heat and its transport to the place ofconsumption. Energy savings demand new approaches to construction of energy sources andincrease their heat efficiency, to intensification of transfer and solution connected ecologyproblems.

The secondary sphere of energy economy of buildings consists of its own forming of inter-nal climate of educational facilities that has got their specific operation. The concentrationof people in mentioned buildings especially demands to guarantee heating and odor partof climate not only through heat supply but also through difficult air exchange in heatingperiod. Heat technical properties of building structures and its physical condition form animportant role. In this sphere, reduction of energy demands require coordinated approachto insulation of buildings, to its heating and operation. Minimizing of energy consump-tion especially requires insulation of buiding, balancing of heating system and automaticcontrolled air exchange.

The Metods of Solutions. Account the present level of technical solutions foundon results of scientific research the theoretical and experimental methods are for this taskessential. Their result will be the diagnosis of heat behavior of buildings and quantifying itsenergy demands. Analysis of these methods will enable synthesis of informations headingfor filling define aims.

967


a) Theoretical methods of solution the problems of the task pursue working out technicaleconomical directions including statistical evaluation and comparison of fundamentalparameters of the systems to determine actual and averige energy demands of requiredlevel of internal climate.

b) Experimental methods has been found on following fundamental quantities of inter-nal climate (temperature, air speed and humidity of the air in buildings) with usingmeasuring technics of department of Technical Equipment of Buildings. Obtainedquantities dealt with automate system enable not only verification of theoretical so-lution but also making up rules for future experimental evaluation of internal climatein educational facilities.

c) Diagnosis will concentrate on following and research of technical equipment with thehighest proportion energy operational demands which consist of heating, ventilationand lightening of the rooms. Simultaneously it will be nccesary to register functionalcondition of heating system which can be evaluated with the extend of balancing ofheating system of its operation.

Conclusion. Up to now results of the work manifested accuracy of chooscn methodsand approach to the solution of the task. In collection with the solution of the task it isposible to state:

a) The solution of the task has been continuously using on chooscn educational fasilitics.The criterion of energy demands for forming internal climate was used for their choice.It is possible to verify reference technical data of the systems and their real heat outputfor chooscn energy difficult buildings. Up to now results of solution show essentialoverdesign of heating systems in some of the chooscn buildings.

b) There is used measuring central "THERM" and analyzer of internal climate "Brucl"for experimental solution. Both of these equipments facilitate following and noting ofchoosen quantities into internal memory. Up to now made measuring manifest con-siderable dynamics of the forming internal climate process and completely insufficientregime of operation and control of the heating systems.

c) Statistic evaluation with methodology of Norway ENSI company will be used forverification and correction of the results. This methodology has been found on energyevaluation of buildings through "key numbers" which arc formed by data of anual heatconsumption for square metre. This methodology also shows essential overdesign ofheating areas in some buildings or their insufficient insulation (heat protection).

d) Generály it is possible to state that the aims of research task of Technical UniversityNo. FU 250033 is becing continuously filled. Up to now discovery indicate that thefinal results of theoretic and experimental solution will be possible to use for designs oftechnical solution concentrated on rationalization of heat consumption and operationof educational facilities.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Technical Equipment of Build-ings as part of the research project "Energy Evaluation Methodology of Educational Facili-ties" and has been supported by grant No. FU 250033.

968

Section 17

ARCHITECTURE,

TOWN PLANNING

AND VISUAL ARTS

NEXT PAGE(S)left

WORKSHOP 96 ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING fe VISUAL ARTS

METHODS OF HUMANISATIONOF ARCHITECTONIC AND URBAN

ENVIRONMENTK. Schmeidler, R. Kohoutek*, J . Štěpaník*,

I. Šenkýř*, J. Kunovský*

VUT, Fac. of Architecture, Dept. of Urban Design PlanningPoříčí 5, 639 00 Brno

*VUT, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Social SciencesŽižkova ul., Brno

Key words: architectural sociology, architectural determinism, density, mapping, personalspace, proximity, projcctive techniques, territorially, time budget analysis,privacy, topographical sociometry, urban design

The aim of the F-78/93 research project was to develop scientific procedures in pre-project and project preparation in the domain of architecture, town planning and the envi-ronment. They should help to raise qualitatively architectonic and urbanistic activities inthe new social and economic conditions. A multidisciplinal research team of the faculty ofarchitecture and the faculty of civil engineering of the Technical University in Brno surveyedthe possibilities of communicating information acquired by the humanities, with respect toman and his environment, and creative applications of the research methods of psychologyand sociology in the environment with the emphasis laid on data collection and evaluation.Practical applications of the acquired knowledge is in the field of preliminary project andproject preparation of construction^ and in the area of reconstruction of the existing envi-ronment (humanization of housing estates, renovation of villages, reconstruction of centralcity parts and degraded areas).

The first part of the study has an analytical character. It aimed at demonstrating theimpact of architectonic and urbanistic environment factors on the state of mind of man, hisfeelings, behaviour and conduct. At the same time it documents the way this impact hasbeen reflected in the development of architectonic and sociological thinking.

The second part aimed at finding out in detail the way architecture and urbanisminfluence the way of life of people, their thinking, their behaviour in particular situationsas well as relations between people, and also group dynamics. A number of situations havebeen analyzed, and practical results were arrived at concerning changes in the environment.These changes should have a progressive character and contribute to the evolution of man,not a regressive one, resulting in personality degression. The influence of the environmentalso should not result in serious health risks for people. A considerable part of the studydeals with spatial coexistence of organisms and mankind, the influence of the environmenton the behaviour, and the so-called architectonic determinism. Attention is paid to studiesof proximity from which the typology of distances and behaviour is derived. The influenceof the density of population in a particular area (a flat, housing estate or city, etc.) on socialbehaviour as well as stress load is studied. Spatial layout as a result of social conditions isdealt with in a chapter on strucluralization in space, territory, spatial personification, and

971

WORKSHOP 96 ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING fc VISUAL ARTS

neighbourhood. Other social aspects of architecture, such as its emotional impact on man,influence on groups and their structure, are dealt with in another chapter in connectionwith psychosomatic diseases and social pathology. Finally the influence of the artificialenvironment is evaluated in particular example's. This part arrives at the conclusion thatthrough purposefully built architectonic and urban environment it is possible to influencethe social environment in a desirable way.

The third part deals with methodology of research in architecture and town planning.Besides classical methods of psychology and sociology, brand new methods suitable forresearch in the environment are developed. A broad scale of methods and technologieshas been suggested, out of which some have been substantially modified for this specialfield. A new set of methods has been developed including environment evaluation andbehaviour within it, which the architects and planners may use in acquiring social anddemographic data. This is done by cooperation with the users, e.g. finding out their ideasby researching them such as evaluating the function of an architectonic creation. Among thebasic procedures there are: using questionnaires, interviews including new methods usingstimulation of a respondent by photographs or pieces of graphic art. These methods arccritically evaluated as are the possibilities of endangering their validity.

Another effective procedure is a direct observation newly complemented with the use ofmodern technology. Naturally, it is possible to use techniques which are less known amongthe architects, such as surveying, projective technology, analysis of documents (records onfile, material traces), analyses of time schedules, analyses of activity formulas, sociomc-try (topological sociogram), or experiments. Even these methods, often odd at first sight,but effective, are critically viewed and evaluated. The whole study is complemented withnumerous graphic and instructive materials. The conclusion of this part focuses on rec-ommendations of such architectonic and urbanistic procedures which seem optimum fromthe point of view of psychic and social needs of man. A combination of methods is recom-mended which will ensure maximum effectiveness and precision of the research. The resultsof the research had contributed to the integration of procedures in the field of urbanism,planning and architectonic activities with the humanities. The results can be used instantly,as we aimed at arriving at solutions applicable in practice. The above procedures have beenexperimentally tested in research of the environmental influences of university solutions, -lecturing halls and the semminary rooms on the studies of students. Another field of experi-mental testing of the efficiency and improvement of the methodology has been a sociologicalprobe of people's standpoints concerning the city of Kroměříž, and finding out their opin-ions and needs which can be met by planning. This research provided valuable data to theDepartment of Planning and Construction of the Municipal Authorities in Kroměříž.

Another result of the research contributes to formulating the subject of psychology andsociology for architects and planners so that the human environment could be humanizedby exploiting their usage. The results of the research confirm the recommendations for thesubject matter of psychology and sociology teaching for architects, civil engineers, industrialdesigners and VUT (Technical University) postgraduates. Partial results of the research havebeen published in specialized magazines (Stavitel Praha, Prostor - Výtvarné umení Zlín,S'94 Státní správa a samospráva Praha, Planeta Praha, etc.)

This research has been conducted at the Department of Urban Design, Faculty of Ar-chitecture, Technical University Brno as part of the research project "Humanisation of Ar-chitectural and Urban Environment" and has been supported by VUT grant No. F-78/93

972

WORKSHOP 96 ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING fe VISUAL ARTS

THE PARTICIPATION OF POPULATIONIN THE PROCESS OF

TOWN PLANNING

A. Mansfeldová

CTU, Faculty of Civil Engineering in Prague,Thákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: participation of population, urban planing

In post-war times planning of town development became a technical administrative dis-cipline which was carried out without the participation of citizens. The participation of thepublic within the process of preparation of development plans, projects, as well as imple-mentation of new development and re-development projects started to be pushed throughin the 1960s when the post-war lack of housing got saturated in the advanced countries andgroups of citizens came up with criticism of the development of housing complexes demand-ing a return to traditional housing in the city. Such democratization tendencies turned intopolitical programme and since the 1970s a guarantee of public participation in the decision-making processes concerning important urban changes has became a part of legal measures.A citizen has not only become an opponent, but also a participant of important decisionsand interventions into territorial changes - with positive results in a number of cases: re-construction and modernization of housing instead of demolitions; diversions of routes ofbusy communications; refusal of giant hydro-electric plants and industrial complexes withharmful impact on the environment etc.

The public participation, however, may also bring negative effects, if based on a beliefthat a group of laymen is wiser than one trained specialist.

Though this may occasionally happen, it should not lead to a conclusion that trainingexperts in the branch of town design and urban planning is useless as the inhabitantsthemselves know what they want and they are able to decide where, what and how toconstruct. In the countries whe^e "population's participation" has been accepted as anofficial method the process of urban planning has become lengthy, financially costly, leadingto substandard results and the planner's/town planner's role has been converted into thatof a broker, negotiator, mediator and justice of the peace. The participation is looked uponas a punishment for the crime that town planners, being in love with theory, designed townswithout a deeper knowledge of the needs of those who would be housed, work and live inthem.

The present state of our society in the conditions of its transition to market economyand democratization is far from stable: incomplete economic privatization, restitution pro-cesses, fragmentation in political sphere (e.g. 57 city districts have been formed in Pragueaiming at economic, as well as planning autonomy regardless of the negative impacts for thewhole city), fragmentation of the "public" - state administration (supported by legislative),political power (local authorities), entrepreneurs (fictitious and natural persons), citizens(individuals, groups, initiatives and associations). The activities of various initiatives andassociations are mostly negatively oriented manipulating the objectivity of decision-making

973

WORKSHOP 96 ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING & VISUAL ARTS

by their campaigns in the media and by personal attacks; they often argue the point ofenvironmental concerns to justify their cause.

The freedom of personality is being supported by a wide range of differentiation anddiversification of attitudes and often by enforcing particular interests to the detriment ofother citizens. In the process of elaboration of urban planning documentation this has beenenabled three times: during the negotiation of the ordered document, its draft and theproject of urban planning documentation.

The up-to-now experiences in citizens' participation in the process of town planningfrom our country, as well as abroad, lead to the following conclusions:

• The participation and cooperation of citizens in planning processes is inevitable.

• Citizens1 participation is beneficial and advisable in the initial phase, during the elab-oration of preparatory order documents of urban planning documentation. In the formof e.g. sociological survey opinions on the development or transformation of the devel-oped area may be gained, citizens' activities may be brought under control in advanceand thus cooperation may start as early as during the formulation of conditions anddemands for solution.

• The most beneficial method of cooperation is a combination of legal procedures andvoluntary negotiations (presentation of plans for inspection, citizens meetings, indi-vidual discussions) which brings commonly acceptable solutions.

• Operative cooperation and participation of citizens require both time and personnel:citizens meetings save time, but include a latent danger of haphazard decisions; areal dialogue with citizens with the evaluation of partial and general interests is morefeasible in small discussion groups.

• The more complex the task (project), the less influence on the part of citizens and themore clearly political goals have to be set down, procedures agreed, an unambiguousattitude of professional public has to be created and information spread through themedia.

• During decision-making processes technical viewpoints have to dominate.

• Cooperation of citizens represents a piece of "citizens town administration" and tes-tifies to "planning culture".

• The focal point of participation activities should shift from negativism, criticism andopposition to positive cooperation so that the lay-out of towns would result from acommon will of their citizens as was the practice in Classical times.

References:

[1] MANSFELDOVÁ, A.: Mansreldová, A.: A report on a study stay in Sweden and theFRG. VÚVA 1984

[2] MANSFELDOVÁ, A.: A report on a study slay in Italy. VÚVA 19S5[3] Participation and cooperation of citizens in the development and reconstruction of

towns. ÚRM Seminář 1995

Internal 1995 CTU grant No. 10018282.

974


REGIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN FRONTIER AREAS - SUSTAINABLE

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENTAND ITS LIMITS

P. Slabý

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Road StructuresThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: town planning, environment, traffic solution

The paper is a part of joint project with the same title coordinated by the departmentof town design, Faculty of Architecture, and is aimed at motor transport.

The topical and urgent character of solution of these problems is based on the expe-rience of researchers in transport design within the framework of master plans (SUP) inthe frontier area of Jáchymov-Klíiiovcc-Vejprty region. It was in the very field of motortransport, structures and facilities that a certain inconsistency in the present evaluationterritorial systems (USES, i.e. Territorial system of ecological stability) showed up in thecourse of public discussions. Ecological expertise systems (E.I.A. i.e. Environmental ImpactAssessment) as well deal with the evaluation of impact of structures on transport by meansof indexes and criteria with predominantly subjective contents related mostly to traffic ways.

The activities carried out during 1995 consisted in:

• the execution of traffic surveys which would allow to analyze the traffic load withinthe territory, in relation to both moving traffic and still traffic

• the verification of demand and supply of territories for still traffic with determinationof considerable disproportions

• setting up presumed real limits of visitors traffic for the main territorial functions,i.e. sports and recreation and spa treatment, in cooperation with the Mountain rescueservice of the Krušné hory and spa treatment joint-stock company

• designing an evaluation set of technical parameters objectively expressible on the basisof map and traffic data to supplement the existing systems (USES, E.I.A.); these are,above all, relative indexes

• verification of interest of corresponding administrative organs and setting up a teamof workers for complex rescarcli

The surveys have been carried out in the form of direct traffic measurements or bymeans of questionnaires. Some of the results obtained are as follows:

• a rough idea of sources and goals of visitors traffic from the German Federal Re-public (in Jáchymov region transit traffic of this kind comes up to 50-70%) and itsspecification

975


• a weekly picture of daily variations. We may state that reality has shown a much fastergrowth in traffic load than the standard forecast based upon the results of nationaltraffic surveys

• an accident map of the main road network• in cooperation with the Mountain rescue service and on the basis of direct observations

motoring defects have been specified, including "wild parking" with evaluation of theirnegative impact on the environment

• the specified problems concerning the "setting up of limits" for traffic as an additionto open database and evaluation systems (USES and E.I.A.) have been confirmed bycorresponding authorities as urgent and useful

The works performed within the framework of CTU Grant n. 10011S236 with substantialcuts in financial expenses have brought positive results in gaining more space for researchand, in our opinion, they represent a necessary preparatory phase for the generalization offindings and principles in relation to other types of territorial units.

References:

[1] SUP of Jáchymov, Vejprhj, Kovářská, Mčdr.ncc regions. 1992-1995[2] LISKA, P.: Diploma Thesis. CTU, 1995[3] R.ÍHA, P.: Impact of Investments on the environment. CTU, in-house pub licit i on,

1993.[4] ROHON, P.; landscape Creation and Protection. CTU in-house publication, 1995

This research has been conducted at the Department of Road Structures as part of theresearch projtct "Regional Development in Frontier Areas - Sustainable Regional Develop-ment and its Limits" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 10018236.

976

WORKSHOP 9G ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING & VISUAL ARTS

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THEBORDERLANDS

- SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

I. Kaplan, K. Maier

CTU, Fac. of Architecture, Dept. of Urban PlaningThákurova 7, 166 34 Praha 6

Key words: urbanism, regional planning

Comparat ive analysis of several different Borderland regions, a "new" bor-der (Slovakia excluded). Based on preliminary experience and the previous studies madeon particular regions along the borders of the Czech Republic (see References), the followinggeneral findings were made, concerning the outcomes of recent changes in the Borderlands:

(a) Border areas have become increasingly dependent upon the overall prosperity of thoseadjacent areas of the neighbouring country; the more prosperous and developed theneighbour, the higher quality of services and wider scope of production demandedfrom the Czech Republic, which affects its local society and economy.

(b) The more support the area received under central economic planning when borderswere a barrier, the more dependent and vulnerable the area has become now. Unfor-tunately, the adjacent areas across the border suffer usually from similar (if not worse)social, environmental and economic problems.

(c) The direct impact of opening the border is a mixed blessing for the immediate areaalong the crossing points and accessing corridors: it brought new jobs in businessesand services, investments, higher property value, but also increasing congestion, crimeand pollution. On the other hand, areas apart have remained almost untouched,undisturbed, and also neglected.

Case study of the Central Ore Mountains Region. The study was devoted to theeffects of recent changes on an old industrial region at the Saxony border which was resettledafter WW2. The area of study lost 53 between 1930 and 1950 and other 55 Settlementpattern was dramatically changed as a result of \V\V2. Only selected "central settlements"have retained a certain level of permanent residents and jobs to maintain a basic level ofservices. However, having been deprived of rural "background11 population, their rank insettlement system was not sustainable. Besides, the "outlawed", non-prospcctivc villageswere converted in weekend colonies. There were 5.5 second dewcllings to every 10 permanentdwellings in the area in 1991.

Air pollution caused an environmental disaster in the 1970s when most coniferous woodsdied. They were replanted by hopefully more resistant species during the 1980s. However,the chance for sustainability of these "new forests" is doubted, even when the air pollutionis presently being reduced.

When the "iron hand" of central directives und the "Iron Curtain" were replaced by the"invisible hand" of market and "golden curtain" of economic disparities, new trends emerged.

977


A new selection of growth poles is based on all kinds of services to visitors, including agrey economy, linked to Saxony more than on existing industries, which is jeopardized byclosures. Moreover, investment activities tend to be located outside urban areas, at pointseasily attractive to tourists, such as ski resorts. Inside towns and townships, the originalcentres tend to move toward visitor - accessing points or to disappear completely.

The economic profile of the territory witnessed several deep restructurings in its history:from ore mining and processing through specialized "marginal" industries (embroidery, guns,musical instruments, imitation jewellery, etc.) to low-skilled manufacturing, forced labourcamps and asylums for mentally retarded people after \V\V2. Now, ski and health resortshave become a base for diverse, mostly "soft" and "fringe" kinds of new leisure-time andhealth services. However these prospects are severely impacted by previous deterioration,unreliable quality of existing services and aiackoflocal resources, both financial and human.

Ail infrastructures having been previously planned and, consequently, developed in thepreselected "central settlements" designated for permanent residency, utilities and facilitiesare overdeveloped and underutilized in some places now, while they are almost missingat some spots occasionally crowded with visitors. A limited seasonal use by visitors docsnot provide an economic rationale for infrastructure investments in those spots remote from"formal" established settlements. Day visitors prevail overwhelmingly to staying "overnight"visitors especially in the most attractive tourist spots in the Klinovcc area.

There is still an increasing contrast between the congested main road crossing theborder and the dense network of underutilized local roads linking the partly disappearedsettlements. The congestion peak occurs during winter weekends when heavy snow is botha reason and a barrier for the crowds of day visitors who drive to the area.

The existing contradiction among seasonally overburdened downhills, abandoned agri-cultural lands and young replanted forest land, creates an extremely weak ecological balancein the long run. The interests of economic and environmental recovery seem contradictionalespecially to local, hard-up entrepreneurs who sometimes are not rooted in the area andregard their property without longer-term vision.

Despite the described constraints and threats, significant progress can be witnessedin those townships where dedicated, enlightened and dynamic leaders were elected to theCommunity Councils, It proved that a strategic approach combined with down-to-earthimplementation, may change an outsider to a reasonably prosperous township, while evenmunicipalities with reasonably good starting positions after 1989 may have lost a lot owingto their bad leadership.

References:

[1] Maicr, K.: Operační prostor človeka ve venkovském osídlení (Human Operational Spacein Rural Settlement System), In: Územní plánování a urbanismus 2/1993

[2] Maier, K.: Rural Settlement Sytem in the Czech Borderlands, In: Workshop CTU 1993[3] Nemec, J. - Kaplan, I. - Maicr, K. ct al.: Development plan of Třeboň, 1993[4] Kaplan, I. - Maier, K.: Development plan of Vejprty, 1995; The Český Krumlov Devel-

opment Fund, information brochure Municipality of Český Krumlov, 1993[5] Tomíček, R.: Transfoiinace bytového fondu (Housing Stock Transformation): Horní

Slavkov, Geaduate disseration, CTU 1994

This research has been conducted at the Department of Urban Planning and has beensupported by CTÜ grant No. 10058236

978


RENOVATIN OF INDUSTRIALARCHITECTURE IN TOWNS

F. Štědrý, J . Attlová, J . Štěpaník

CTU, Fac. of Architecture, Dcpt. of Industrial & Agricultural BuildingThákurova 7, 166 34 Praha 6

Key words: architecture, urbanism, industrial architecture, renovation

The excellent potential prospects of industrial zones in our towns raise a number ofquestions related to their transformation. The territorial planning of these processes, how-ever, takes place in specific legal and economic conditions, and also under the influence ofnew town-planning views oscillating between the idea of pure dwelling (the CIAM concept)and the search for new forms of symbiosis between the urban environment and the new tech-nologies. These are also motivated by the nead to preserve the cultural identity of urbandistricts, including industrial activities and industrial architecture in towns.

In Prague, such architecture can be mostly found in the districts that were built in thenineteenth century and at the turn of the twentieth century, such as Karlín, Smíchov, Libeň,Vysočany and Holešovice. These districts are so closely linked with industrial activities thattheir regeneration is impossible without a conversion of their economic basis. The large-scale suveys of industrial architecture in the City of Prague that are currently carried outby us show a considerable progress of the process of conversion since the 1990 whose mainfeatures are as follows:

• disintegration of large industrial cterprises into smaller parts representing relativelyindependent territorial and economic units,

• reduction of the administrative and auxiliary departments of factories and letting thesespaces for rent,

• beginning of the process of damping down ineffective industries, vacating buildingsand looking for their new use,

• rapid development of small private businesses dealing in a wide range of productionand services, housed either in the restituted buildings or in spaces rented in largefactories. These companies extend, often without any control, the multifunctionalstructure of the town.

In accordance with the evolution of the economic sectors in advanced countries, howevertwenty years later, the process of rapid growth of the third and/or fourth sector started tothe detriment of the second sector. In contrast to the advanced countries, for the timebeing, no vacant territorial reserves arc available due to the fact that the price of land doesnot economically work and the land is therefore mostly rented, which is economically moreefficient.

To compare the procedures and conditions existing in the Czech Republic with thoseadvanced countries the following cases have been studied:

• regeneration of industrial zones in Neuenkirchen, Germany• construction of Dortmund Technological Center, Germany

979


• renovation and regenration of Emcher Park, Germany• East Paris Development Program• London Docks reconstruction

The problem of industry transformation and the creation of favourable conditions fornew economic activities are very important questions in these countries for their politicalrepresentation, including the state administration at all levels, as well as for banks, cham-bers of industry and commerce, etc. This general political will, supported by other instru-ments, such as financing, taxtion policy, territory development plans, detailed reconstructionprojects and their publication in due time, creates a positive environment contributing tothe search for ways of how to link private and public interests, irrespective of the currentpolitical orientation of national govcrment.

Another major difference consists in the clear, undisputable proprietary rights and theirrelative stability in the given territory as a necessery condition of any potential changes.

Particularly suitable for transformation are the abandoned or problematic terriroriesand sites. They are open to new solution and are not mere scars on the beautiful face ofthe town.

The role of municipalities, their administration and councils in this process is extremlyimportant. They are integrating centres where the projects of renovation and of economicdevelopment are worked out and implemented. This is the case of Neuenkirchen - rehabili-tation of industrial zones based on the 1078 project of social and economic development, ofParis - East Paris project of 19S3, or of Lyon - Municipal Council decision to regenrate theslaughterhouse by Tiny Gamier of 191*1 and convert it into a municipal multipurpose hall,which became a starting point of the development and renovation of the southern suburb ofGerland. Similarly,selected and renovated industrial sites between Dortmund and Duisburgproved to be important elemets of regeneration for the environ ment.

Renovation projects offer big chances to business, praticulary to joint companies whosepartners associate to implement the renovation project. Minor projects, such as ZAC (Zoned'Amenagement Concerlc) in France, contain information concerning the space and func-tion, type of construcion, use of the land, and funding. The scope of this type of territorydevelopment documentation is reminiscent of our zone development projects aimed at har-monizing the interests of all partners (municipality, investor, contractor, users, inhabitants).The necessary condition is a realistic definition of the land available, a (mostly) multifunc-tionaly and economically efficient programme respecting the valuable original sites, streetnetwork, public spaces and town-plannig principles. This is based on the territory devel-opment plan of higher level, while significant changes are also included depending on theparticular site and the agreement of partners [1].

References:

[1] ŠTĚDRÝ, F.: Industrial Buildings - Transformation of Industry in Towns, CTU Pub-lishing House 1995

This research has been conducted at the Department of Industrial and Agricultural build-ings and has been supported by CTU grant No. 10058300

980


DEVELOPMENT OF MODELINGEQUIPMENT AS AN ADDITIONAL

ELEMENT TO 3D SIMULATION

J . Pospíšil, P . Kraus, M. Chalupa

GTU, Fac. of Architecture, Dept. of Architectural ModellingThákurova 7, 166 34 Praha 6

Key words: modelling equipment

The Institute of Design Modelling at the Faculty of Architecture, Czech TechnicalUniversity, cooperates with the Faculty of Nuclear and Physical Engineering in solving theproblem of laser ablation in the process of three-dimensional simulation. The studies haveresulted in the development of a computer-con trolled laser-based engraving unit completingthe system of instrumentation in the Institute. As a result, an outstanding computer-supported centre will appear that will make it possible to create a realistic model of thearchitectural work with a high level of architectural details scanned by a microoptical videocamera placed on a special relatoscope. As the laser ablation equipment is very expensive,three faculties joined to provide a special grant for its development.

The Study Team at the Faculty of Nuclear and Physical Engineering is eveloping themain part of the unit, which is the optical system of laser ablation. At the second stage ofwork a positioning equipment will be developed within the internal grant of the Institute ofDesign Modelling. The positioning equipment will allow, by means of a system of steppingmotors, a precise movement of the laser beam over the semiproduct. Part of the work isalso the development of an interface to control the positioning equipment by a computer,or by the output of its graphic program. The construction of the positioning unit can onlystart after the completion of the optical part of the instrument.

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Design Modelling at the Facultyof Architecture as part of the research project "Development of Modelling Equipment as anAdditional Element to 3D Simulation" supported by CTU grant No. 10058299.

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WORKSHOP 96 ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING k VISUAL ARTS

CREATIVE PROCESSESIN THE MULTIMEDIA

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

T . Ruller

TU, Faculty of Fine Arts, Video-multimedia-performanceRybářská 13/15, 603 00 Brno

Key words: specialised data bank, media archives, interactive communication system

The project builds on a series of successful realisations of previous grants, namelyon the research task of the VUT called "Multimedia Interactions in a Digitised Environ-ment" (1993-94), of the grant by the Fund for the Development of Universities called "NewInterdisciplinary Branches - the Process of Integration of Advanced Technologies and Eco-culture - specialisation of the Faculty of Fine Arts, Technical University at Brno" (1993),and of the project for the Ministry of Education called "Multimedia-Centre".

The practical purpose of the project is to create the technical conditions for the com-pletion of building specialised libraries, media archives, information centre and centres ofrelated services, with highly topical information shared in international co-operation. Thearchival materials will be gradually digitised and made available in the system of networks(the already existing inputs into CESNET and INTERNET shall be complemented withinshort with a WWW server). The structure must enable the transmission of a high-qualitypicture signal, therefore preparations have been made for the interconnection of the facul-ties of the Technical University and of other universities and colleges through optical fibre.Parallely there is planned an interactive interconnection through the ISDN system, enablingwith the "Artists in the Network" project. Within the framework of these traditions alsocontinue the activities of the international symposium and exposition "High-tech/Arts",and other related projects (High-tech/Arts '95 was attended by: Stcina Vasulka (USA),Chris Hill (USA), Kciko Sei (Japan), Maurice Clifford (USA), Tomáš Rullcr (CZ), MartinSpanjaard (The Netherlands), Michael Klein (Germany), The Residents (USA), Silver (CZ),Stanislav Filip (CZ), Lubor Benda (CZ), Lucie Svobodová (CZ), Michal Gabriel (CZ), PaulLerch (Austria), David Burk (USA), Petr Bradácek (CZ), Zdenek Mezihorák (CZ), Jenniferde Felice (USA), Filip Cenek (CZ), Federico Díaz (CZ), Jan Trnka (CZ)).

In general the project focuses on the fundamental research of new value criteria -on seeking new departures from the post-modernist tumble-down of paradigms. For exam-ple the survey of the feedback processes by Martin Spanjaard opens the problem of artificialintelligence. Special sensors on the one side, and monitors on the other, redefine the am-bience and its behaviour towards man. In the sphere of media, often used one-sidedly asa manipulating "magic power", the project is searching for alternatives on the basis of in-teractive structures. The experimentation of the new branch is focused on the creation ofa style of life in the ccoculture.

The project is aiming at the artistic creation based on the following principles:

• the postulated new criteria of the syntax redefine the relation of author-spectator (orviewer) into a co-authorship,

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WORKSHOP 96 ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PUNNING & VISUAL ARTS

• the digital technology, not as an aesthetic instrument, but as a multidimensional fieldof creative potentialities,

• the work of a creative artist experienced in the process of inter-action, as a text existingin the flow of a discourse, as a living organism,

• a work of art created in principle as an analogue model realised in an active environ-ment.

The project furthers the reintegration of basic approaches into the process of cognition:on the development of the creative capabilities.

The achieved results (documentation, exposition, performance) have been and will becontinued being presented in public, with a broad social impact and representative func-tion. The outputs are gradually used for working out not yet existing teaching aids for thenascent branches (lecture notes, vidcocassettes, etc.). As economic profit can be consideredthe enriching of the technical operation of the fuitre through sponsoring or advantageousdiscounts. The finances thus acquired serve as a shot in the arm for generating furtherfinancial resources.

This fulfils the actual programme of humanisation of the technical education, complyingat the same time with the technologísation and modernisation the humanities and arts. Atthe same time there are developing new educational branches functioning on interdisciplinarybasis, and strengthening the integration of the scientific, research and pedagogical activities.The project promotes co-operation between faculties, universities, institutions and theircounterparts abroad. It is opening up new sources of information and support students andteachers alike, to make use of the new information technologies for their creative activities,and creates for it new forms of teamwork. It uses the participation of foreign specialistsand educationalists for the promotion of new forms of preparation in the arts sector. Theproject complies with the specific features of the conception of the recently founded Facultyof Creative Arts, providing the conditions for majoring in "Hi-tech Arts", quite a uniquephenomenon within the framework of the system of art schools of the Czech Republic. Itis coherent with the project of building a Metropolitan Academic Network, furthering theidea of creating a network of tech ing centres within the Silicon Studio Programme (with twospecialised nodal points: Prague - animation & DTP, and Brno - multimedia & design.It is getting integrated into the present dynamic development of the City of Brno, in co-ordination with the activities of the BVV (Brno Trade Fairs and Exhibitions Co.), DesignCentre, and of the Centre of Experimental Theatre.

This research has been conducted at the Vidco-multimedia-pcrformancc Studio of Fa-culty of Fine Arts as a part of the project "Creative Processes in (he Multimedia Commu-nication System" and has been supported by TU grant No. Flf Í500SÍ.

984

WORKSHOP 9G ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING & VISUAL ARTS

SECOND INTERNATIONALSUMMER SCULPTURE WORKSHOP

AT ORLÍK CASTLE

V. Preclík

TU, Faculty of Fine Arts, Sculpture StudioRybářská 13/15, 603 00 Brno

Key words: international creative meeting, young sculptors

The Second Student Sculpture Workshop organized by the Faculty of Fine Arts at Brnoat Orlík Castle in August 1995 proved through the provision of annual creative meetings oftalented sculpture students from several European fine art academies.

This year thanks to support through grants, we could raise the level of the Orlík Work-shop, especially through the purchase of quality sculpture material (10 cubic meters of oak,3 cubic meters of pine, 3 cubic meters of ash) and thus, satisfy the participants' interest tocreate more monumental works than last year.

Not until this year could we managed to buy all the necessary tools and machines aswell as wood preservation materials. Also, thanks to the above mentioned financial supportwe arc able to prepare and publish a colour catalogue documentating this event. Thiscatalogue will also be used as invitation material for the third Student Sculpture Workshopat Orlík Castle in 1996 in addition to advertizing the Faculty of Fine Arts and the TechnicalUniversity at Brno.

Students participating in the 1995 Orlík Workshop included:

• The University of Art and Design, Helsinki

• The Ukrainian Academy of Fine Art, Kiev

• The Academy of Fine Art, Warsaw

• Kent Institute of Art and Design

• The Faculty of Fine Arts, Brno

We considered the works of the students from Finland, Poland and the Czech Republicof high artistic level. Nevertheless, all the work created during the workshop was well worthexhibiting.

In September 1995 monumental works were installed under the overhead of the Facultyof Fine Arts on the grounds of the Orlík Castle. The installation sites were discussed withMonument Preservation Institute (the castle is under'its care) and with the owner PrinceKarel Schwarzcnbcrg.

It is gratifying that our young faculty once again fruitfully carried out a workshop whichaids in the familiarization of East/West art of the upcoming generation by creating a forum

985


where they can come together and by forming thü foundations for a gallery of emergingsculptors.

This research has been conducted at the Sculpture Studio of Faculty of Fine Arts as apart of the project "Second international Summer Sculpture Workshop at Orlík Castle" andhas been supported by TU grant No. FU 150020.

986


REHABILITATIONOF EARTH BUILDINGS

I. Žabičková

TU Brno, Fac. of Architecture, Dept. of Constr. and Environmental Technolog.Poříčí 5, 662S3 Brno

Key words: unburnt, earth, adobe, ecology, low-rise building, energy saving, waste use

The earth buildings are mentioned in this country in 13th century as mud houses. Indetail the earth houses are described in ethnographical papers at the beginning of 18thcentury. The traditional area of the earth architecture is the south-eastern Moravia inconnection with the Danube Region (the Danube Earth House), in Bohemia the earthbuildings have been spread first of all within the scope of Theresian fire safety measures.They were applied during centuries first of all in the country (rural) environment, evenif lately the residential historic exploration managed to discover the Classicist multifloormunicipal houses (Slavkov, Uherský Ostroh).

After the invention of annular kiln for firing bricks in the second half of the last cen-tury there was a significant decrease of the price of fired bricks and a rapid increase oftheir production. The brick industry started to organise actions for ensuring the sale offired bricks and it started actions against the buildings of adobes and for example in theMoravian Building Code they enforced a total prohibition of these buildings. The defectsof the unprofesptonaly built earth buildings and the lack of interest of the specialists thencontributed to the retreat of unburnt earth as the building material. In the last decades thetechnology of buildings of unburnt earth fell nearly in oblivion. At the same time the lifetime of earth buildings exceeds 100 years. The earth buildings constructed at the turn ofthe century arc still standing and arc functional. People often consider them as less valuablebuildings that avc determined to be gradually demolished. As soon as defects appear, theearth houses are knocked down without taking their artistic or historic value into account.

All over the world the experience has been obtained that so far the building construc-tiruction of earth is properly prepared, so far it has been carefully produced and permanentlyprotected against soaking, its properties are fully valuable for the needs of low rise building.The construction is lasting, fireproof, its thermal-technical properties may be corrected bythe quantity of admixtures or by the arrangement of the construction, the strength featuresmeet the requirements on reliability.

The unburnt earth is a material in the true sense of the word clean from the ecologicalpoint of view, it is not economically and energetically demanding and at the same timeit is easily obtained anywhere. The production of earth structures does not require anyconsumption of electric energy. There appears in this way an important saving in energy incomparison with the consumption while using classical building materials. It is not necessaryto remove the products arisen in the production and transport of these materials. Dwellingand staying in these earth buildings is subjectively accepted considerably better than inbuildings of other materials. After the demolition of the building it is possible to return theearth freely to nature or after recycling (grinding, sorting) it is possible to use it again forfurther development.

987


The evaluation of the existing earth buildings from the point of view of town indi-cate that the earth buildings are also at present suitable for low rise development (familyhouses, cowsheds, horsestables, pigsties, garages, sheds) determined first of all for the ruralenvironment.

Based on valid standards and needs of individual types of buildings there were deter-mined the requirements for optimum properties of earth buildings. The most importantthing for meeting them is the high quality earth material from the point of view:

• of structural properties (ensuring the parameters of mechanical properties of the ma-terial within the limits being suitable for low rise development).

• of thermal technology (ensuring the required value of thermal resistance especially ofexternal claddings of the buildings in the sense of CSN 730540/94, complete elimi-nation of the condensation zone in homogenous material of the bearing elements andexplicit proof of elimination of condensation zone in the bearing earth part of theconstruction in the layered constructions).

• efficiency (it will depend on the degree of manual work and on the use of wastes inthe mixture, e.g. recycled building material, light ashes, slag, textile wastes, etc.).

For enabling a better collaboration on an international scale there was established the"Danubian Earthen Architecture Network11 thiit associates the experts from the DanubianRegion who range from exploration and documentation of old buildings through educationto the research in the field of modern buildings including their realization and informingthe public. For this purpose a seminar about earth buildings was organised at Příkazy nearOlomouc in the last year, this year another seminar Look place in Bratislava, another oneis being planned for the next year to Hungary-

Further research of earth buildings is directed to several fields:For deepening the knowledge of history of earth buildings it will be necessary to perform

their inventory and documentation, the analysis of the existing archaeological news then maybe a good source of finding out the application of earth architecture in the period of highand late middle ages. For the preservation of the earth architectonic heritage it will benecessary to elaborate the technical methods of preservation.

For the new construction of houses from unburnt earth it will be necessary to performlaboratory tests and the verification of individual properties and the general behaviour of theconstruction from unburnt earth. Further on it will be necessary to explore the possibilitiesof the use individual types of wastes to the earth mixture.

In the field of international contacts it will be good to continue in expert contacts withinthe scope of DEAN and to establish collaboration with the existing European organisationsof similar character.

References:

[1] HAVLÍČEK, J. - SOUČEK, K.: Stavby z nepálené klíny. Praha 1958[2] FEIST, W. - KLIEN, J.: Nizkoencrgelický dnm. Ostrava 1994[3] VOLHARD, W.: Lcichttchmbau. Karlsruhe 1993['!]. J1OUBEN, H. - GUILLAUD, H.: Earth Construction. Intermediate Technology Publ.

1994

988

WORKSHOP 9G ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING fc VISUAL ARTS

OLDEST PROJECTSOF VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE

J . Skabrada, M. Ebel

CTU, Fac. of Architecture, Dept. of History of Arch. & Fine ArtsThákurova 7, 1C6 34 Praha 6

Key words: historical architecture, projects, village

Work on the above mentioned theme started in 1993 and shall be finished this year.Its aim was to verify our previous knowledge, that for even the building production usuallynamed as popular architecture, there existed since the beginning of 19th century (and evensooner) building plans, and some of them quite well preserved. This premise was confirmed -the building offices of a lot af ancient estates required building projects, that were preservedin many archive funds in quantities exceeding our original expectations. We were thereforeable to do the mapping of these documents for identification purposes at least, during thethree years of study and thus preparing a basic survey of archive funds in all importantCzech regions.

The quality and especially the testimonial power of studied documentation exceededour hopes. The preserved plans were recording village building production of that timein its authentic form, undisturbed by later changes. The time of origin of these plans isexceptionally important because it was the time of transition of older wooden constructionto masonry building production. A more detailed knowledge of this material transition,that took place at the beginning of the 19th century and was even supported by new statebuilding legislature, is one of the most interesting and actual contributions of this work.It seems to be quite clear that the transition was at that time contextual in regard toolder building production in typological and material approach and didn't disturbe thegeneral architectural image. This material contains new information for different researchapproach to historical village architecture (e.g. development of heating devices, of coloringof structures etc.) and of aspects for eventual renovation and reconstruction work. Thiscould be important especially during present consolidation stage of the countryside, wherehistorical structural base was heavily damaged during the socialist epoch. We tried toinform the professional public of the results of this work as soon as possible by publishing(viz. literature). The acquired materials are used at the same time in lectures of thecourse "Popular architecture" at the Faculty of architecture. The authors have preparedthe compilation of research materials in an auxiliary textbook for publication in 1996.

References:

[1] EBEL, M. - SKABRADA, J.: Původní plánová dokumentace lidové architektury.Zprávy památkové péče 55, pp. 100 - 104. Praha 1995.

[2] SKABRADA, J. - EBEL, M.I Nejstarší projekty vesnických staveb. DOMOV No 2, 4,6, 8, 10, 12, Praha 1995.

[3] SKABRADA, J. - EBEL, NI.: Pozdně barokní domy v Novém Boru a jejich projekty.Sborník Historická architektura (věda - výzkum - praxe), pp. 173-178, Praha 1995.

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This research has been conducted at the Department of Architecture & Fine Arts as partof the research project "Original design plans of village buildings from 18th and the first halfof 19lh century - an important and unknown source for the reconstruction of memorialbuildings" and has been supported by grant GA OR No. 103/93/2133.

990


THERMAL DATA-MODEL FORHEAT-DYNAMICS SIMULATION

OF A BUILDINGJ . Český, V. Hamata, J . Křemen,

J . Neumann, M. Přeučil

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of ArchitectureThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: simulation, heat-dynamics, thermal conductivity, thermal capacity, CAADsystem

Setting up the parameters that describe the thermal properties of the building repre-sents the unavoidable part of any thermodynamics simulation of that building. It involvesdetermining of the thermal parameters of individual constructions and their mutual spacerelationships (i.e. geometry and topology of the building). The collection of thermal param-eters of a building we called the thermal data-model of a building.

In principle there are three possible ways how to obtain the thermal data of a building:

1. Post-processing of output data from a CAAD system (or AEC system). It implies theability of the CAAD system to provide:

a) as geometrical dimensions as thermal parameters of individual construction parts;b) topological information derived either automatically (e.g. from construction parts

numbering) or entered manuály.

The output data from the CAAD system are processed by an additional conversionprogram in order to set up all the necessary information for the thermal descriptionof the building.

2. Simple graphical editor that enables interactive entering of the building topology andadditional manual input of thermal and geometric parameters of individual construc-tion parts.

3. Non-graphical (i.e. character-oriented) method - the building is to be divided intoseparate thermal zones (i.e. volumes with the same temperature as rooms, corridors,halls etc.). The special code is assigned to each zone and the spatial relations betweenzones which correspond to the topology of the building arc entered by means of thiscode. Then the thermal and geometrical parameters describing each existing couplingof zones are added.

The method described in 1. is suitable for newly designed objects only or such objectswhose design documentation already exists in the electronic form acceptable by the proposedCAAD system. However the design documentation of the great majority of existing con-struction objects is in the traditional paper form. Conversion of this paper documentationinto the electronic one is tedious, time-consuming and expensive work. Therefore for the

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purpose of the heat dynamics simulation a simplified method of the setting up the thermal(iata-model of the building under scope described in 2, or 3. is adequate. For programmingwe choose the non-graphical variant ad 3. as the first step.

References;

[1] HAMATA, V. - KftEMEN, J. - PAĎOUK, R. - PftEUClL, M.: Simulation at theEnergy Consumer - its Use and Prospects, pp. 50. Proc. 2nd Int. Conference andExhibition EEBW'93 (Energy Efficiency Bussiness Week), SEVEn Foundation, Prague1993.

[2] HAMATA, V. - KftEMEN, J. - PAĎOUK, R. - PftEUClL, M.: Thermodynamics ofa Building - the Simulation Approach, pp. 229-230. Proc. CTU Seminar öl, part B,CTU Prague 1994.

[3] HAMATA, V. - KftEMEN, J. - PAĎOUK, R. - PftEUClL, M.: Heat-Dynamics Modelof a Home, In: BREITENECKER, F.; TROCH, I. (editors): Proc. 1st MATHMO1)Vienna (IMACS Symposium on Mathematical Modelling), Vol. I, pp. 176-179. TUVienna 199-1.

[4] HAMATA, V. - KftEMEN, J. - PAĎOUK, R. - PftEUC'IL, M.: Experiences in the Useof Building Simulation Models for Heating Optimisation, pp. 73. Proc. 3rd Int. Con-ference and Exhibition EEBW'iM (Energy Efficiency Bussiuess Week), SEVEn Foun-dation, Prague 1994.

[5] ČERNÝ, R. - IIAMATA, V.: Dynamics of Physical Phenomena in a Home, (in Czech).Proc. CTU Seminar 95, CTU Prague 1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Architecture as part of Ihcresearch project "Global Modelling of Dynamic Phenomena in Buildings and other Con-struction Objects" and has been supported by grant No. 103/94/0595 of the Gmnt Agencyof Czech Republic.

992

WORKSHOP 9G ARCHITECTURE, TOWN PLANNING k VISUAL ARTS

COOPERATION WITH THEUNIVERSITY OF KAISERSLAUTERN

H. Urbasková

CTU, Fac. of Architecture, Dept. of Rural ArchitecturePoříčí 5, Brno

Key words: concept, village, development, urbanism, workshop

The village of Kobylí was selected as a model village to run the Workshop on October22-27, 1995. This event was organized by the Faculty of Architecture's Institute of RuralArchitecture and the University in Kaiserslautern to support the research task "Scientific,Research and Pedagogical Cooperation with the University in Kaiserslautern in the Field ofRegional Planning, Urbanism, Landscape Systems and Rural Renewal". The leader of thistask is Prof. Mojmír Kyselka, architect.

The aim of the Workshop was to define problems faced by the village, to draw up theconcept of its development and to turn the attention of local people to this event, thusturning their attention to what is going on in their village.

The model village of Kobylí is situated about 25 km south of Brno near the north-southmoterway D2 in the direction to Bratislava, with Velké Bilovice, Hustopeče and Břeclav,the district town, as the natural centres for Kobylí. The village is surrounded by a hillyagricultural landscape with well-developed viticulture. The vineyards give the landscapea specific character, which makes a balanced impression and diversifies gardens and thevillage green belt. This part of southern Moravia preserved its specificities not only inthe language but, in the broadest sense, also in the folklore and in the style of life. Thepopulation is cordial and hard-working and this pleasant atmosphere positively effected thestudents' work.

On the grounds of investigations, the students defined problems caused by the changesin the village's structures, especially in agriculture but also in services, crafts and publictransport.

• The demographic development suggest declining trends. In 1961, the population ofthe village was 2,3SS, in 1991 2,103.

• Since many people, in particular the younger ones, have left the village, many buildingsremain unused.

• The community facilities are not sufficient inspite of the fact that, in the past, thevillage was designated to become the service village for smaller villages surroundingKobyli. First of all, there is a lack of service facilities.

• Since there is a low demand for bus and railway transport, the number of buses andtrains has been reduced due to low profitableness, thus affecting the accessability ofthe village.

• The individual mobility of population is considerably limited by a low grade of mo-torization and high prices of petrol as related to incomes.

993


• The original village green has lost its function. The new village centre, with itsnew community facilities, creates a depressed anonymous environment, which is, inaddition to this, affected by the through-traffic.

After talking to the mayor and the local governement, the students set the goals to beincorporated in the concept of development of Kobylí:

• to preserve the identity of the village and its importance for the region,• to find a characteristic identity of the village and to invent a superior slogan for the

devclopmnet of the village reflecting the "genius loci",• to adapt constructional approaches to the natural regime, the landscape and the char-

acter of the location in question,• to support agricultural production and to create jobs in the location,• to make landscape design, including anti-erosion measures, to preserve and establish

green belts inside and outside the village,• to remove operational, hygienic and architectural defects and to give the village a final

image,• to design the village centre as an "identification point" for the village community,• to preserve streets with wine-cellars as a characteristic feature of the village.

The conceptioual projects were made in mixed teams (Czechs and Germans) at fourlevels: the catchment area of the village (1:50 000), the structural and functional concept(1:2000), urban details and architectural design (1:2000).

The projects were assessed by the teachers, the mayor and the representatives of publicadministration, by the Head of the District in Břeclav, the Head of the Department ofRegional Development, the Head of the Constructional Office and by the mayors of theneighbouring villages. The Dean of the Faculty of Architecture thanked the students fortheir successful work and handed diplomas over to them. The students1 works will becompleted in the studios of the individual faculties, and will be exhibited in the LocalGovernment Office in Kobylí, where a discussion with local people will take place. Thewhole work will be published in the graphical part of the research task.

The Workshop was higly rated by the mayor, the members of the local governmentas well as by the representatives of public administration because the students were giventheir possibility to fully concentrate on their work, to discuss their ideas not only with theirteachers but also with local people and to verify their work in the field. The cooperationwith the German partner proved efficient since it was based on the exchange of information,using the principle of "streams of opposite directions". In the summer semester, a workshopwill be organized in Germany, and Czech students will be given the opportunity to becomeacquainted with problems faced by Altleiningen, a village in Germany.

The future will show whether the goals set by the Institute of Rural Architecture wereachieved. These goals include; to educate architects who will make visible everything valu-able in the village, who will be able to preserve the typical image of villages and will shareresponsibility for the rural image at the end of the 20th century, covering needs and require-ments of the century to come*.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Rural Architecture as part of theresearch project "Scientific, Research and Pedagogical Cooperation with the University ofKaiserslautern, Germany, in the Field of Regional Planning, Urbanism, Landscape Systemsand Rural Renewal" and has been supported by FU grant No. 550060.

994


REHABILITATION AND CULTIVATIONOF PUBLIC SPACES

J . Sedlák, J . Koutný*, E. Staňková**, L. Lakomý**

TU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Building DesignVeveří 95, 662 37 Brno

*TU, Fac. of Architecture, Dept. of Urban PlanningPoříčí 5, 639 00 Brno

**Chief Architect Office City of Brno,Kounicova 67, 601 67 Brno

Key words: public spaces, regeneration, cultivation, visualisation, virtual reality, publicrelations

The main objective of this project is an outline of methodology and strategy for the cre-ation and renovation of public spaces in the city using visualization and animation throughin computer modeling and virtual reality.

Public spaces in a town have specific significance as a place of social contact for people,a centre of gravity for social, cultural and commercial activities - all are important factorfor a town's picture. Their spacial forms have been created from a long duration develop-ment process and are influenced concrete functional, operational and spatial conditions ofa settlement.

The creation and regeneration of public space issues are based from the historical con-tinuity. Complete design of public spaces has interdisciplinary character and must be inharmony with the requirements of the users - city inhabitants and visitors. It is impossibleto judge the value of a public space the objectively in design proposals or projects - itsreal quality appears only when the design is realized. Therefore for the design process it isnccccssary for interdisciplinary access not only at the design process level, but also at therealization level, with responsible participation of the operating and steering sphere. Animportant role for the creation of a public space conception is the complete analysis of thespace and the evaluation of the users1 opinion. A particular factor in the course of analyzingconceptual work for design of a public space is through modern tools like computer visuali-sation (3D modeling and virtual reality). These tools enable analyzation of spatial relationsand structural connections of a specific place on a higher quality level of grafic presentationand spacial modeling.

Members of the research team of this project participated on the presentation of acomputer model for Mendel Square in Brno (with the application of virtual reality) in Julyof this year. This presentation verified possibilities of computer advanced technology forurban-architectural conipiütions.

With the cooperation from the Chief Architect's Office (UHA) and TU (VUT) in Brno,groups of students are involved in an investigation and research work of a project organizedwithin the framework of courses at the Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Tech-nical University (VUT) in Brno. Students cooperate on work concerning the evaluation an

995


analysis of a selected space (Academic square in Brno). The students activities and coop-eration of the project within an educational process are accompanied with expert seminarsand lectures. These activities will be finished with a critique selected participants at theinternational seminar organized within the framework of this research project.

Methods of the use of visualisation of 3D digital models were created and verifyied inthese particular tasks:

• finding an assessment through the mental visualization; for the background of urbancompetition for Mendel Square, there was an experimentally verifyicd use of observa-tions in virtual reality for interactive discussion about values of urban structure.

• The evaluation of the competition through observations in virtual reality; A digital 3Dmodel was used by competitors for working out the design and a competition jury willcarry out on the base of observation through virtual reality. This proposed procedurewill be used in the Czech Republic for the first time. In the first part ot this year,work connected with the preparation of methods for the evaluation of the 2nd phaseof the competition.

• A possibility of interactive use visual information was verifyicd for communicationbetween professionals and public relation. By means of the information video, searchedwether a visual form of information are creating new communication means.

The international seminar "Public Spaces in Cities" organized by the Technical Uni-versity in Brno and the Chief Architect's Office of Brno serves as support for the projectprogramme of rehabilitation and cultivation of public spaces in the City of Brno. Pro-gramme for the seminar will present several realized development projects of public spacesin European Cities. Part of the seminar will be a workshop with a presentation and paneldiscussions about regional development projects for public spaces in Brno, CR.

Targets of the seminar and workshop will be to evaluate the present state of publicspaces abroad. There will be discussed individual steps leading to successful project realiza-tion process and to discussions about the available or necessary legislative tools for designand realization. The seminar will also orient the application of advanced CAD technologyfor visual comunication through computer modeling and virtual reality to be applied inthe urban planing and design process and in the application of traffic and environmentalanalysis and the use of informational database systems.

A proposal from the Cultivation of Public Spaces programme was worked out at theChief Architect's Office (UIIA) in the City of Brno and was confirmed by the Council Cityof Brno which supports the effort of local municipalities in Brno rehabilitate public spaces.According to the methods created within this research projed., a demonstration project forone selected public space from each 29 parts of Brno will be carried out.

References:

[1] SITTE, C : Stavba měst podle uměleckých zásad. ARC1I, Praha 1995.[2] CURL, J. S.: European Cities and Society. Leobard Hill, London 1970.[3] LYNCH, K.: The Image of the City. M.I.T Press, Cambridge 1975.[4] JŮZA, J.: Teorie města. ČSAV, Praha 1965.

TA is research has been conducted at the Department of Building Design, Faculty ofCivil Engineering, TU in Brno as part of the research project "Creation and Regenerationof Town Public Spaces" and has been supported by TU grant No. FU250031.

996


CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONINFORMATION AND CULTURE

AT TU BRNO

H. Zemánkova

TU Brno, Faculty of Architecture, Manufacturing and Utility Constructions InstitutePoříčí 5, 662 83 Brno, Czech Republic

Key words: presentation of TU Brno, student work, interesting things in technical areas

The Rectorate of TU Brno is a meeting place for the representatives of all the ninefaculties. Also the Rector's Collegium, the Scientific Board and (,he Senate convene here andteachers and students both from our university and from abroad as well as administrativestaff come here to arrange various administrative affairs. Until recently the people havebeen meeting here solely on business.

The Department for International Relations has come up with a suggestion that theRectorale of TU Brno should become a centre of information on interesting professionalactivities of TU Brno and enrich the life of the whole academic community by organisingvarious cultural events.

Therefore in this year several events were organised in cooperation with other institu-tions, which animated the vestibule of the Rectortate including the great hall and created abackground for meetings and discussions of experts from TU Brno as well as from partnerinstitutions at home and abroad.

The grant was supposed to help finance the creation of a "Centre for Culture andInformation". This centre would help the increasing number of students from abroad to getoriented in the university life, it would inform of outstanding cultural events and it wouldalso make it possible for students to present their projects. The enclosed list of eventsshows their variety and it also documents the contribution and support of other institutionswithout which large scale events such as the Exposition of Holography could not have takenplace. This event attracted a large number of students and pupils of Moravian schools aswell as other visitors. Other events, even if of a smaller size, were followed with considerableinterest by the representatives of the town and the deputies. Here, the diploma project ofa French student can be mentioned, which brings new aspects of the problem of trafficaround the historic centre of the town as well as the completion of the housing on theBrno Ring. An exposition of students' projects containing town-planning and architectonicstudies for Slavkov has been borrowed by the City Council of this town on the occasion ofan international colloquy to the battle of Austerlitz.

Expositions of student projects done during the time the students were staying atuniversities abroad in the scope of student mobility programmes are also of great significance.They are inspiring and stimulating all the students who would like to get new experiencethrough staying at universities abroad. These expositions testify that TU Brno has begunthe process of internationalization of study.

997


List of events:

• Exposition of projects done by the students during the time they stayed at universitiesin Glasgow, Brighton, Brest and at Ecole ď Architecture in Paris and in Nancy in thescope of the Tempus JEP 4175, February 1995, Vestibule, Rcctorate

• Exposition "Encounters in the Third Dimension" in cooperation with C.C.L.E. at theFrench Embassy in Prague and Musée de ^Holographic in Paris, February, March1995, Great Hail, Rectorate

• Lectures of Professor Liška and his post-graduate student ing. Samek on holography,February 1995, Conference Hall, Rectorate

• Assistance in organizing an exhibition of publications of the editors H. Tonka and M.Sens from Paris "Contemporary World Architecture, May 1995, TehnicaJ Museum,Brno

• Organising a cycle of lectures:

— Professor J. P. Flamand: "Modern housing in France"

- Professor A. Blanc; "Corbusier versus Wright", "English Gardens"

May 1995, Faculty of Architecture, Brno

• Exposition "Brno Ring", a diploma project by Frederic Goltl,September 1995, Vestibule, Uectorate

• Exposition "Students Projects" on the occasion of thě-.190th anniversary of the Battleof Austerlitz, November - December 1995, Rectorate

• "French Evenings" with an exposition of our students' projects done at French schoolsof architecture in the scope of a Tempus project (in cooperation with Aliance Fran-caise), December 1995, Great Hall, Rectorate

The documents of all the events organized with the support of the Grant are depositedat the Department of International Relations of the Rectorate of TU Brno.

This research has been conducted at the Rectorate of TU Brno as part of the researchproject Creation and Activities of a Centre for Education Information and Culture at theReetoraU of TU Brno and has been supported by TU grant No. 550068.

998

Section 18

RELIABILITY

NEXT PAGE(S)left

WORKSHOP 96 RELIABILITY

ESTIMATES OF PARAMETERSOF ASYMMETRIC DISTRIBUTIONS

M. Holický, M. Vorlíček

CTU, Klokner Institute, Dept. of Reliability of StructuresSolinova. 7, 166 08 Praha 6

Key words: estimates, population parameters, asymmetric distribution, mean, variance,coefficient of skcwness

When analysing structural reliability on the basis of experimental data it is often nec-essary to make estimates of population parameters of a continuous random variable usingsmall samples (having e.g. 3 to 3Q units only). If a variable has symmetrical distribution,usually normal (Laplace-Gauss) distribution is assumed and well established techniques ofstatistical inference can be applied. If, however, the variable has an asymmetrical distri-bution, which is often the case of some variables describing resistance as well as load ofstructures, appropriate statistical methods arc almost completely missing.

Previous investigations [1-3] have proposed some statistical techniques for estimatesand tests of parameters having general three parameter lognormal distribution. In thiscontribution, another well known [4] and often applied asymmetrical distributions are con-sidered:

• gamma distribution,• Weibull distribution,• Frcchct distribution.

All these distributions are dependent on three parameters: the mean //, variance a 2

and coefficient of skewness a, the coefficient of kurtosis £ being a function of the coefficientof skewness a.

Newly proposed operational rules for interval estimate of unknown population meanIt and unknown population variance a1 are briefly presented here. In both cases proposedstatistical techniques arc dependent on the following estimation factors:

• the type of distribution,

• the coefficient of skewness a,

• the confidence level,

• the sample size n.

The confidence level of two-sided confidence interval for a population parameter nsthe mean \t or variance o"2, is given by the probability pi — pi, where px and p2 are inputprobabilities of the estimates defined as follows: pj is a probability (close to zero) of theparameter being less than the lower limit, P2 is the probability (close to one) of the parameterbeing less than the upper limit of the confidence interval.

Determination of two-sided confidence intervals for the mean /i and variance u2 is basedon the probability distribution of a standardized random variable u (char), where charstands for the sample mean m or sample variance s2. The proposed confidence intervals are

1001


expressed in terms of the froctiles u(char^p{) and u(char,p2) of the standardized variableit (char), corresponding to the input probabilities ;>i and p 2 , which may be defined by thefollowing expressions:

Pl = Pr{u{char) < u(chariPl)} (1)p2 ~ Pr{u[ckar) <u(charip2)} (2)

Proposed two-sided confidence interval for the unknown population mean ft can beexpressed as

m - T(p2)u(m,pa)-4= < /i < m - T(px)u{m,pi)~^= (3)y 11 y II

where s is the sample standard deviation and r[pi), T(;J2) are auxiliary coefficients dependingon the above mentioned estimation factors. If the population standard deviation a is known,it shall be used in equation (3) together with the coefficients r(pi) = r(p2) = 1.

Proposed two-sided confidence interval for the unknown population variance cr2 can beexpressed as

As the distribution of the standardized random variable u(s2) has not been obtained ina simple form, an approximation of equation (5) lias been proposed;

* , < J < * ( 5 )

where X2(Pi) and X'2(p2) a r c values of the well known ^-distribution with n — 1 degrees offreedom corresponding to the probabilities p\ and p2\ auxiliary coefficients «(pi) and K[pi)arc again dependent on the above mentioned estimation factors.

Numerical tables which have been developed for coefficients entering equations (3) and(5) assuming the three assumed probability distributions are available in the Klokner Insti-tute of CTU Prague. It appears that the resulting interval estimates are less affected by thetype of distribution than by the coefficient of skewness a, chosen confidence level p2 — p\and sample size n.

References:

[1] VORLfCEK, M.: Mean Value Estimate of Lognormal Distribution (in Czech with anEnglish summary), Stavcbnícky časopis, 1991/9-10, pp. 487-504.

[2] VORLÍCEK, M.: Variance Estimate of Lognormal Distribution (in Czech with an En-glish summary). Stavebnícky časopis, 1991/12, pp. 657-671.

[3] HOLICKÝ, M. - VORLÍCEK, M.: Distribution Asymmetry in Structural Reliability.Acta polytechnica, 1995/3, pp. 75-85.

[4] JOHNSON, N. I.: Distributions in Statistics, Continuous univariate distributions - I.Houghlon Mifllin Company, Boston 1970, 300 p.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Reliability of Structures of theKlokner Institute, CTU Prague as part of the research project "Fuzzy-Probabilistic Conceptof Time Dependent Structural Reliability" and has been supported by GAöR grant No. 103.

1002


MODEL UNCERTAINTYDUE TO VAGUE DEFINITIONS

M. Holický

CTU, Klokncr Institute, Dept. of Reliability of StructuresSolinova 7, 166 03 Pralia 6

Key words: model, uncertainty, vagueness, damage level, randomness, probability, coeffi-cient of model uncertainty

Actual and experimental observations of a structural capacity Y exprcsed in termsof relevant mechanical variables (for example in terms of the resistance or deformationvariables) may differ from outcomes A' of a theoretical model used to analyse the structuralsystem (see previous contributions [1] and [2]). Following general definitions provided bythe international documents [3] and [4], the observation Y may be expressed as

y = 7A' (i)

where 7 denotes the coefficient of model uncertainty. If the outcome of the theoretical modelis complete and exact, and if there is no vagueness in the definition of the actual state Y",then the observation Y can be predicted by the theoretical model X without error and thecoefficient of model uncertainty 7 equals unity. In most cases, however, the model will beincomplete and inexact and, moreover, the definition of the actual state will be vague andimprecise. Then the coefficient 7 will fluctuate depending on various random as well assubjective factors.

Thus, there are essentially two different types of model uncertainty which may affectobserved differences between Y and A': randomness due to incomplete and inexact theo-retical model, and fuzziness of Y due to vague and imprecise definition of actual state. Inthe previous study [1] model uncertainty due to incomplete and inexact theoretical modelwas analyzed considering the coefficient 7 as a random variable defined on the basis of arandom sample of measurement results for variables Y and X. In the presented analysis thetheoretical model is assumed to be complete and exact and only an appraisal of the actualstate Y of the analyzed system is considered to be vague and unprecise. In the following,the structural resistance is considered only. Consequently, numerical examples are limitedto lower extreme values of both variables X and Y.

Vague or imprecise definition of the actual resistance limit Y may be described [2] bybasic tools of the theory of fuzzy sets. It is assumed that the observation of the actualstate Y is characterized by a damage level u which is increasing within a transition region(ViiJ/z)- The damage level J'(y), which is normalized to the conventional interval (0,1), isgradually increasing with increasing value y. If u(y) is a monotonously increasing function ofy, for example a linear function y considered in this presentation, the cumimilative damagefunction $)' (y) can be defined as an weighted average of-the conditional distribution function^Wl/M ovcr the all damage levels u by the integral [2]

(2)

1003


where N is a normalizing factor reducing the cummulative damage function $y(y) into theconventional interval (0,1). For a given value p of the cummulative damage function thecorresponding value yp of the variable V can be determined from the relation

$y(yp) — p (3)

Taking into account equation (I) the value yp may be determined as the 7 multiple ofthe fractile xp of the theoretical model outcome A'. The coefficient of model uncertainty 7is therefore the ratio yP/xp. Assuming /t,v = (y\ + #2)/% uy\v — v~*(y) and ax — ay\v —a = u(t/2 - j/i) the resulting 7 values are for p = 0.001 indicated in Table J, for p = 0.050in Table 2.

(vi-yú/yi

0.10.51.0

w = 0.0

1.051.231.45

w = 0.1

1.031.141.30

w = 0.2

1.021.101.24'

w = 0.3

1.01LOT1.22

Tab. 1: Coefficient 7 for p = 0.001

{yi-y\)ly\

0.10.51.0

1.031.131.22

w = 0.1

1.01LOG1.11

w = 0.2

1.001.021.04

u = 0.3

1.000,990.99

Tab. 2: Coefficient 7 for p - 0.050

It follows from Table 1 and 2 that the coefficient 7 increases with increasing length of t h etransition region (1/1,2/2) and decreasing probability ;; and decreasing standard deviation <r.For t h e probability p = 0.001 an assessment of the coefficient of model uncertainty 7 mayb e expected in the vicinity of 1.2, for probability p = 0.050 in t h e vicinity of 1.1.

References:

[1] HOLICKÝ, M. - VORLÍCEK, M.: Statistical Approach to Model Uncertainties.WORKSHOP 95, pp. 797-798, CTU Prague 1995.

[2] HOLICKÝ, M.: Fuzzy Concept of Serviceability Limit State. In: Symposium/Workshopon Serviceability of Buildings, pp. 19-31, Ottawa, Canada, 1988.

[3] ISO 2394: General Principles for Reliability for Structures.[4] ENV 1991-1; Eurocode 1 - Basis of Design and Actions on Structures - Part 1: Basis

of Design. CBN Druxelles 1904.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Reliability of Structures of theKlokncr Institute, CTV Prague as part of the research project "Fuzzy-Probabilistic Comceptof Time Dependent Structural Reliability" and has been supported by GAŮR grant No. 103.

1004

WORKSHOP 9G RELIABILITY

RELIABILITY AND RISKIN PROJECT EVALUATION

V. Beran

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept, of Constr. Management & EconomicsThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: Simulation, risk, construction management, uncertainty, technology risk, riskallocation, model for construction risk, designed goals and risk, perspectiveson Risk Allocation, elimination of negative impact to goals

The development of construction projects is a difficult task and occasionally they failto perform their intended functions including rare instances of collapse or poor functioning.The reason is the malfunction of performance in the early stages of design. The creationof a bad or the absence of a strategic goal scheme as such seriously influence future eco-nomic results.In this light, risk is generally implicit in all engineering projects. Most of theplanning and design of engineering projects is accomplished without the benefit of completeinformation. Under such conditions it is not technically or economically feasible to ensurethe absolute "safety" of engineering project. The planning and development of a majorproject is a complex exercise in the management of risk.

Managers and decisions-makers solve problems on the basis of information that is ofteninsufficient, inaccurate or unsuitable.

In other words, the process of risk management involves ascertaining that the minimum(worst) supplies condition will remain adequate (by negotiated margins) under a maximumdemand requirement and that constitutes the minimum supply and max-demand conditions.A subjective traditional approach to the min- and max- of supply and demand is difficultto quantify because the level of risk cannot be assessed with hard and fast lines.

The spectrum and diversity of possible application is very high. The Risk Manage-ment of evaluation of the project's value remains probably one the most useful areas ofcommercial engagement. The analysis of risk, sensitivity, and the uncertainty of variantscomparison is going to be a major topic in the advanced stage of management projects.Mostof the problems could be solved by means of simulations. However, the traditional deter-ministic formulas for the calculation of economic values look reasonable and stable and riskcalculation is sophisticated and mathematically advanced, so this kind of calculation cancreate significant and early signals for risk management. The example, in evaluation, ofcosts and gains for a development project might be a good illustration of one reasonableapplication. The question is sensitive due to the possible explosion of risk combinations ofinfluencing factors that may lead to (new) high risks.If changes in the formulation of thetask appear and another calculation seems to be reasonable, then there a recalculation ofthe simulation will be sometimes easy lo develop and elaborate. Risk creating events cansometimes operate compensatorily, in some simulation steps but in some they can operateeven contradictively. The result may be an excessively good or excessively risky sequenceof economic parameters. In our example, an unstable flow of gains (given through costs) isused as a materialized illustration for such situations. The example simulation of cost and

1005


gains simulation results in a signal to stop or go in a development project. The situation ofattached risk has been characterized by oscillation. For details see Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Constr. Management & Eco-nomics as part of the research project "Reliability And Risk In Project Evaluation" and hasbeen supported by CTU grant No. 323.

1006


STOCHASTIC OPTIMIZATIONOF LAMINATED CYLINDERS

P. Procházka, J . Náprstek*, J . Sejnoha

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Structural MechanicsThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

*AS CR, Inst. of Theory and Appl. of Mechanics,Pod vodárenskou věží '1, ISO 00 Praha S

Key words: stochastic prcstrcss of fibers, generalized plane strain

The paper deals with behavior of scalar functional serving for optimization of systemwith stochastically perturbed prestressing forces in layers of cylindrical composite struc-ture. The functional should be approximated, especially in the stationary point area, bya quadratic hypersurface. This fact leads to a considerably non-Gaussian nature of therandom part of the functional, which comes over to the Pearson's xl process. The distancebetween the true optimum and the most probable state is increasing with increasing numberof input parameters burdened by imperfections. As an example, a special form of the objec-tive functional is studied. It represents the variance of stresses of a cylindrical thick-walledlayered structure that are related to the eigenstrcsses (e.g. prestresscs) in individual layers.

Introducing an assumption that the deviations of the input parameters (e.g. thicknessesof layers of a laminated structure, elasticity constants, prestressing forces, etc.) from theirnominal values are not too large, they are Gaussian, centered and moreover, the objectivefunctional in its domain is a continuous and a sufficiently smooth function of these pa-rameters. As we study the problem in some distance from the stationary point, the linearapproximation is not sufficient and we have to employ the quadratic approximation. Con-sequently, the perturbation of these parameters with the Gaussian probability distributioncorresponds to a non-Gaussian probability distribution of the objective functional. Thisproperty has to be accepted, especially at the extrémům point of the functional, whereGaussian curvature appears to be positive.

In the neighborhood of a selected design point yy the value of functional 4> may beapproximated as

1=1 ijssl

where u = y — j / 0 , comma denotes the derivative with respect to y{.The mathematical mean of this functional can be expressed as

where Cy are covariances. For details of the moments of higher degree see [1).Let us consider a layered structure which in undeformed state occupies a domain ii.

The layers are represented by fi,-,i = l,...,n,ri is the number of layers. The hoop stress

1007

WORKSHOP 9Ü RELIABILITY

(er)1 at an arbitrary point x of the domain ÍÍ; rr-.y be expressed as a superposition of hoopstress (a0)1 due to the external loading p and a linear hull of the volume average prcstresscs< Xj > applied in the layers Qj,j = l,,..,m:

i <Ai> 2 = 1 n ,

where (C)J is the influence function. Define Lhe objective functional JUS

Now, let us consider random deviations ty from < Aj >. Then

= *(A0) + £

where 4»(A0) is the value of *!> at the point Ao obtained from the deterministic optimization.The following steps are repeated when manufacturing the prestressed composite cylin-

der: The resin is pored in the layers which are created on a mandrel and the wires arcprestressed. After curing and cooling to room temperature the mandrel is removed.

Assuming statistically independent deviations

u; = (i — l)i/o

then

£{•(»)} = *(w) + CoÉ ••»(».)(«•-i)'

where Co is variance of itg. A reasonable solution must satisfy the condition

*(yo) + tü i> , i iM( i -1)2 < *(A = o)

from that the admissible value of Co can be determined.

References:

[1] NÁPRSTEK, J . - PROCHÁZKA, P.: Eigcnstress optimisation 0}laminated compositeswith stochastic properties, OPTI'95, Florida, USA, 127-136, 1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Mathematics CTU and hist.Theor. Appl. Mech. AS úR as part of the research project "Optimisation of Structures usingTransfonnation Field Analysis" and has been supported by GA Oil grant No. 103/95/1366.

1008


RELIABILITY OF LAMINATED PLATES

A. Feraidon, J . Šejnoha

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Structural MechanicsThákurova 7, 1G6 29 Praha 6

Key words: probability, fiber angle, perturbation, stiffness, lamination parameters

For the obvious advantages such as high strength and high stiffness, the fiber reinforcedcomposite plates have gained in significance in thin-walled structures. Many stiffness-basedstudies have been carried out in order to obtain fiber angles and thicknesses for maximumstiffness, the buckling strength, and the fundamental frequency. Since there are uncertaintieson materi.it properties and loading the reliability-based design is a suitable method foroptimization of composite plates and PFEM is the most effective technique for solving thedynamic, static and nonlinear problems.

Perturbation technique begins by expanding the elements b; of a random vector b aboutthe mean b

bi = 6; + eAfrf (1)

where A6; = b; — £, and £ is a small parameter. The equilibrium equation in PFEM reads

F(r(b),b) = R(b) (2)

where F and R is the internal and the external force, respectively, and b is a random vector.Expanding F, R and r via Taylor scries and retaining terms up to the second order we geta sel of the following equations:Zcro-th order

Fo = Ro (3)

First-order

Second-orderFrr^Ď.r&j + Frfc.r^ + Frbyfy + "Pr^bibj + ^bibj ~ R&i&> (5)

Eq 3 can be solved by a standard incremental approach, then the obtained solution r 0 issubstituted in Eq 4, Eq 5. Solving these two equations we get r&;i n ,^ , respectively. Inorder to derive the limit state function two different cases are considered:

1) Using formula for the buckling load 7Vcr of simple supported plate under uniaxialloading

«—S[* ©'•»• (?)'©'+<)"] »the deflection of an imperfect plate can be expressed as:

(7)

and the limit state function reads

6m a r-«5(b) (8)

1009


2) The limit state function by using Tsai-Wu failure criterion reads

I 1 \ „ , . , . SdbYl . Ss(b)2 5x(b)S„(b)(9)

where the random stresses in k — th layer of a laminated plate can be expressed as:

St(r, b) = T*Q(b)*(i(r(b), b) + z*,c(r(b), b)) (10)

where 5f and S3 are the normal and shear stresses, respectively related to material principaldirections, Tfc is the transformation matrix, Q is the stiffness and zk is the distance betweenmiddle surface and the center of fc-th layer. Random displacement and stress vectors ob-tained are used to calculate the safety index or the failure probability.

(12)

The co-variance matrix of basic variables can be expressed as:

J~OO J -

Iterative methods using first and second order moments of the safety margin and thereliability index ß should be pointed out. If the safety margin is nonlinear, the base ran-dom vector b is transformed into the standard normal vector U, then /3=min(U"TU)1/2 isobtained by Rack

Fig. 1: Reliability as a function of layer angles for CV = 0.05

References;

[1] BITTNAR, Z. - SEJNOHA, J.: Numerical Methods in Mechanics, in print ASCE Press,New York, 1995.

[2] REDDY, M. V. - GRANDIU, R. V. - HOPKINS, D. A.: Reliability-based StructuralOptimization: A Simplified Safety Index Approach, Computers $ Structures, Vol. 53,No. 6, 1994, pp. 1407-1418.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Structural Mechanics, Faculty ofCivil Engineering as a part of the research projects "Reliability-Based Design of CompositePlates and Shells" and "Fuzzy-probabilistic Concept of Time Dependent Structural Reliabil-ity" and has been supported by CTUgrant No. 10018225 and GACR grant No. 103/94/0137.

1010


DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUROF SEMI-PRECAST CONCRETE

STRUCTURES

D. Makovička, J . Smejkal

CTU, Klokner Institute, Dept. of Engineering MechanicsSolinova 7, 166 OS Praha 6

Key words: precast concrete structure, dynamic response, earthquake load, numericalanalysis

The semi-precast technology means creating the bottom parts of the proper structure inproduction plant. In the bottom parts the reinforcement for the final design of the structureis inbuilt; the other reinforcement transfers the shearing forces between precast unit and themonolithic part and the last part of the reinforcement ensures the assembling state. At thesame time the bottom parts fully substitute the flat boarding element for the monolithicstructures. If the structure is correctly designed than the final structure corresponds tomonolithic reinforced concrete in all of its parameters.

The use of this technology appears to be advantageous for area with dynamic loading,too.

If the semi-precast structure is to be dynamically loaded the following condition mustbe fulfilled. All shearing slídings between the precast unit and the monolithic structuralpart must be transferred by means of corresponding reinforcement. In the case of semi-precast plates the reinforcement for assembling states is formed by a special lattice girder.This reinforcement cannot be used for the final calculation of shearing reinforcement. Theshearing sliding are transferred by means of the classic shearing reinforcement - the clips.The contact surface between old and new concrete must be sufficiently roughened. In thedesign of dynamically loaded structures the shearing sliding between old and new concrete isthe most decisive phenomenon in semi-precast parts. Classic shear due to the vertical loadis not decisive for the proper element design. In the regulations for semi-precast part designthe use of girders is therefore limited by reduced limiting classic shear values by means ofwhich the complex calculation shear flow between the semi-precast unit and the monolithis substantially replaced. Using special lattice beams with ceiling structures the fact mustbe taken into account that their loading capacity depends on the sign and the intensityof the load. If the loads act from the bottom upwards the classically mounted beam hasexpressively reduced loading capacity. Therefore further shearing reinforcement must beadded, e.g. by means of little clips in exposed areas. In the case of seismic loading there areclassical lattice beams (e.g. KT800, E and D) in semi-precasted plates in order to ensure thestability of the precast unit inasscmbling state, further special beams (e.g. KTS and EQ)in order to transfer dynamic effects as well as classical shearing reinforcement (e.g. clips) tostrength the transfer of dynamic and static displacement forces.

As an example we have analysed and designed the industrial structure, located in thearea of Kraslice of the earthquake rise of the 7th degree of M.C.S. (Fig. 1). The structureat Kraslice has the floor space dimensions of 100x60m. The two bay production hall

1011


with spans of 18.0 and 24.0 m form the base. At the peripheries the prestressed reinforcedconcrete binder are mounted on columns and in the middle on the continuous beam withspan of 18.0, 24.0 a 18.0 m. A rigid ceiling plate distributes dynamic effects uniformly onsubtile columns. In consequence of creating the semi-precast units for the internal continuosbeam up on the span of 24.0 m in the roof structure, the analogous clamping in longitudinaldirection in the roof level has been ensured and the structure assembling has been madeeasier from the point of view of the assembling means lifting capacity. The semi-precasttechnology application enables greater variableness of supporting structure.

Fig. 1: The lowest cigenmode of vibration (3.5 Hz) of the structure and the correspondingforces to this mode

The earthquake analysis has been made by means of the computer code FEAT 3.1.Recently the structure has been built and the verifying measurement of dynamic effects ofthe textil machines in the building on the structural response is supposed to be carriedoutafter finishing the construction in order to obtain the structure characteristics.

References:

[1] SMEJKAL, J. - MAKOVIC^, D.: Seismic Analysis of Semi-Precast Reinforced Con-crete Structures, Proceeding of the 18th European Regional Earthquake EngineeringSeminar. Lyon, France, 1996, September.

[2] MAKOVICKA, D. - SMEJKAL, J. - MAKOVlCKA, D. J.: Static Response of Semi-Precast Building (in Czech). Stavební obzor 1995 (in redaction).

This research has been conducted at the Department of Engineering Mechanics as partof the research project "Static and Dynamic Response of Semi-Precast Structures underUnordinary Load" and has been supported by IG CVUT grant No. IQlj 8302.

1012


UPGRADING OF CLAY UNITWALL PANEL BUILDINGS

D. Pume , S. Modrý*, V. Moucha**

CTU, Klokner Institute, DepL. of Reliability of StructuresSolinova 7, 166 OS Praha 6,

*CTU, Klokner Institute, Dept. of Concrete TechnologySolinova 7, 1G6 OS Praha 6

¥*Moucha Consulting Office,Divadelní S2S, 531 59 Pardubice

Key words: wall panel building, clay units, assessment

Between 1952-1990, wall panel buildings dominated in residential construction works inthe Czech Republic. Many new achievements in the design and technology of concrete build-ings have been developpcd. At the same time, some negative features, e.g. low habilitationlevel, difficult maintenance, necessity of early reconstruction and modernisation of panelbuildings were obvious. Few attention has been paid to the saving of energy when detailingexternal walls asssembled from various wail panels. The results of such irresponsibility areappearing now in their full extent in many European countries.

About in I960, the production of clay unit wall panels started in some regions of theformer Czechoslovakia (Pardubice, Prague, Brno, central Slovakia), as the result of extenteddevelopment activity of brick producers, structural designers and construction companies.

The storey-height wall panels were produced in the horizontal position in the steelmoulds. The production process consisted iu spreading cement mortar, placing steel re-inforcement and vertically perforated clay units, pouring masonry mortar into all jointsbetween masonry units, applying vibration and pouring the plastering mortar.

It was intended to replace concrete wall panels with poor insulation sheets through thepanels the main part of whose was prefabricated clay masonry.

The main material characteristics of the vertically perforated clay units CDK used inwall panels: dimensions 320(360) x 240 X 113(188) mm volume weight 1250-1350 kg/m2,compressive strength 7 till 10N/mm2, poor or none frost resistance.

The results of extensive loading tests enabled to determine the design compressivestrength of masorny in stretcher and header bond. Also the values of thermal conductivitycoefficients of such walls were studied thoroughly, at that time.

At present, twenty till twenty five years later, the external clay unit wall panels revealmany defects and deteriorations. Their upgrading is urgent.

The defects caused by faulty design, production and assembling of panels were discov-ered and classified, as follows:

• the fixed position of reinforcing bars was not designed, neither achieved during pro-duction; consequently, the cover of many bars was unsuflicient,

• the actual lay-out of clay units and reinforcement did not meet the requirements ofdesign documentations,

1013


• the stiffness of bars connecting the wall panels with the inner structure was superfluous,

• the joints between the external wall panel enabled water penetration into the walls,

• the low compressive strength of clay units was accompanied by the absence of frostre-sistance.

The most frequent failures have been assessed and classified:

• extensive deterioration of joints, penetration of water and other damaging agents,

• delamination of external mortar rendering,

• frost deterioration of clay units (very dangerous in external loadbearing gable shearwalls),

• heavy corrosion of steel reinforcement.

As the result of research activities, the rules for upgrading clay units external wallpanels have been compiled.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Reliability and at the Departmentof Concrete Technology in cooperation with Moucha Consulting Oßice supported by theMinistry of Economy of the Czech Republic.

1014


MECHANICAL PROPERTIESOF MASONRY CLAY UNITS

AND MORTARS

M. Holický, D. Pume, M. Vorlicek, P . Bouška*

CTU, Kiokncr Institute, Dcpt. of ReliabilitySolinova 7, 166 OS Praha 6,

*CTU, Kiokncr Institute, Dept. of StructuresSolinova 7, 166 OS Praha 6

Key words: clay units, mortars, stress-strain relationship

Kiokncr Institute CTU Prague takes part in the international joint research project"ATEM - Advanced Testing of Masonry" (COPERNICUS C1PA - CT 94-0174). Thecoordinator of the project is Prof. G. N. Pande, Department of Civil Engineering, UniversityCollege of Swansea, United Kingdom.

The main aim of the project is "to contribute towards increased homogenisation ofdesign practices through Eurocodes on Masonry and to introduce computer modelling tech-niques for the designer and assessment of masonry".

Masonry is a traditional building material which is widely used in the constructionindustry throughout Europe, for structural and non-structural purposes. Masonry involvestwo main components - masonry units and mortar. According to the terminology in theEurocode 6, masonry is an assemblage of masonry units laid in a specified pattern and joinedtogether with mortar. The broad variety in patterns of laying masonry units, in joining themtogether by means of mortar, and in the characteristic;) of both components has been themain reason of the prevailing empirical basis for the design of masonry structures.

During the last 15 years, some studies iiave been elaborated in order to understandmore rationally the structural behaviour of masonry. Most of them have tried succesfullyto transfer theoretical research conducted for composite materials to masonry [1, 2]. Insome studies, the results of extensive experimental research on masonry under uniaxialcompression have been evaluated [3].

The joint research ATEM aims "to form collaborative links between universities, re-search institutes and industry" in the United Kingdom, Italy, Poland, Slovenia and theCzech Republic. It is subdivided into three main activities.

Activity L Development and Verification of Testing Methods. Under this activity, thepartners will disseminate information and work towards development and verification of uni-fied testing methods for determination of basic mechanical properties of masonry materials.

Activity II. Setting up of a European Data Bank of Masonry Properties. A EuropeanMasonry Data Bank (EMDAB] on the properties of masonry materials will be initiated.

Activity III- Development of a Rational Constitutive Model for Masonry. Two types ofanalysis will be studied. The first type of analysis is the application of the standard finiteelement analysis when each brick and mortar joint is discretiscd. The only need is for aconstitutive law for masonry units and mortar. The second type of analysis uses restricting

1015


the number of elements, and "averaging" the stress-strain relationships of masonry iindmortar joints. The analysts of large masonry structures using small computers will beenabled.

Klokner Institute will take part in the Activities I and II, a« follows.

Within Activity 1, Klokner Institute will participate in testing masonry clay units(bricks) and mortars. The Institute has elaborated the proposal of the scope of test proce-dures. It involves the experimental evaluation of the following mechanical properties:

a masonry units: stress-strain diagram in compression and tension, modulus of elasticity,shear modulus, compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength (calculated, notmeasured),

• mortars (two types): properties of fresh mortar, properties of hardened mortar -stress-strain diagram in compression, modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, comprcs-sivc strength, tensile strength.

Within Activity II, Klokiier Institute will prepare research report on statistical methodsfor evaluation and operational use of data stored in the Database.

References:

[1] M1DDLETON, J. - PANDE, G. J.: Proceedings of Computer Methods in StructuralMasonry. (Editors) Vol. 1. PubL Books -f- Journals Intl, Swansea, 1991, 252 pp.

[2] KRALJ, B. - MIDDLETON, J. - PANDE, G. N.: A numerical Study of Shape Factorsusing the Finite Element Method. In: Proc. Computer Methods in Structural Masonry.Vol. 2. Publ. Books + Journals Intl, Swansea, 1993, pp. 90-99

[3] PUME, D.: Compressive strength of masonry made from Czech clay units producedbetweeen 1955 and 1992. Acta Polytechnics Vol. 34 (1994), 3, pp. 19-36

This research has been conducted as the part of the international joint research project«ATEM - Advanced Testing of Masonry" (COPERNICUS CIPA - CT 94-0174).

1016


LONG-TERM MONITORINGOF EFFICIENCY OF BRIDGE

STRENGTHENING BY MEANS OFWIRE STRAIN GAUGES

V. Hrdousek, V. Kuknii, L. Podolka, J . Záruba*

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Concrete Structures & BridgesThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

*CTU, Klokner Institute, Dept. of Concrete & Masonry StructuresSolinova 7, 166 08 Praha 6

Key words: strengthening, wire strain gauge, reliability

The purpose of the grant project is the assessment of the possibility of long-term mon-itoring of the function of prestressing bars used for the strengthening of bridges. For thispurpusc the wire strain gauges were selected, developed in the Klokner Institute of CTUand used in different variants for the measurements of building structures. For the monitor-ing of reactivated cracks the Klokner Intitule develop a tandem strain gauge used for theproof of insignificance of structural damage by the crack which had originated before thepretensiouing of the structures.

Strain gauges were placed on two bridges in Hradce Králové, In 1993 eight strain gaugeswere mounted on dia. 26 mm HPT bars strengthening the bridge deck members of the R.C.arch bridge (Fig. 1.), in 1994 four strain gauges were mounted on the bars of the same typeand diamater strengthening the crossbeam and two main girders of the composite structure.

Mechanical quantifies were read by the AD-SYS wire measuring set (produced byIng. J. Švanda, CSc).

In October, 1995, after two years of operation, control measurements were made on thearch bridge. The structure was repeatedly loaded by one TATRA lorry of overall weight of22.5 tonnes. The position of the vehicle was so selected as to produce maximum possiblestresses in the individual structural members on which the wire strain gauges are perma-nently mounted. The initial measurements were made in 1993 in the framework of the staticloading test.

In the course of the loading test the following characteristics were monitored:

• mobolity, which is obvious from the whole test history. The traffic on the bridge wasnot restricted substantially, even though the bridge is traversed by trolleybuses of the publictransport system. The preparations for the measurements - the connection of measuringset (connection of outlets under the bridge and their wiring to the reading set mounted onthe sidewalk) to 8 strain gauges lasted about one hour. The loading vehicle was placed onthe bridge in the timetable break between two trolleybus drives, and the reading of wirefrequencies did not last more than 2 minutes. After load relief the zero readings were madeduring the internal when no vehicle traversed the bridge - a situation enabled by standardtraffic on the bridge.

1017


• accuracy and sensitivity of wire strain gauges, which had been proved already duringthe static loading test in 1993 and preserved the continuity of measurements also aftertwo years. The static loading test was followed by finishing works and the application ofprotective plaster coat to the bridge soffit, which increased the dead load of the structure.This manifested itself in change of forces in the bars. The effects produced during controlmeasurements can be comp.ared with a similar loading state during the static loading test.

• influence of side effect. It is an advantage that during the short test period nosubstantial change of climatic conditions take place. In the course of the test both airtemperature and air humidity were stable. There was also no wind, as a result of which theconditions for the measurements were ideal.

• long-term reliability was proved by six functional out of eight initially mounted straingauges. The failure of two wire strain gauges only for all their refinement can be considereda success with regard to all construction works carried out after their installation.

After two years the test equipment has proved the high long-term reliability of wirestrain gauges and the stability of measurements even in unfavourable climatic conditions.At the same time it has been proved that smh control measurements can by performed withminimum interference with the trafic. The measured values make it possible to concludethat bars used for the strengthening of the structure are fulfilling their purpose.

3500 7CQ&

Fig. I: Cross section of the Bridge and the additionally strengtheningST wire strain gauges

References:

[1] HRDOUŠEK, V. - BOHÁČ, R.: Repair of the Concrete Bridge in Hradec Králové, Pro-ceeding of the First Slovak Conference on Concrete Structures, pp. 382 - 380, Bratislava1994.

[2] HIIDOUSEK, V.: Reconstruction Moravian Bridge in Hradec Králové, Proceeding ofthe Conference - Topical Problems of Building Design and Maintenance, pp. 127 - 132,Heriany 1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Concrete Structures and Bridgesas part of the research project "Teorctical Basic and Checking Methods of Bridge Recon-struction" and has been supported by GTU grant No, 10018159.

1018


FEASIBILITY STUDY OF ACTIVERAILWAY TRACK SUPPORT

M. Holický, F. Čermák

CTU, Klokncr Institute, Dept. of ReliabilitySolinova 7,166 08 Praha 6

Key words: bridge, active support, high speed train

The requirement to maintain a minimum speed across European network of high speedtrains imposes, among various requirements, very stringent demand on the railway trackgeometry. The requirement of small deformability is particularly difficult to achieve whenthe track is resting on a bridge structure.

Many existing bridges are expected to be characterised by unacceptable deflectionsand vibration under the high speed environment. Strengthening or repair of such bridgestructures is not exonomically feasible due to a large number of structures involved. In thecircumstances, it is desirable to develop an alternative solution.

The proposed project aims, through collaborative effort, to investigate the feasibility ofan innovative approach based on the active support of the railway trucks. Such an activesupport system, positioned between the tracks and the bridge structure, should allow foradequate tracks geometry e.g. vertical alignment to be maintained during the train passage,simultaneously reducing tracks vibrations. The main advantage of this approach is that,where applicable, no modification to the bridge structure will be necessary. Moreover, thesame concept could be used for the design of new rail bridges.

Active supports are assumed to improve ability of a structure to comply with variousrequirements and increase its realiability. Considering possible applications of active sup-ports in railway bridges the following requirements concerning structural and traffic aspectsof railway bridges seem to be the most relevant;

- safety including fatigue of bridges,- serviceability including traffic safety and passenger comfort,- durability of bridges,- noise of bridges,- maximum moving dimensions,- bridge maintenance,- track maintenance,- economy.

It should be noted that using active supports in a bridge, some of the above-mentionedaspects may be afFccted favourably, the others unfavourably. For example active supportsmay reduce amplitudes of working stress, cumulative damage and deformations of the rail-way bridges and thus improve their safety, serviceability, durability and noise, At the sametime they may unfavourably affect the maximum moving dimensions, maintenance of thebridge and the track and the overall economy.

1019


The active support system will involve combination of passive and active control, re-alised by a system of visco-elastic dampers and hydraulic actuators. The sensors, measuringdeflections in real time, allows to control the actuators embedded in each individual sleeper(the sleeper behaves as a "smart" beam) thus providing vertical adjustment to the trackgeometry.

The feasibility assessment of active support concept involves a highly multi-disciplinaryapproach which will include a wide range of activities, such as:

(i) structural analysis and control,

(ii) strategy for active real time shape control,

(iii) design and production of a prototype electronic system, (iv) design and production ofa prototype "smart" sleeper (support beams).

Relevant know-how, while to a large extent already existing, is fragmented and wide-spread. Consequently, a significant part of the project will be concerned with the informationgathering and knowledge transfer. This will provide effective environment for collaborationand joint research work among participating organisations.

It is expected the study will confirm that a successfully developed methodology foractive tracks support has the potential to bring substantial benefits, in terms of cost savingsand standardisation, to all countries participating in the programme for the European highspeed train.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Reliability, Klokner Institute aspart of the international joint research project COPERNICUS CIPA GT 94-0186.

1020

Section 19

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

AND TECHNOLOGY

WORKSHOP 96 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGY

GEOMETRY OPTIMALIZATIONOF COMPOUND FORMING DIES

M. Forejt, J. Krejčová, R. Kapitánova

TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Institute of TechnologyTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: compound die, stress strain analysis, overlap, opümalization, FEM

Dies, used in extreme conditions of cold volume forming of steels, require excessiveprestress accomplished by large overlaps. Necessary prestress cannot be attained by ordinarytechnical means that use only one bandage. The project includes theoretical analysis of thedesign optimalization of the compound die with two sleeves. It is based on the maximumpermissible stress intensities in critical regions of die and bandages.

During the first year, mathematical model of parameters optimization for compounddie with two bandages was created. In due course, first version of program OPTIMAL waswritten. The program is in the root form and it is compiled in TURBO PASCAL. Presently,it is being transformed into Borland Pascal for Windows 7.0, with the aim to simplify users7

version. The optimalization is based on

• observing the actual technological requirements (e.g., the inner diameter of die is fixedby the dimensions of the product, outer diameter by the bore of "matrix" block offorming press).

• Material selection for die and bandages and their thermochcmical treatment withrespect to:

• Complying with load (safety) requirements of all components of compound die simul-taneously. In other words, the solutions are sought that ensure that effective stress incritical regions of all components attain permissible load simultaneously.

^effective = Vptrmitiihle

Algorithm incorporates alternatives of plasticity conditions (Mohr condition of brittlestrength, HMH, Tmax). Mathematical model is based on generally accepted Lamé equationsand, for each component, from rationalization of external compression stress so that thecarrying capacity is not exceeded.

Computation evolution scheme is:

Input of initial material and geometric parameters ofdie and 1. and 2. bandage

Selection of plasticity conditions:Mohr PKP condition for cemented carbides

Energy. HMH or Maximum shear stress for steels

Interval definition:(suggested 1.8-2.2), P, (suggested 1600-2000)

1023


| Calculation of P 3 and P 3 |

Selection of optimal values: Pi, R1/R2

Calculation of strains (con)pressive or tensile), of overlaps for each componentOperating conditions, 1, bandaging, 2. bandaging

I Calculation of dimensions: die, 1. bandage, 2. bandage |

Calculation of annealing temperature for: 1. bandage for 1. bandaging

Calculation of annealing temperature for: 2. bandage for 2. bandaging

Calculation of simple safety and minimal safety for:die, 1. bandage, 2. bandage

Output of protocol containing: input data computed values ofOperating conditions, 1. bandaging, 2. bandaging, encapsulation

Calculation of stress, prcstress, and safety dependencies fordie, 1. bandage, 2. bandage (Operating conditions)

Calculation of stress, prcstress, ami safety dependencies fordie, 1. bandage, 2. bandage (I. bandaging)

Calculation of stress, prcstress, and safety dependencies fordie, 1. bandage, 2. bandage (2. bandaging)

Graphic output of stress, prestrcss, and safety dependencies fordie, 1. bandage, 2. bandage

The real machine part and technology were chosen to verify the results obtained byOPTIMAL; the selected technology was direct extrusion combined with upsetting whichimpose extreme requirement on die strength during last stages of forging into closed diecavity. In due course, the combined tool was designed. In the next year, the users' versionof the software OPTIMAL will be completed. This program will make the optimal designof combined dies for extreme loadings possible. The stress-strain state will be verified byFEM program PROKOP/PC. The tool will be made for experimental part production inHeavy Forming Laboratory of Department of Forming.

References:

[1] FOREJT, M.: On optimatization of service life of compound dies and method of theirDESIGN Habilitation Thesis. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering TU Brno, 1995 (inCzech).

[2] KREJČOVÁ, J. - FOREJT, M.: Program OPTIM pro optimalizaci lisovnicc s jednouobjímkou FS VUT Brno, 1991

77tis rcscai'ch has been conducted at the institute Technology as part of the researchproject "Optinialization of Geometric Parameters of Compound Forming Tools" and hasbeen supported by TU grant No. FP359S63.

1024

WORKSHOP 96 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS fc TECHNOLOGY

THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGICALCONDITIONS AND TESTINGGEOMETRY ON THE COLD

FORMABILITY OF SELECTED STEELS

L. Janiček, J . Fidler, R. Hudec*

TU, Fac. of Mechanical EngMIMT, Dept. of Metal FormingTechnická 2, C16 69,Brno

*TU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng.,IME, Dept. of Material ScienceTechnická 2, GIG 69 Brno

Key words: formability, failure limit diagram, compression test, stress-strain relationship,volume fraction of voids

The maximum reduction in height odtainablc in upsetting operations, such as heading,is limited by the onset of cracking on the expanding free surface. This maximum reductionis dependent upon: the interfacial friction betveen the dies and workpicce, the geometry ofthe workpiccc, the nature of the free surface and the ductility of the work material which isinfluenced by its prior deformation history. These variables arc diskusscd in relation to themaximum reduction possible before the onset of surface cracking.

Cold forging of cilindical specimens is studied. The state of strain at the equatorialsurface of the specimens was evaluated in interruped compression tests until cracking oc-curcd. The level of strain at crack initiation defines the failure limit for the particulartesting condition used. In this way the surface strain to crack initiation - failure limit - wasdetermined for a range of deformation modes which are relevant to industrial cold forming.Tree types of Cr-Ni steels (17255, 17246 and 17248) were used to detemine failure limitsfor different specimens geometries, friction between specimens and dies and geometry ofnotches on the specimens. The specimens had an initial height-diameter ratio of between1.2 and 1.7 (d = const.). The friction conditions were used smooth platens and groovedplatens. Failure limit diagrams were determined for specimens with axial v-shaped notcheswith different depths (0.4 mm and 0.8 mm). The notches acted as strain concentrators andaccelerated crack initiation. The notches were used to model surface defects. In the caseof very ductile materials, as in the present study, where cracking occurs for very large de-grees of upsetting for smooth specimens, notches can be used to obtain failure at reductionswhich are easier to evaluate from a practical point of view. It can be said that the failurelimit diagram based on the global circumferential strain ought to be the most interestingdiagram from a technological point of view. It illustrates the ductility limit of specimenswith a certain defect such as a notch. The global failure limit for notched specimens is thusa measure of the notch sensitivity.

If on the other hand we wish to understand material behaviour up to the failure limitwe should study the diagram based on local srains. This diagram illustrates the state ofstrain experienced by the material element which ultimately fractures. The ductility of thematerial is thus characterized by the local failute limit. The linear relationship was found

1025

WORKSHOP 9G PRODUCTION SYSTEMS fc TECHNOLOGY

between the local circumferential strain at the notch and the global circumferential strain atthe free surface equator of the specimens. This relationship was found to be independent ofthe specimen geometry and lubrication condition between platens and specimen but sronglydependent of the depth of the notch. The relationship can be used to predict strain pathfor specimens with different depth of the notches. In order to determine the crack initiationcriterion, a void growth model was used to describe the softening of the material. The Riceand Traccys model for void growth was used in present paper. One reason for fhe betteragreement with experimental results when R.-T. model for void growth was used can IHÍthat this model takes botli the influence of efective strain and the stale of stress on voidgrowth into account.

The stress states at the equatorial surfaces and notches of the upset specimens were cal-culated from measured strain paths and measured flow stress curve. In order to predict thefailure limits for a wider range of reductions that those obtained in the experimental failurelimit diagrams, the experimental surface strain path were extrapolated to larger degrees ofreduction. For the extrapolation a. polynomial of order 2 was fitted to the experimentalstrain paths for all types tested steels. The calculated and experimental failure limit wereindicated on graphs of stress state. The fracture model predicts that the void volume atfailure is between 2 and 7 % if the particle content is between 5 and 20 %. The model showswhy the local failure limit in the presentee of notches is lower than for smooth specimens.A satisfactory agreement was found between experimental determined failure limits, theo-retical calculations based on experimental strain paths, and void initiation and growth forall testing steclf.

References:

[1] JANÍČEK, L. et al.: The Influence of Notches,Testing Geometry and Friction Condi-tions on the Cold Forgcability of Heat Resisting and Corrosion Resisting Steels. Proc.of the Int. Conference EUROMETALWORKING 9*1, pp. 09-1-S, Udinc, Italy, 1994

[2] JENNER, A. - DODD, 13.: Cold Upsetting and Free Surface Ductility. 3. MechanicalWorking Technology, 5-19SI, pp. 31-43, Amsterdam, Holland

[3] OLSSON, K. - KARLSSON, S. - MELANDER, A.: The Influence of Notches, Test-ing Geometry, Friction Conditions and Microstructure on the Cold Forgcabtlity of LowCarbon Steels. Scandinavian J. of Mettalurgy, 15, pp. 238-256, 19S6, Denmark

[4] EDELSON, B. I. - BALDWIN, W. M.: The Effect of Second Phases on the MechanicalProperties of Alloys, Transaction of the ASM Vol. 55, pp. 230-250, 19G2

This research has been conducted at the Department of Metal Forming as part of theresearch project "The Influence of Longitudial Notches,Friction Conditions and Geometryof Testing Specimens on the Cold Formability of Selected Materials" and has been supportedby TU Brno FME grant No. FS 359565.

1026


EMBOSSED CIRCULAR GRIDS

R. Čada

VSB - TU Ostrava, Fac. of Mechanical Engineering, Dept. of Mechanical Technologytřída 17. listopadu 15, 708 33 Ostrava-Poruba

Key words: circular grid, embossing, sheet-metal, deep-drawing, plastic deformation, im-pression, apparatus, blank, strain, pattern, network

The grid-marking system provides a most useful method for identifying critical zonesof deformation on difficult workpieccs. Measurements and visualization of strain patternsmake possible to locate and eliminate the causes of many breakage problems. When workingin the limiting zones of deformation where there is a danger of necking or the formation ofcracks, it is possible by step-by-step analysis to identify critical points so that appropriatemeasures can be taken. Thus, this basically empirical method, is an aid to optimising, atminimum cost, the manufacture of, and the manufacturing technique for, the production ofhigh-quality components.

An ideal grid system is non-directional. A circle - the simplest pattern - is alwayscorrectly oriented to furnish the maximum strains directly. When the material is strained,the circle becomes an ellipse. The two principal strain directions are vividly indicated by themajor and minor axes of the ellipse. Further, by measuring the major and minor axes andcomparing with the original circle diameter, the relative strain in each direction is readilydetermined. The onset of fracture in the principal axis of strain is governed by the degree ofstretching in both the major and minor axes. By examining a number of pressings and deepdrawings exhibiting failure, limiting strain curves may be constructed for each material inuse. Subsequently, the strain values for a new pressing or deep drawing may be referred tothe graph and the reliability of the unit readily predicted.

It is possible to make circular grids by photographic method, printing (serigraphy,offset, rubber stereotyping, chemical etching, electrolytic etching, elcctroerosive sparker,graving and embossing. The differences among separate methods of circular grids makingare in drawing thickness, reproduction accuracy, possibility to make network with smallparameters, legibility after great plastic deformation, etc.

Every method, mentioned above, do not offer at practical use only advantages. Thatis why every method has its chracteristic and suitable use in practice. The generally validprinciple is, that such method of making circular grids is to be used, which guaranteesgetting of network with required quality and minimal cost.

The method of making circular grids by embossing, which has been known till now,consists in using cylindrical embossing tool without head. A cylindrical metal peace hasbeen used for guarantee of embossing tool perpendicularity to the sheet-metal plane. Theprincipal disadvantage of this method has consisted in the fact, that it has not been possibleto regulate the impression depth, so it has not been possible to guarantee making of certainnumber of absolutely uniform impressions. At making grids on thin sheets a great localplastic deformation and arising of notches has occured in places of deeper impressions.

1027

WORKSHOP 96 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS k TECHNOLOGY

The disadvantages, mentioned above, have been removed by constructing of specialapparatus for embossing of circular grids. The apparatus is author's invention (CZ PatentNo. 265048).

The apparatus for making impressions consists of three main parts - head, centralscrew-nut and basic body, which are joined by threads with different lead. The embossingtool has a. stop contact surface in its upper part.

By suitable selected difference of threads lead in apparatus head and in basic body it ispossible to achieve arbitrary fineness regulation of the whole apparatus height and by thatregulation of the depth of impression. The change largeness of the whole apparatus heightup to one turning of central screw-nut is divided into definite number of sections. Everysection is up to definite equal angle of turning of central screw-nut. By suitable selectedexternal diameter of central screw-nut it is possible to use knurlink for making scale lines.

Separate scale lines of the central screw-nut are put out under edge of arm, which isfastened to apparatus head by two screws. After putting out the whole apparatus heightit is possible to fix the position of central screw-nut by three fix screws in basic body. Theapparatus head has a stop contact surface for stop contact surface of the embossing tool.

The apparatus for embossing of circular grids guarantees perpendicularity of embossingtool to the sheet-metal plane and by that uniform impression of the whole embossing tooledge shape, it makes possible to regulate steplessly the impression depth with accuracy of0.01mm. The apparatus makes possible an exact establishing on required place of futureimpression, which has been marked on sheet-metal plane in advance, with the use of loweredges of rectangular slot in basic body and simultaneously with the use of two lines onperiphery of lower part of basic body.

With the described apparatus accurate, clear and permanent circles can be applied tothe sheet simply, very quickly, without the use of a power source. The apparatus has smalldimensions and so it is portable, its cost is low.

Suitable adjustment of apparatus for making impressions is between impression depth0.05 and 0.06 mm. This depths of the impressions are minimum with respect to endeavourof minimum sheet-metal influence by deformation in places of impressions with contempo-raneous guarantee of a good legibility even after great plastic deformation of material.

No evidence has been accumulated which would suggest that embossing circular gridsby special apparatus, mentioned above, causes premature failure in pressing and studies offractures do not suggest that they initiate from a mark or propagate along them.

References:[1] CADA, R.: Analysis of Stress and Strain During Deep Drawing of Oval Paraboloid

Headlamp Reflectors 5620.74 for Passenger Cars VAZ 2105. (Scientific technical re-port). Ostrava, VŠB 1990.

[2] R1VENAES, U.: Simple und Cheap Gridmarking. Sheet Metal Industries, Vol. 51,1974,No. 3, pp. 132-138.

[3] LARSEN, B.: Photo-Chemical Etching of Circular Grids. Sheet Metal Industries,Vol.51, 1974, No. 3, pp. 139-142.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Mechanical Technology, Facultyof Mechanical Engineering, VSB - TV Ostrava as a part of the research project "Elaborationof Method for Evaluation of Sheet-metal Formability and its Experimental Verification onDeep Stampings with the Use of Method of Deformation Networks" and has been supportedby Grant Agency of Czech Republic (grant No. 101/95/1174).

1028

WORKSHOP 9C PRODUCTION SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGY

MEASUREMENT OF ELEMENTSOF DEFORMATION NETWORKS

R. Čada

VSB - TU Ostrava, Fac. of Mechanical Engineering, Dept. of Mechanical Technologytřída 17. listopadu 15, 708 33 Ostrava-Poruba

Key words: network, embossing, sheet-metal, deep-drawing, plastic deformation, impres-sion, apparatus, blank, strain, pattern, circular grid, microhardness

It is possible to make circular grids by embossing with the use of special apparatus,which is author's invention (CZ Patent No. 265048). The apparatus makes possible toregulate stcplessly the impression depth with accuracy of 0.01mm. At making circulargrids on thin sheet-metal, the apparatus makes possible to achieve minimum impressiondepth and simultaneously uniform impression of the whole embossing tool edge shape.

At drawing of intricate shape stampings from steel deep-drawing sheets the using ofimpression depths between 0.05 mm and 0.06 mm proved true, which guarantee minimumsheet-metal influence by deformation in places of impressions witli contemporaneous goodlegibility even after great plastic deformation of material. That is why the sizes of impres-sions and the influence of embossed circular grids upon sheet-metal properties have beendetermined for two cases of adjustment of apparatus for making impressions - on impressiondepth 0.06 mm and 0.05 mm.

For establishing of the impression initial diameter Lo ten circular impressions of de-formation network were embossed on thin sheet from steel 11305.21 by special apparatusfor making impressions, adjusted on impression depth O.OCmm. The initial diameters ofimpressions Xo were measured on horizontal linear measurement apparatus IZA-2 (productof the U.S.S.R.). The resulting value LQ — 4.873 mm was calculated as an arithmetic meanfrom ten measurements.

In order to establish the impression sizes the impressions were embossed on sheet-metalwith thickness of 0.90 mm from steel 11305.21 by apparatus for making impressions, ad-justed on impression depth 0.05 mm and then on 0.06 mm. Every sample was cut out so, thatcircular impression has been bisected by cut surface. Then degreasing, embedding, machineemery grinding and fine felt polishing were carried out. In both cases unetched metallo-graphic samples from thickness of sheet-metal, on which the impression edge is contrast andby that suitable for measurement, were photographed and measured.

In order to judge the microstructures of sheets in places of impressions the metallo-graphic samples from thickness of sheet-metal with embossed impression etched by 3 %Nital solution, i.e. 3% solution of nitric acid IINO3 (density 1.4g/cm3) in ethyl alcoholC2H5OH, were carried out. Felt polishing and etching were generally three times repeated.The photographs of etched metallographic samples with magnification 250 x were carriedout on microscope Neophot 2 (Carl Zciss Jena). On photographs the deformed ferrite grainwith lamellar pcarlite on grain lines were visible in the impression surroundings.

For establishing of plastic deformation influence upon sheet-metal in places of impres-sions the microhardness tests according to Vickers at one with the Czech State Standard420375 were carried out on etched metallographic samples from shcet-mctal thickness with

1029


embossed impression. For microhardncss tests the microscope Neophot 2 with equipmentfor microhardness testing MHP 100, i.e. exchangeable objective Apochromat 32x/0.65-0.30with built-in diamond pyramid and eyepiece K 15x with load scale and with cross hairs forlengths of indentations diagonals measurement, was used. At microhardness testing the loadof 0.0981 N, which was chosen at one with the Czech State Standard 420375 with regard tothe thickness of tested sample, was used. At every indentation the condition, that chosenload may act from 10 to 15 seconds, was kept.

After exchange of objective Apochromat 32x/0.65-0.30 with built-in diamond pyramidby objective Planachromat 25x/0.50 the lengths oí diagonals of separate indentations weremeasured at magnification 500x in scale divisions. Then the lengths of diagonals in scale di-visions were converted on micrometres according to proportion constant k — 0.250, declaredby equipment producer. From table of microhard nesses, enclosed to testing equipment, thevalues of microhardness IIV 0.01 were deducted up to separate lengths of indentationsdiagonals.

At adjustment of apparatus on impression depth 0.05 nun the medium microhardnessof ferrite grains at shcct-mctal surface IIV 0.01 = 125.83 and the medium mierobardncssin the place of impression IIV 0,01 = 139.35, were found out. From comparison follows,that in the place of impression the medium microhardness is 10.7% as large again than atsheet-metal surface. The largest value of IIV 0.01 = 153.25 was found at indention, whichappears in the lowest place of the impression.

At adjustment of apparatus on impression depth 0.06mm the medium microhardnessof fcrrite grains at sheet-metal surface IIV 0.01 = MS.00 and the medium microhardnessin the place of impression IIV 0.01 = 1G6.3S, were found out. From comparison follows,that in the place of impression the medium microhardness is 12.4% as large again than atsheet-metal surface. The largest value of IIV 0.01 = 185.44 was found at indention, whichappears at the internal side of the impression.

In both cases of apparatus adjustment from measured values of IIV 0.01 in directionnormal to the sheet-metal surface in the place under impression and in surroundings followed,that by embossing of impression on sheet-metal the substantial influence upon fcrrite grainmicrohardness does not happened deeper under sheet-metal surface.

References:

[1] ČADA, 11.: Analysis of Stress and Strain During Deep Drawing of Oval ParaboloidHeadlamp Reflectors 5620.14 for Passenger Cars VAZ 2105. (Scientific technical re-port). Ostrava, VSB 1990.

[2] R1VENAES, U.: Simple and Cheap Gridmarking. Sheet Metal Industries, Vol. 51, 1974,No. 3, pp. 132-138.

[3] VEERMAN, C. - HARTMAN, L. - PEELS, J.: Determination of Appearing and Ad-- missiblc Strains in Cold-Reduced Sheds. Sheet Metal Industries, Vol. 48, 1971, No. 9,

pp. 678-694.t

This research has been conducted at (he Department of Mechanical Technology, Facultyof Mechanical Engineering, VSß - TU Ostrava as a part of the research project "Elaborationof Method for Evaluation of Shcct-mctal Formabiiity and its Experimental Verification onDeep Stampings with the Use of Method of Deformation Networks" and has been supportedby Grant. Agency of Czech Republic (grant No. 101/95/1(74).

1030


THE TESTING OF THE FOOTWEARFOR DIABETICS

P. Hlaváček, F. Langmaier, E. Záhumenský*

VUT Brno, Fac. of Technology Zlín, Dept. of Leather TechnologyTGM 275, 762 72 Zlín

*Bata Hospital, Internal ClinicHavlíčkovo nábř. 4, 7C0 00 Zlín

Key words: shoes, testing, diabetes mellitus

Introduct ion. An unsuitable Footwear is very often the immediate cause of the diabeticfeet ulceration.

Special footwear suitable for neuroischemic diabetic feet has been developed by thespecialists of the Biomechanical laboratory of the Technological Faculty of the TechnicalUniversity in Zlín in cooperation with the diabetologists of the Internal Clinic IPVZ (Insti-tute of Postgradual of Medical Workers), cooperating center WHO for study of diabetes atZlín, Czech. Republic.

The design thereof has been created in common by prominent Czech shoe designers.One of the styles has been awarded by the KABO-Prix on the Consumption Goods Fair ofCentral Europe KABO 95 (the first award which has ever been given to a on-fash ion ableitem in the history of this fair).The test series thereof has been produced by SVIT Ltd.,Zlín.

Characterization of the prophylactic footwear for pacients with neuroischemic diabeticfeet:

The design of such footwear has been done start ing from

• a more extensive measurement of the diabetics feet (500 pacicnts)• respecting the main risks of the neuroischemic diabetic foot• distribution and reduction of local pressures on the foot plantar surface by means of

a three-layer sock lining• limitation of the "shearing stress" of the soft plantar tissues of the feet using a special

self-shaping sock lining• sufficient (extended) space of footwear at the spot, of the metatarsophalangeal joint• increased vertical space in footwear, possibility of using and adequate sock lining• minimizing of sewn seams at the spot of flexuring the footwear upper due to the

elimination of local pressures• soft cushioning at the spot of the top upper edge (avoiding the penetration of small

stones into the footwear)• using lining with antimycotic treatment and with increased capability of maintaining

the values of relative humidity to avoid the skin cracking• profiled inner heel seat insert for improving the side stability

1031


• antiskid sole capable or damping power impacts occuring during wear

• upper style enabling the adaptation of footwear to the daily changes of the fcctsvolumes

Testing of footwear. The footwear has been given to the selected risk diabetics withthe syndrom of a diabetic foot, the evaluation there of has been done by a repeated clinicalexamination and quessstion foms.

Characterization of the group of diabetics of the lind type after the 3.5 year following:

• Total number 44 (31 men and 13 women)

• Average age (years) 64.7 + 13.1

• Average time DM II (years) 13.3 + 7.6

• Affection of peripheral arteries of theee lower limbs 32

• Diabetic neuropathy (clin.) 38

• Defect anammesis 10

Other characteristics ensuing from the examination and evaluation of the question formsof the pacients of the tested group:

Limitation of callosities and blisters 35 pacicntsImproved comfort 44 pacicntsDelayed fatigue when walking 34 pacientsImproved dysaesthesia 23 pacientsReduced joint pains 15 pacientsIncreased ssstability 34 pacients

A group of 10 probands with diagnosis of prcvius liberations:During the period of 3.5 years there has been observed a relapse with 2 pacients, it is

20% of the whole group. Bell (1991) gives the values of the defect relapse risk includingnew amputations during 3 years amouting to 40%.

Conclusion. After 3.5 years of wearing special prophylactic footwear there occur about50% of reductions of the number of ulccration relapses (and amputations) compared withthe published data valid for the use of normal, structurally not modified footwear withoutany protective properties. With all pacients there occurs an improved overall biomechanicalcomfort when walking in footwear with prophylactic effect. With the followed risk pacientsthere has been observed during 3.5 years no first occurence of ulcuration.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Leather Technology as part ofthe research project "The Testing of the Footwear for Diabetics" and has been supported byVUT grant No. FUZ 50082.

1032

WORKSHOP 9G PRODUCTION SYSTEMS fc TECHNOLOGY

POSSIBILITIES OF THE PREDICTIONOF THE CHILDREN FOOT

GROWTH RATE

P. Hlaváček, M. Mládek

VUT Brno, Fac. of Technology Zlín, Dept. of Leather TechnologyTGM 275, 762 72 Zlín

Key words: children's foot, predictions model, growing rate, fitting

Introduction. Due to economic changes in the Czech Republic (as well as in othercountries of Central Europe) there has been a considerable reduction of footwear consump-tion. While in 1990 this consumption was almost 5 pairs per capita/year, in 1991 there wasa reduction to only 2.5 pairs

(1) This year it is expected that the overall consumption will not exceed 3 pairs. Aboveall, this value is critical for children, because the foot of a child grows on the average12 to 15 mm per year (but in extreme cases 18 mm)

(2) This means that the minimum consumption of footwear should exceed 3 pairs per year(3) Several renowned orthopedic specialists have stated that low consumption is a cause

of the increased occurrence of foot deformities(4) The main reasons for these deformities are as follows:

The wearing of suitable footwear for a period longer than is optimal due to the speed ofgrowth of the feet (if the foot of a child grows more than 5 mm while wearing a purchasedpair, this becomes unhealthy).

An increase in the sale of footwear in which the inner dimensions are not compatiblewith the dimensions of the feet (the respective fitting) of the population in Central Europe.

Methods . We have conducted a longitudinal study of the rate of growth of the feet of18 children in kindergarten and 18 children in the prepubertal and pubertal age. We havealso measured the feet of children from the ages of 3 to 20 years. In each consecutive yearof birth, a minimum of 25 and a maximum of 30 representatives of each sex were measured.The length of the feet were measured by means of a special measuring device, the girth ofthe feet were measured with a hand textile shoemaker's tape. We measured the classicalfoot outline of each child and assessed other data (stature, weight, birth date). The childrencarried out a foot outline drawing of their (genetic) parents and provided additional data(stature, weight, birth date). From the foot outline we have determined the foot length. Thedata was processed using statistical software. Within the framework of a complementaryexperiment we tested 20 children (9 years of age + 1) for changes in the inner volume offootwear during the period of wearing.

Results. The longitudinal study of the growth of children's feet has proved that thelength does not increase in a linear way, but in non-linear increases. We can then distin-guish two different stages of growth in children's feet: the phase of acceleration and thephase of stagnation. It appears that the acceleration phase is more pronounced three times

1033


a year, generally at the beginning of March, at the beginning of June, and in September orOctober. From the analysis of the correlation oí the variables which characterize the growthof children's feet, we have established a mathematical model which predicts the speed ofgrowth of children's feet. We have chosen standardized multiple non-linear regression mod-els, where the coefficient of a multiple correlation exceeded the value of 0.9. These twovariables, "the age of a child" and "the average length of the parents' feet" were most sig-nificant. Two mathematical models were drawn up (one for girls, another for boys), wherethe lengtii of the foot is a function of the child's age and that of the average length of the feetof both genetic parents. When we tested the changes of the inner dimensions of footwear(dependent on the period of wearing) an increase of the inner volume occurs in footwear ofall widths. Furthermore, the respective curves of this volume stabilize at a certain level.

Discussion. If it is possible to determine from the mathematical model the individualcurves and the final length of a child's foot at adult age, then it is possible to determine theindividual phases of growth of the feet (acceleration or stagnation). Through a mathematicaldefinition of the curve between these two values (actual length of feet and theoretical lengthof feet at adult age) we can include in the prediction model a step-wise sequence of thegrowth of a child's foot. Presently, we are testing this relatively simple mathematical modelin one shoe shop. A new version of this program recommends tiie period of time in whichparents should bring their child to the shop for a new measurment of the child's feet. Theresult is a prediction of the period in which the foot grows to the next half-size and when thefootwear becomes unhealthy in terms of proportionality. Parents appreciate information onthe recommended period for the next measurment. The period predicted varies considerably- from 7 to 36 weeks. In this way, we are able to contribute to the reduction of deformities ofchildren's feet. The model also has another application in the shoe shop. When the lengthof the feet of genetic parents are not known, we can substitute the data of the stature of thechild's parents (these variables have a high correlation). These results can be successfullyapplied to children with deformities of the fcei (they need prescriptive footwear), for childrenwho participate in intensive sports, and for countries with low consumption of shoes (lessthan 3 pairs per year). Although it is a well-known fact, we emphasize the importance ofshoes made with leather uppers for these three groups.

References?

[1] An: Bulletin of Czech Statistical Office 2h, 1993, No. 12, p. 96

[2] MAIER, A.: Kinderfuss und Kinderschuh. Therapiewoche, 37, 1987, p. 4.

[3] STASTNA, P.: Erlebnisse von Fussmessungcn in der Tschechoslowakei und ihre Um-setzung in die Industrielle Praxis Schuh-Technik, S5, 1991, No. 10, p. 77o.

[4] DUNGL, P.: 4th Conference on Children's Orthopaedic Hradec Králové, M-lCth April1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Leather Technology as part ofthe research project "The Vcrifiabilily of Mathematical Model for Prection of Childern's footgrowth rate" and has been supported by VÜT grant No. FUZ 50083.

1034


NEW POSSIBILITIES OFTUBE EXPANSION

S, Borgi, M. Král, J . Čermák

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Casting, Forming & WeldingTechnická 41 166 07 Praha 6

Key words: tube, expansion, axial deformation, circumferential strain, high pressure

In the last years, the production of machine parts, manufactured from tubular semiprod-ucts has gained great attention in several industrial countries. Originally fittings, such as Tpieces of various sizes, were mainly produced.

The suppression of thinning of the walls of the tubes in the production of parts, wherelarge circumferential deformation is a part of the technological sequence is always necessary.

This is achieved by simultaneous and controled axial deformation of the tube. Thechange of the shape and size of the tube diameter is caused by high internal pressure of afluid inside the tube.

The control of internal pressure and axial force is a crucial factor of the process. Machinetools used for this "high internal fluid pressure" process are usually special hydraulic pressesor universal hydraulic presses with special equipment.

The aim of the research, supported by internal CTU grant, was to find methods, whichcould be economically used for the production of machine parts from tubes, with largecircumferential deformation and the least possible thinning of the tube walls.

Two methods were examined:

• high velocity forming by a shock wave in water• forming by a silicone plastic material inside the tube.

The test rig for the first method had used compressed air to drive a piston, which hascaused the propagation of a shock wave in the water inside the tube. The arrangement of thetesting equipment has caused axial compression of the tube. As a result of the experimentsan equation for the circumferential strain, as a, function of input energy, was established byregression

e 3 = -2.87 +0.0153 (Ä/io)e 3 = natural circumferential straintQ = original wall thickness ( m m )E = input energy (J)

The results of experiments show that;

• there exists a constant ratio between the circumferential and thickness deformatione3/ei = 0.65, which is smaller than the ratio given for other HERF methods.

• it is possible to increase the deformation by using several blows, 50% expansion wasachieved

1035


For the forming by a silicone plastic inside the tube a special die was designed. Theidea was to increase the axial shortening of the tube, so that the metal from unexpendedareas could be supplied to areas with the largest expansion.

The difference of friction on the outer and internal surfaces of the tube was used forthis purpose. A mandrel of slightly smaller diameter than the internal diameter of the tubewas inserted into the tube. In the gap between this mandrel and the tube wall, the frictionhad increased and had caused the shortening of the tube.

The axial force is dependent on the velocity of movement of the plastic in the gap andon the viscosity of the plastic. The tooling and equipment for this technology is simple, andit is possible to reach large expansions and to change the shape of the cross section of thetube, e.g. from circular to rectangular or to produce cam shapes very economically.

The method developed at our Department should increase the possibilities of usinghigh internal hydraulic pressure for the production of machine parts. It will be possible tobuild the necessary production equipment at reasonable costs. It is much simpler to seal theplastic inside the tube than oil or water, Most of the machines developed for this technologyare computer controlled.

Our method is dependent only on securing constant parameters of the process, that isconstant mechanical properties of the part material and of the plastic, constant velocity ofthe press ram travel and on the proper gap between the mandrel and the tube.

References:

[1] KRÁL, M. - BORJI, S.: Mezní deformace při rozšiřování trubek. Sborník FORMA-BILITY 94, pp. 164-170, 24-27 October, Tanger Ltd, Ostrava 1994.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Forming, Casting and Weldingas part of the research project "Extreme strains during sheet and tube forming" and has beensupported by CTU grant No, 10028261

1036

WORKSHOP 96 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS fe TECHNOLOGY

INVESTIGATION OF THE BOUNDARYCONDITIONS DURING DEEP

DRAWING OF SHEET METALSJ . Šanovec, M. Král, K. Cajthaml,

P. Kábrt , J . Čermák

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Casting, Forming & WeldingTechnická 4, 166 07 Praha 6

Key words: sheet metal, deep drawing, force measurement, drawing beds

For the planning of production of large asymmetrical sheet metal components, methodsusing finite elements are usually used. Several computer programmes were developed bydifferent companies, most of them for use in the automotive industry.

Dies for deep drawing of large automotive panels use draw beads as a means of controlof metal flow in the die. All the developed programmes take the existence of the drawbeads into consideration, but it is difficult to quantify their influence and to determine theiroptimum geometry and location in the die. So it is very often after the practical performanceof the die during the trial run in the press shop, that the final shape, dimensions and positionof the draw beads are established. The knowledge of their exact control and restriction ofmetal flow in the die would be a very important achievement.

To determine the effect of certain types of draw beads under different boundary condi-tions, we are cooperating with the Lehrstuehl fuer Ur/Umformtechnik, TU Dresden and wehave decided to make exact measurements of the restrictive effect.

The aim of the project

- to determine the necessity of using draw beads- to find out the changes in the state of stress after changes in geometry and location

of the draw beads- to establish design rules for the use of draw beads - their number, arrangement and

geometry- to decrease costs and increase production capacities

A detailed theoretical calculation of the restrictive force is described in [1]. The methodhas several disadvantages. It is not easy, it is very time consuming and unless the boundaryconditions are simplified it is hardly usable.

Measurement of the restrictive effect. The measuring method has developedgradually from a simple fixture with flat jaws up to a more sophisticated one with differentbead groove geometries [2-3], It was difficult to distinguish the results of experiments on aconventional tensile testing machine, equipped with low sensitivity instruments and so anupgraded method, developed with the cooperation of TU Dresden was used [3-5].

An experimental set up, designed with grooves and inserts of different bead geometrieswas tested. The velocities of the ram movement correspond to velocities used for deepdrawing in the press shop.

1037


The results of the first experiments, using different lubricants are given on Fig. I.

9

0

7

3

3

2

1

0

o-

y

- ^

-a—VEFOS BS—A-PROLONG0—•—US OIL 005—o—LIR on nne

0 1 2 3 4 i 6 7 6 9 10

fJicderholtcrkraft [kN]

Fig. I: The cífccí of different lubricants

References:[1] SZABADÍTZ, O.: The experimental estimating of the draw bead reaction and its effect

on the sheet metal forming. Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, 1992.

[2] 2ÁK, O.: Metodika zjišťování mazacích účinků na bázi ropných a neropnýeh mazadcl.Diplomová práce, ČVUT, Praha 1990

[3] KÁBRT, P. et al.: Zjišťování kvality maziv pro tažení výlisků. Workshop 9ß, Brno[4] SANOVEC, J. - CAJTHAML, K. - KÁBRT, P.: Maziva pro tažení výlisku. Technik

III, 10, sir. 46-47, 1995

[5] SOERGEL, H. - SANOVEC, J. - CAJTHAML, K. - KÁBRT, P.: AnwendungsrichtUn-ien zur Erhoehung der Prozesssicherheit unregelmaessigcr Ticzichtcile unter speziellerBetrachtung des Einsatzes von Zichstaebcn, EFB Arbeitskreises Sitzung Feinbleche,21. C. 1995, Dresden

This research has been conducted al the Department of Forming, Casting and Weldingas part of the research project "Extreme Strains During Sheet and Tube Forming" and hasbeen supported by CTU grant No. 10028261.

1038

WORKSHOP 96 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS h TECHNOLOGY

DETERMINING QUALITY OFLUBRICANTS FOR DEEP DRAWING

P. Kábr t , J . Šanovec, K. Cajthaml

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Casting, Forming h WeldingTechnická 4,166 Ü7 Praha 6

Key words: lubricants, deep drawing, draw beads

In the process of deep drawing stamping there are many different kinds of lubricantsused and they have to be choosen individually for each technological process because thereare lots of factors which may affect their properties. The lubricants are as much strained inthe deep drawing process as drawn shell and instrument surfaces and besides that they aresubmitted to chemical stress. If they have to be reliable, they have to be chosen carefullyas the instrument material. These things demand perfect knowledge of lubricant propertiesand their working conditions.

These lubricants: Vefos BS, Prolong 0, Us Oil 005 and Lis Oil 006 products of thefirm Triga were chosen for our test. There were also measurements of drawing withoutany lubricant and measurements of drawing with a polyethylen sheet. All measurementswere practised on a device which was especially designed for them. There was developeda simple jig to measure brake force between flat and profiled dies at the department offorming, casting and welding. Later there was designetl a new jig to measure brake forcewith two draw beads [1]. Draw beads are 16,3 mm at a distance from each other. Brakingwas induced from an additional hydraulic device indicator equipped with a pressure. Shcet-iron strip was gradually drawn and bent between a jaw and a fixed jaw. The sheet-iron stripwas finally bent 90 degrees. The end of the sheet-iron strip was fixed in a special collet. Thecollet was fixed to a tearing machine. Measuring itself was practised on a tearing machineZD 10. Nevertheless this method had no necessary response. That's why a new method wasdesigned. The new method drawing force measuring by means of a tube with tensomethers.All measuring was evaluated on PC.

Measuring results are drawing forces values for different sorts of lubricants and fordifferent sorts of holding forces. There was also scancd the metal sheet position during themeasurement. Initial conditions were the same for every measurement: Sheet metal KohalE was used. Its thickness was 0.7 mm and its width was 49.5 mm. Drawing speed was25mm.min"1.

Following facts were found out by experiments:a) The best lubricant for holding force 4.09 kN was Lis Oil 006. Drawing force varied

about value 3.30 kN. Lubricant Prolong 0 was on the second place, drawing force was F =3.40 kN, lubricant Vefos BS was the third, drawing force was F = 3.75 kN. Lubricant LisOil 005 was the last and the worst, drawing force was F = 4 kN. Drawing force without anylubricant was ^ = 6.10 kN.

b) The best lubricant for holding force 5.45 kN was Lis OÜ 006, drawing force was F =4.25 kN. The second best was lubricant Lis Oil 005, drawing force was F = 4.50 kN. The thirdwas lubricant Prolong 0, drawing force was 4.55 kN and the worst was the lubricant VefosBS, drawing force was F = 4.90 kN. Drawing force without any lubricant was F = 8kN.

1039


c) The best lubricant for holding force 6.81 kN was polyethylen sheet, drawing forcewas F = 4.30 kN. The second best was lubricant Lis Oil 006, drawing force F = 5.25 kN.The third was lubricant Prolong 0, drawing force F — 5.35 kN. The fourth was lubricantLis Oil 005, drawing force was 5.45 kN and the worst was lubricant Vcfos BS, drawing forceF = 6.10kN. Drawing force without any lubricant was 9.70kN. (Fig. 1.)

4-

C

.A ----.-.,

I

u25 b

Fig. 1

^ ^

.—

Without i

—. — — ~ -

my lubricant

Vefos DS

Lis Oil 005£ Prolong 0„Lis 0H006sthyien sheet

J V i KM) 12•"•lne M

: Diagram force-time

It is clear from this analysis that the best lubricant quality has lubricant Lis Oil 00G(except polyethylen sheet - as it was tested only for one value of holding force). Total orderof other lubricants isn't clear because lubricating qualities are holder force-dependent. Thiseffect can be caused by thesfact that drawing takes place under the conditions of extremefriction. Between planes there is a very thin critical layer of lubricant. The interrnolecularforces influence the layer. The layer isn't controlled by hydraulic laws.

It is necessary to say that before we choose a lubricant for deep drawing we must testa lot of lubricants. The tests must be done under practical manufacturing conditions.

References:

[1] ŽÁK, O.: Metodika zjišťováni mazacích účinků na bázi ropných a neropných mazadel.Diplomová práce, ČVUT, 1990.

[2] SZABADÍTÍ5, O.: The experimental estimating of the draw head reaction and its effecton the sheet metal forming. IDDRG, Lisbon, 1994.

[3] Kolektiv: Lisováni. SNTL Praha, 1971.

This research has been conducted at Hit Department of Forming, Casting and Weldingas part of the research project "Evaluation and Measurement of the Effect of Deep DrawingBeads" and has been supported by CTV grant No. 10028262.

1040


SOLUTION OF HYDRAULIC DRIVINGMECHANISM WITH ECOLOGIC

FILLING

J . Talácko, R. Matická*

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Machines and Equipment for Eng.Prod.Horská 3, 128 00 Praha 2

Key words: ecologic hydraulic, ecological working fluids, reiforced plastics

Ecologic toad of living environment is important for reconstruction of all mechanism,which are potencional sources of pollution. One of the sources of pollution is driving mech-anism, the replacement of which is solved in the grant No. 101/93/2411, (101/94/2411).Aplication of this solution is in:

a) agriculture,

b) water economy.

In case of agriculture aplications, the traditional hydraulic gears are used, but withnatural filling, which is easy decompositioned. All rape oils, sunflower oils or silicon oilshave short service life (fast ageing), or they are very expensive. For small transmitedpowers, electric gears are suitable. In case of water economy aplications work liquids, whichare used today are not satisfactory. Electric gears are also suitable for this purpose, butonly for driving mechanism with small transmited powers. For case a) and also for case b)satisfy fluid driving mechanism with liquid filling. This is a subject of the opening reportabout ecological filling for solution of the grant. The next report, made by workers fromdepartment of hydrotechnic in 1993, defines possibilities of using liquid gears and definebasic parameters of these gears. That was for start project of gears design with liquid fillingand its components. The choice of the components is dependent on:

a) viscosity of the liquid

b) possibility of frezzing of the liquid and frezzing of parts of the mechanism

c) possibility of corrosion of functional parts of elements

Develop elements arc classificated to 3 parts:

1) Engines with anticorrosion treatment and with precaution against frezzing

2) Distributing elements - viscosity of water is low and it is needed a high value ofbleedes resistor with condition of security - we are designing it as valves, double-acting elements with pneumatic-electric control

3) Pressure source for working medium: water from control water source, heated onworking temperature

The other way of the solution of ecologic hydraulic mechanism is the aplication andconstruction of hydraulic components made of reinforced plastics (unmetallic) materials.

1041

WORKSHOP 9G PRODUCTION SYSTEMS fe TECHNOLOGY

At the Department of Machines and Equjpmfnt for Engineering Production of theFaculty of Mech. Eng. in Prague, hydraulic cylinders from composite materials have beendeveloped. Application of laminates and polymercoiicretes has been tested. These cylindersreplace traditional seamless steel tubes which are susceptible to corrosion. At the beginingof the research we focused on strcngh of the composite cylinders. Each composite consistsof a reiforcement and a matrix. The most important quality for the strcngh of a compositeis a type of reiforcement. Testcylinders made of laminate and polymcrcoucrctc have beenproduced and examined. We carrying out tensometcr measuring and tearing tests withinterior overpressure.

Laminates proved stronger (as reiforcement glass, carbon and araniid fibres were used,matrix was made of polyester or epoxy resin). Poly mercon ere tes offer better constructionalpossibilities and turned out to be more convenient speaking of production and price, Lami-nates and polymerconcretes are produced cold and therefore it is possible to use run-in partsfrom plastic or metal. Technology of production of laminate and polymerconcrcte cylindersexcludes the necessity of a last cut which saves a lot of energy. The laminate cylinderscan be applied when we demand small dimensions, high strcngh, low specific mass and lowthermal coefficient of expansion.

The polymerconcrete cylinders show lower strcngh than the laminate cylinders and aresuitable for machine-tool and forming structures where they may be used as parts of aframe of a machine. Furthermore for controling and steering of hydromotors it is possibleto make use four electromagnets which control the function of logical elements as run-inparts of the lid. The logical elements consist of built-in valves, which, by means of theirinterconnection, substitute for three-position, four-way switchboard. At the moment ofswitching of electromagnets cone valve closes the jet. The cone valve pressure increases andthe valve becomes impermeable. This is referred to as power-assisted steering. Using thismethod, it is possible to manufacture compact hydromotors with built-in control, suitablefor "water hydraulic", which fulfil all ecological criteria.

References:

[1] TALACKO, J. - MRAZ, P.: Desing of hydromotors from corny* mal. Tekutinovémechanismy, Olomouc 1095

[2] TALACKO, J. - MATICKÁ, R.: Report of grant No. 101/94/2^11.

[3] TALACKO, J. - MATICKÁ, II.: Ilydr. Mech. unter ockotog. Bed. 10. FachtagungDresden 1995

1042


DEVELOPMENT OF ALGORITHMSTO REGULATE THE DRIVES

P. Souček, P. Hošek, J . Kubák

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Machines & Equipment for Eng. ProductionHorská 3,128 00 Praha 2

Key words: drive, controller, position feedback, static and dynamic compliance

It has been examined the digital control of regulating electric motors with an externalexcitation for shift drives of NC machines.

Main objective for finding the proper algorithm is to conserve the required characteris-tics of the positioner control in the actual quality (especially the high uniformity motion andthe perfect static rigidity of the adjusting of speed and position) and simplify the orthodoxordering with the subordinate high-speed coupling by means of tacho and an analogous PIcontroller. The problems with drifts of signals, interferences, the tacho signal ripple andsome other problems should be eliminated by the digitalizatíon of the regulating algorithm.

There arc known compensations of the above-mentioned classic involvement using thepositioner increment sensor for the speed assignation. But it is mostly required its highresolution, higher than it is necessary for the position control.

It is available for example the double positioner loop (see [1]) using only the normalplace sensor. This variant has been verified during the control of hydromotors with the useof the single-purpose digital circuits of the 3rd generation in VUOSO Prague in past years.

Mere it is solved this task by using the fast processor SIEMENS 80C 535. The regulatingalgorithm is saved in the EPROM memory and its parameters can be opcratively changed(the choice of Kv, the temporal constant etc.). The position of the motor is taken downwith the incremental sensor in the TTL level. The result of the algorithm - 12-bit-signalis converted into analogous level 0-±10V and used directly for the control of the motorcurrent.

In this adjustment regulator can be affix to exist drives' feed after small adaptation(disconnection high-speed coupling, respectively displacement of tacho, takeing out of entryof current regulator to external connectors.

Described digital regulator is at the present time tested on motor SIEMENS IFT5with transistor changer SIMODRIVE 610 and 611. From these two motors was completeduniversal measuring apparatuss for complete static and dynamic mcasurments of drives1

feed. Mainly complience within controling speed and position, when is examining driveloaded through inserted transfer by simulator of load.

Mcasurments passing with different values inertial and power load and other parame-ters. Results are theoretickly documented in literature [2].

References:

[l] SOUČEK, P.: Alternativ algorithmen bei der Vorschubsteuerung 17. Werhzeugmaschi-nenseminar TU Wroclaw 9/199-1

[2] SOUČEK, P.: Dynamická poädajnost pohonu vřeten a posuvu NC strojů Automatizace5/1995

1043


This research has been supported by GACR 101/94/1504 "Increase of Design Economyof Production Machines, Electro-Mechanical Parts in Particular".

1044


TOOL FAILURE MONITORINGVIA FORCE SIGNALS

L. Tesner, J . Mádl

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Machining & Process PlanningTechnická 4, 166 07 Praha 6

Key words: machining, monitoring, tool, failure, cutting force, signal processing

In automated machining, on-line tool wear estimation and tool breakage detection playsan important role in establishing an efficient tool change policy and effective quality con-trol strategy. Need to sense tool condition in-process complicates the problem considerably.This constraint dictates the use of indirect sensing techniques (parameter correlated withtool wear is measured). Among these methods (acoustic emission, vibration, power, tem-perature) cutting force measuring represent suitable method with high sensitivity [1],

It is well-known cutting force signal strongly depends on state of the cutting edge.However, this relationship is enough sophisticated due to high stochastic nature of cuttingprocess. During machining, the cutting edge is subjected to various forms of tool failuresuch as: progressive wear leading to plastic deformation, chipping, fracture or breakage.State of the cutting edge must be described fully including flank-, crater-, minor flank-,and nose-wear in accordance with CIRP tool wear terminology. For these parameters wefind parallel characteristics (monitoring methods) based on measured force signal duringturning.

Monitoring methods can be divided into two categories: feature-based methods andmodel-based methods. Feature-based methods use suitable features of cutting force signalsto identify the state of edge cutting tool. These features could be time and frequency domainfeatures of the sensors signals such as moving average, variance, RMS (root mean square),crest factor, autocorrelation function, spectral density, cumulative distribution function.

Process monitoring can be based on system modelling and model evaluation. It hasbeen shown that dynamic cutting force is a stochastic signal which roughly obeys the normaldistribution. It is also appropriate to regard the dynamic force as stationary processes atdifferent stages of wear development, because it takes only fraction of second for a set ofa few hundred data points to be sampled each time. In summary, it is appropriate toapply statistical methods for stationary normal process to the dynamic cutting force signal.As a way of analysing the dynamics in the cutting force measurements, trivariate timeseries models (ARMAV-autoregrcssive moving average model, ARV-autoregressivc model),developed from the data, it can be used , since they give a concise parametric representationof the signals. These modelling technique docs not require much prior knowledge aboutthe underlying system phystcs.Oncc the ARMAV (ARV) model are established , the featureextraction can be developed in different ways, such as model parameters, dispersion analysis,residual analysis, parametric spectral analysis.

At present our monitoring methods are oriented in the field of feature-based method.Based on previous research [2] we carried out measuring cutting force represented by itsthree orthogonal components. Cutting process was periodically interupted due to need of

1045


off-line tool wear measuring. Tool wear was measured by the microscope. For example wedesigned these features:

{n - 5) £?.,.„(J£ - c,) - c2)

n-5

Y" \Flr- - TTI

'JIH "— f ^ t l I~i

SkmEkmRjtn"• designed features; t...cutting Ume t — n//VJ; /„....sampled frequency;n . . . order of sampled interval n = 1,.., p; i , z, y... cutting force component; p... total num-ber of cutting force samples; m...total number of moving interval samples; /•*,•...i-thvalue of cutting force in Jr-th direction; ci...sum of five highest square value of cuttingforce in moving interval; c2 . . .sum of five highest value of cutting force in moving inter-val; fc,i,/...indexes of cutting force component, where Ic = x,y,2; j = x,y; I = z.

The experimental equipment consists of three component dynamometer KISTLER(Type 9265B), charge amplifier VIBRO- METER SA (Type TA-3/C), PC 486 DX2 66(8MB, 420 MB), PC data acquisition card ADVANTECH (Type PCL-818 II), PC softwarefor data acquisition and signal processing, microscope Carl Zciss Jena (Nr. 130401)

As an example of previous rcsoults we present these figure:

/.Olsl

Fig. 1: Raw signal of axial cutting forcecomponent

Fig. 2: Relationship betwen tool wear pa-rameter and features

References:

[1] MARTIN, K. F. et al.: A comparison of in-proccs tool wear measurement methods inturning. Proc. 26th. Int. Machine tool design and research Conf., pp. 289-296, 1986

[2] MADL, J.: Tool wear and breakage monitoring in machining. VDI Berichte No. 940,1992

This research has been conducted at the Department of Machining and process Planningas part of the research project "Diagnostic methods in cutting technology based on the rela-tion of cutting forces and tool xocar" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 101/93/2425.

1046


ANALYSIS OT THE CONTEMPORARYSTATE OF THE OPTIMIZATION

OF CUTTING CONDITIONTSON AUTOMATIC PRODUCTION LINES

J. Kavan, J . Mádl

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Machining & Process PlanningTechnická 4, 1G6 07 Praha 6

Key words: optimization, cutting condition, automatic production line, machining

Competition ability in the market economy is one of the conditions of survival. Thebasic assumption of the competition ability is to produce products with minimal productioncosts. These costs are influenced by many factors. To secure eifectivity of production isnecessary to optimize production process. The part of optimization of production process isoptimization of cutting condition. Optimum cutting conditions are directly connected witheconomical and time data to certain operation and it is necessary to solve them togetherwith optimum durability of cutting tools.

Suggestion of cutting conditions on automatic production lines is at present based onnormatives of cutting condition with respect to the given tact. When solving design andtechnological conception of automatic production line the split of demanded amount of workto each work station and stating of their order in certain sequences is assumed. The next stepis the determination of critical operation (that means the operation in which machining takesthe longest time). The number of machines in certain operation is based on the demandedproduction. For each automatic production line it is possible to suggest several variants ofcutting conditions. Determining of optimum cutting conditions on automatic productionlines is more important than on machines working alone, because it brings bigger economicaleffect.

Each automatic production line consist of different types of machines that means alsodifferent collections of limits, which certain mathematical method contains. Machiningin the automatic production line can be single-pass single tool machining and multi-tooloperations. Relevant problems nf machining for these two types of optimization was notsolved sufficiently so far. That is why that the problem is complicated and that there isneed to determine new restrictions for new designed machines. The majority of restrictionsfor single-pass machining is possible to apply for multi-tool operations.

New non-linerizable and non-smooth restrictions are formulated [2].Except of mentioned restrictions of technical character there are also organizing limits.

At automatic production lines the most important organizing limit is the tact of the line. Asalready mentioned the tact of the line may be determined by planned number of producedpieces. But, it may not be only constant factor, but also one from the optimized parameters.There are other organizing limits in machining process.

For solving optimization tasks the choice of suitable mathematical method is important.To choose suitable mathematical method it is possible in some cases to use linear program-

1047


ming. Optimization task with non-linearizabe and non-smooth restrictions is possible tosolve with non-linear programming. In these cases it is necessary optimization problemdivided into several ones. After solving all partial tasks the optimum of the whole problemis found out. For these optimization problems is more advantageous and effective to usegeometric programming. The basic idea of geometric programming is to create problem incertain sense dual, which is easier to solve. To solve this dual problem it is easier to findout the solution of the original problem. One of the positive characteristics of geometricprogramming is ignorance of concavity and that is why that this method is more suitablefor solving problems with non-smooth limits.

In optimization of cutting parameters it is also appropriate include stochastic analysisbecause of variation of input parameters. Especially tool life and machining costs aresuitable to calculate with confidence interval to estimate the reliability of production costsand machining process.

References:

[1] DUPACOVA, J. - CHARAMZA, P. - MÄDL, J.: A Mathematical Model for Opti-mization of Cutting Conditions in Machining Operations Research Proceedings 1994,p. 2S-32, International Conference on Opetarions Research, Springer Verlag, Berlin,1994

[2] MADL, J. - KAVAN, J. - RICHTEROVÁ, M.: A W pohledy na optimalizaci řeznýchpodmínek Strojírenská výroba 1-2, Wahlberg, 1995

This research has been conducted at the Dcparhncnl of Machining and Process Plan-ning as part of the research project "Research of the optimization of cutting conditions inmachining" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 1002826J.

1048


INFLUENCE OF CUTTING FLUIDSON QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS

OF MACHINED SURFACE

J . Mádl, V. Koutný

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Machining & Process PlanningTechnická 4, 1C6 07 Praha 6

Key words: cutting, fluid, machining, research, evirontment

The main task of the research of the cutting fluids is the replacment of traditional oilcutting fluids by new environmentally suitable fluids. The researcli of the cutting fluids formachining alumínium alloys with axial cutting tools will be discussed.

The research of properties from cutting process viewpoint is complicated. A lot ofvarious characteristics is necessary to follow. The focus of research are cutting forces,cutting power, tool wear, built-up edge formation, chip forms, minimum chip thicknes,characteristics of workpiccc surface (i.e. roughness, accuracy), material deformation duringchip formation etc.

The following text is focused on accuracy of the machined surface as an importantcharacteristic of cutting fluids.

One part of the research was the design of proper methodology of experiments from thefollowing points of view: number of repeated measurement, results accuracy and possibleminimization of experiments.

The research was realized for drilling and reaming of the aluminium alloy CSN 424331- AlSilOMgMii.

At the experiment the following working conditions were used: drilling machine - VS 32,length of the machined hole - 20 mm. Condition for drilling: cutting speed - 37.3 m permin., feed - 0,2Smm per revolution, diameter of the drill - 13.2 mm. Conditions for thefirst step of reaming: cutting speed 24.3 mm per min, feed - 0.45 mm per revolution, reamerdiameter - 13.8 mm. Conditions for the second step of reaming: cutting speed 9.9 mm permin, feed - 0.45 mm per revolution, reamer diameter - 14 117.

Experiments were realized for cutting fluids: ctalons - spirit and NIVOL, new developedcutting fluids - S1NOL METE, SINOL EP, SINOL E BIO (special biologically degradation-able products). The new cutting fluids were designed by TRIGA company,

As characteristics of cutting fluids were followed: (1) accuracy of the holes (measuredby three-touch inside gauge BOWERS) after the 1st and the 2nd step reaming and (2)surface roughness after the 2nd step reaming (measured by SURTRONIC 3p with softwareST 3 PL).

In the following text only some results of surface roughness will be presented due tolimited possibility of results presentation.

The first step in the design of the useful methodology of the research was the choiceof appropriate parameters of surface roughness. The following suitable surface roughnessparameters were selected: Ra(/nn), R3z(/im), S(/tm), PCI,5 (cm"1), Rsk, Rkm, tp30(/im),Vo (mm3/cm2). As an example of the results Tab. 1. and Fig. 1 arc presented.

1049

WORKSHOP 9G PRODUCTION SYSTEMS k TECHNOLOGY

splrnspiritM E T EM E T E

EPEP

E BIOE BIONIVOLNIVOL

par.:msmsmsmsms

Ra1,300,321,650,232 , 3 1 _0,912,651,390,840,36

R3z5,161,686,65liO59,043,049áL4,062,811,53

S22f671,61

25t34^ 3 7

PC1.527,5014,4732,6310,9535,13

4457 I 8,513Qř258,78

2,65

JSfiZ11,1010,3B7,05

Rsk•1,30

°J 5 6

-1t32

Rku9,553,426,87

°j£LX 1L5Q-1,02

-1,030,55

^SÍ22,01

6,24

6,843,3210.584,15

tp301 980,552^60^46

VoOjlOB0,0270,1360,020

3,10 I 0,198"0^884,051,561,430,70

0,0870,2190,1230.C680,029

Tab. 1: Roughness (mean M, standard deviation s) under the different cutting fluids CF

Fig. 1: Surface roughness Ra under the different cutting fluids

References:[1] MÁDL, J. - KOUTNÝ, V.: Methodology of the research of cutting fluids for machinig

aluminium alloys (in Czech). Research report 520 K'23'l FME CTU, Prague 1995

[2] MÁDL, J. - KOUTNÝ, V.: Surface roughness of the dreamed holes in aluminiumalloys from the point of view of cutting jhiids (in Czech). Research report 521 K23-1FME CTU, Prague, 1995

This research has been conducted at the Department of Machining and Process Planningas part of the research project "Research of the new cutting fluids" and has been supportedby CTU grant No. 101/94/1550.

1050


STUDY OF MICRODEFORMATIONON EDGE OF METAL BODIES

P. Hofman, I. Kvasnička

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Machining & Process PlanningTechnická 4, 166 07 Praha 6

Key words: corner shape, grindig burr, microstructure

The purpose of this study is to clarify the deformation mechanism of a corner shapeafter the grinding process. The material flow on ground surface limit layer reaches the cornershapes at the end of the workpicce and forms here a special configuration called "Burr". Thegrindig burr formation is chosen as the subject of the study, namely the relation betweenthe size of burr and the type of microstructure of the material.

The grinding burr is classified as entrance burr, exit and side burr. The exit burr ismost important in size and therefore it has been the main object of our research. Fig. 1shows the types of burrs and their position on the surface edges. Exit burr is formed whentool leaves the material. For burr description dimensions of its shape were chosen (Fig. 2).

Burr h e i g h t II

Fig. 1: Formation of burrsAnd place obser- Fig. 2: Size of burrva lions

Burr shape was also observed on scanning electron microscope (SEM) from severalpositions (see Fig. 1). Special technique was used to preserve, protect and support examinededges during experiments.

The workpiece materials used in this experiment were: A) construction steel (178 HV),B) high-speed steel - soft annealed (230 HV), C) high-speed steel - heat treated (780 HV),D) nodular cast iron (276 HV).

Experiments were employed a reciprocating table type surface grinder. Grinding con-ditions were as follows: grinding wheel A9925K9V, wheel speed 30m.s"1, work speed

in" 1, depth of cut 50/tin for material A, B, D and 20 ftm for C.

1051

WORKSHOP 9G PRODUCTION SYSTEMS & TECHNOLOGY

Material B 11(Mm)

Construction steel normalisingHigh-speed steel - soil annealedHigh-speed steel - heat treatedNodular cast iron

1510

336

3235

625

photo 1

Tab. 1: Burr size.

pho(o2

Fig. 3: Burrs morphology (High speed steel- soft annealed, magnification lOOOx)

Conclusions. The morphology, shape and size of burrs created by grinding are stronglydependent on material microstructurcs and properties. Type of steel microstructures andtheir increasing hardness bring the decrease of burrs in the size and changes in the shape -from spiral to triangle. Nodular iron creates the most, unpleasant burr. The appearance ofburrs changes along the workpiece edges to some extent.

The experiments indicate that a few mechanisms are involved in burr formation, namelylateral deformations, chip rollover and brittle fracture.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Machining and Process Planningas part of the research project "Study of microdeformations on edges of metal bodies"andhas been supported by CTU grant No. 10028863.

1052


CUTTING FLUIDS TESTINGIN DRILLING

J. Mádl .V. Rázek

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Machining k Process PlanningTechnická 4,166 07 Praha 6

Key words: cutting, fluid, machining, research, evirontment

Replacment of traditional oil cutting fluids by new environmentally suitable ones rep-resents one of the main tasks of nowadays machining technology and the research of newlydeveloped cutting fluids.

The research of properties from cutting process viewpoint is complicated. A lot ofvarious characteristics is necessary to follow. The focus of the research within the projectare cutting forces, cutting power, tool wear, built-up edge formation, chip forms, mini-mum chip thickness, characteristics of workpicce surface (i.e. roughness, accuracy), materialdeformation during chip formation etc.

The following text is focused on drilling with constant feed force. When drilling withconstant feed force cutting time for constant length of machining is measured. Time mea-suring when cutting with constant feed force characterizes minimum chip thickness, cuttingforce, chip formation and friction between twist drill and workplace material.

In designing of proper methodology of experiments the following factors were followed:randomization of measuring, experiment extend, results accuracy and possible minimizationof experiment.

The research was realized on workpiece material 12050.1 (CSN) when drilling with the6 mm diameter twist drill from the cutting material 19856 (CSN).

The places of machining were randomized on the workpiecc with respect to possibledifference of machinability on various places of the workpiecc. For the determination ofminimum possible number of measuring standard deviation of cutting time were used. Fromthe experiments results the minimum possible number (suitable number) of drilled holes(with the elimination of values that exceed relative error 7% of the set of values):

1. For water emulsions minimum number of drilled holes - 19.

2. For cutting oils minimum number of drilled holes - 17.

As examples of the research results Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 are presented. In Fig. 1 is therelation between number N of drilled holes and arithmetic mean M and the relation betweennumber of measuring N and standard deviation s, when machining with etalon cuttingfluid. In Fig. 2 is the example of the research of the group of newly developed cutting fluids(TRIGA company) with etalon.

Drilling with constant feed force is one of the testing methods for evaluation of cuttingfluids. Properties of cutting fluids is necessary to find out by the complex of various differentexperiments. The sets of experiment are different for different use of the cutting fluids. Thepoint of view for making up these sets is in particular technological method and cuttingtemperature. Drilling with constant feed force is therefore combined with other testingmethods.

1053


n

n/ o

10 15

N20

19.902S 0

Fig. 1: Relationship between mean M or standard deviaton s and number of measuring N

mo150

140

2 13-0

12.0

11.0

mI I h

iI

1-TS21

2-FerokaťTF122

3-FerokatTF222

4-Ferokat 226

5-SINOLR46

1 2 3 4 5CUTTING FLUID

: Fig. 2: Cutting time i under different cutting fluids

References:

[1] MÁDL, J.•- RÄZGK, V.: Cutting fluids testing when drilling with constant feed force(in Czech). Research report 523 K234 PME CTU, Prague, 1995

This research has been conducted at the Department of Machining and Process OPlan-ning as part of the research project "Research of the new cutting fluids" and has been sup-ported by CTU grant No. tOt/94/1556.

1054

WORKSHOP 96 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Si TECHNOLOGY

APPLICATION OF LOGISTICSIN THE MACHINE-TOOL INDUSTRY

J . Urbánek, M. Jurova*, A. Kocmanová*, J. Mucha

VUT in Brno, Fac. of Mech. Eng., Dept. of Production engineeringTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

*VUT in Brno, Fac. of Business and Management, Dept. of ManagementTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: market, production logistics, restriction, 3 D flexible funnel, informationstrips, C1M, space-locked activity, cross-sectional functions, control f., fields,company, flow

During the stabilization of market economy fundamental and important changes ocuredin the economic system of medium sized machine-tool production organization (further only"company"). There are penetrating changes in the business tools, monitoring and manage-ment of the company. That's why is necessary to conduct the description and analysis ofthe new situation and synthetize the new model of the company. The logistical approachseems to us the most complex tool [1]. Production logistics facilitates us in synthetizingthe models on the basis of production systems and companies, which are currently func-tioning properly. It also describes their time-space characteristic in the "gravitational" -financial field. In the first phase of the solution of our grant we have concentrated on thelogistical modelling of the basic elements of production systems = oroduction operations,sec Fig. 1 (Venn's graph princip). While (Fig. 2) constructing the model for the company,we were forced to approach the 3D modelling, where the 3rd dimension depends on the leveland flexibility of information exchange inside the company, which means that we have toapply the CIM concept in top companies. Three sub-sytcms arc varies according to theirlevel of dependency on space: 1st SPACE-LOCKED ACTIVITY (dominant role of materialsystem), 2nd CROSS-SECTIONAL FUNCTIONS (d. r. of information s.), 3rd CONTROLFUNCTIONS (d. r. of control s.). The whole system works in "power" fields of differentdirections, potencials and gradients: field of financial means, f. of antropology, f. of ecologyand so on.

References:

[1] JUROVA, M. - URBÁNEK, J.: Production Logistics as a Means of effective MaterialFlow 3rd Int. Conf. CIM 95 Zagreb

This research has been conducted at the Department of Mechanical Engineering andDept. of Method of Management as the research project "Application of Matematics Opii-malisalion Methods TgPV in the Business-Market Environment of Machine-tool Industry"and has been supported by VUT in Brno grant No. FÜ35QQ46.

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Fig. 1: Logistics Model of Product Operation of Machining Type

EMEHL

ProduclsWaste....OUTLET

1

MARKET-CUSTOMERS

Fig. 2: 3D Logistics Model of Machinery Plant

I05G


THE SUPPORT OF IMPLEMENTATIONOF STANDARD CSN-ISO 9000INTO PRACTISE OF FIRMS

F. Bartes, J . Vačkář*, J . Pernikár*,Z. Videcká, A. Kocmanová

TU, Business and Management faculty, Institute of Economics and ManagementTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

*TU, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of TechnologyTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: quality control, quality strategy, quality manual, quality cost, quality assur-ance system

The proposal of solving of points below was made during the first year solution:

- procedure of quality strategy forming- procedure of quality manual forming- procedure of assurance of information system of quality cost tracing- procedure of process technique forming- procedure of quality assurance system into practise- procedure of control and regulation of processes, methods of SPC, Precontrol- Quality Journal method, FMEA, QFD- the seven basic tools of quality control

The procedure of creating firm's quality strategy arise from requirement of makingfirm quality policy in compliance with ISO. The great emphasis was laid on work out indetail parts of quality strategy. It means quality planning, quality training, creation oforganisation structure of quality control, collaboration with suppliers, feedback of qualitycontrol with marketing and design and development, review of quality effects and inspectionof system quality control.

The information system of quality costs tracing was designed in general and it will besolve in the next phase of project. It is necessary to guarantee training to personnel in theproposed quality assurance system into practise. During the procedure of introdusing thequality control system to reality, it necessary to secure education of specialized personnelwith an aim to create a positive insight in them, to inform people about firm's dokumentationof quality stratégy and to create feedback between authors of documentation of qualitystrategy and their users to modify it. It is necessary to guarantee necessary test too. It isrecommended to choose demonstrative commercial case. The whole quality system will beapplied and it will be extended on the next cases later on. The solving of tins problematicswill involve inspections and completion of documentation of quality strategy.

Main principles were respected to create the quality manual, meaning this documentis absolutely essential for the external audit envolved on the basis of arguments as require-ments of customers, offices, servises, admitting organisations, etc. to guarantee the optimal

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course of production from economical point, for the producer liability for product (direction85/374/EEC, 92/59/EEC), and for the increasing risk and from point of view aquisition,e.g. quality in the middle of promotion. The firm's policy, the organization of the structureand course of quality assurance, assigning of authority, regulation for pursucing of work-ing and inspection actions and necessary forms (protocols, disparch forms, etc.) belong todescription of the system included in manual.

The implementation oí process regulation (meaning process capability) proceed fromprinciples of SPC method and their application in emphasis on the production phase in-cluded devices and the way of evaluation of control charts x//£, x//?, x/s. The way ofelimination of special causes on the process and the way of regulation including control lim-its was determinated. The basic matliematic characteristics for SPC and the basic conditionfor the PRECONTROL methods for production with the low frequency of repetition wasestablished.

The concrete procedure of seven steps' method Quality Journal was described as a sup-port of implementation of statistic methods on the framework of standards CSN ISO 9000.These methods, for example lack of technological character to quantitative change of pro-cess can solve. Next methods as FMEA and QFD was suggested only in general for suitableperiods of the production process and their solving will be desribed in the next stage.

The solution of problems above was tested in practise in the form training of top man-agement, middle and operational management. The teaching aids (see references) was cre-ated for this training. The participants of project checked their proposals in the frameworkconsulting in some companies in the Moravian region.

References:

[1] V A C K Á R , J.: Zajištění jakosti výroby zkoumáním schopnosti výrobního procesu. Mez-inárodní konference "Technologie obrábění v aut. výrobe". Košice 1993.

[2] Evropské směrnice komplexní zodpovědnosti za výrobek $5/37$/EEC. Brusel 19S5.[3] BARTES, F.: ííízcní jakosti. VUT PF. Brno 1994.[4] BARTES, F.: Základy řízení jakosti finny. IMPS a.s. Brno 1995.[5] KARPÍŠEK, Z. - VIDECKÁ, Z.: Statistické metody a nástroje řízení jakosti. IMPS

a.s. Brno 1995.

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Economics and Management aspart of the research project "The Support of Implementation of Standard ÚSN/ISO9000into Practise of Firm" and has been supported by TU grant No. FU 750077.

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Section 20

NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

NEXT PAQE(S)

WORKSHOP 90 NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTOMATEDTHERMOLUMINESCENCE READER

FOR DATING OF HISTORICARCHITECTURE

V. Dynybyl, 3. Gerndt* , J. Kanaval, M, Kubelik**,L. Musílek*, M. Pavlík***, J . Zýma

CTU, Fac. of Meclianical Eng-, Dept. of Machine Elements & MechanismsTechnická A, 1GG 07 Praha 6

"CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Dosimetry k Appl. of Ionizing Rad.Břehová 7,115 19 Praha 1

**Technical University Vienna, Insl. for Arch. History and Hist. Building SurveyKarlsplatz 13/251, A-10-10 Wien, Austria

*T*CTU, Fac. of Architecture, Dept. of History of Arch. & Fine ArtsThákurova 7, 166 34 Praha 6

Key words: thcrmoluminesccnce, dating, historic architecture, bricks, automated reader

Fundamental decisions in the adaptation, revitalization, restoration, and reconstructionof historic architecture often need to be made with regard to the chronology of the wholeof, or parts of the historic fabric. Traditional dating methods are sometimes ambiguous andcan lead to misinterpretation. An objective dating analysis, using scientific dating methodsis often the only solution, or at least provides additional confirmation for preservation deci-sions. There are esentially four absolute scientific dating methods available for architecture:the radiocarbon method, dendrochronology, thermoluminesccnceand archaeomagnctism [1].

Thermoluminesccnce (TL) is a physical phenomenon which can date objects fired du-ring manufacture and which contain certain minerals (e.g., quartz, feldspar) in which deepelectron traps exist in a forbidden band. Electrons trapped due to absorption of energyof natural ionizing radiation can be released by heating the material; during this processlight in the visible region is emitted. The number of trapped electrons is proportional tothe natural radiation dose, i.e., to the lime from firing the material. The age of the objectcan thus be determined from the amount of emitted light. This radiation consists of alpha-,beta- and gamma particles of different, energy and range, emitted by the radioactive decayseries of urauÍum-238, uranium-235 and thorium-232, as well as by potassium-40. As thedose rate is low and TL material separated from bricks has relatively low TL sensitivity,extremely sophisticated instruments and a complex and discerning evaluation method mustbe applied [2].

TL analysis of the necessary number of samples is very time consuming, as almost 30 in-dividual samples must be taken into consideration for dating one brick. The developmentof a maximally automated reader therefore seems the most efficient way of providing his-torically relevant results in an acceptable time frame and within a feasible cost range. Theapparatus designed will automatically evaluate up to CO samples (i.e. the number of sampleswhich corresponds to the dating of two bricks, including preliminary control measurements).

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Irradiation of some samples by testing doses of alpha and beta radiation to detenninate theTL sensitivity of a given brick material is a part of the evaluation. The development of hTL reader for dating bricks is being carried out in collaboration between several facultiesof CTU. Only the dose rate and moisture inside the wall in the place of the sample need tobe determined by independent measurement and calculation outside the apparatus.

The mechanical construction of the reader was described in [3]. The samples to beanalysed are a sediment on a small circular metal plate which are then placed on a ring witha diameter of about 40 cm. This turntable allows transportation of any of the 60 samples toany of the three workplaces situated in the corners oí the plate carrying the whole system.Irradiation positions are equipped with an alpha source Am>24i and a beta source Sr-90 ++ Y-9Q. The TL measuring position consists of a small oven with a controlled linear heatingrate and a photomultiplier with the necessary optical and thermal filters. All this equipmenthas a hermetical cover, through which the samples are inserted, and through which all controlcables arc passed. The sample chamber can be evacuated and filled with nitrogen to reducethe spurious signal during the heating oí the samples. All driving units for ring turning andshifting the samples to and from working positions are computer controlled to assure thenecessary sequence of operations.

It is expected that the apparatus will be completed and tested in 199G, and from 1997 itwill enter routine operation for both research and decision making in history of architectureand monument preservation.

References:

[1] AITKEN, M. J.: Science-based Dating in Archeology, London and New York, Longman1990

[2] GOEDICKE, C. - SLUSALLEK, K. - KUBELÍK, M.: Thcrmoinmimscenzdatierun-gen in der Archileklurgcschichtc: Dargestellt an Hand von Villen im Vcnelo. BerlinerBeiträge zur Archäomctric, Band G, Berlin, Staatliche Museen 19S5

[3] ZÝMA, J. - DYNYBYL, V. - KANAVAL, J. et al.: Konstrukční řešení automatizo-vaného zařízení pro tcrmoluminiscenční určení stáří architektonických objektů. XXXVI.konference kateder Částí a mechanismů strojů, Urno 19U5.

This research has been conducted as a part of the research project suportcd by GA CRgrant No. Í03/94/0867.

1062


ENVIRONMENTAL GAMMA SPECTRAANALYSIS VIA NEURAL NETWORKS

J . Kluson, V. Hanák, T. Cechák, J . Losinská

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Dosimctry k Appl. of Ionizing Rad.Břehová 7,115 19 Praha 1

Key words: environmental monitoring, neural networks, gamma ray spectrometry, dosime-try, mathematical simulation, detector response, photon fields

Analysis of photon fields resulting from radionuclides in environment as well as deter-mination of dosimetric quantities in these fields is based on spectromctric measurement andits processing and interpretation. Mathematical analysis of these data is based on decon-volution techniques, that use mainly modelled response functions for individual detectionsystems. Due to statistical error of experimental measurements as well as statistical errorand necessary simplifications and approximations of response function mathematical mod-elling, corresponding deconvolution mathematical methods give approximative solution only(from the set of possible solutions). This mathematical solution usually requires additionalqualified physical interpretation.

The goal of project was to verify alternative approach and to use neural networks, givingpossibilities: a) to combine modelled responses and calibration measurements (limited onseveral suitable radionuclides) for neural networks learning, and in such a way to improveapproximation used in response functions calculations; b) to unite botli phases of dataevaluation and to simplify and objectify results interpretation; c) substantially shorten dataprocessing time.

Task solution involves three main fields:

• design of suitable neural network• preparation of data set for network learning• verification of network properties on modelled as well as real experimental data sets

According to physical essence of problem, for the introductory study the two-layerperceptron network with linear activation function and EBP algorithm of learning waschosen. To prepare computational code some of existent libraries (in C language) weremodified and used. Two paradigms were studied:

• for radionuclide identification• for calculation of photon fluence spectral distributions (for dosimetric quantities de-

termination and direct comparison with deconvolution technique).

The largest part of work was done on creation of database of the patterns (spectra)for network learning. Modified code for stochastic gamma ray transport simulation aswell as code for convolution of modelled energy deposition spectra with detector resolu-tion function were used [1-2]. Thus modelled responses for scintillation detector Nal(Tl)^ 3 " x 3 " , for set of 100 energies in energy range up to 3MeV with step of 30keV were

1063


generated. Moreover responses for natural decay chains of U, Th and for WK and for setof common artificial radionuclidcs were calculated. Experimental responses for point cali-bration sources at distance of 10 cm from the detector endface for 137CsJ ^Co, 88Y, 22Na,HMn, 65Zn, Th series were measured. The codes generating files from this databasis wereprepared and utilized for network learning.

Networks with 54, 106, 512 elements (neurons) in input layer and 50 or 100 neuronsin output layer were tested for fluence computation or different output combinations forradionuciide identification (e.g. I3 'Cs, 40K, U and Th series for environmental spectra anal-ysis). For learning modelled and experimental spectra as well as their combinations wereused. Properties learned networks were tested on both set of modelled spectra and set ofexperimental environmental spectra (typical natural background spectra, Jáchymov minesdumps, depository of wastes from uranium ore preprocessing, reference field of Riso labora-tory, neighbourhood of Semipaiatinsk nuclear test site).

Conclusions from verification of tested networks application:

• good possibility of radionuciide identification even in more complicated polycoinponcntspectra

• high data processing speed (seconds in comparison with several minutes on powcrfullcomputers for iterative deconvolution methods)

• suitability for dosimetric quantities determination from spectrometric data

t suited especially for prompt analyses without higher requirements on computationalsystem (e.g. for portable instruments).

Interpretation of continuous components of scattered photons in real experimental spec-tra and possible appearance of nonphysical negative values in photon fluence energy distri-bution calculation make in this stage some difficulties. To solve these problems it wouldbe necessary to study different paradigms and network topology (e.g. published results forOLAM networks [3]), modification of activation functions, improvement and enlargementof learning patterns databasis.

References:

[1] KLUSOft, J.: Calculation of the Field Spectrometer Response and Calibration forthe Operational and Accidental Monitoring of Nuclear Power Planí Neighbourhood.Progress in Nuclear Energy, Vol. 24, pp. 377-3S3, 1990.

[2] KLUSO1\\ J. - O E C I I A K , T. - GEHNDT, J. - MALUŠEK, A.: In Situ Gamma RayScintillation Spcctromctnj in Environmental Monitoring. CTU Prague, Workshop 93,

sect. 12, 55-56.

[3] KELLER, P. E. - KOUZES, R. T.: Gamma Spectral Analysis via Neural Networks.

PNL-SA-24177, 1994.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Dosimciry and Application of

Ionizing Radiation as part of I he research-project "Environmental Gamma Spectra Analysis

via Neural Networks" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 10048396.

10CA


ACCELERATOR DRIVEN REACTORSIN RADIOACTIVE WASTE

AND SPENT FUEL MANAGEMENTJ . Zeman, M. Hron*, K. Tuček, B. Heřmanský,

S. Pospíšil, J . Kubašta, M. Mikisek

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. k Phys. Eng., Dept. of Nuclear ReactorsV Holešovičkách 2, ISO 00 Praha 8*Nuclear Research Institut Rez pic,

250 68 Rez

Key words: accelerator driven reactors, waste management, spallation, transmutation

Since the discovery of the reaction of atomic nucleus fission, the main goal of all effortswas to utilize it for energy generation. As one of the most important conditions for theefficient achievement of this goal selfsustaining of fission chain reaction was demanded in anassembly containing fissionable nuclei of nuclear fuel without an external source of neutrons.As this was reached, the assembly was defined as being critical. Let us note that it wasby definition (theoretically) critical on prompt neutrons released from fission reactions only.Very early, it was observed experimentally that the assembly reaching criticality is in factvery slightly subcritical on prompt neutrons and that there is not a very strong naturalsource of delayed neutrons originated from radioactive decay of some of the fission productsalways added (which, fortunately, allowed easier control of the system).

At the early stages, reaching criticality was one of the most difficult tasks and all theeffort and ideas were devoted to this aim. The reason was that there were only small amountsof fissionable material available in those days in the form of the low (0.7 %) content of 2 3 5 U innatural uranium. Therefore, solid state metallic uranium with the highest possible densitywas used and arranged in the form of blocks with a specific definite size in a heterogeneouslattice in a solid (graphite) or liquid (heavy water) moderator with a certain pitch determinedby optimal neutronic conditions. This arrangement remained nearly exclusive even in lattersystems with fuels enriched by 2 3 5 U content up to much higher levels. The reasons wereof different nature, however, the designs mostly started from what lias already became anapproved conventional principle - solid fuel blocks in a heterogeneous lattice - which is kepteven in the case of pure or highly enriched fuel in a fast neutron system without moderator.

The adoption of the solid fuel concept leads to the basic necessity to keep the fuelblocks at a certain position in the reactor core for a shorter or longer period of time. Thisin-core residential time is especially long in power systems where quasi-continuous exchangeof fuel would be at least very complicated and expensive. Therefore, the following veryinconvenient consequence arises: the whole time the block of solid fuel remains at a certainposition in the reactor core, there are fission fragments and by neutron capture inducedradionuclides (let's call them altogether nuclear waste products) being accumulated in thevolume of the fuel block.

The nuclear waste product management became a crucial problem of nuclear energyexploitation. How can we manage very dangerous radioactive wastes? It is a dream ofscientists all over the world to find an answer to this question.

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In fact, there are three possibilities to manage nuclear wastes (especially contained inspent nuclear fuel):

1) we can consider spent nuclear fuel as a further unusable material. Then we have toseparate high-level nuclear wastes (at least 97 % of them come from spent nuclearfuel) from our enviroment and avoid to the maximum their impact on the enviromont.In this case, a very long geological disposal of these wastes is necessary (100,000-1,000,000 years). Within these years, nobody can guarantee safe and continuous de-pository operation. So nobody can be surprised that this solution seems unacceptableto the public and even to great part of scientific community.

2) spent nuclear fuel contains of rest primary and newly produced fissionable isotopes,which can be used in the present type of nuclear reactors (PWK, FBR). Before theirusing, separation of these fissionable isotopes has to be done. At present, reprocessing(separation) concerns only fissonable isotopes - 2 3 5 U and 2 0 9 Pu ( 2 i | 1Pu), although spentnuclear fuel contains other well fissionable materials - higher actinides (e.g. M 4 Am).These isotopes aren't exploited yet.

3) this disadvantage can be avoided by using the third possibility - so called partitioningand transmutation (P&T) processes. The first of them is used for separation of trans-muted isotopes to avoid their undesirable activation. The transmutation of higheractinides by neutron capture (also higher aclinides) with higher fission probabilityand fission products transmutation by capturing of neutron with following beta-decayto the short-lived and less radiotoxic isotopes are the aims of the second process. Onthese ideas new hybrid accelerator-reactor systems are proposed.

These systems consist of three main units - accelerator, target/blanket and separationunits. In the research project [1], their description and explanation of function is set out.At the basic level, neutronics and economic facilities were considered. A major attentionis dedicated to the project proposed by Charles Bowman team in Los Alamos NationalLaboratory, U.S.A. Finally, there is a target/blanket design proposal of such systems forhigher actinides transmutation briefly presented. Basic neutronics computations of optimumgeometric core configuration and actinide concentration in carry salt, made by code WIMS,show us excellent possibility for transmutation of higher actininides.

Doubtless, these projects demand effort of a lot of scientists and a big economic andpolitical support. However, it seems that such projects can serve as a realistic solution ofenergy problem for the whole of our planet.

References:

[1] TUČEK, K.: Likvidace jaderných odpadů v jaderných reaktorech řízených urychlo-vačem, výzkumný úkol, KJR FJFI ČVUT Praha, srpen 1995.

[2] ZEMAN, J. - TUÚEK, K.: Accelerator driven reactors "CTU Workshop 95", Prague,Jan. 23-28, 1995.

[3] HRON, M.: Urychlovačem řízený transmutor pro jaderné spalování vyhořelého paliva zreaktoru typu WER, výzkumná zpráva, ÚJF ftež, G/1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Nuclear Reactors as part of theresearch project "Study of Spent Nuclear Fuel and Radioactive Waste Management by Use ofAccelerator Driven Reactor Systems" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 100J8297.

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WORKSHOP 9G NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

NEW SAFETY ANALYSIS REPORTOF TRAINING REACTOR

VR-1 VRABEC (SPARROW)

K. Matějka, t . Sklenka

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. k Phys. Eng., Dept. of Nuclear ReactorsV Ilolesovickách 2, 180 00 Praha 8

Key words: research and training reactor, reactor VR-1, nuclear safety, safety analysis,commissioning

Five years after the Training Nuclear Reactor VR-1 started operation, the Departmentof Nuclear Reactors prepared in 1995 a New Safety Analysis Report (SAR). SAR is adocument provided by the user to the regulatory body (in Czech Republic a regulatorybody is the State Office for Nuclear Safety), containing information concerning the nuclearreactor facility, its design, safety analysis and provisions to minimize risk to the public, theoperating personnel and the environment.

In addition, the preparation of an SAR also serves the following purposes:

a) To aid the designer inconfirmíng that individual systems are integrated correctly, sincethe reactor design and the development of the SAR arc a complementary, interactiveprocess;

b) To ensure that the safety analysis has properly identified the safety issues relevant tothe design and that safety analysis and design are consistent;

c) To aid in the evaluation of the relevant design criteria, their limitatations and require-ments, and in the evaluation of the hazards posed by the facility;

d) To aid operators in training and familiarization with the facility;e) To ensure the establishment of operational limits and conditions within certain pa-

rameters which must be met at all stages i» the life of the reactor life cycle in orderto have an adequate protection of the reactor safety margins.

The New SAR of training reactor VR-1 VRABEC has 20 chapters, main parts of con-tents being:

1. Introduction and general description of the facility (general description, historicalreview, comparison with other facilities, safety features, experimental programme).

2. Safety objectives and engineering design requirements (main and specific design re-quirements, components and systems, external events, employed codes and standards,qualification of components).

3. Site characteristic (general site description, external effects, geology and seismology,meteorology, hydrology, radiological impacts, population distribution).

4. Reactor (summary description, fuel elements, reactivity control system, nuclear de-sign).

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5. Instrumentation and control (reactor protection system, reactor power regulation sys-tem, alarm system, control room).

6. Auxiliary systems (fuel storage and handling, water system, air conditioning and ven-tilation systems, fire protection).

7. Reactor utilization (experimental facilities, experimental programme).8. Operatioiiiil radiological safety (radiation protection programme, radiation sources at

the facility, facility design for radiological safety, waste management systems, doseassessment for normal operation).

9. Conduct of operations (operational structure, staff qualification and training, operat-ing instructions and procedures, maintenance, physical security, records and reports).

10. Commissioning (programme, specific requirements, commissioning of modifications).11. Safety analysis (reactor characteristics, selection of initiating events, evaluation of

individual event sequences).12. Operational limits and conditions (safety limits, safety system settings, limiting con-

ditions for safe operation, surveillance requirements, administrative requirements).13. Quality assurance (QA programmes, QA procedures, management status of the QA

programme).14. Emergency planning and preparedness (emergency plan, emergency procedures).

It is evident, that the preparation of the new SAR for the reactor VR-1 was very usefuland brought at the same time new aspects and views on nuclear safety and cultural safetyin the operation and utilization of the reactor VR-1.

References:

[1] Safely Assessment of Research Reactors and Preparation of the Safety Analysis Report,Safety Series No. 35-G1, IAEA, Vienna, 199-1

[2] MATĚJKA, K. - et al.: Bezpečnostní zpráva školního reaktoru VR-1 VRABEC, KJRFJFlCVUT Praha, 1995

[3) MATĚJKA, K. - SKLENKA, C: Limity a podmínky pro trvalý provoz školního reaktoruVR-1 VRABEC, KJR FJFI ČVUT Praha, 1994

This research has been conducted at the Department of Nuclear Reactors.

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WORKSHOP 9G NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

DEVELOPMENT OF SOFTWAREFOR SAFETY SYSTEM

OF TRAINING NUCLEAR REACTOR

M. Kropfk, K. Matějka, T. Sejba

CTU, Fiic. of Nucl. Sei. & Pliys. Eng., Dept. of Nuclear ReactorsV Holcšovičkách 2, ISO 00 Praha S

Key words: system requirements, software life cycle, software development, verificationand validation, integration ofhardware and software, quality assurance

The department of Nuclear Reactors of the FNSPE has begun research work on theinnovation of the microprocessor based control and safety system of the training nuclearreactor VR-1 SPARROW. The advanced nuclear reactor control system (ANRCS) basedon up-to-date hardware and software technology should improve nuclear safety, operationalreliability and man-machine interface. This contribution deals with the development ofnuclear safety critical software for the safety channel of the ANRCS.

The development of the ANRCS was conducted according to State Office for NuclearSafety (SONS), IEC [3], IEEE [4] requirements and IAEA recommendations. The assur-ance of quality in the development of the ANRCS was described in the documents QualityAssurance Plan of ANRCS [1] and Verification and Validation Plan [2]. These documentsspecify life cycle of hardware and software of the ANRCS, activities in each phase of thedevelopment, construction, operation and maintanance, required testing, verification andvalidation at the end of each stage, procedures for corrections of found failures, requireddocumentation etc.

The development process was started by the exact and complete establishment of re-quirements for the ANRCS as a whole, from which scpareted requirements for hardware andsoftware were deduced. The development of the hardware subsystems prototype accordingto the requirements mentioned above is now succesfully completed.

Parallel with the development of the hardware the development of the software wasbegun. The software requirements specification was followed by the software design. Gen-erally accepted practices of how to develop reliable software - structured design and coding,proper software documentation, testing, verification and validation, configuration manage-ment, were used.

As the main programming language "C" was used, and for small, time critical parts,assembler. The safety channel uses as a base the microprocessor NEC V25, the instructionsof which are compatible with the microprocessor IS08G/8S. As compiler, linker and debuggersoftware pack Borland C++ 3.1 for MS-DOS was used, creation of the ROMable code forthe NEC V25 based microcomputer was made by the Paradigm Locate locator.

At the first stage of the software development a program was written, compiled, linkedand tested on the IBM PC compatible computer. The program structure was based on adecomposition into modules, simple and easy to understand. Procedures, data structuresand communication in the program were defined. Requirements for critical timing were alsogiven.

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The first period of testing was thorough syntax checking of the source code made by theBorland C + + 3.1 compiler with setting all possible checking options. Static and dynamicinput data testing was further performed. At the end of the host testing statistical data asinputs were used.

The next period of the software development was creation of ROM able code and trans-port of this code to the target hardware (microcomputer with NEC V25). This processis called Integration Hardware and Software. At first, the system was tested with simu-lated input signals and its responses were checked. Further this system was connected toone neutron measurement channel of the contemporary safety system and its behavior wascompared with expected results in the static and dynamic regime of reactor operation. Theresults of testing were satisfactory.

The following activity should be completion of the whole system, the development ofnon-safety software and factory and site acceptance testing of the whole system. Final taskwill be licencing of the ANRCS by the SONS. The results achieved in the developmentof hardware and software of the ANRCS give good basis for succesful completion of thedevelopment, construction and installation of this control and safety system.

References:

[1] MATĚJKA, K. - KROPÍK, M. - SEJBA, T.: Quality Assurance Plan of ANRCS,FNSPE, 1995

[2] MATĚJKA, K. - KROPÍK, M. - SEJBA, T.: Verification and Validation Plan ofANRCS, FSNPE, 1995

[3] Software for Computers in the Safety Systems of Nuclear Power Station IEC 880, Gen-eve, 1986

[4] Standard Criteria for Digital Computers in Safety Systems of Nuclear Power GeneratingStations, IEEE P-7-4.3.2., 1994

This research has been conducted at the Department of Nuclear Reactors as part of theresearch project "Advanced Control System and Safety System of Nuclear Reactor" and hasnot been supported by any CTU grant.

1070


CALCULATIONS OF SPENT FUELCHARACTERISTICS BY ORIGEN CODE

S. Polách, K. Matějka

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dep!,, of Nuclear ReactorsV HolcsoviSkách 2, ISO 00 Praha S

Key words: origen code, spent fuel, high level waste, nuclide composition, heat generation

At present the backend of nuclear fuel cycle and final disposal of high level radioactivewastes (especially spent nuclear fuel) becomes more and more important.

Origen, version 2.1 (ORIGEN2), is a versatile point-depletion and radioactive-decaycomputer code for use in simulating nuclear fuel cycles and calculating the nuclide compo-sitions and characteristics of materials contained therein ([1]).

The nuclear materials characteristics computed by ORIGEN2 are ([2]):

- mass of each nuclidc or fractional isotopic composition of each element, which arecontained in the program database (a total of 1700 nuclides including actinides),

- radioactivity,- thermal power,- toxicity (radioactive and chemical ingestion, radioactive inhalation),- neutron absorption rate and fission rate,- neutron emission (spontaneous fission, (a,n) reaction),- photon emission (number of photons in 18 energy groups).

ORIGEN2 as a flexible reactor physics code, with its relative simplicity, convenientdetailed output and overall agreement of results with reality, gained considerable popularityin the world. At present it has practically become international standard for calculations ofcharacteristics described above.

Therefore, the Department of Nuclear Reactors engaged into the activity, at the end oflast year, to obtain a copy of ORIGEN2 code from the ORNL for teaching and experimentalpurposes.

At present a working copy of ORIGEN2 code package for PC is installed at the De-partment and testing works are oriented to calculations for the W E R fuel elements andto ORIGEN2 results verification with another data sources (results are presented in [3]).The main aim of the realized work is getting the basis for routine ORIGEN2 utilization foreastern kind of spent nuclear fuel elements.

On the figures No. 1 and No. 2 the ORIGEN2 results are presented for the radioactivityand heat generation of major fission products in W E R 440 spent fuel element with burn-up38.3 MWd/kgU and with four years equilibrious fuel campaign.

References:

[1] ORIGEN 2.1 Isotope Generation and Depletion Code Matrix Exponential Method. OakRidge National Laboratory, revised December 1991.

1071


[2] CROFF, A. G.: A user's manual for the ORIGEN2 computer code. ORNL/TM-7175,Oak Ridge National Laboratory, July 19S0.

[3] POLÁCH, S. - MATĚJKA, K.: Ověřovací výpočty parametrů vyhořelého paliva typuVVER-440 pomocí programu ORIGEN 2.Í. KJll FJFI ČVUT Praha, července 1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Nuclear Reactors and has notbeen supported by any CTV grant.

1072

1 E 7 T

1E6

1E4

1E+03 -

1E+D1

1E+04

9E+03 -

8E+D3

7E+03

S 6E+03-•o•j

| 5E*03

- 4E+03 H

3E4Q3 •

2E+03 -

1E*03OE+00

Activity of fission productsWER 440 fuel element

— Sr90 - « - Y90 -•- RulOB -B- Rh106 — Cs137

— Ba137m - * - Ce144 - 4 - Pr144 -•- SUM SP

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0Time after Irradiation [years!

9.0 10.0

Fig.l

Heat generation of fission productsWER 440 fuel element

Cs104 -•- Ba137m Prt44 — SUM SP |

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0Time otter irradiation [years]

_

8.0 9.0 10.0


USING NEUTRON NOISE ANALYSISTECHNIQUES FOR NUCLEAR

REACTOR IN CORE MEASUREMENTAND DIAGNOSTICS

S. KropS

CTU, Fac. of Nucl. Sei. & Phys. Eng., Dept. of Nuclear ReactorsV Ilolešovičkách 2, 180 00 Praha 8

Key words: research reactor, experimental reactor physics, noise analysis, boiling detec-tion, diagnostics, reactivity measurement, inherent noise

Good knowledge of processes in the nuclear reactor core is important for nuclear safety.There arc many measuring and diagnostic systems in the nuclear reator which monitorphysical parameters required for a safe operation. However there are processes which cannotbe easily monitored and detected.

One of the posibHities to delect such processes is the use of neutron noise analysistechniques. This technique uses the frequency spectra analysis of the signal from neutrondetectors to detect change in working parameters.

There are many sources of noise in the measured signal. Most important sources are

• inherent neutron noise

• mechanical noise sources

• electrical noise sources

The source of the inherent neutron noise is the statistical nature of the chain fission reaction.Measuring of the inherent noise can be used for example for the measurement of reactivity(Rossi a, or Feynman a method). This method is not only used for reactivity measurement,but also for determination of other parameters of the core, as (for example) /?//. ß/l wasmeasured by this method on the training nuclear reactor VIt-1.

Using a more sensitive neutron detector, the absolute reactor power could be measuredby combination of Rossi a and Feynman a method.

Another application of the noise technique is the measurement of the neutron flux inthe reactor core by a current neutron detector. On the reactor Vil-1 the neutron flux ismeasured by fission detectors. On the low power the detectors arc operating in the pulsemode, so the measurement is not disturbed by the 7 radiation background. On the higherreactor power, the mode of operation changes to the current regime. If the reactor operateson the maximum power for more a severat minutes, the 7 background increases over severalmagnitudes and the measurement of the neutron power is then disturbed for several hours.This problem can be solved by using gamma compensated neutron detectors, or by theapplication of Cammbel technique to the signal from the detectors which are used today.We suppose that the application of noise measurement can decrease 7 sensitivity of themeasuring channel approximately a hundred times.

1073


Last application which was studied is the detection of boiling in the reactor core. Thereare several methods how to detect boiling. One is the long term monitoring of the frequencyspectra of the signal from the neutron detector. If the reactor is in the stable mode ofoperation, the frequency spectra arc also stable and the characteristic shape of the spectracan be determined. If there is some change in the physical condition of the core or if there-is some other new source of noise, the shape of the spectra changes. Intensive boiling isa significant source of white noise in the core, so the intensive boiling can be determined.More sensitive method is the use of two or mote detectors in a different position of the core.By measuring and caltulating the cross spectra of the signal coming from these detectors aglobal and local part of the noise spectra can be determined. By the determination of thesignal phase shift, the position of the noise source can be determined. This can be used forthe location of boiling developing in the core. Using the same techniques the speed of thecoolant flow can also be determined.

There are experiments being prepared at the reactor VR-1 to test tltcse techniques. Inthe last year, the equipement which can simulate boiling in the core by the flow of air bublcswas installed. The aim of the prepared experiment will be detection and localisation of thebubbles.

The same techniques also can be used in the power reactor, where in-core diagnostics isvery important for nuclear safety. The aplication of the noise techniques is more complicatedin these systems, because there is a lot of different noise sources, so the goot knowledge ofnoise spectra behavior is required. This knowledge can be acquired by experiments on thezero power reactor, where noise spectra are simpler and noise source is known.

References:

[1] STEKELENBURG, A. J. - VAN DER HAGEN, T. H.: Two-Phase Flow Monitoringby Analysis Of In-Core Neutron Detector Noise Signals, Ann. Nucl. Energy, Vol. 20,No 9, pp. 611-621, 1993

[2] KLEISS, E. B. - VAN DAMM, H.: A Twin Sdf-Powcrcd Neutron Detector for SteamVotocity Determination in a Boilintg Water Reactor, Nuclear Technology Vol. 53,pp. 250-256, May 19S1

[3] GOMEZ, A. - WALDMAN, R. - LAGGIARD, E,: Measurement of Power in ResearchReactors Using the Neutron Noise Technique, Ann. Nucl. Energy, Vol. 19, No. 5, pp 267-2S5, 1992.

[4] STEKELENBURG, A. J.: Statics and Dynamics of a Natural Circulation Cooled Boil-ing Water Reactor, Delft: Iuterfaculty Reactor Institute, Delft University of Technology- Thesis Delft University of Technology 111.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Nuclear Reactors as part of theresearch project "Using Noise Analysis Methods for Nuclear Reactor Diagnostics" and hasbeen supported by CTU grant No. 100J8S98.

1074

Section 21

TRANSPORT ENGINEERING

NEXT PA3EÍS)left

WORKSHOP 9C TRANSPORT ENGINEERING

ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OFELECTROMOBILES AND ELECTRIC

BICYCLES IN CITY TRANSPORTSYSTEMS OF BRNO AND PRAHA

M, Cenek, J . Kazelle, J . Finsterle*, Z. Pospíchal*

TU Brno, Fac. of Electrical Eng. and Computer Sc, Dept. of ElectrotechnologyAntonínská 1, 662 09 Brno

*TU Brno, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Process and Ecological EngineeringTcchiwcká 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: ecological transport, environment, exhaust gases of car combustion engines,noise level, electromobiles, electric bicycles, city transport system, accumula-tor batteries, fast charging of batteeries, the method minit charger, electriccity transport, system supporting legislation

Department of Electrotechnology of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and ComputerScience of the Technical University Brno takes part on solving the project "CITYCAR SYS-TEM" of the Ministry of Environment of Czech Republic which deals with the problemsof incorporating electric vehicles into the transport systems of the city of Brno and of thecapital city of Praha. Within tiie frame of this project, the evaluation of accumulator bat-teries of 40 electromobiles manufactured by the firm SKODA ELCAR Ltd. Ejpovice is beingcarried out. It concerns two types of electromobiles namely ELTRA 151 Sedan and ELTRA151 PICK-UP which represent reconstruction of SKODA Favorit and SKODA PICK-UPcars to an electric execution. Both types of electromobiles were gradually introduced intooperation from the end of 1992 to the beginning of 1994. The users of these electromobilesare from the branches of energetics, post, telecommunication, transport organizations, min-istries, police and wholesale organizations. The clectromobiles are operated in the capitalcity of Praha and further in Brno, Plzeň and in other 6 towns.

Test of capacity of accumulator batteries used in two electromobiles SKODA ELTRA151 PICK-UP operated in Brno and Praha has been carried out at our Institute.

The lead-acid 84 V accumulator battery type Fcdermarti 2T from the firm BVF has beenmeasured within the frame of its operation at the wholesale food firm RAPO Brno. Aftercovering the distance of 9918 km this battery having the capacity of 185 Ah at dischargingby C5 current has shown drop of capacity to the value of 94.3 Ah i.e. 50.9 % of the nominalvalue. One faulty 6 V accumulator block was found out of the total number of 14 blocksforming accumulator battery.

The same type of electromobile SKODA, ELTRA 151 PICK-UP in a shortened ex-ecution was fitted with lead-acid batteries type 9PzF 180 from the firm BÄREN. Aftercovering the distance of 6S09km within the frame of operation at Czech Power Plants, theevaluated battery having the capacity of 180 Ah has shown drop to the value of 157.5 Ahi.e. 87.5 % of the nominal value. The shortened execution of this electromobile was realized

1077

WORKSHOP 96 TRANSPORT ENGINEERING

in the Institute for Research of Motor Vehicles in Praha. It was fitted with 6 lead-acid 12 Vbatteries giving the total accumulator battery voltage of 72 V.

Testing two electric bicycles fitted with nickel-cadmium 24 V accumulator batteriesformed by cells from the firm SAFT of the type VR7F having capacity 7 Ah was carried outsimultaneously within the frame of the project being solved. The aforesaid accumulatorswere charged by different methods. They were charged by the normal charging current of2 A for a period o( 3.5 hours and by fast charging by the method Mínit Charger from theCanadian firm Norvik Inc. for a period of 1 hour. Fast charging by the method MinitCharger represents continuous control of the internal electro-chemica! state of the cell or ofthe whole battery in the course of charging. The charging starts at the state of completelydischarged cell namely by charging current exceeding multiple value of the nominal capacityof cells being charged. As soon as the ability of a cell or of a battery to accept the chargedrops below the set high value of the charging current, the charger detects this state bymeans of measuring the voltage without load during short-time switching-off electric current(period of 2 ms) and adjusts the charging current to the proper value or possibly disconnectsthe charging. Typically GO to S0% of capacity can be delivered during initial (power)charging. The method Minit Charger has also the ability of temperature compensation ofcells by means of i thermistor in order to ensure the same effective charging in a wide rangeof temperature.

The tested electric bicycles represent a combination of mechanical drive and electricdrive realized by means of friction drive installed on the front wheel. The initial measurementof capacity of separate cells on the beginning of cycling and also in the course of furtheroperation was carried out before actual operation of both accumulator batteries ensuringauxiliary operation of electric bicycles. Great differences of capacity between separate cellsnamely in the range from 6.21 to G.SOAh which correspond to the dispersion of 9% werefound out after initial measurement of capacity on the beginning of cycling. The increaseby 8% of the capacity of cells in both accumulator batteries was observed in the course ofcapacity measurement after 25th cycle. The capacity of separate cells substantially equalizedand the dispersion was 6%. The increase of the capacity of the battery charged by themethod Minit Charger was recorded after 50 testing cycles and at the same time only atthis battery the decrease of capacity dispersion of the cells being used was found out tothe value of 5%. At the classic charging method the capacity and neither the dispersionof capacity values of measured cells did not change for the whole remaining period of thetests i.e. up to the 75th cycle. Further capacity increase by 1 % occurred at the electricbicycle using fast charging of battery by the method Minit Charger after 75th cycle and thedispersion of capacity decreased to the value of A %. Reaching 75 cycles oí testing electricbicycle batteries represents covering the distance of 7'Iökin when using only the electricdrive of the bicycle.

References:

[1] CENEK, M. - KAZELLE, J. - HAVEL, J.: Importance of Alkaline Accumulators inElectric Vehicles. EVS 95, Paris 1995

This research has been conducted at the Department of Elect rot cchnotogy as part ofthe research project "Ecological Importance of Elcctromobilcs and Electric Bicycles in CityTransport Systems of Brno und Praha" and has been supported by TU Brno grant.

1078


THE ROLE OF STRUCTURALSENSITIVITIES IN THE DESIGN

OF HIGH RELIABLE INFORMATIONSYSTEM FOR TRANSPORTATION

P. Moos

CTU, Fac. of Transport. Sei., Dept. of Automation in Transport & Telccomm.Konviktská 22, UO 00 Praha I

Key words: system analysis, reliability, structural sensitivity

In the contribution the structural aspect of the information system design is described.The graph of the information system is decomposed into the elementary subgraphs withweighted branches. As a novel approach to the structural properties the evaluation ofstructural sensitivity is defined and introduced with elementary examples.

Structural sensitivity The information system designer deals with the phenomenonof different weight of influence of information segments according to the placement in thestructure. The different influence of the identical elements in the system is given by differentstructural sensitivity of the system. In the structure are the places with high structuralsensitivity (critical places) in comparison with parts of the graph with lower sensitivity.

case A

decision maker d production

b- *

data management technical management

case B

production

data, management

Fig. 1: The simplified graph of elementary information system with two types of the feedback

1079


For the case of structure in Fig. 1 it is possible to evaluate the transmission of the graph(using the Mason-Truxal rules for example) in the form

the transmission of the second graph in Fig. 1 is

The parameters a, 6, c, d represent the relative weighted characteristics of couplingsbetween system elements. If the transmissions TA,TB a re the products of the discretetransformations of relations between output and input time series then, in the case of lineardiscrete model, it is possible to express the transmission of the whole graph by polynomialratio

r. = f 0)a n d Ar

where polynomials NA,DAÍNB,DB are the parametric functions of sets of parameters a,b, c, d. To demonstrate the idea of structural sensitivity we can choose one branch - forexample branch with characteristics 6 and evaluate the simplified sensitivity parameters

S [ 66 ~ dbTB~ [NB{b) DB(b)\ " \abc \~bcd

The structural sensitivity is giving the possibility to find the parts of the structure withcritical sensitivity, which it is usually the most influencing part in the system.

References:

[1] MOOS, P. - VLČEK, J.: Methodology and Design of High Reliable TransportationSystems, Workshop'95, CTU Prague, 1995

[2] MOOS, P.: The Role of Structural Sensitivities in Production Function of InformationSystems, Neural Network World, No. 6, 1995, pp. 917-928

This research has been conducted at the Department of Mathematics as part of theresearch project "Distributed Surveillance and Control of Truck Transport in the Czech Re-public" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 1006S155.

1080


THE ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION INCREATION OF SETTLEMENTS AND

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYNERGETICPHENOMENA

P . Moos, A. Mansfeldová*

CTU, Fac. of Transport. SciM Dept. of Automation in Transport & Telecomm.Konviktská 20, 110 00 Praha I

*CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Town & Regional PlanningThákurova. 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: urban strategy, transportation, settlements, sustainable development, syner-getics

Introduct ion. This paper deals with the systemic definition of the mutual interactionof processes that develop from urbanistic concepts. Mutuality is created by logistic processesamong partial elements in the settlements and regions and this processes are based on thetransportation infrastructure influencing quality of life. The simultaneous processes andelements of the self-organization arc fundamental events that cause sudden and dramaticchanges in the quality of life of inhabitants in numerous settlements. By their nature theyrepresent a synergetic phenomenon in which transport plays an important part. In the paperthe authors attempt to formulate methodology for defining the systemic changes of urban-istic elements. They also attempt to describe the mutual bonds among these componentswhich enable us to identify their influence on the development of the synergetic phenomenain social field, and in the productive function and ecology of the settlements and regions.The viability of the system is formulated and the concept of the region's "genetic code" isalso introduced.

Main goals of the concept. The problems of settlements and regions, analyzing,making prognoses, planning and managing of their development were and still are the topicof many scientific disciplines. The results of this activity, which are contained in manyresearch works and professional literature on statistic data and map sources can serve asbackground information, however, they can only be partially applied to contemporary socialand economic conditions of the Czech Republic.

An urbanized locality as a spatially autonomous formation represents an elementarycomponent of a settlement. Due to its long-term endurance and development in space andtime, it represents a record of human history.

Variations in size, geographic location, as well as functional and spatial diversity de-mand different and often also specific approaches in various activities (regional planning,urbanistic, architectural, cultural and social) as well as in economic, ecological, executiveand political aspects of life.

The necessary regional planning function which leads to the management of the effectivedevelopment of the material environment of settlements should be applied to regional plan-ning to a much greater extent than it has been so far. Mutual bonds between regional plan-

1081


ning sources and regional planning documentation, between categories and phases stages,grades, degrees of regional planning documentation, and between regional planning andprograms of regional development should be considerably extended. The quality of an in-formation system about a region, along with the methods, techniques, norms and standard,"-for applied regional planning should be improved. The territory of settlements should beassesed not only in terms of its administrative borders but it should include neighboringsettlements, that is its urbanized zone.

The above-mentioned facts allow us to stale that it is useful to characterize the creationof settlements as a systemic activity. From this point of view it is desirable to mention atwhat time it is still possible to speak about system and systemic approaches. If we want todescribe settlements as systems or even better, as subsystems within the regional systems,then while identifying them we must be able to distinguish components and their functionsin the system and also, the mutual bonds among these components. These bonds shouldbe described by their parametrical theorems. Bonds connecting the outer environment ofsettlement are of great importance, too. In the systemic description of the settlements, wemust not limit ourselves to the passive, static characteracteristics. The scheme of behaviorand dynamic qualities based on the description of the previously identified processes inthe given system must be taken into account, too. The set of the significant processesrepresented both in the social as well as in the ecological and economic areas levels iscalled the behavior of the settlement system. We understand the term process to be theconsequence of events while an event is expressed as a change of the state of the system.The group of the "strongest" and most distinctive processes can be called the "typicalbehavior" of the settlement system. The typical behavior of the system, in the long termand its repetition, forms a set of processes in which the "genetic code" of the system can beidentified. This genetic code itself represents necessary aspect which urbanists and authorsof this regional plan need to to analyze and, as a matter of principle, respect. The paperaspires to show a new theoretical apparatus that enables us to quantify processes from thepoint of view of the possible origin of the settlement's sudden changes in quality of life andto recognize in advance, to a certain extent, potential syncrgetic phenomena.

Methods of complex systemic sensitivity analysis are important tools of this apparatus.It includes analysis of structural sensitivity, functional sensitivity and methods of detectingthe ecological sensitivity of settlements. The transportation systems can be considered inall of this assumptions <is a mean of the system couplings creating mutual stimulation forself organising processes.

This research has been conducted at the Dept, of Automation in Transport and Telecom'munications as part of the research project "Distributed Surveillance And Control Of TruckTransportation In The Czech Republic" and has been supported by CTUgrant No. 10068155.

1082


THE INCREASE IN RELIABILITYAND SAFETY

OF ROAD COMMUNICATIONSF. Lehovec, F. Luxemburk, J . Volf, P. Karlíčky,

L. Vébr, P. Jirava, P. Slabý

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Road StructuresTliákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: reliability, safety, pavement design, traffic calming

The problems of reliability and safety of hi '.iways have been solved in three indepen-dent areas closely linked together: Design of non-rigid pavements, traffic engineering andtechnology of asphalt compact mixes.

In the area of designing pavements the research team has concentrated on the issuesof design reliability and more precise modelling of pavement construction discontinuity. Arounded-ofF set of non-rigid pavement constructions has been evaluated with base coursesbound by hydraulic binders and unbound layers on the condition of non-perfect interac-tion between these layers and layers of bituminous mixes. The acquired results have beenparallelly exploited during the preparation of a Catalogue of highway pavement construc-tions. We have managed to make a more accurate physical and mathematical model of avehicle-road system.

While evaluating new technologies for wearing courses of pavements from the point ofview of their safety and minimization of negative impacts on the environments a possibility ofincreasing the resistance of bituminous mixes to permanent deformations and their resistanceto frost cracks have been evaluated. The solution of this problem has been closely linked totwo grants of the Faculty of Civil Engineering of the Czech Technical University (CTU):

• The usage of a NAT device for monitoring rheological properties of bituminous mixesand

• New possibilities of modification of bituminous binders and mixes.

A number of modified binders of domestic, as well as foreign production have beenevaluated, including their influence on the minimization of occurance of permanent de-formations. These have been monitored by means of repeated wheel travel tests of CTUmethodology.

The following asphalts have been evaluated: B 80, Olexobit 65, Olexobit 45, OlexobitSMA (produced by BP Bitumen Hamburg), Mofalt 65 and Mofalt 45 (produced by ParamoPardubice). All results have shown a principal influence of modification on the lowering ofpermanent deformations. It implies that asphalts of gradation. 45 are mutually comparable,their resistance to rutting being practically identical. As for asphalts of gradation 65,more favourable properties have been discoveced in mixes produced on the basis of foreignasphalts.

The third part of our research concerned traffic calming, this year namely applying theoptimum calming countermcasures to specific conditions within different countries.

1083


Numerous road and traffic engineering improvements of hazardous street sections andjunctions already exist world-wide. To define the best and safest countermcasurcs for specificlocal conditions, information from accident analyses and experience with the individual (ora combination of) countermcasure efficiency is required. If a country does not have itsown experience of using all the possible counternieasures, as is the case currently, then it isnecessary to examine and employ international experience.

This research has been based on the idea that countries initially use a certain counter-measure wherever it has proved successful, and after initial success, the number of appli-cations of that countenneasurc is increased by the street administration. The frequency ofapplication in a country can therefore be used as a rough guide to acceptance of a safetycountermeasure. For this type of analysis, it would be ideal to access an internationaldatabase of the applied road and traffic safety counternieasures in individual countries, butunfortunately this does not currently exist. Therefore, in order to progress towards theoriginal aim of the research, correspondence survey has been carried out.

The survey included the following breakdown of factors;

• Type of counternieasure

• Conditions of use (rural/urban then minor arterial/collcctors/local roads)

• Frequency of use (often/seldom/none)

• Total instances of countermeasure application. Estimate (rural/urban)

This survey form was sent to 20 countries. In spite of small numbers of responses (45%level), it seems that it is possible to discern a close relationship between the survey dataobtained and our general knowledge.

This paper concludes that a comparative frequency analysis of the application of specificroad and traffic safety countermeasurcs between countries and between different conditionsis useful. From the survey conducted, using a basic road classification scheme, it has be-come clear that there are marked differences between countries in both the frequencies ofapplication and in the road conditions at which they choose to apply them, even betweenthose that used the same countermeasure.

This research has been conducted ai the Department of Road Structures as part of theresearch project "The Increase in Reliability and Safely of (load Communications" and hasbeen supported by CTU grant No. 0018152.

1084


NEW DESIGNS OF HIGHWAYSAND THEIR RELIABILITY

F. Lehovec, P. Karlíčky, J . Volf, F. Luxemburk,P. Jirava, P. Slabý, B. Novotný*


*CTU, Klokner Institute, Dept. of Reliability of StructuresSolinova 7,166 08 Praha 6,

Key words: pavement design, highway reliability, pavement modelling

The complex of highway problems which were solved as priorities during last yearconsists of principally three thematic, mutually related areas:

o road traffic safety, including environmental protection• construction of pavements and• pavement management

Within the framework of innovation of principles of designing highways with a view toincreased road traffic safety and protection of the environment, the achieved results wereapplied during the revision of CSN 73 6102 standard - Design of intersections on highwayspublished in March 1995. In the process of development of the standard the group of re-searchers from the Department öf highway engineering acted as an official collaborator of thestandard designer. The problems of setting up conditions for the application, determinationof parameters and capacity of roundabouts, in particular small and miniroundabouts, wasfurther developed during the creation of a Catalogue of model design sheets. Simultaneouslya number of measurements of roundabout feeders capacity were carried out, the results wereanalyzed and compared with the results acquired by corresponding methods used abroad(France, Switzerland, Britain) with a resulting recommendation for a temporary applicationof German computation methods (Ruhr University - Prof. Brilon). A comparison of feederscapacity at a concrete intersection (Praha - Vítězné square) was carried out before and afterthe modification of its layout and road marking aiming at an increase in road traffic safety.It was found out that the modification did not result in a decrease of capacity, but, on thecontrary, in its partial increase.

In the field of traffic accident rate a possibility of application of traffic informationsystems for adding up traffic and construction parameters to accident database was evalu-ated. Analyses took place in sets of three- to five-leg intersections in the Praha and Plzeňarea according to accident type (15 types) and traffic load. The results obtained are initialcorrelation relations.

For the selected city district (Praha G) 12 defective localities in all were establishedon the basis of increased accident rate and a questionnaire survey. For these localitiesmeasures for improving the situation were designed. The comparison of the existing anddesigned situation is carried out by using the following criteria: the speed of vehicles, lengthof crossing, length of view, size of collision areas etc.

1085


The research of conditions leading to increased road traffic safety was also based onthe data on all-national road accident statistics, mainly the data referred to the analysisof accident distribution during the day in relation to the data on intensity distribution intime. By using all-national data the development of the relation between the number ofserious accidents and the type of highway together with its traífic load (personal accidentdensity, relative personal accident rate parameters) was monitored whose results testify tothe necessity of investments into road infrastructure.

In the field of technologies selected rheological properties of rigid bituminous com-pacted mixes used for wearing courses of non-rigid pavements were monitored. Apart fromother issues the impact of modified binder gradation on the relation of rigidity modulus ontemperature was evaluated. As binders used for the production of bituminous mixes thefollowing asphalts of BP Bitumen firm were applied: 13 SO, Olexobit 45, Olcxobit G5 andOlexobit 5MA. Except for 13 SO all asphalts arc modified asphalts. The results presentedin fig. 1 confirmed the favourable influence of asphalt modification on the properties ofevaluated mixes both in the range of high temperatures (increase of rigidity and resistanceto permanent deformations) and low temperaLurcs (increased resistance to frost cracks).

The DEGAR.ES project is concerning the measurement of bearing capacity of flexiblepavements by defiectographs and the calculation of their residual bearing capacity and theirnecessa ry overlay. The Road Databank Ostrava is measuring the deflection bowl of flexiblepavements by three deflectographs already fifte en years. The calculation of the residualbearing capacity and the overlay is based on the dependence of only maximum deflectionand the number of traffic load without knowledges of the pavenic nt structure and its layers.

The DEGARES project and its software tools are using up-to-date methods by meansof back-calculation of multi-layer system based on the knowledge of the pavement structureand its layers including subgrade. Tlie calculation is provided for twelve points in distance -160 mm to GOO mm from the loading location in the frame of homogeneous sections accordingto the road structure, traffic load intensity and deflection bowl values.

The programme calculates the layers moduli and Poisson ratio for all layers for thetemperature conditions of the measurement. The residual bearing capacity is calculatedfor design conditions. According to the value of residual bearing capacity is calculated thenecessary thickness of overlay by means of adding cycle of 10 mm of overlay thickness.

The DEGARES programme is working with datafiles of Road Databank, that meansthe road structure datafilcs, the traffic load datafiles and deflection measurement datafilcs.In 1995, the Road Databank organised two comparising measurement of deflection bow! offlexible pavement on the large area and numerous sections using the ßenkclmann beam,defiectographs and deflectometcrs. The comparising analysis helps to correct different mea-suring and calculating methods of residual bearing capacity and flexible pavement overlay.

This research has been conducted til the Department of Mathematics as part of theresearch project "New Design of Highways and Their Reliability1* and has br.cn supported byGAÚK grant No. 13012360.

1086

WORKSHOP 9C TRANSPORT ENGINEERING

THEORETICAL MODELFOR TRAFFIC VOLUME

OF HEAVY VEHICLES

M. Hála

CTU, Pac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of MathematicsThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: traffic volume, statistical model, polynomial regression

Knowledge of the volume of traffic in a road network has a basic importance for highwayengineering. One partial problem of research is searching for the theoretical distribution ofthe traffic volume during one day. This theoretical distribution for passenger cars wasderived in [2], where only roads within the 1st category were examined. The aim of thiscontribution is to derive such theoretical distribution for buses, trucks and trucks withtrailers and sirnulteneously for both 1st and 2nd categories of roads.

The examined data are the same as in [2], i.e. 49 measurements of one working daytraffic intensities. (For the details see also [1] or [3].) This intensities obtained by GoldenRiver Marksman Classifier were divided into three groups:

• 0 - 500 cm (passenger cars),• 500-1200 cm (trucks and buses),

• 1200 - 2200 cm (trucks with trailers).

The groups trucks and buses and trucks with trailers were compounded into one groupcalled heavy vehicles. The relative frequencies for all 49 files were computed. Comparingthem some empirical conclusions were drawn:

(i) The course of the relative frequencies of heavy vehicles vary for each sample. Allsamples can be divided into two groups, between them this courses vary only slightly.

(ii) The criterion for such division is not (somewhat surprisingly) the ordinary classifica-tion of the roads into 1st and 2nd class categories. More suitable seems to be thecriterion "great or low proportion of heavy vehicles to all vehicles". This proportionexceedes 28% on all roads within the 1st class category (together 34 samples) and onone road with the 2nd class category (4 samples). In the rest of samples (2 roads of2nd class category with together 11 samples) this proportion is lower than 18%.

According to previous considerations we deal with the group A—samples with greatproportion of heavy transport and group B—samples with low proportion of heavy transport.The average relative frequencies for both groups were computed and a fitting curve weresearched using polynomial regression. For better quality of fitting we assumed the timepassing from 3 a.m. till 3 a.m. the next day because the traffic volume reached its minimumusually between 3 and 4 a.m. The polynomials of the 8th degrees fit the average frequencieswith sufficient quality and after dividing them by their integrals (so «is to get probabilitydensity functions) we got:

1087


fA(i) = 1,47275-10"9í8 - 1.82488-10"7ť7 -f 9.54038-10"6/6 - 2.73832 • 10~4ř5 +-f 4.69804-10"3 i 4 - 4.89714-10~ZÍ3 + 0.298127 ť - 0.93723 ( -f- 1.15775,

fB(t) = 1.77593 • 10"9 ť8 - 2.19565 • 10"717 + 1.13923 • 10"5 í 6 - 3.22060 • \T415 +

+ 5.38672- 10"3i4 - 5.40627-10~2í3 + 0.312779 i2 - 0.92334 i + 1.06230.

The graph of this two densities is shown in Fig. 1. Note that the probability densityfunction for the group A has higher and narrower peak in comparison with the one for thegroup B. Greater proportion of the night traffic volume in the group A is obvious, too.

0.09

0 5 10 15 20 25

Fig, 1: Estimated densities for group A and group R

30

References:

[1] HÁLA, M. - KARLIČKY, P. et. al.: Analysa variací intenzit silničního provozu. (Re-search report, Prague 1994).

[2] HÁLA, M. - KARLIČKY, P.: Theoretical model for traffic volume. (Workshop 95,873-874).

[3] HÁLA, M. - KARLIČKY, P.: Možnosti zpřesnění výpočtu jednodenních intenzit do-pravy z krátkodobých měřeni (Sborník výsledku vědeckovýzkumných grantových úkolův roce 1994, Praha, FSv ČVUT, 1994, 166-168).

This research has been conducted at the Department of Road structures as part of the re-search project "The Possibility for More Precise Computations of One Day's Traffic Volumefrom Short-term Measurements " and has been supported by CTU grant No. 2052/13611.

1088


THE POSSIBILITY FOR MOREPRECISE COMPUTATIONS OF

ONE DAY TRAFFIC VOLUME FROMSHORT-TERM MEASUREMENT

P. Karličky, E. Dlouhá, B. Pipková,L. Vébr, M. Hála*


*CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dcpt. of MathematicsThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: highway enginnering, traffic hourly variation, traffic modelling

In 1995 the research in this topic was concentrated on the main subject of solution,namely on finding relationships between the results of short-term measurements and one-day traffic volumes.

The basis for the analysis were hour volumes of traffic obtained over 24 hours during'19 working days on S Czech roads (5 within 1st class, 3 within 2nd class) in the periodof measurements from July 19SS to October 1991. A data file for analysis is describedin greater detail in papers published in 1995 [1-3]. There the first results of analysis acealso mentioned, namely the importance of relative volume frequencies for analysis and thedifferent distribution of traffic variations for each kind of vehicle.

By using this knowledge, an analysis of a set of short-term measurements was prepared.There are traditionally two working days short-term measurements used in a traffic censusorganized by the Czech state and municipal road administrations every five years on allsignificiint sections of road and street network. They comprise two sets of four hour volumes,a morning short-term measurement in the Ume from 7 to 11 a.m. and an afternoon one in thetime from 1 to 5 p.m. Individual sample percentages (respecting the time of measurementand the type of vehicle) were calculated as shares of these four hour volumes within all-day volumes; afterwards tills data was used in regression analysis to find out relationshipsbetween them.

Regression analysis:x; = all day volume [veh/24 h]I/,- = four hour volume percentage [%]A = morning four hour measurement (7 to 11 a.m.)B = afternoon four hour measurement (1 to 5 p.m.)r = correlation coefficient

Results of analysis - regression equations:1, Passenger cars

A: yt = 29.94 - 0.000G02 xi (r = -0.29)B: yi = 32.10 - 0.000769 i , (r = -0.47)

1089

WORKSHOP % TRANSPORT ENGINEERING

2. TrucksA: 2/2 = 34.86 + 0.000365 x2 (r = 0.05)B: y2 = 27.75 - 0.00152 x2 (r = -0.42)

3. Trucks with trailersA: y 3 = 31.41 - 0.00217 x 3 (r = -0.20)B: y 3 = 27.42 - O.00220 i 3 (r = -0.30)

4. All vehiclesA: t/4 = 29.80 - 0.000111 i 4 (r = -0.072)B: JM = 31.03 - 0.000513 x4 (r = -0.58)

Analysis results (coefficient r) of a set of four hour volume percentages over 24 hoursshow that the morning samples (7-11) are more spread than the afternoon samples (1-5),which should therefore be preferred in short-term measurements to get more significantresults.

References:

[1] KARUCKÝ, P. - VACEK, T. - IIALA, M.: from Short-Term Measurements, Work-shop g5, Section 19, CTU Praha, 1995.

[2| HÁLA, M. - KARLIČKY, P.: Theoretical Model for Traffic Volume. Workshop 95,Section 19, CTU Praha, 1995,

[3] KARLIČKY, P.: Analysis of Daily Traffic Volume. Slovak Journal of Civil Enginnering,1995-1, pp. 2K23, Bratislava 1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Road Structures as part of theresearch project "The Possibility of More Precise Computations of One-Day Traffic Volumesfrom Short- Term Measurements" and has been supported by the Faculty of Civil EnginneringCTU grant No. 1027.

1090


DESIGNING ROAD PAVEMENTS- PAVEMENT CATALOGUE

L. Vébr


Key words: design method, catalogue, pavement

This paper is based on a need of transition to designing pavement constructions withregards to limit states and with consideration of probability principles of pavement degrada-tion, which are the conditions leading to setting up a new design method and, subsequently,a catalogue of recommended pavement constructions.

The present design methodology employs material characteristics whose values are notrealistic difFering from real characteristics due to various reasons. Neither in a laboratory,nor on a building site is it ever possible to reach successfully some of these design charac-teristics. This is the reason why it is necessary to minimize the input number of materialcharacteristics for computations reaching thus the maximum possible simplification of thetheoretic solution of the mathematical pavement model necessary for the creation of a newdesign methodology and, subsequently, of a catalogue of recommended road pavement con-structions. One of the possibilities of simplification of the solution of mathematical modelconsists in analyzing the pavement in one temperature regime only - e.g. using annualmean temperature. This kind of modification lowers the number of input characteristics forthe mathematical solution of the physical model of bituminous mixes from fifteen to fivedecreasing thus the risks of an error to one third.

On the basis of these premises a Catalogue of road pavements (hereafter referred to asthe Catalogue) has been laid out respecting the CSN 73 6114 standard - Road pavements.Basic Regulations for Design. The Catalogue serves as a basis for designing pavements ofhighways, other motoring areas and non-motor communications inside and outside munici-palities. The Catalogue contains pavements with a wearing course made of cement-concrete,asphalt, paving and concrete prefabricated blocks enabling a choice of a suitable basic con-struction type of pavement, foot-path and other motoring areas, including substitute mate-rials for individual construction pavement layers.

The Catalogue has been developed on the basis of both domestic and foreign experiencesin construction and exploitation of hardened motoring areas with regards to knowledgeobtained by research and theoretic computations. During the implementation and inspectionof works all requirements of the given technological and material norms have to be observed.

The Catalogue is divided into:

• a part comprising general rules for designing and evaluating pavement constructions,including rules for using the Catalogue

• a part containing proper catalogue sheets and commentary on them

The Catalogue has been laid out in relation to the traffic significance and load of theroad, or the type of motoring area usage and is further subdivided into 6 sections:

1091


• Rigid pavements

• Non-rigid pavements

• Paved pavements and pavements with wearing courses made of elements

• Stops of public non-rail transport

• Parking areas

• Non-motor communications

All sections are further broken up into individual paragraphs divided according to the designlevel of pavement degradation, class of traffic load or type of motoring area usage containingcatalogue sheets of new road pavements, repairs and catalogue sheets of pavements withincreased rigidity of their wearing course.

Each paragraph is composed of catalogue sheets containing always several pavementconstructions with different structure. The materials of wearing courses, base courses andprotective coats may be, if need be, substituted by similar materials provided that theconditions prescribed have been preserved.

For examples of selected catalogue sheets see the enclosed figure.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Road Structures as part of theresearch project "Designing Road Pavements - Pavement Catalogue" and has been supportedby Faculty of Civil Engineering grant 1028.

1092


THE USAGE OF NAT DEVICEIN MONITORING

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIESOF BITUMINOUS MIXES

A. Zemánkova


Key words: rhcological properties, rigidity modulus, dynamic creep

After the Czech Republic has joined European structures and our road network hasconsequently become much more widely used demands on the construction of road pavementhave been increased. As a result of the presumed increase in the mass of projected axleand the growth in a traffic load on roads an increasingly bigger emphasis is laid on theextension of operative capacity and readability of extremely stressed constructions of non-rigid pavements.

That is why it is also necessary to deal with the monitoring of rheological properties ofbituminous mixes, evaluate their quality and find ways of gaining inputs for the design andevaluation of non-rigid pavement constructions.

While monitoring rheological properties of selected bituminous mixes we tried to con-centrate on a possible evaluation of the influence of modification components which increaseboth deformation resistance of the construction and minimize the occurance of fatigue andfrost cracks*

The aim of the project is to monitor rheological properties of bituminous mixes byusing a NAT (Nottingham Asphalt Tester) device which the Department of road structureshas received within the framework of a TEMPUS project and design ways of evaluation ofobtained tests results.

By using the NAT device the following material and deformation characteristics havebeen monitored:

• rigidity modulus within a temperature interval from —10°C to +40°C

• dynamic creep at +40 °C

• fatigue test of bituminous mix

The above mentioned characteristics have been established by using a mastix AKMS Iasphalt topping. Test samples of asphalts of both domestic and foreign production havebeen evaluated.

For the laboratory preparation of test samples the following asphalts have been used asdomestic - MOFALT 65, MOFALT 45 and foreign - B 80, BP Olexobit 65, BP Olexobit 45.

Momentary values of rigidity modulus have been established by applying transversaltensile stress at a temperature interval from -IO°C to +40°C. On the basis of rigiditymodulus values the value of thermal sensitivity may be established which is defined as aquotient of rigidity moduli 5 at temperatures of —10 °C to +40 °C.

1093


A graphic comparison of rigidity moduli of individual samples is evident from Fig. 1.

TRANVERSAL TENSION REPEATED STRESS TEST

100000 j;-i=S3!^£ViS£^-^^^

» 10000

goz£ 10009

100

. j.

-10 10 20 30

TEMPERATURE [°C1

B80

Olexobit 65

OJexobit 45

40

FIG. 1

The tests of dynamic creep of bituminous mix AKMS I took place at a temperatureof 40°C and a load of lkN. The results have shown that using modified binders has afavourable influence on the reduction of permanent deformation.

Asphalts of lower gradation (Mofalt 45 and Olexobit 45) show a lower relative axialdeformation in comparison to asphalts of gradation G5 (Mofalt 65 and Olexobit 65).

Fatigue tests as well took place at a temperature of 40 °C, test samples being exposedto transversal tension during the test. Asphalts of lower gradation» show better fatigueproperties in these cases too.

The usage of NAT device allows to establish the values of rigidity modulus of bituminousmixes, their dynamic creep and fatigue properties on a highly professional level.

The obtained measurements show that using modified binders has a favourable in-fluence on lowering permanent deformations and improvement of rhcological properties ofbituminous mixes.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Road Structures as part ofthe research project "The Usage of NAT Device in Monitoring Hhcological Properties ofBituminous Mixes" and has been supported by Faculty of Civil Engineering CTU grantNo. 1056.

1094


NEW POSSIBILITIESOF BITUMEN BINDERS

AND MIXES MODIFICATION

F. Luxemburk


Key words: modified asphalt, thermoplastic rubber

There has been an important inccase of the cars number and especially of their ag-gressive influence on the road structures during the last 20 years. A study of the TechnicalCommittee for non-rigid pavements of A1PCR from 1995 states that the negative impactsof the traffic on the pavement structure were in 1992 twice higher than in 1972.

Due to the interaction among the different layers of the road structure subjected tothe combined action of traffic and seasonal conditions, it is necessary to distinguish betweendegradations related to the structure as a whole and degradations developed in an individuallayer. There is a problem of the pavement design in the first case. The second case is mainlydue to the technological problems (composition of the mix, errors during the constructionof the road, etc.). These problems appear mainly in the surface layers.

The most dangerous type of permanent deformations is a deformation due to the exces-sive creep of bitumen mixes. Structural rutting due to the undcrdimensioning of pavementsand due to the insufficient frost resistance are not so dangerous. The methods how to copewith these problems are today well known.

Good resistance against permanent deformations of bitumen mix is influenced by themix design itself (that is. ratio of crushed and natural aggregates, grain shape, high mi-croroughness, cleanness) and by the proper application especially by dosing and binderproperties.

Based on the results of the previous work, the research in 1994 was oriented to thepossibility of local bitumen binders modification by the calcium hydrate in co-operation withthe Lhoist company and to the mutual comparison of local ami foreign asphalts modified bythermoplastic rubber Cariflex. These works were carried out in close relation to the grantNo. 1056/13613 realised also in the laboratory of the chair of road structures.

The possibility of the use of calcium hydrate to the improvement of the properties ofbitumen binders is not unknown. Lime had been added during the fabrication of bitumenmixes more than 25 years ago. Later it was gradually replaced by polymers additives.However the recent development has shown that the possibility of the renewed use of limeexists due to its simple application and low price. Lime is added either directly into themixing equipment as a partial replacement of filler (1-2% of the mix weight) or is applied inthe form of spray (about 35 % of lime suspension) to the aggregates on the stock or duringthe transport into drying and heating drum.

Our work in the laboratory was oriented mainly to the evaluation of the lime influenceon the adhesion of bitumen and aggregates. We selected three kinds of aggregates (sitesTachov, Chlum u České Lípy and rock waste from Bytiz) two kinds of bitumen (AP 80 and

1095


AP 65 from Chemopetrol Litvínov), The test results are presented in the following tablegiving the percentage of the aggregates surface not covered by the bitumen at the end ofthe adhesion test.

Asphalt

AP80

AP65

Lime

0

1,5% powder form

suspension

0

1,5% powder form

suspension

Aggregates

Chlum

40

1

1

30

2,5

0

Bytiz

20

1

1

10

I

0

Tachov

75

10

0

40

25

0

The favourable influence of lime on the adhesion is demonstrated. This influence isespecially obvious for the aggregates from Tachov that has normally very poor adhesion.Use of the lime addition leads to the decrease of the non covered surface from 75 % to 0 %.

The second part of the research was devoted to the mutual comparison of local andforeign binders modified by Cariflex.

The following asphalts were tested:

- B 80, BP Olexobit 65, BP Olexobit 45 (BP Hamburg)- Mofalt 45, Mofalt 65 (Paramo Pardubice)

Comparison was based on the laboratory modulus of rigidity (in the temperature rangefrom —10°C to -H0°C), dynamic creep and fatigue. The last two properties were measuredfor -f40°C. The mastic bitumen mix AKMS I (according to Czech standard) was used.

It can be stated that the local and foreign asphalts of the same grade have very similarmodulus of rigidity. Olexobit is a little better for the grade 45. The contrary was found forthe grade 65 where the local bitumen had better properties.

The positive influence of the modified bitumen binder for the decrease of a long termdeformation is clearly seen from the results of the dynamic creep tests. Comparison of localand foreign binders shows that the bitumens from BP have in both cases (grade 45 and 65)better properties and higher resistance against repeated loading in simple compression. Therelative axial deformation for the mix with Mofalt binder of the grade 45 is more than 25%higher than for the same mix from BP. This difference is more than 13 % for the grade 65.

Foreign bitumens present better fatigue properties for both grades.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Road Structures as part of theresearch project ''New Possibilities of Bitumen Binders and Mixes Modification" and hasbeen supported by Faculty of Civil Engineering CTU grant No, 1026.

1096


DEVELOPMENT OF LECTURESON AVIATION AT CTU

K. Draxler, F. Mazánek, J . Věříš

CTU, Fac. of Electrical Eng., Dept. of MeasurementsTechnická 2, 166 27 Praha 6

Key words: avionics, autopilots, navigation

There is a long tradition in courses on aviation at CTU. At the Faculty of MechanicalEngeneering (FME)[1], the core of the courses of the Department of Aircraft is aerodynam-ics, construction of aircrafts and engines, traffic control and maintenance. At the Fucultyof Electrical Engeneering (FEE)[2] it is mainly avionics, radionavigation systems, and thesystems of automated control which are provided by the department of measurement, ra-dioelectromcs and the dapartment of control. The courses are developing at the newlyfounded Faculty of Transportation Sciences, there are courses on technology and practice ofair traffic, covering the pilot training too.

As there was a great interest shown by students, the special course on 'aviation controland information systems' was offered in 1993. The courses are provided by teachers from thedepartment of aircraft as well. Similar courses are opened at FME, these courses are called'Air Traffic' where all the electrotechnical subjects are lectured by teachers from FEE. Thisenables students to wider and increase their knowledge. Because of it some new coursescome into existence: Air diagnostics, Simulators, Databus systems, Radiocommunicationsystems, Aviation medicine and Reiability of aircraft and back-up systems. The situationat FME and FTS is similar. To help starting new and to modernizing the present courses, aproject for year 1995 under the name "Development of lectures in the region of aviation" wasstarted. The project was prezented and co-ordinated by the department of measurement ofFEE and was partly shared between FME and FTS as well.

The fund was used as follows:

a: A visit to AEROSALON 95 in Paris, where 12 teachers from CTU took part.b: Laboratory equipment was modernized in the region of measuring aerometric quanti-

ties, aircraft databuses, automated systems and satelite navigation at the Faculty ofElectical Engeneering. There was also a competition of the best student work in theregion of aircraft control and information systems, where 5 papers were presented (3).

c: At FME the lectures were extended to present students real flying which is either forstudents from FEE or FME.

d: FTS devoted the fund to support the develpoment of a new system of structures fordata acquisition and transmission in the aircraft control systems.

References:

[1] FME study curricullum 1995/1996 Praha 1995.[2] FEE study curriculum 1995/1996 Praha 1995

1097


[3] Proceedings of POSTER 95 conf. CTU Praha 1995

This project has been conducted at the Department of Measurement and has been sup-ported by CTU grant No. 35032011.

1098

Section 22

ECONOMICS

AND BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

NEXT PAGE(S)Seft

WORKSHOP 96 ECONOMICS k BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

THE DEVELOPMENT OF"STUDENT-ENTREPRENEUR"

INTERACTION

V. Koráb

TU Brno, Business and Management Faculty, Dept. of Economics and ManagementTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: managerial skills, consultancy, entrepreneurial skills, small and middle busi-nesses, information support, administrative services

Tins paper describes the efforts aimed at finding a feasible way of combining the issuesconcerning consultancy activities for small business entrepreneuers in the Brno area with thepractical training of students reading for a degree at the Brno Business School. Consultancyservices provided by the students as part of their practical training are carried out withinthe framework of the Business Support Centre (BSC), the Institute of Extension Studies atthe Brno Business School (BBS), and the Technical University in Brno.

The impetus behind my adressing the above-described issues was the need to providethe students reading for a degree, with hands-on experience in dealing with the actualproblems facing a practicing entrepreneur and therefore to expand their managerial skills.

An analysis of the consultancy needs of small and medium-sized businesses in the Brnoarea was made as part of the research into the issue. The research was carried out byquestioning. 21 physical entities and 61 legal entities were asked individually and theiranswers were evaluated. The following spheres of enterprise were evaluated separately:production, construction industry, trade and services.

Analysis results showed that on the part of entrepreneurs - physical entities the servicesrequired most frequently were accounting (76% of businesses), legal consultancy (66% ofbusinesses) and tax consultancy (48% of businesses). At the other end of the interestscale was economic, financial and computer related consultancy, as well as business plandevelopment (5% of interested entrepreneurs).

Analysis of the demand on the part of entrepreneurs - legal entities showed that themost frequently required service was legal consultancy (48 % of businesses), tax consultancy(43% of businesses), and marketing consultancy (41 % of businesses). Ranking only fourthwas the demand for accounting (21 % of businesses), followed by financial consultancy andbank loan consultancy. Business management, human resources (3% of businesses) andstrategic plan development (1 % of businesses) were in low demand. Legal entities showedgreat interest in consultancy on market research.

The results of the analysis of consultancy needs of small and medium-sized businesses inthe Brno area was consequently used to fashion the BSC to facilitate the practical trainingof students in consultancy. The BSC functions as a managerial skills clinic for the studentsof the Brno Business School.

As a consequence of the analyses results the managerial skills clinic provides the fol-lowing services:

1101

WORKSHOP 96 ECONOMICS fc BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

• dealing with customers• data collection, creation and updating of databases• basic consultancy and information service for entrepreneurs• processing of jobs commissioned to the consultancy centre: market research, simple

and double accounting• providing basic information and services to students.

Combining the activities in the managerial skills clinic with school lectures had animpact on the curricula of the following subjects from the degree studies:

• management,• marketing,• small business marketing,• accounting.

The curricula have gradually been adjusted to be in line with the results of the researchgrant.

The results of the research succeeded in fulfilling the main objective of the researchgrant - to create the bond:

EDUCATION - RESEARCH - CONSULTANCY - PRACTICAL ENTERPRENEURSHIP

Given the rapidly developing area of small business enterprises within the framework ofthe restructuring of the Czech economy, the results of the research should be considered to bevery flexible, as should the need to continuously adjust the results to meet the requirementsof the small and medium-sized businesses in the Brno area as well as those of the teachingof students reading for a degree at the Brno Business School of the Technical University.

References;

[1] CERNAC, E.: Informační zdroje pro malé a střední podnikání NIC Praha 1993.

[2] HODGETS, R. M. - KURATKO, D. F.: Effective smalt business management HarcourtBrace Jovanovich Inc., 1992

[3] KORAB, V.: Regional consulting and training centre for small and medium sized firmsBrno Business School, 1993

77ns research has been conducted at the Department of Economics and Management aspart of the research project "The development of "student - entrepreneur" interaction" andhas been supported by TU grant No. FU75ÖÖ78

1102


INFLUENCE OF THE MANAGEMENTON THE FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE

P. Sahá, A. Glogar*, D . Pavelková*, M. Jurova**, J . Bar tušek

TU, Fac. of Technology,Nám. T.G.M. 275, 762 72 Zlín

*TU, Fac. of Management and Economics,Mostní ul. 5139, 760 01 Zlín

**TU, Business and Economics Fac,Technická 2,616 69 Brno

Key words: financial analysis, financial plan, measuring performance

The evaluation of the financial situation is an essential part of the company character-istics. The knowledge of the financial situation of the company is essential for its managers,for current and potential investors and banks, for bussincs partners, employees, the stateand its authorities and other participants of the economical environment.

The financial analysis itself is not a goal to be achieved, but it is a preparation to man-age. Rationalistic management should maximize possibilities for success and/or minimizerisks. It is essential to create a financial plan for effective financial management. The taskof the finantial plan is to evaluate and decide the size and which sort of financial resourcesare needed to finance the assets and to secure the liquidity and financial balance of thecompany. The financial plan is the integrative part of the company plan. After creatingthe financial plan in the form of statements for individual years of the planned period, it isneccessary to re-evaluate the separate variants of the plan once again using the methods offinancial analysis.

Financial analysis serving as a basic source for an effective financial management israrely used in the environment of our companies. This is caused by unsuflkient experienceof the leading management. Small private companies often work even without short-termand of course without long-term financial plans. This is understandable when we considerthe most prevalent situation - a cumulation of the managing functions into the hands ofone person who often has little management experience. Companies often try to eliminatethis handicap by using the consultancy services of specialized firms. The use of externalfinancial advisors can bring with it savings as to the financial costs on qualified professionalstaff and appropriate software equipment, which helps to make the work on financial analysisand the creation of financial plans easier and faster. Financial analysis faces several seriousproblems:

1) the comparability of values from accountancy - different companies can use differ-ent accountancy ways because the freedom left around some points of the directiveregulation of accountancy allows it

2) inability of the accountancy statements to state real values3) seasonal and boom extremes during the year, which mean that the estate values do

not map the average yearly conditions4) the comparability of individual companies, etc.

1103

WORKSHOP 96' ECONOMICS fc BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

Among the most serious circumstances limiting the ability of the accountancy state-ments to present real values in our economical climate is currently the orientation on thehistorical accountency and frequent changes in legislation.

Financial analysis uses different methods. The most common is the analysis using indexratios and its systems. Other common method is the trend analysis. When using the indexratios we face the three major problems: firstly, the problem of setting the optimal levelof individual ratios, secondly, the problem of synthesis as to the final decision about thefinancial health of the company and thirdly - in the case of the wide production programmethere is the problem of difficult intcr-branche comparison. Users of the financial analysisoften require the synthetical ratio of financial health. Applications of synthetical ratios inour environment face not only the low quality and inability to state real values, but alsoa fact, that the time series of statistical values and index ratios arc not long enough. Thementioned methods were found in majority of software products containing the financialanalysis available on our market.

The financial analysis performs the evaluation of past, current and the expected futureof the financial situation of the company. To create appropriate financial plan it is alsoncccessary to know the strategic goals of the company, its markets, customers, suppliers,competitors, the quality of its products, etc. This assumes the cooperation of the entiremanagement when creating the financial plan. Oucof the possible ways is to create a trainingprogram for leading employees, so that they arc able to give the relevant information asrequired by financial manager. It is more convenient to organize the training of tlie leadingemployees within the company. Sending the employees on external training courses usuallycauses their separation from the specific problems of their company. They tend to study thegeneral financial management rather then need for proper communication with somebodyinvolved in financial analysis and planning.

The company performance is reflected in the change of its market value. To set thevalue of the company it. is possible to use more methods. Method of substantial value facesthe same problems of ability of the accountancy statements as we already have mentioned.The substantial value docs not include the goodwill of the company, so we can considerthis method as a supportative one. According to the experience we can say that to theowners of the companies this method seems to be more objective than a method of thefuture discounted cash flow. This relates to the problems of unstable market conditions,when it is difficult to predict the future development for the companies. To set the marketvalue of the company according to comparison (if we do not consider the stock company,whose shares are commonly traded, or we consider other legal form of the company) usingthe P /E ratio faces the problem of our todays capital market - the market is unbalanced,complicated, the investors behave mistandardly, etc.

References;

[1] BROWN, M. - LAVERICK, S.: Measuring Corporate Performance. Long Range Plan-ning, Vol. 27, No. '1, 199-1.

[2] BRADLEY, R. M. - TOMASIDES, C. H.: Financial Management as Tool for Manage-ment Development of Engineers. Journal of Management in Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 2,1991.

This research has been conducted as a part of the rcscurch project of TU Brno and hasbeen supported by TU grant No. 5008J,

1104

WORKSHOP 96 ECONOMICS fe BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKSOF INVESTMENT

ON THE FINANCIAL MARKET

B. Winklerová

TU Brno, Fac. of Business, Department of Economics and ManagementTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: portfolio, financial market, risk, share, diversification, yield

Since 19S9 a fundamental social change has been taking place in the Czech Repub-lic, the transformation of the economic system through transition to a market economy, ofwhich the financial market is an indispensibly necessary part. In the process of change inownership relations, for instance, there was coupon privatization, in which we were giventhe opportunity to become shareholders in privatized companies, thus opening the road to"riches" if we invested favourably. We are still being offered a whole range of other oppor-tunities, for instance investment in securities, depositing money in a bank, real property,gold, founding our own companies.,.

In this project I consider the possible ways of assembling a portfolio, with regard tothe amount of funds available and the investor's attitude toward risk. I focus on the mostcommon type of investor in this country, namely, the individual investor who elects for amedium-term investment. Portfolios in this project are made up of only those instruments ofthe money and capital markets most frequently encountered when the supply of securitiesis still much greater than demand. The investor will, considering double-digit inflation,concentrate on a strategy for maximizing value, that is, he will not be interested in dividendsbut rather in rate changes and the possibility of selling. The investor must first of all weighthe matter of whether or not he is willing and able to bear the risk that any investmentinvolves. The less willing he is to take a risk, the less his possible gain is likely to be. Buyingshares (or blue chips) or other securities certainly carries with it a higher risk compared todepositing excess funds in a bank, where they are insured as well. Risk is, of course, notonly negative; there exists speculative risk as well, which, apart from possible losses, ensureslikely achievement of maximum, wholly above-average yields.

When putting together a diversified portfolio it is necessary: 1. to assess one's goals andsystematically sort through all available opportunities for investment; 2. to understand theactual logic and mechanisms of the working of a diversified portfolio; 3. to accept a certainamount of risk; 4. to develop a viable and realistic strategy for realizing the goals set out.

Essentially, there must be permanent dialogue between the investor and his portfolio.The investor must continually uncover possibilities and create an effective portfolio, basedon the fundamental harmony of all its parts. Investment on the financial market is actuallya simple affair. It is necessary to buy at the moment when a share's value is low and tosell when it is high. How to recognize these moments is, however, very difficult. A widerange of software for analysis of the financial market is being offered, but prices are too highfor the small investor. The investor must, however, understand the basic principles of atleast two analytic methods, technical and fundamental, and it is even possible to get the

1105


essentials about them from the stock market papers. The investor encounters such conceptsas gross and net yield, rate of yield, profit and other indicators. The net yield on a shareis determined by the volume of dividends paid and also by the so-called capital yield, thatis, the change in a share's sale value. The capital market in the Czech Republic, however,tends more to surprise investors by its behavior and extreme price swings than allow themto reliably explain, analyze and predict its growth. Most of the numerous analyses of itsbehavior are therefore of short duration, and the investor must optimalize his portfoliounceasingly. Any kind of assessment of the success of an investment requires a certaindistance in time. It is advisable that the investor study market opinions (which arc subjectto short-term, even illogical swings, change almost daily, are subjective) and tendencies(long-term situation and direction of development on the stock market). Investment can bedone on both established an*i non-established markets, as analysis of their differences doesnot suggest that these markets vary considerably in their price levels.

Planning and assembling an effective portfolio is possible, though oť course the interplayof developments in the overall national economy and possible speculation by larger investorscan cause lower or even zero yields. We find ourselves at a stage where many companies arconly now consolidating their ownership relations. A high level of unconsolidated informationabout entities on the financial market also plays a large role. There is great uncertaintyhere about whether their future will bu controlled by factors entirely unknown to us, andsecurities prices then respond inadequately to significant conditions. Here prevails a stateof information ciiaos, in which sophisticated financial information is lost before it can beproperly evaluated.

The capital market was initiated at the level of nominal price values. Real prices,however, will lie at a level of one-third to half of these values. It may be assumed that, aftera certain time, the capital market in this country will find a balanced price and volume level.It is necessary, however, that only those interested in long-term prosperity, clear conditionsand serious dealings be active in it. Trade on the financial market also requires further rulesdefined by law, for instance on more complete and more frequently updated information forminority shareholders. None of the rules of intelligent conduct on the financial market arc asecret, rather they are merely proven experience by which successful shareholders do theirbusiness. An investor's attempt to acquire these rules is not yet a guarantee of his success,but it docs at least allow him to define possibilities, choose a suitable investment strategyand, with a certain amount of fortune and good luck, make a rather respectable profit.

References :

|1] BROOKS, D. 13.: Guide to Financial Instruments. Financial Publishing, London 1990

J2] COTTLER, S. - MURRAY: Analýza cenných papírů. Victoria publishing, Praha 1994[3] Kolektiv autorů: Obchod s cennými papíry. Cepatra Invest s.r.o., Brno 1994[4] TEPPER, T. - KÁPL, M.: Peníze a Vy. Prospektrum, Praha 1991[5] Burza. Deník BCPP a.s. Praha, ročník 1995[6] Ekonom. Týdeník Hospodářských novin, ročník 1995

This research has been conducted at the Department of Economy and management aspart of (he research project "Opportunities and risks of investment on the financial market"and has been supported by TU of Brno grant No. FP750003/7000/1010.

1106

WORKSHOP 96 ECONOMICS & BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

HOUR OVERHEAD TARIFFS METHOD- A TOOL OF CENTRE ECONOMY

EVALUATION

M. Zralý

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Mechanical Eng. Enterprise ManagementHorská 3, 12S 00 Praha 2

Key words: cost accounting method, centre economy evaluation

The growing number of Hour Overhead Tariffs (HOT) Method applications in compa-nies of the manufacturing industries in Czech Republic indicates the scale of satisfaction ofthe HOT Method in the cost accounting area. They are mostly the pre- production andproduction phases of the processes in companies, where the HOT method is used.

This simple, but powerful method offer a very proficient way of utilization of themethod's idea in the area of centre's economy evaluation, too.

The budgeted (planned) value of Hour Overhead Tariffs (HOTpL) is useful to be com-pleted by so called actual value of HOT ( H O T A K ) .

The actual HOT value is derived from the budgeted value of HOT and it presents theinfluence of important factors, which determine the centre's economy. The importance offactors may differ according to the company's conditions. However the described coefficientswill be in an influentially position in mostly applications. If some other significant charactersare recognized, they may ensemble the set of coefficients.

Usage of this actual HOT to the measurement of the economy of the centre in the areaof overhead costs, capacity utilization and productivity of activities benefited in:

• integrated calculation of single factor's influences,

• by single factors determination,

• in cost effect calculation,

• in budgeted and actual HOT comparison.

Actual HOT may be defined as a month or cumulative value, mostly in both meanings.Month value characterizes the present value of the HOT, the contemporary state of

parameters.The cumulative value of the HOT summarizes the factors progress in a longer period.

It is more serious to the essential managerial decisions.The coefficients are designed so, that the positive value is smaller then one, the negative

value is higher then one.The sharper is the inequality between the actual HOT value and the budgeted HOT

value (HOTAK < HOTPL) , the higher is considered the result from the economical point ofview.

1107


Definition:

HOTAK ~ HOTpi * kzK ' kzT * kpN * ^'JIN

where: H O T P L = CFEFPL b u d S e t e d o v e r n e a d year's tariff

The meaning of the coefficients:

coefficient of capacity changes

purpose: it describes the increasing/decreasing in capacity(in the effective time fund utilization)

kxz = CF Of>B^g^.— coefficient of non-planned time loses

purpose: it mirrors the scope of unplanned time fund losses

k™ ~ CFf:FN!ioDv7'Tii c o c f f i c i c n t o f productivitypurpose: it displays the efficiency of the workers labour

/jfuv = *ffiK coefficient of overhead cosi, size

purpose: it describes the scale of savings/overcoming of overhead costs

budgeted HOTH O T A K actual (real) HOTC budgeted time fund

r e a l time fundCFZTR unbudgeted time losesNHODV worked out hoursRNPL * • budgeted overhead costRNSK • • actual (real) overhead cost

References:

[1] ZRALÝ, M. et ah: Application Features of Hour Overhead Tariffs Method, CTU Work-shop, 1995

[2] MACÍK, K.: Jak kalkulovat podnikové náklady (In Witch Way Calculate the CompaniesCosts), Montanex, 1994

[3] VYSUSlL, J.: Střediskové hospodařeni (Profit Centre Economics), Institut řízeni, 1992

1108


MATHEMATICAL FORMULATIONOF ACCELERATED DEPRECIATION

M. Písek

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Mechanical Eng. Enterprise ManagementHorská 3,128 00 Praha 2

Key words: asset, accelerated depreciation, depreciation coefficients, recurrence relation,difference equation

Depreciation of asset caused by its physical deterioration, and/or obsolescence requiresdetermining the depreciation expense for each accounting period (year).

The amount of asset cost allocated to each period depends on four major factors:

1. Cost of the asset.

2. Salvage value (or scrap value) of the asset.

3. Useful life of the asset.

4. Depreciation method to be used in depreciating the asset.

In corformity with the law holding in the Czech Republic all assets liable to depre-ciation are divided into five depreciation groups differing in their periods of depreciation,depreciation rates and/or depreciation coefficients.

Every economic subject possessing the depreciation liability can choose one of twofollowing depreciation methods:

1. Straight-line depreciation method assigning an equal amount of depreciation to eachperiod.

2. Accelerated depreciation method recording higher amounts of depreciation during theearly years of an asset's life and lower amounts in the asset's later years.

The method of accelerated depreciation adopted in the Czech Republic gives two de-preciation coefficients for each depreciation group: the first for the first year of depreciationand the second one for the following years of depreciation. Two sequences are determinedby these coefficients: the sequence of annual depreciation amounts and the sequence ofdepreciated annual asset's costs. The current formula used in setting the amounts of depre-ciation leads to a recurrence relation for each of these two sequences. The solution of theresulting first-order difference equations enables us to verify both the degressive characterof accelerated depreciation and the achievement of asset's zero scrap value.

NEXT PAGE(S)ieft BkAirri 1109


EC TRADE POLICY WITH RESPECTTO CENTRAL & EASTERN

EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

V. Červenka

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Mechanical Eng. Enterprise ManagementHorská 3, 128 00 Praha 2

Key words: forcing trade, EG, CEEC, standard protection, contingent protection

From the historical point of view there was no significant trade relation between theWestern European countries (now referred to as European Community) and the Central andEastern European countries (CEEC). In the beginning of this century foreign trade betweenthese two blocs showed some upward trends but it was pressed down again after the takingover by the "empire" of the Soviet Union and ruled down to tiie communist uniformity aswith all aspects of people's lives.

Nowadays, after the fall of Berlin Wall, the international relations are recovering andforeign trade is becoming an important means of the forward movement towards general well-being, national identity, economical prosperity and social welfare. However, EC countrieshave not been willing to share the CEECs enthusiasms and wanted to keep their marketsrather closed for CEECs exports as they were afraid of "unfair competition". In fact they,by the means of government intervention, protect their indu r-irics against unwanted cheapimports.

The most used means of protection before the fall had been tariffs and quotas (Standardprotection) and Anti-dumping actions (Contingent protection). As CEECs were not marketeconomies yet, Lhc EC were correct in imposing contingent protection to "cover" the statesubsidy. After the changes in 1989 the protectionism experienced some change; the develop-ment of the trade relations with CEECs showed positive trends. In the beginning of the 90'smany CEEC became full members of GATT which was reflected in the decreasing of tariffs.However, since contingent protection activities were not included in GATT, these becamethe most popular instruments for blocking the trade between these two regions despite thefact, that many of CEEC's sensitive industries were not supported by the governments any•Tiore.

In 1992 EC and CEECs signed European Agreements (EAs). In this document ECcommitted themselves to abolish all tariffs for standard products and certain metal prod-ucts immediately, and both tariffs and quotas for sensitive products (textile, certain metalproducts, agricultural products, etc.) by the end of 1997. EC also promised to make a lesseruse of contingent protection since CEECs were treated as market economies. However, ECenforced several bilateral agreements (Export Restrained Agreements) to fix a minimumprice or voluntary quotas under the threat of contingent protection anyway.

In the case of Iron&Steel industry, {one of the most sensitive) the development showsradical changes in the beginning of this decade. When CEEC's exports rapidly increasedEC became worried about their markets and imposed anti-dumping duty to imports of some

1111


sensitive products. Moreover, they treated some CEECs as non-market economics althoughthey were on their way.

According to Mastropasqua and Rolli [1] abolishing of all tariffs on IronfcStcel productsas agreed in EAs by the end of 1998 will have following impact. Exports from Poland,Czechoslovakia and Hungary after the abolishment will increase by respectively S.2, 8.8,and 6.8% for assumed price elasticity 0,6, and 11.4, 14.3, and 10.9% for infinite priceelasticity. This would be of the theory. Time will show whether or not this hypothesis willcome true.

References:

[1] MASTROPASQUA, C. - ROLLI, V.: 1994, "industrial Countries Protectionism withRespect to Eastern Europe: The Impact of The Association Agreements with the ECon the Exports of Poland Czechoslovakia and Hungary", World Economy, 17:2, 1994;

This project has been conducted by Prof. Hans VIsscr at the Fac. of Managementand Economics, vrije University of Amsterdam and presented at International EconomicsRelations seminar in Maj 1995.

1112

WORKSHOP 9C ECONOMICS fc BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

COMMERCIAL RELATIONSOF THE CENTRAL AND EAST

EUROPEAN COUNTRIES WITHGERMAN BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS

F. Freiberg, K. Macík

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Depl. of Mechanical Eng. Enterprise ManagementHorská 3, 12S 00 Praha 2

Key words: supplier-consumer relations, economic cooperation, quality, rate of success,questionnaire

Changes in micro- as well as macro-economic environment in the countries of Centraland East Europe caused by the economic reforms lead to an inevitable adaptation ofthe economic subjects and their activities. A significant support in this adaptation processmight be also seen in the theoretical and empirical knowledge obtained by the economicresearch. In this abstract are presented the results of a research task focused on the issueof commercial relations of the Western economics with the economics of the countries ofCentral and Eastern Europe.

Principal guarantor of the solution and coordination of the research task, in Germanoriginal called Beschaffung aus Mittel und Osteuropa, has been the Istitut fur Bctricb-swirschaftslehre Til Darmstadt. Its collaborators were the Department of Mechanical En-gineering Enterprise Management of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the CzechTechnical University, Polytechnics Bucharest, Rumania, and the University in Veszprém,Hungary.

Commercial relations between West and East do not represent any new fenomenon,however, a changed economic environment, in which they occur, calls for qualitatively newattitudes when establishing commercial relations of the reforming countries with the West.Our research task was primarily focused on creating a contribution in these changed con-ditions for a deeper understanding of the relations and conditions of the above given coop-erative tics. The knowledge acquired could be inspiring for both, the business organizationpractise when the commercial relations with a Western organization are in the process oftheir establishing as well as operating, and they might operate as a point of departure forthe verification or formulation of theoretical basis in the field of economic cooperation.

The research of commercial relations was directed into the field of supplies of theGerman agricultural machinery manufacturers by the products from the countries ofthe Central an East Europe. Data for the specification of the characteristics of the supplier-consumer relations were obtained by means of written questionnaire created on basis oftheoretical knowledge and practical comments of the managers from chosen organizations.In the Czech republic there were addressed 62 industrial businesses, and the rate of successwas cca 50 %.

The questionnaires contributed to both the specification of the businesses addressed -their size, turnover, volume, assortment, and export-import directions, technology, level of

1113


production equipment and its quality, and gathering relevant data concerning the factorseffecting the quality of supplier-consumer relations.

From the point of view of the German businesses it is first of all a lower price thanin the countries of Western Europe which is considered to be an important condition fora purchase in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the quality comparable toWestern level, and the reliability of cooperation and the flexibility of the suppliers.

From the point of view of our businesses it was the velocity of delivery settlement,invoicing in hard currency, cooperation capacity, a potential transfer of know-how, and thehigh flexibility of customers which were highly appreciated.

From the point of view of the German businesses the problems of their suppliers fromthe countries of Central and Eastern Europe lie mainly in securing quality and financialresources, next to lower managerial competence. The main cause of failures in commer-cial relations is according to German businessess an unsufficient quality of goods, lowflexibility and capacity of cooperation, and unrealistic price expectations of the suppli-ers. These factors are being attached a great importance when evaluating the failures ofthe commercial relations also from the part of our respondents. Our suppliers also fairlyfrequently consider the apriori anxiety or doubts of the German costumers to be the causeof a failure.

Referring to above stated facts it seems rather suprising that in relatively high numberof cases there is not provided any support of the suppliers from Central and EasternEurope from the part of German customers. In situation of certain differences in the level ofbusiness partners such a support is usual to occur with the successful commercial relations.Provided such a support has been mentioned by our respondents, then it was a supportin the form of material delivery, consultant activities (analyses, worker training, qualityprogrammes), and securing financial resources.

The results of the research task consist of empirical knowledge revealing the causal-ity of the rate of success/failure in commercial relations between the manufacturers ofagricultural engineering in the Federal Republic Germany, and their real or potential sup-pliers from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The data obtained might be fromgreater part generalized and thus made use of for a design of an optimal establishmentof supplier-consumer relations between West and East.

References:

[1] PFOHL, H. C. - LARGE, R.: Beschaffung aus Mittel- und Osteuropa. Arbeitspapierezu Unternehmensführung, TU Darmstadt 1995

[2] PFOHL, H. C. - LARGE, R.: Pfohl, II. Cli. -Large, II.: Sourcing from Centrat andEastern Europe. International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistic Manage-ment 23/1993.

[3] LARGE, R.: Unternehmerische Steuerung von Rcssourcencignern. Ein Einsatz zurTheorie der Unternehmung, Wisbaden 1995

[4] Macík, K. - Freiberg, F.: Marketing aus der Sicht der Technischen Universität Prag.Beiträge zur 3. Marketingxuoche Linz 1994- Linz 1994

1114


QUALITY AND RELIABILITYIN THE CZECH REPUBLIC

M. Kavan

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dept. of Mechanical Eng. Enterprise ManagementHorská 3, 128 00 Praha 2

Key words: quality, reliability, mechanical engineering

More and more importance is being attached in recent years to various aspects ofeducation as the complex of systematic facts and knowledge gained either through formaleducation or through informal training at ones place of work. This holds true especially forsuch complicated phenomenon as the attainment of quality and reliability of products andservices to meet the needs of the customers-consumers.

For example, some years ago The Skoda works Plzeň (ŠwP) organized a two-term coursefor the specialization of quality control for the technical workers with completed secondaryvocational education of the departments for quality control and technical inspection. Thetraining was organized twice a week, each time 6 teaching hours (in total 480 hours) underthe sponsorship of enterprise school of The SwP. Considerable attention was devoted toproblems of measuring techniques and theory of errors due to working orientation of theparticipants.

Subject

1. Mathematics2. Theory of errors3. Measuring theory I and II4. Testing of materials and defectoscopy5. Principles of statistics6. Statistical quality control methods7. Quality control management8. Packaging techniques9. Foreign language according to choice

Numbers of hoursweekly in the term

1.636

5

4

2.

64

3632

Hourstotal

6030120405030603060

Recent dynamic developments in quality control have resulted in shifting of centre ofgravitu of education and training in quality and reliability to institutions outside of thetegular educational system. Such institutions comprise firstly of industrial and other enter-prises, which themselves establish temporary or permanent training centres for preparationof their employees for new tasks of quality control. This training often extends even outsidethe firm to include main suppliers and cons umers. Equally important are courses orga-nized by professional societies and centres forquality control, which may have national orinternational character.

1115


As a professional teacher, I am often faced with the difficult problem of deciding whatto include in my Lectures for future mechanical engineers who will be engaged in the de-sign, technology and management of production of engineering plants, so that they will beprepared in the best way for their jobs from the point of view of total quality control, whichis for them not only a completely new discipline, but also a new approach to their jobs. Inprinciple, we distinquish between two basic forms of education and training. The first oneconcerns the formal education of those who are still preparing themselves for a certain pro-fession and gaining qualifications for it. The aim of this type of education is not acquiringof new knowledge, but rather learning how to think. The second form provides employeesalready working in organiziitions and enterprises with new knowledge and skills gained bymeans of training at work or externally. The aim of this second type may be attained inseve ral ways. For instance, the continual contact, of the employee with his surroundingsand problems at work, with his supervisors, by individual study and finally by trainingoffered by the employer including delegating of an employee to a post-graduate course atthe institution of higher education.

American and European methods of training are closely linked with the participation ofprofessional societies for workers in the quality control field. In I960 the American Societyfor Quality Control (ASQC) founded a special Institute for Education and Training (ETI),which not only organizes courses for its members, often in cooperation with universities, butalso grants a professional certificate based on examination results. The question of certifi-cation is very important for the strengthening of the professional standing of workers in thequality control field. A similar service is offered by the National Council for Quality andReliability in cooperation with the üritish Productivity Council in the United Kingdom.In the Czech Republic this activity is developed by the Society for Quality and Reliabil-ity in cooperation with the Office of Standards and Measures, research institutes, privateorganizations and institutions of higher education.

References:

[1] R1SSIK, II.: Quality Control in Production, London, Pitman, 1974.

1116


THE PRESENT UNEMPLOYMENT INTHE WORLD AND UNEMPLOYMENT

IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC

H. Pačesová

CTU, Fac. of Mechanical Eng., Dcpt. of Mechanical Eng. Enterprise ManagementHorská 3, 128 00 Praha 2

Key words: employment, world economy, unemployment, underemployment

The first section of this contribution is concerned with the unemployment in the worldeconomy. It is estimated that about 30% of the world labour force of 2.8 bil. people,i.e. 840 mil. persons, are unemployed or underemployed. Although only 120 mil. people areregistered as unemployment, it is still the highest registered unemployment in the worldeconomic history. Around 700 mil. people are underemployed.

The developed market economies, the share of which in world output is estimatedat 70 %, have recorded lately about 8 % rate of unemployment. West Europe, notably theEuropean Union finds itself on the top with around 11% unemployment rate showing anupward trend. In the United States, the rate of unemployment is estimated at 6.5 % tendingto decrease. Japan is characterized by the lowest unemployment rate, still bellow 3 %, buttends to increase.

A more comprehensive analysis of unemployment in the Czech Republic is discussed inthe second section. It is estimated at 200th. unemploymed in absolute terms, correspondingto 3.9% unemployment rate, relating to the end of 1994. These estimates are based on ILOdefinition of unemployment and obtained from a household labour force survey undertakenby the Czech Statistical Office. They arc not confined to unemployed searching for work andregistered in labour offices. For this reason, they are higher than the estimates calculatedon the basis of the registration method and published regularly by the Ministry of labourand social affairs. Based on the registration method, number of unemployed searching forwork was about 176th. and the rate of unemployment around 3.5% at the end of 1994.

Between 1991 and 1993 total production of goods and services as well as unemploymentdeclined. The concurrent decline of output and unemployment, accompanied by the lowunemployment rate, is sometimes called the Czech paradox. The third section is devoted toexplanation of this paradox.

It should not be forgotten that in the Czech economy there had traditionally been a veryhigh participation rate in the past. Owing to its decline, employment fell, but unemploymentdid not necessarily increase.

References:

[1] Czech Statistics - Labour and Wages, Czech Statistical Office, 1994[2] HOLUB, A.: Rising Unemployment in the World Economy and the So-called Czech

Paradox, Prague Economics Papers, December 1994

[3] SVEJNAR, J.: Explaining Unemployment Czech and Slovak Republics, CERGE - El,Prague 1994

NEXT PAGE(S) K

left BL&&X fi i m


THE ECONOMICAL SUPPORTAND REVITALISATION OF TOWNS

AND TOWN PARTS - II

P. Dlask

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Constr. Management & EconomicsThakurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: revitalisation, revilalisation project

The task extends already solved questions of the Internal grant the economics supportfor the town and town's districts revitalization.

The assignment is divided into four separate parts:

1. Mathematical basis2. Extended simulation of interactions in the part of town (village)3. The consideration of insecure environment within the formula4. Making an influence on demand and supply

The solution considers values of technical and economical characteristics that are defi-nitely known by an engineer.

From methodical point of view our objective is to set up the forecast of the futurevillage development. Very sensitive are mainly the early stage of solutions for: - finishingof buildings - reconstruction - refurbishment - conversion - place new functions - takingoff the existing functions, etc.

Having a general attitude for the solution we can respond always different final tasks;strictly speaking we always create some mental model. But not everybody feels to be readyfor such genesis.

The aim of the task is to bring the conception of development under economics andmathematical application. Due to this decision we use PC computers of a good standardand spreadsheet. To establish the first principals we have selected the leading criterions.Because of the limited space we will describe only the criterions which are necessary at theearly stage of the analysis.

The first information of our calculation are existing elements of an area. The verbaldescription has to be transformed into digital interpretation. Chosen valuation scale can bealtered and interpolate to achieve the full satisfaction for a person making the solution.

The technical and economics valuation brings, especially for very difficult task, therisk that the human being itself can make either some inaccuracy or even some significantmistake (for instance as a result of the gap in knowledge). Therefore it is useful to eliminatemistakes and try to substitute them by a new information. We can consider uncertainty inthe early stage of our solution. But how to establish the scale for this ambiguity?

The risk deliberated into the formula could be represented by the variance of values asa result of our evaluation. Practically, the valuation of the groups of specialist shouldn't bevery different. If it would be so, then some mistake is obvious.

1119

WORKSHOP 9G ECONOMICS k BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

From the judgment the interaction matrix relation can be created. It is to understandthat the relations were defined in the way of mutual relations between columns and rowsof the matrix. All numeric values means for example, tiic absolute percentage impactbetween two elements (for instance the clement of housing can have negative impact onecology, for example 5% - the interaction -0.05).

The values considered in the columns of the matrix show the interaction between theelement in the column and other elements of the matrix. From the following graph thepositive impact of the selected item Industry is obvious on: - housing 0.15; - services 0.20;and very strong negative impact on ecology: - ecology —0,20.

Intensity of the Industry on other elements

^Services

Industry <x^~ ^\ \ ""^Housing

\ ^ Ecology

Industry

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05

J ,

j

p

3 0.05 0.1 0.15 02

Fig. 1:

The values considered on the rows of our matrix show the impact of other attributeson the element in this row.

The values of chosen elements for mutual interaction should be created in the sameway, in the same scale.

It is also sensible to look at diagonal of the interaction matrix. The chosen values showhow the element can make impact on itself. We can describe it like a sort of self elementacceleration - in the case of positive impact and as a self element inhibition - in tiic case ofnegative impact.

Making criterion for the territorial change the matrix D was applied to keep the valuesin sensible variance. As a sensible variance we have considered the interval between 0 and 1.If interval, for any reason, wouldn't satisfy the user then a different attitude should be taken.

Existing results of the faculty grant shown the possibility of an application for thefollowing areas:

a) evaluation of the variant scenario;b) uncertainty considered within scenario.

The results could be applicable for the indication of the future territorial functions.Also it could result in the expression of the territorial development.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Constr. Management and Eco-nomics as part of the research project "The Economical Support and Revilalisation ofTowns II" and has been supported by OTV grant No. 1012.

1120


REVIFICATION OF URBANFUNCTIONS AND ECONOMICS

V. Beran

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Constr. Management & EconomicsThakurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: revification, sensitivity, sensitivity of resource, simulations

The implementation of new functions into regions or cities requires highly advancedanalysis and sophisticated methods. Development at the present time concentrates on theeconomic ability to modernise and strengthen the economic activities in urban area. Thecity, as such, is able to create the conditions for an effective economic environment andmanipulate the potential of its inhabitants. The interaction between the various levels ofenterprise, governmental and non-governmental institutions needs modelling and monitor-ing. The role of researchers such as economists, urbani-researchers, technicians, plannersand sociologists working on urban issues can be an important one. The main role is to helpdecision-makers choose their ways and means of taking action. The new, global outlooktowards recent urban developments, opportunities and challenges is an important step inthe methodical support of this struggle. The reasoning the processes and the rationalisa-tion of these developments must be supported by new technology and new ideas on how tocreate sustainable values. The only useful solution is to manage the transformation of newtechnology into production and services. That is an urgent need. The contemporary designprocess puts forward, to in an ever increasing extent, the problems of the differentiationof "economic" and "uneconomic" features of individual designs. It is coming to light toan ever increasing extent, that, in complex situations, the classical economic instrumentsafford us less and less factual support for the selection of an optimum design, and that theconcept of "economy" must be understood in a complex and fully integrated manner. Everydesign passes through several phases of development. The phase of .generating of alterna-tive solutions in the stage of investment intention or in preparatory documentation maychange the whole conceptual direction and scenario of the possible solution to the problemat hand. From the phase of technical design, on the other hand, we expect a functionallycorrect selection, characterised by the required overall permanent social effect, over a longperiod of time. The main goal of this research study has been to carry out a comparativeanalysis of the policies implemented by cities, on the innovative solutions proposed by themand on their foreseen and unforeseen effects. The risk influence of risk and its managementhas been the one of the problems. So far, successfully takled. In the Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 areexamples of risk simulation and the sensitivity of design elements to changes. A dynamicsimulation has been extended to allow the analysis of risk and sensitivity.

References:

[1] BERAN, V. - POLJAK, S. - KOLLERTOVA, J.: Computerized Management Systems- Controlled Design. Technical University, Prague 1985.

1121


Industry

ntlal area

Simulations

TliAe ' 3 15 17 19 21

Figure 1. Development of three elements of a urban area - Industry, Residential

area, Ecology. Influence of risk involved in to industrial development in to rest of the

models has been solved by multiple simulation.

Changes In ecology

Figure 2. Sensitivity of resource-substitution

This research has been conducted at the Department of Constr. Management AndEconomics as part of the research project "Revocation Of Urban Functions And Economics"and has been supported by CTU grant No. 2121.

1122


CHANGE OF FIRM CULTUREIN PRIVATIZED BUILDING FIRMS

M. Grossmanová

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Constr. Management & EconomicsThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: firm culture, manager, building firm

The aim of this work was to use knowledge of the diagnostic, the change and the creationof firm culture for the development of competition of building, and find requisite trends infirm culture of building firms.

The first section is devoted to theoretical knowledge in the field of firm culture. Idescribe components of the firm culture. The components of firm culture are:

1. The affects of the firm on the surroundings

2. Communication between employes, decision-making

3. Appreciated values

I discuss the deeds, too, as they have can influence on firm culture, for example:

1. The state, the politics of its government in the field of economics, and so on

2. The market

3. The research in the branch

In the second part I describe the firm culture in the enterprises that existed until the endof the 1980's, to compare the state enterprises with the contemporary enterprises inorder tosee clearer the differences of their firm cultures.

The third part is devoted to practical concerns. Here I discuss the diagnostic of thefirm culture in a Czech building firm.

The last section is a recapitulation of adventitious knowledges, and I describe the dis-covered desirable trends, which are distinct in building firms at this time.

It is possible to conduct the research in four fields;

1. Style of management and deciding.

2. Motivation,

3. A survay of working conditions.

4. Appreciated values.

I came to the conclusion that the contemporary privatized firms meet with most of thefollowing problems:

1. The information often stays with the top managers; the middle managers want toknow more about their firm,

1123


2. The effectiveness of the work is not competent; some habits henceforth remain fromthe past. Some people feel that they are underestimated according to their educationalbackground and they are undercompensated financially. The managers motivate theirunderlings only financially.

3. The new modern trends of the technology, equipment, etc. remains at the low levelsof employees, and does not reach the high level managers.

4. The employees lack the assurance of accepted values wchich should be shared by allmembers of the firm.

References:

[1] PFEIFER, L. - UMLAUFOVA, M.: Firemní kultura. Nakladatelství Grada, Praha1993.

This research has been conducted at ihe Department of Construction Management andEconomics as part of the research project "Change of Firm Culture in Privatized BuildingFirms" and has been supported by CTUgrant No. 1013.

1124


INFORMATION SUPPORTFOR TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

AND INNOVATIVE ENTERPRISING

V. Veselý, O. Sašinka, J . Hajkr*

TU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Economics and ManagementÚdolní 53, 66242 Brno

*TU, Fac. of Business & Management, Dcpt. of Aplied StudiesTechnická 2, Brno

Key words: research & development, technology transfer, Interactive marketing, onlinecenter, WWW

The project comes out from an agreement between Technical University of Brno andthe Association of Innovative Enterprising which declared a cooperation in the field oftechnology transfer. The project has been designed with regards on the close relationshipto The Czech Technology Park and to the current need of marketing university's know-how.It also joins the national programme "Technology offensive 2001" considering collaborationswith other European technical universities. The major aims of the project were:

• developing R&D information package (products and services offered by departmentsat TU) shared in the computer supported information network

• enter the national online information system Eotel Techno

• map information and technological needs of the Czech Techno Park

• establish information and business links to foreign partners

Data collected at the rectorship level are processed to be displayed in the Czech Tech-nology Exchange (one of the applications placed in Eotel Techno) and on Internet as well.Th etechnology Exchange is used for presentation of proposals and inquiries about newproducts, technologies, services and R&D results as well as about available development orproduction capacities. That is opening the way to the Technology Response Network andthe Value Relay Centres. This enables to:

• locate partners for collaborative research

• seek partners for EC funded programes

• find complementary expterise

• expand and develop research interests

• find organisations to help progress existing research programmes

• commission research from established consultancies

The research has been conducted in a close cooperation with the team from the Dept.of Informatics (working on connected project of the faculty WWW server). There has beencreated the Virtual Info Park (VIP) - a WWW site colecting information about The Czech

1125


information, research and consultancy market. It represents an opportunity for establishingprofessional or business contacts for university researchers. VIP can help to present theuniversity abroad and help foreign subjects to find a Czech partner. We started to updatea list of links to useful information resources in the area of technology transfer located bothas inside as outside the Czech republic. WWW infostructure as a multimedia tool for aninteractive marketing is available 24 hours a day for over 10 milion users worldwide.

Some results of our research have been published in the journal INFOCUS and on theinternational conference - see bibliography.

References:

[1] JONES, T.: The executive guide to marketing on the new Internet. The Industry NETmarketing & Research Group, WWW document

[2] KELSETH, K.: The future of Information services in the electronic age. CS online '95,Vyhne, 1995

[3] VESELÝ, V. - HAJKU, J.: R&D information base in the Czech business environment.Business development in the Central and eastern Europe and its implication for theeconomic integration in a wider Europe, Blansko, 1995

This research has been conducted ai the Department of Economics and Management aspart of the research project "Linking up Technical University of Brno with the national andinternational technology transfer network" and has been supported by TU grant No. 250035.

1126


THE UTILISATION OF INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY IN CONSULTANCYFOR SMALL- AND MEDIUM-SIZED

BUSINESSES

L. Drlík, V. Koráb*, Z. Macura

TU, Business and Management Faculty, Dept. of Applied sciencesTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

*TU, Business and Management Faculty, Dcpt. of Economics and ManagementTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: information technology, consultancy, small-sized businesses, medium-sizedbusinesses

The aim of this paper is to introduce briefly the results in the FP-750004 project,based on a problem dealing with the utilisation of information technology in consultancyfor small- and medium-sized businesses. These results could be applied to other interestgroups, among which the students of the Faculty of Business and Management also belong.

The work on this project was divided into two basic parts, the first of which (theanalytical) deals with the features of the already-known consultancy companies, whether itbe according to the type of activity, the form or scope of services provided. Tying on to thisis the analysis of the sources of economic information (in the case of inadequate information,a new database will be developed and supplemented) and an application for the selectedtypes of consultancy will be proposed.

In this paper we would like put forward the results of the analytical part in the followingtable, in which all the information demanded by entrepreneurs are noted and in the orderof importance.

No. Name

1. Laws and their description

2. Foreign projects for aid to CR

3. Government support programmes

4. Database of institutions

5. Financial information, stock exchanges

6. Information on companies

7. Information from the area of education and requalification

8. Valid ES directives

9. International, Czech and specialist standards

10. Information on editorial activities

11. Information for orientation and trends in difFerent fields

12. Fee rates

1127


13. Database registers14. Type solutions to problems concerning the establishment of SMEs

15. Economic statistics

16. Conjuncture indicators

17. Samples of accountancy and economic agendas

18. Samples of the most important documents

The table was set up on the basis of an exeperiment based on several methods, fromwhich the highest percentage of information was obtained using questionnaires and personalinterviews. (It is obvious, however, that one could question the priorities of individual areas.)

Since we arc restricted to only a few pages, and can not provide more detailed informa-tion, we would like to introduce a very brief characteristic of the information sources withwhich we have become acquainted and with which it is possible to work in our conditions.

Text presented below is giving various types of information category (A, B, C,...)together with their sources of information (1, 2, 3, 4,...):

A. Laws and their description1. JURIX CD2. ASPI3. JURISYS Complex4. Commercial law5. Taxation consultant

B. Database of companies and institution1. Organisation and commercial register2. Commercial directory of CR and SR companies3. Databank of former USSR companies4. Databank of EU companies

C. Financial information1. A list of services provided by financial institutions2. Information from RMS

D. Commercial information1. Database of economic information2. Database of entrepreneurial activities3. Database of debtors4. Customs rates

E. Samples of the most important1. Samples of legal contracts and forms documents

F. ES directives1. JUSTISCELEX2. BC NET

More details on the above-mentioned information sources, supplemented by new infor-mation from the field of consultancy, can be provided at the WORKSHOP 96 presentation.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Applied sciences as part of Ikeresearch project "The Utilisation of information technology in consultancy for small- andmedium-sized businesses" and has ban supported by TU grant No. FP75000J

1128

WORKSHOP 9G ECONOMICS k BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

THE BUILDING COMPANY AND ITSCOMPUTER NETWORK

J . Hovorka

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Constr. Management & EconomicsThákurova 7,166 29 Praha 6

Key words: emulation, computer network

The aim of the internal grant considered at Czech Technical University, the School ofConstruction, was to resolve the difficulties of emulation of the building company computernetwork. The research was concentrated on the actual technical possibilities resulting therange of usage for building industry. For the research itself we have created several repre-senting samples of the building company framework considering criterions setup in advance.The basic categories were made in accordance with the internal company communicationand the possibility in connection with external elements. Further the examination focus at-tention on the project of the internal company communication, external one was consideredonly theoretically. The explanation "why" will be described below.

The following part was dedicated to a technical solution of the internal computer net-work again in the several proposals resulting the final solution for every kind of beforeselected company framework having a special attention on the transmission and usage ofevery data. The technical solution is, of course, based on the suggestion of hardware as wellas software. The proposal was created with respect to its feasibility in the typical Czechbuilding enterprise.

The major purpose for which the building companies are using the network is to trans-port and update data easily. Having suggest the proposals of the computer network, theway how to create the data base, transport and share them, it is necessary to consider alot of principles that would help to make the characteristic of a company. Among thesenorms we have weighed especially the specification of a building company from the personaland technical management point of view (e.g. the number of employees, region and thenumber of subsidiaries, the number of worked out contracts, etc.) The significant is alsodefinition of its managing levels (see the picture). Some companies are interested only indesign procurement, some others oíTers the full range of building works, including design,completion and the final examination under Defect Liability Certificate.

From the above description we can logically conclude that the extent of necessaryinvestment will be different for every kind of company. Also, there is obvious that evenfinancially strong companies hesitate if purchase the network or not. The most importantcrtterions supporting their decision is the payback period. It is easy to estimate that onlyfirm which can be sure about the effect and trouble-free system bringing fruitful cooperation,will buy it.

Necessary education of the employees and needful time for change of existing systemin the company will make power on decision because any company can keep the risk of anunsatisfactory customer. The investment into education of their own employees very oftencreates troubles and management doesn't want to hear about it. The following problem isthe fear of loosing the existing data and the connection between new and existing data etc.

1129


One of our new objectives was, by the way, to show the possibilities of computer networksto not only academical specialist but also to companies that are interested in purchase ofsuch facilities.

The other step forward would be the solution of the very important task (alreadymentioned above). It's elucidation is unfortunately almost impossible. The assignment isthe connection of the existing internal data with the external ones. For example it seems tobe unthinkable to update the building materials price list, maintain him and bring the newdata from hundreds of suppliers. These data are very often not applicable and if yes, thereare not processed in electronic way.

From this quick description it is obvious that the range of such task is significant andcontains a lot of troubles. Out definitely it is a big challenge for the future.

At the end of our introduction we can conclude that our information are appropriate

for other kinds of companies. THE MAJN ASPECTS OF CONSTRUCT™ MANAGEMENT

DESIGN PHASE

ADDITIONAL SURVEYSUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS ANO INSTRUCTIONALTERATIONS. ADDITIONS AMD OMISSIONSTHE UST OF ROOMS ''•."• :-\ . . . , , •THE CERTIFICATES FOR THE FINAL ACCEPTANCE

PREPARATION

B A S I C P R O G R A M M E , . . . . . . ::•,'••• • ' ; ,

H A J N O B J E C T I V E S . ,y:.'.;'•-.:,''• '••.••: .'••..;._• j ' . ' . : . ,SUBCONTRACTING -THE MAIN SUBCONTRACTOR,••:,-' .•••;:. THE MAIN SUPPLIER . j v : : : '.,•'•;.'• '•':•.': ;.'•. 'THE UST OF DISMANTLING :.. : ; :

•:v::•.: (FORRECONSTRUCTIONS) : . ^ V >THE SITE PLANT AND EQUIPMENT, : : •.. :

THE PtANT OF TAKING OVER OF SECTIONS.ORPARTS

TRANSPORT ANO MACHINERY . ; .PAYMENT AND MONTHLY STATEMENT: i . -:

COMPLETION

DETAILED PROGRAMME . : .: '; .CONTROL MANAGEMENT '••'•-"•• • '.''.'• \COORDINATION OF THE MAIN SUBCONTRACTORSCOORDINATION OF DIRECT SUPPLIERS : v : 'CONSTRUCTION ABILITIES : . . .•••> :' 'ASSEMBLAGEABIUTIES: . \ ...; Í ..IHSPECTIOM ANO TESTING , : '• •TAKING OVER CERTIFICATESQUALITY

INSPECTION ON COMPLETION \

IMPACT ON ecOLOGY ::: : ; / ; : " i V . V:.v- -,'•: • •INSPECTION OFTHE DATES OF COMPLETIONFINANCIAL INSPECTION '•/:.; ": •'•'* ' " - " i " - 'THE QUALITY INSPECTION ON COMPLETED WORK

.INEPECTfONOFTHE ROOMS FACILITIES "::y ••'. :

THE-UST OF ASSEMBLAGE WORK ; V • :U-- ':\ V.••'. :• AND FITTING OF COMPONENTS: '-;•• ^ ..:; :THE INSPECTION OF DETAILED PROGRAMME "SiTESECURfTViNSpeCTION •,.-': . " : .

Fig. 1: The main aspects of construction management

This research has been conducted at the Department of Contr. Management and Eco-nomics as part of the research project "The Building Company And Its Computer Network"and has been supported by CTU grant No, 1011.

1130


DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMSIN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

J . Klvaňa, A. Junek, J . Vlček

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Applied InformaticsThákurova 7, 166 29 Praha 6

Key words: MIS, DSS, Monte Carlo simulation, marginal costs, grammars theory

1. The subsystems of Information Systems (IS) can be classified according to threecriteria, or in three dimensions respectivelly.

The first dimension is the functional one. In most production organisations there canbe found following subsystems of IS: A) marketing, B) manufacturing, C) sales, D) account-ing, E) finance, F) personell.

One can't say that some of these subsystems are more and some less important. Nev-ertheless, the sales subsystem in construction enterprise is of smaller importance then inanother manufacturing enterprise. There is also of great importance the quality of inter-connection between all the above mentioned subsystems. The marketing subsystem has tofulfill many tasks. One of very important of these tasks is the transformation (translating,interpreting) of investor's requirements into supplier's possibilities. We shall investigatethis problem in the part 4 of this paper. Each of above mentioned subsysytem can beagain divided, especially in large organisations, in partial subsystems. E.g. manufacturingsubsystem can be divided in the following partial subsysytems: Ba: material and personellrequirements planning, Bb: process control, Be: inventory management, Bd: plant mainte-nance. Many of the partial subsysytems are very complex indeed. E.g. Bb-proccss controlcan be realised by the well-known means and algorithms like CPM, PERT etc., but also bythe new means like managing by the means of marginal costs, which we shall investigate inpart 3 of this paper.

The second dimension is the time one. According to time horizon we can identify:a) Operation-Level Systems (including Knowledge-Level Systems), b) Management Control-Level Systems, c) Strategic-Level Systems.

Operation-Level Systems ace concerned with daily routine operations and include:aa) Transaction Processing Systems (order tracking, order processing, payroll etc.), ab) Of-fice Automation Systems, ac) Knowledge Work Systems.

The time horizon of Management Control-Level Systems is as a rule 1 year or less.These systems include: ba) Management Information Systems (MIS), bb) Decision SupportSystems (DSS).

The time horizon of Strategic-Level Systems is as a rule 5 years. The system hasfor example to have the capability of 5-years profit planning, 5-years budget forecasting etc.The system also has to include models for risk analysis, especially for risk assessment ofcapital investments. In part 2 of this paper we report about using the Monte Carlo methodfor the risk assessment of Net Present Value (NPV) of a project.

The third dimension is the organisational (or structual) one. It reflects the structureand hierarchy of an enterprise: Enterprise can be divided for example into divisions and theproduction is a function of particular plants (sites).

1131


2. We have investigated the probability distribution of NPV using well-known expres-sion for NPV of an investment project:

where CFt is the expected net cash flow at Period /, and k is the project's cost of capital.

a) In the first case we didn't consider the dependence (correlation) between CFt an kt.To get the probability distribution of NPV we have used the Monte Carlo method andcomputer simulation.

b) In the second case we considered the correlation between CFt and kt* The probabilitydistribution we have got was quite different from the one before and was not in thecontradiction with logical explanation.

3. The construction industry in Czech Republic uses for management dominantly theconstruction costs, which are derived from the costs completed by the cost calcul formula,that is direct and indirect costs.

The subject of our interest is the possibility of application of the marginal costs (variableand fixed) at least in selected centers mainly of industrial character. The advantages of thismethod are undiscutable and give us certain values, which other approaches don't enableor enable destored.

It concerns, for example, the contribution margin of fixed costs and profits of individualproducts, the Break Even Analysis, the description of the economic impacts of the changeson the production program and its optimization, the economic effect caused by the dynami-sation of the production, the calculation of minimal acceptable sales prices, the applicationof minimal average costs, etc., and last but not least of the unambigous and exact check ofthe economic results of each center.

Judging from the list of applications, the main importance of this method is basedon its utilisation in management decision-making, which the contemporary methods ofcalculated and sort costs nearly exclude.

4. The present state is identified by individual treatment of the order by means of bothproduction preparation and the budget. The disadvantage of such treatment is the reducedtransparentness and the reduced possibility of automation. The theoretical results offerthe application of translation between languages and the application of grammars theory,further the application of the results of signal functions and the application of multilevelprojecting as a result of system engineering.

The solution of the partial problem has a methodological significance and is based onthe formulation of the investment task in the language of nonterminal symbols, and in theformulation of capacity of realizations in the language of terminal symbols.

The result of partial task is the project of the transformation of investor's design intothe suppliers form of logical scheme, transferable into programming language.

This research lias been conducted at the Department of Applied Informatics as part ofthe research project "Models and Software for Management of Production in the Construe'tion industry" and has been supported by CTU grant No. 10018223.

1132


TAX ADVISING ANDINFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

M. Polák, Z. Sadovský, Z. Macura, K. Tomek*

TU, Business and Management Faculty, Dept. of Applied SciencesTechnická 2,616 69 Brno

*TU, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,Technická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: tax advising, information system, information technology

The project is divided into two interconnected researches according to the title of theproject. The primary part of the work concerns research of possibilities how informationtechnology can be used in the field of tax advising. The secondary research tries to map taxadvising today's situation. The main part of this research - questionnaire method - is donenowadays. We presume, it will be ready before presentation at Workshop 96. Therefore theabstract is aimed mainly at primary research.

Tax advising belongs to young and dynamically developing specialisations in the coun-try. It is not far ago when institution for legal representation of tax advisors - The Chamberof tax advisors (KDP CR) - was established. Tax advising is performed in different ways inthe country (from individual persons - advisors to big companies offering various servicessuch as accounting, auditing, tax advising, economic analysis etc.).

There have to be made two steps for the purpose of the research (IT in tax advising):

1. The segmentation of the subjects involved has to be done.

2. There has to be set up the range of the projected research.

Second point can be deducted from the term "Information technology". Accordingto Molnar, 1992 IT is any technology, which processes or is connected with processingof information, together with its software equipment and organization arrangement. Theresearch concerns only software equipment of possible information system in this part.

Rough segmentation of the subjects involved can divide them into two groups. Firstgroup consists of subjects offering tax advising - Tax advisors. Second group consists ofsubjects offering various services for first group. For example The Chamber of tax advisors,Association of accountants and tax advisors in Brno, and several other special associations.Needs of the first group - tax advisors - can be satisfied with following types of software (seg-mentation of software required is done according to special conditions in the specialisationof tax advising):

1. Juridical software - various databases and other systems for work with laws, acts,notices, and measures of ministries. For example - ASPI software.

2. Expert software - i.e. software able to answer special requirements and questions,introducing expert opinions, etc.

1133


3. Information software - various commercial databases important for tax advising suchas: duty quotas, directories of tax advisors, auditors, accountants, various institutions,etc.

4. Tax calculation software - software for calculation of different types of taxes.5. Tax advising software - systems which help decision making process, expert systems,

etc.6. Special calculation software - for example software for economic analyses, calculation

of credits, leasing activities, etc.7. Accounting software8. Educational tax software - support software for education in the field of tax advising9. Office software - text processors, spreadsheets, databases, etc.

10. Organizational software - personal or group organizational software.

Particular combination oí above described products should be suitably put togetherin information system of individual concrete company. Next step of our work is to buildprocedure showing how to assembly such system.

Software products helping to satisfy second group of subjects involved - subjects offeringvarious services for tax advisors - can be divided into following types (which arc differentfrom above presented products):

1. Control system - system following members of KDP CR, applicants for tax advisors,etc. up; support software to manage examinations of applicants, to manage adminis-tration of KDP CR, etc. This part of software is put into special category, because oflaw requirements.

2. Communication system - System enabling wide communication among different sub-jects and members of KDP CR. This system combines information technology andsoftware together (modems, computers, networks, etc). The system should enable ac-cess of any member to central information database which would offer various servicesand inform members. Such system is missed in the country, but recent discussions areleading to development of such system.

Interconnection between both above discussed groups is important factor. Other aspectsof the research will be presented during workshop % presentation including outputs of thesecondary research.

References:

[1] Trends in Fuzzy Systems and Signals AMSE Monographs, AMSE Press,1992

[2] CASHMORE, C : Business Information: Systems and strategies Prentice Hall, 1991

[3] MOLNAR, Z.: Moderní metody řízeni informačních systému Grada, Praha, 1992[4] POTMĚŠILOVA, J.: Danovc poradenství a daňoví poradci Prospektrum, Praha, 1993

[5] RYCHTA, K.: Projektovaní programových systemu ČVUT Praha, 199*1

This research has been conducted at the Department of Applied Sciences as part of theresearch project "The design of support information system for tax advisors. Collection ofinformation concerning tax advising in the Czech Republic" and has been supported by TUgrant No. FP0075/95

1134


DRINKING WATER DEMAND INCONDITIONS OF MARKET ECONOMY

I. Čiháková, M. Synáčkova, P. Zykan, V. Skvan

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Sanitary EngineeringThákurova 7,166 29 Praha 6

Key words: water-supply, drinking water demand, water consumption!, leakage, watermain, water losses, water works, price policy

In resent years there is a growing public concern about environmental issues. One ofthese issues is water cycle with problems concernin rainfall distribution, increasing deserti-fication of a number of areas, water quality, increasing demand associated with improvedstandards of living.

Significant changes in water consumption are apparent since 1990 resulting in a decreaseof water demand. We can name the following main reasons:

a) changes in economic system and the replacement of central planning system by marketeconomy system

b) significant grow in price of water

c) privatisation of water works, separation of smaller units with subsequent increases inwater price

d) reaction of users consisting iu decreasing water consumption, using their own resources,in many cases of lower quality

e) reaction of big users resulting in abandoning water demanding technologies and usingnew technologies and know-how applying recycling water processes

f) significant shift towards metering for every fiat. Not only family houses start withmetering but also blocks of flats install metering

g) increasing price of both water and energy which results in significant increases in priceof hot water. It leads to great dropss in hot water consumption.

Sanitary engineering department, including students has taken part in the measure-ments of water consumption in households to acquire data for new standards which arcbeing prepared.

New data will be based on analytical comparison with countries of industrialised worldand their decreasing water consumption and also with water consumption in towns andareas with metering. A community which is still without water-supply will calkulate witha consumption of 200-2201 per capita per day including water leakage (1].

The decreasing trend will stop and water consumption will continue in the same orsimilar quantity on the basis of an analytical comparison with the real situation in indus-trialised countries. The details depend on the way how effective and fast a reconstructionof water mains and supplying pipes wíllbe to restrict the number of water losses and howfast an implementation of metering in households will continue.

1135

WORKSHOP 9C ECONOMICS k BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

Changes in water losses statements which are based not only on comparison of theamount of water in % but are computed in m3 per km per year are significant and help tocompare water-supply systems. It aims to decide the order of reconstruction and helps toinvest funds where they are needed. Decreasing water losses which are now about 30% andeven more in some water works will lead to decrease of water demand. The trend of theprocess in the first period will be significant because the number of big failures of pipelinesis easier to find than to find small failures or remove old or leaking pipes. This kind ofreconstruction is a very expensive and long-term process.

The influence of water metering on water consumption is significant and by now we cancompare the first results with foreign experience. Our measurements from different townswere published in [2].

Price policy is the last mean factor in water consumption. Different kinds are used [3]and with their help we can control the water supply system.

References;

[1] VUV TGM: Drinking water demand standards, prepared, Praha.

[2) CIHAKOVA, I. - VALTHANSOVA, H. - SVEC, L.: IWSA DUBllAN How to reduceconflict in water jnanagement. International report, IR 5-8-5-10, IWSA London, 1995.

[3] SANCLEMENTE, C. - BISHOP, W. J. - ZWEEGMAN, J.: IWSÄ DUBBAN Influenceof water metering on water consumption. Special subject, SS 1-1-1-12, IWSA London,1995.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Sanitary E7igiiicering and hasbeen supported by CTU grant No. JOOJSZJO.

1136


MODERNIZATION OF THE WATERSUPPLY NETWORKS

P. Šrytr, L. Macek

CTU, Fac. of Civil Eng., Dept. of Sanitary EngineeringThákurova 7,166 29 Praha 6

Key words: intensification, management, reconstruction, rehabilitation, pipeline system

The current technical solution for water distribution pipeline systems has remainedpractically the same without any significant movement for one hundred years. This projectsgoal is to obtain new information, methods and bulding for resolving the basic defects of thecurrent solutions. This speech will be focused on relativly high failure rates, low functionaland power efficiencies, low economic efficiency, etc.

The first step of this research consisted of verifying the selection of pipeline materialsand equipment considering the market prices and availability. This verification occuredin the form of exploration. Nineteen leading specialists (in the branches of investigation,capital or stock campanies, design firms, bulding firms, operational copmanies, etc.) tookpart in the exploration. They used a multitude of criteria for analysis, such as valve analysis,and discrimination anlysis.

The second and parallel problem in the research consisted of preparations for tests oncontemporary technical possibilities of active regulation water pressures in water distributionnetworks. Modeling arrea: urban water networks in Kladno, Tabor etc.

References:

[1] SRYTR, P. - MACEK, L.: Contribution to Intensification of Operation of Water SupplySystem, pp. 71-81 Proč. Conf. STU, 1989.

[2] SRYTR, P.: Intensification of Water Supply System. CTU, Technical Paper p. 61-71,Faculty of Civil Engineering, Prague, 1993.

[3] KAHÁNEK, J.: Verifing of Technologies of Choice Pipeline Materials and Equipmentsfor Urban Piping Networks. DW, Prague, 1995.

[4] SRYTR, P.: Urban Water Supply Networks. Proc. Conf. UNO Prague, 1995, p. 46-53.

This research has been conducted at the Department of Sanitary Engineering as part ofthe research project "Modernization of the water supply distribution networks" and has beensupported by CTU grant No. 1060.

NEXT PAQS(S)

1137

WORKSHOP 96 ECONOMICS St BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

METHODS OF IMPLEMENTATIONAND MANAGEMENT

OF TRANSFORMATING MARKETINGA. Glogar, M. Vráblík*, V. Nováček, M. Mikuláštík, D. Pavelková,

J . Kubík, F. Pavelka*, V. Kozák, V. Rytíř*, J . Bartušek**, B. Zimola*,A. Veljinová, V. Kuba*, R. Bobák*, Z. Beran*, L. J u r č a *

TU, Fac. of Management and Economics, Dept. of ManagementMostní ul. 5139, 760 01 Zlín

*TU, Fac. of Management and Economics, Dept. of Enterprise EconomicsMostní ul. 5139, 760 01 Zlín

**TU, Fac. of Technology,Nám. T. G. M. 275, 762 72 Zlín

Key words: transformation marketing, company marketing management, process of trans-formation, partial transformation marketing

Presented research results in shape of practically developed methodology of imple-mentation and management of transformation marketing for organizations going throughtransformation process and transformation marketing defined after 1989 by A.Glogar aresituated on a complex level of transformation marketing. Transformation marketing doesnot mean absence of western countries theoretical and practical experience in any case. Itis exactly the opposite, transformation marketing absorbs them fully, develops and accom-modates them in a systematic fashion so th.at the economical growth and the security ofeconomical oranizations might be reached.

Project solutions are coming from definition of transformation marketing and direct-ing to company management activities inclined against strategic and tactical plannning,organizing, management, controlling and strategic objectives realization competences andresponsibilities. All are subordinates to information sources base and transformation mar-keting systems on one hand and transformation marketing analytical and dcvelope base onthe other hand. Both bases are tie of information sources t ransformation marketing andsystems of partial transformation marketings.

In this phase of solution, authors are offering also tied and inseparable whole of in-formation about the possibility of new ownership situation constitution of companies withconnection to companies right functioning in praxes. The focus on management inovationof companies is their consistent orientation to coordinate managing of marketing activi-ties generated by top management interest in such style of managing. Special attention ofauthors is payed to new perspective on influences among transformation marketing struc-ture, management system and coordination. Inseparable outputs from specific areas areconnected to it and later create specific methodology whole. These are for example solvedmethodology of measerment of motivation and dependence of succcs the motivated man-agers, of financing resources for the succesful realization of product policy, price definition,conditions of company development of imports and investment policy, rational cooperation

1139


between marketing and sale, partial marketing of investments, risk and promotion, applica-ble financial management, global effectivness of company, marketing information systems,information company marketing, statistical processing of results, and also additional partialmethodologies and information connected thereto.

Tools for realization of direct company managing by the transformation marketing arcgradually offered to top managements of companies in connection to an external surroundingand a company objective and a strategy matching.

References:

[1] Presentation book: Marketing in praxes. 3rd International seminar, Zlín, 1995 VUTBrno, 1ME FT in Zlín

[2] Internal materials of companies, TU Brno, ME FT Zlín

This research has been conducted as a part of research project of TU Brno for 1995 andhas been supported by TU grant No. 0085.

1140


COMMITMENT TO CHANGE?(MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT

IN CZECH AND POLISH COMPANIES)

E. řYanková, E. Helienek*, J . McGoIdrick*

Business and Management Faculty, Technical University of BrnoTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno, Czech Republic.

"The Nottingham Trent University, European Business CentreBurton Street, Nottingham, NG1 4BU, Great Britain.

Key words: management-change, development, personnel climate, comparison.

What does it mean to work in the marketising economies of central and eastern Europe?The international research team (Emilie Franková, The Technical University of Brno; EmilHelienek, James McGoIdrick, The Nottingham Trent University) is exploring the meaningswhich managers and all other employees in central Europe ascribe to their new roles, inthe context of major economic and social restructuring. An international engineering com-pany has generously provided access to its Czech and Polish subsidiaries to facilitate theresearch and business schools in Brno and Poznan are collaborating with the investigators.Managers in central Europe face exceptional challenges as former state-run enterprises aresplit up, privatised and orientated to new markets. Often, the new companies are having tograpple with large-scale introduction of new technology, unfamiliar working practices, newmanagement methods and financial disciplines, while fighting for a share of world markets.In the Czech Republic other two companies had been contacted but unfortunately theyconsidered an execution of large-scale research at the stage of radical structural changes asvery sensitive.

The focus of the research is on human resource management, involving a large-scalesurvey using structured self-completion questionnaires, followed up with selected interviewswith managers and employees in the two firms. Eight themes are being examined, including:commitment to the organization, job satisfaction, information and communication flows, ef-ficiency and effectiveness, organization excellence. The research is designed in a way thatfacilitates comparison with earlier studies and takes account of the rapidly changing environ-ment in which the companies are operating. It forms a part of the extensive programme ofinter-disciplinary research on enterprise restructuring in central Europe, which was initiatedby The Nottingham Trent University in 1992 to complement its programmes of educationaldevelopment there.

Since the final results of the research are not available yet let us give a brief descriptionof the situation, attitude and approach to the research in the Czech company.

The research of the personnel climate took place almost exactly 2 years after the com-pany was established. Representatives of the company accepted an offer from The Notting-ham Trent University and The Business and Management Faculty of The Brno TechnicalUniversity. This offer presented a research project the aim of which was a comparison ofprivatised companies in Great Britain, Poland and The Czech Republic. The company ex-pects the research to be a source of information about the way of thinking of all workers and

1141

WORKSHOP 9G ECONOMICS fc BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

managers, about trust of employees in the company and its prospects, and about their satis-faction with their work, working environment and colleagues. The interest of managementin this research is based on their eiFort to find out how the changes that took place in thecompany fulfilled employees expectations and whether they are satisfied with the way thecompany is run. The changes included a new scope of services and products, new equipmentand a new organizational structure, including a system of remuneration. It is obvious thatit all was very demanding but at the same time people had many positive expectations. Theresults of the research should be used for the development of a strategy of human resourcesmanagement. Special attention is to be paid to motivation and stabilization of employees.

The research was executed in two waves. The first one (a pilot research) was being donewith approximately 100 respondents and the second one included 900 respondents. The re-sults from the first wave showed very positive attitudes but respondents were mainly middleand higher managers. This group of employees was expected to be highly motivated andcommitted. The results of the second wave are expected with certain concerns because allemployees are included. Therefore, this will be a real description of the situation, especiallyas far as the relationship between workers and managers is concerned. This relationship isconsidered as the most important factor that can improve or damage the personnel climatein the company.

This research has been conducted at the Institute of Applied Studies, Faculty of Businessand Management, TO of Bmo and has been supported by TU grant No. FU75Q076.

1142

WORKSHOP 9C ECONOMICS & BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

COMPANIES IN THE CZECH REPUBLICIN THE PROCESS OF ECONOMIC

TRANSFORMATION

P. Bervid, M. Kerkovský, L. Mikulec

TU, Fac. of Business ant! Management, Dept. of Economics and ManagementTechnická 2, 616 69 Brno

Key words: company, economic transformation

The Czech Republic has been in the process of economic transformation since 1990.Companies in the Czech Republic suffered from a strategic shock at the beginning of theprocess of the transformation. The shock was caused by a change in the system of economyof our country. Companies were disoriented in a new economic background and there werefrequent changes of legislation.

Nowadays, almost five years after the change of the economic system of this country,we can see that some companies have undergone the process of the transformation quitesuccessfully while some of them were not so successful. The aim of the research programmecalled "A Company in the Process of Economic Transformation11 is to determine the keyfactors of of success of a company in the process of economic transformation of a country.The nature of the research programme is quite topical.

The research is being carried out in cooperation with Nicolas Kopernik University,Economic Science and Management Faculty, Torun, Poland. The aforementioned universityis carrying out a similar type of research, which was started sooner in the past. The researchin the Czech Republic is deliberately performed in a way which enables us to compare theresults of both the projects. Hence we can obtain interesting results by comparing them.

The necessary empirical data are obtained via a written questionnaire. The question-naire is anonymous and the data obtained are considered to be classified information. Incomparison with the research carried out in Poland, the questionnaire is broader in depth.Some of the questions are the same, but some of them were modified due to different eco-nomic conditions. The new questions increase the extent of the research. This is the basicassumption for the comparison of both the research projects.

Due to the importance of the project and the effort to ensure feedback and informationpreciseness, the filling-in of the questionnaire is supervised. The assumption of the firstphase of the research is the examination of about fifty companies.

The questions in the research questionnaire are aimed at the following structure ofexamined problems:

• basic information about companies

• finance and investments

• the use of free market principles in production, sales and buying

• personal effects and real estate

• the rate of employment, salaries, social policy

1143

WORKSHOP 9C ECONOMICS k BUSINESS ACTIVITIES

• the management of companies

• the development and innovation activities of companies, cooperation

• the problems in the process of re-structuralisation

The process of adaptation to the free market principles and new economic conditionshas been quite varied and it has depended on a lot of factors of different nature. Some ofthem resulted from the position of a company on the market and some of them from thenew outer economic conditions, which corresponded to one of the phases of the process ofthe transformation.

According to the reaction of companies to the new situations in the economy, thedemands of the market and the ability to react, the examined companies have been dividedinto the following three groups:

a) The leading companies (or we can use a shorter description: "leaders"). These com-panies manifest a great level of adaptation and dynamics. They are able to formnew strategies as required due to the changes in their background. These companieshave recognized and used the opportunity resulting from the changes in the economicbackground and, in this way, they ensured their own success on the market and de-velopment. Among these companies one can also find companies that are partially oreven as a whole owned by the state.

b) The second category of companies could be described as "troublemakers". Theirattitude towards the changes has been generally passive. All the steps of such a firmwere hesitative and insufficient. Most of the time they tended to the policy of "wewill wait and see."

c) The third group of companies can be classified as "average". This category representsan extensive group, which is aware of the dangers resulting from the process of thetransformation. The companies in this group have tried (with little hesitation but alsolittle emphasis) to adapt the new conditions.

The results of the research will be processed by the end of 1995 and they will be orallypresented in the seminar of "Workshop 96".

This research has been conducted at the Department of Economics and Management aspart of the research project "A Company hi the Process of Economic Transformation" andhas been supported by TU, Faculty of Business and Managcnmcnt, grant No. 7000/1010/FP

1144

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

INDEX

Abu Zummar, R., 729Adamec, J., 309, 313, 347Adamec, L., 155Adámek, J., 39, 609Almasani, A., 487Anger, L., 917Antfeist, F., 671Attlová, J., 979Aubrecht, L., I l lAubrecht, V., 675, 679Austin, J., 287Autrata, R., 837

Bača, P., 605Bach, P., 465Bálek, R., 751,833Barboh'k, P., 237Bareš, K., 899Barták, M., 339Bartes, F., 1057Barthelemy, A., 835Bártík, H., 763Bartík, L., 561Bartl, J., 679Bartlová, M., 155, 675Bartušek, J., 1103, 1139Bauer, K., 479Bauer, Z., 511Baumruk, P., 323Bažant, L., 765Bečka, J., 285Bednařík, M., 55, 57Bejček, L., 735, 737Bern, J., 937Benda, V., 59, 125Bendi, J., 901Beneš, B., 2S9Beneš, L., 19, 537Beneš, M., 205Beneš, P., 139, 939Beneš, V., 37Beran, V., 1005, 1121Beran, Z., 1139Berka, L., 551

Berka, M., 271Berka, R., 293Bervid, P., 1143Bičák, J., 719Bila, J., 249Bílá, N., 949Bílek, Z., 755Biolková, V., 857Bittnar, ZM 423, 425, 495Bittner, J., 259Bobák, R., 1139Bocko, J., 433Böhm, J., 107, 109Borgi, S., 1035Bosáček, V., 627Bouška, P., 485, 617, 1015Božek, V., 615BnisUová,J.,839Brabec, J., 697Brachtl, M., 251Brandejs, J., 299Briš, P., 965Brodská, S., 151Broum, M., 755Brož, P,, 439Brůha, O., 333Brychta, Z., 767Bryknar, Z., 121Brzobohatý, ,1., 703, 879Březina, J., 523, 545, 597Březina, T., 649Břicháč, M., 653Bubeník, F., 35Budinsky, R., 63Buchal, A., 539, 545, 567, 589Bulvas, J., 489Burian, Z., 829

Cajthaml, K., 1037, 1039Calábek, M.( 605Cejp, J., 595Cenek, M., 149, 1077Čepek, A., 197

1145

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

Cihlář, J., 263, 967Coufal, O., 155Cseplö, L., 555Cusan, P., 557Czesaná, B., 911

Cada, R., 1027, 1029Cech, M., 753, 903Cechák, T., 159, 921, 955, 1Ü63Cepera, M., 537Čermák, F., 1019Čermák, J., 453, 1035, 1037Cernocký, X, 709Černý, F., 107, 915Černý, J., 35Černý, M., 449Černý, R., 145, 353, 629, 631Červenka, V., 1111Červený, M., 239Český, J., 991Češka, M., 199Češka, R., 587, 589Cihák, F., 517Ciháková, I., 1135Cochnár, Z., 573Culík, J., 435

Dalík, J., 17Dančcek, J M 245Daněk, M., 935Danešová, J., 911Davídek, V., 725Dedouch, KM 459Decbes, H., 753Dejmck, W., 97Demi, J., 247Demlová, MM 39, 163, 167Dittrichová, LM 99, 589Diviš, L., 719DIask, P., 1119Dlouhá, E., 1089Dlouhá, M., 119, 627Dlouhý, R., 907Dobeš, J., 895Dobis, P., 839Dohnálek, J., 619Dolejš, X, 643, 645

Doležal, X, 653, 699Doležel, V., 445Doložílek, M., 965Dorazil, E., 563, 567Dostál, T., 713Douda, P., 327Drápal, R, 245Draxler, K., 687, 745, 749, 1097Drchalova, J., 629Drkal, R, 953Drkošova, J., 21Drlík, L., 1127Drochytka, R., 611Drška, L., 79, SIDruckmülier, M., 535Dub, P., 587Dupák, J., 599Durčák, M., 931Dvořáček, X, 299Dvořák, I., 559Dvořák, P., 181, 849Dvořák, V., 221Dynybyl, V.,511, 1061

Ebel, M., 9S9Eck, V., 899Eckstein, J., 635

Fadrus, 11., 927Fajman, P., 431Feikei, P., 253Fenclová, M., 167Fendrych, M., 263Feraidon, A., 1009Fiala, P., S21Fidler, X, 1025Fidler, V., 67Fiedler, R-, 603Filip, J., 283Filipová, J., 247f 483Finsterle,J., 1077Fišer, J. ( 755, 757Flek, O., 167Foltiny, R,821Forejt, M., 597, 1023Foret, R., 539Fořt, I., 329, 331, 333

1146

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

Franců, J., 17Frank, H., 105Franková, E., 1141Freiberg, F., 1113Friedl, M., 177Fried], Z., 153Fučík, O., 267Fučíková, J., 59Fuka, J M 697Fürst, J., 19

Galas, I., 849Ganev, N., 551, 591Gebaucr, G., 967Gerlich,J., 663Gerndt, J., 73, 1061Glogar, A., 1103Glogar, M., 1139Glogar, P., 579Gosman, A,, 949Gosmanová, G., 551, 591Gregor, J., 137, 685Gregor, T. ( S49, 851Grmela, L., 157, 839Gross, B., 675, 677, 679, 681, 683Grossmanová, M., 1123Gruncl, M., 213Grünwald, A., 919, 943, 945Guy, 0., 835

Haasz, V., 747, 769Habel, J., 689Hach, L., 191Hájek, J., 587Hajkr, J., 1125Hála, M., 1087, 1089Haluza, M., 349Hamal, K., 105, 753, 831, 903Hamata, V., 991Hamhalter, J., 41Hanák, J., 559, 613Hanák, V., 1063Handová, Z., 941Hanitz, F., 101Hanousek, K., 731Hanzálek, Z., 207Hanzl, V., 731

Harna, Z,, 97Hartl, M., 455, 845Hartman, R., 555Hatschbach, P., 319, 323Havelka, L., 685Havelka, P., 897Havlíček, M., 43Havlíček, S., 157Havlík, J., 705Havlík, V., 341, 353Hazdra, P., 881Hazdra, T., 167, 169Hejda, P., 279Hejtmánek, J., 119Helienek, E., 1141Hemerka, J., 953Heptner, T., 469Heřmansky, B., 1065Hlaváč, V., 171, 173, 183Hlaváček, J., 351Hlaváček, P., 1031, 1033Hlavatý, L., 43Hloušek, J., 593Hnatowicz, V., 915Hnilica, F., 579Hobzík,J.,317,463Hof, M., 67Hoffmann, K., 767Hofman, P., 1051Ilofreiter, M., 193Hojerová, M., 901Holeček, A., 259Holický, M., 1001, 1003,1015, 1019Hollay, P., 243Holoubek, P., 873Holý, S., 509, 917Honec,J.,711,S43Hong, H., 27Hora, V., 247Horáček, P., 697Horák, J., 19Hostomsky, S., 243Hošek, P., 1043Hoškova, S., 631Houdek, D., 465Housa, J., 465Houška, A., 677, 681

1147

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

Hovorka, J., 1129Hrabánek, M., 617Hrad, J., 727Hradilová, J., 829Hrdoušek, V., 1017Hron, M.f 1065Hronková-Lhotská, L., 169Hrouda, F., 613Hrubá, I., 637, 821Hruška, T., 261Hříbek, P., 821, 825Hubáček, T-, 355Hudec, R., 565, 567, 571, 1025Hutni, M., 197Husák, R., 533Hušek, P., 897Huták, P., 673Hyniová, K., 189

Cháb, V., 145Chadzitaskos, G., 103Chalupa, LM 673Chalupa, M., 981Charvát, M., 263Chmela, P., 823, 853Chmelík, R., 841Chudoba, R., 495Chybík, J,, 473Chyský, J., 901

Ingeduld, P., 337

Jákl, M., 97, 845Jakubek, J., 73Jakubova, I., 137, 685Jan, J., 531,891Jančík, L.,511Janeba, D., 627Janíček, L., 1025Janoš, J., 203Janoušek, J., 661Janoušek, P., 751Janoušek, V., 199Janout, Z., 75Janova, D., 523, 529, 531, 589Janovec, J., 533Jaroš, M., 357

Javůrek, J., 663Jech, C , 71Jelen, J., 61Jelínek, 1., 243, 249Jelínková, H., 753, 903Jeřábek, M., 233Ježek, J., 313Jíclia, M., 357, 961Jílek, M., 319Jirák, J., 837Jirák, Z., 119Jirásek, V., 849Jirava, P., 1083, 1085Jirků, S., 317, 463Jiroušek, P., 121Jirout, L., 899Jirsák, MM 507JiruŠe, J., 587Jiříček, O., 55, 89Jiřina, M., 291Joanidis, A., 689Jouffrey, B., 527Junek, A., 1131Jurča, L., 1139Jurči, P., 595Jurova, M., 1055, 1103

Kábrt, P., 1037, 1039Kaderka, J., 871Kadlčak, J., 437Kadlec, R, 895Kadlec, P., 137Kadleček, V., 639Kafka, J., 667Kálal, M., 847Kaloč, R., 689Kalousek, R., 99Kanaval, J., 511, 1061Kandus, B., 575Kapitánova, R., 1023Kaplan, 1., 977Kapusta, P., 67Kargerova, M., 31Karličky, P., 1083, 1085, 1089Karlík, M., 527Karpinski, L., 113Kašpar, P M 745

1148

WORKSHOP 9C INDEX

Katolický, J., 961Kavan, J M 1047Kavan, M., 1115Kávička, F., 593Kazelle, J., 1077Kejhar, M., 869, S73Kejik, P., 745Keller, P., 755Kerkovský, M., 1143Kheilová, M., 95Kilián, P., 891Kirschner, M., 869Klečka, M., 653Klečka, T., 621Klema, J., 169Klícník, M., 599Klíma, M., 849Kluson, J., 1063Klvaňa, J., 1131Knížek, K., 119Kocián, M., 107Kocmanová, A., 1055, 1057Kočí, J., 689Kodl, P., 183Kohoutek, It., 971Koláček, K., 115Koláčný, J., 673Kolár, D., 201Kolář, J., 469Kolařík, V., 867Kolísko, J., 621Kolka, Z., 703Koller, J., 111Komancc, R., 867Komrska, J M 817Koníček, J., 75Koníček, Z., 941Konvalinka, P., 485, 625Konvičková, S., 913, 915, 923Kopincová, E., 33Kopinec, J M 163Kopřiva, P., 553Koráb, V., 1101, 1127Kořínek, Z., 581Kos, J., 247Košťál, E., 721, 849Kotacka, L., 817

Kouba, Z., 163,167, 169Koubská, P., 943Kouřil, Z., 543Kout, J., 167Koutník, J., 167Koutný, J., 995Koutný, V., 1049Kovář, B., 185Kovář, L., 861Kovář, P., 755, 757Kovářík, R., 299Kozák, V., 1139Kozel, J., 321Kozel, K., 19, 321Kožíšek, J., 125Král, J., 507, 637,821,959Král, L., 211Král, M., 1035, 1037Králík, M,, 185Králová, R., 109Krátký, JM 483Kraus, I., 551,591Kraus, P., 9S1Kraus, 5., 175Kravárik, J., 113, 115Krejča, J., 751Krejčí, A., 115Krejčí, J., 523, 525, 539, 545, 571, 597Krejčík, J., 941Krejčová, J., 523, 1023Krištof, P., 271Kropík, M., 1069Krops, S., 1073Kruis, J-, 423Krysí, P., 417Křemen, J., 991Křesálek, V., 607Kříha, V., 101Krístek, V., 477, 479, 483, 491, 493Křivák, P., 605Křupka, I., 455, 845Kuba, A., 1139Kuba, J., 633, 671Kubák, J., 1043Kubalík, J., 163Kubašta, J., 69, 71, 73, 75, 1065Kubeček, V., 67, 835, 903

1149

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

Kubečka, M., 743Kubelík, M., 1061Kubeš, R, 113, 115Kubík, F., 1139Kučera, D„ 891Kučera, P., 23Kučera, T., 209Kudláček, I., 957Kudrnáčová, I., 951Kukaň, V., 1017Kukla, Z., 535Kuklík, P., 501, 643, 645Kuklíková, A., 643, 645Kuklíková, J., 501Küla, V., 317, 463Kulhánek, P., 117Kunovský, J., 223, 971Kunz, J., 553Künzel, K., 655Kuniová, D., 917Kuška, M., 743Kuštcra, I., 589Kvasnička, I., 585, 915, 1051Kvasňák, E., 897Květoh, K., 77Kyncl, Z., 85Kytýr, J,, 437

L. Vítek, J., 477Laciga, P., G65Lain, J., 307Lakomý, L., 995Lamboj, L., 951Lampa, P., 269, 271,301Langmaier, F., 1031Lapčík, Jr., L., 157Lapčík, Jr., C, 135, 143Lapčík, L., 135Lauschmann, H., 557Lavický, M.,475Lažanský, J., 163, 167, 169Lebeda, O., 949Lchovec, F., 1083, 1085Lconardis, A., 171Lhotákova, Z., 929Lhotská, L., 167Líbal, V., 185

Liedermann, K-, 157Lísal, M., 63Líska, R., 25, 27Liška, M., 737, 819, 839Lizák, V., 665Lopour, F., 99Losinská, J., 1063Lowitová, O., 4S5, 507, 515Lukáš, P., 533Luxemburk, F., 1083, 10S5, 1095

Máca, J., 421Maca, K., 573Macek, J., 321, 323, 325Macek, K., 533, 543, 549Macek, L., 943,945, 1137Macek, T., 2S7Macík, K., 1113Macura, Z., 1127, 1133Mádl,JM 1045, 1047, 1049, 1053Mach, P., 583, 743Macha, I., 105Mácha, I., 107, 109, 123, 151Machác, J., 761Macháček, J., 519Maier, K.,977Maixner, J., 635Makovička, D., 1011Malá, J., 927Malínský, K., 87Malý, J., 931Man, J., 537Mann, HM 219Mansfeldová, A., 973, 1081Marcián, F., 931Mareček, P., 21Margolin, L., 25Martinek, J., 897Martinek, P., 715Mar van, I., 167Maryška, J., 21Marik, V., 163, 167, 169Mašek, I., 135Matějka, F., 99, 589Matčjka, K., 1067, 1069, 1071Matííjovský, J., 739Materna, A., 555

1150

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

Matička, R., 1041Matoušek, J., 135Matoušek, P., 359Matuchová, M., 635Mazánek, F., 749, 1097Mazánek, M., 759, 763, 767McGoldrick, J., 1141Medek, J., 331Melichar, B., 275Micka, K., 605Mičín, X, 9Ö3Michalce, J., 541, 915Michálek, J., 547Mikisek, M., 1065Mikšícek, L., 257Mikula, P., 533Mikulášková, B., 135Mikuláštík, M., 1139Mikulec, L., 1143Mindl, P., 659Mládek, M., 1033Moček, T., S47Modrý, SM 639, 1013Mollikova, E., 575Moos, P., 1079, 1081Morgan, G., 287Moudrý, I., 615Moucha, V., 1013Mrázek, P., 253Mrkvička, J., 695Mučka, V., 147Mucha, J., 1055Müller, J., 181, 433Musil, V., 879Musílek, L., 921, 955, 1061Mužák, J., 21

Nahodil, P., 213Náplava, P., 297Náprstek, J., 1007Navara, M., 45, 893Navrátil, C., 869Navrátil, J-, 475Navrátil, P., 909Navrátil, V., 91Nebojsa, A., 97, 587, 589Nedbal, I., 553

Nedoma, J., 17Nejedlý, Z., 959Němec, R., 285, 511Němec, V., 225Němeček, J., 857Němeček, S., 107, 109Neumann, J., 991Neustupa, J M 29Nikolič, L., 873Nováček, V., 1139Novák, J., 21, 609, 641Novák, M., 467, 515, 617Novák, R., 107, 109, 585Novák, V., 47Nováková, D., 107, 585Novotný, A., 753Novotný, B., 447, 503, 609, 1085Novotný, K., 767, 905Novotný, M., 615Nový, R., 359, 953Nožička, J., 309,315, 347

Obrátil, M., 339Obrazová, II., 917Obrtlík, K., 563Ohlídal, I., 843Ohlídal, M., S43Oliva, V., 555Ondrůšek, C , G49Osmerá, P., 673, 963

Pacal, B., 565, 567Paclík, P., 185Pačesová, H.,1117Paduch, M., 113, 115Pajdla,T., 173, 179Palatka, P., 165Papánková, G., 565Papež, V., 151, 633Papežík, M., 223Papežova, S., 901Parízek, A., 901Pasta, J., 903Patočka, M., 673Patzák, B., 425Pavel, J., 107, 109Pavelka, J., 651, 661, 1139

1151

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

Pavelka, K., 195Pavelková, D., 1103, 1139Pavlík, M., 1061Pavlínek, V., 343Pech, Z., 187Pechač, P., 759, 767Peka, P., 121Pekárek, S., 101, 127Pekar, M., 149Pelantová, E.} 43Peringer, P., 203Pernikář, J., 1057Peršin, M. S., 831Pertold, J., 247, 513Pešek, I., 83Peška, L., 675, 677, 679, 681, 683Petr, J., 671Petráček, J., 823, 855Petráš, F., 823Petrová, R., 215Petrovičová, B., 911Petrtýl,M., 911Petruška, J., 457Pina, L., 347Pipková, B., 1089Pisa, P., 177Písek, M., 1109Píštěk, A., 505Pivoňka, P., 139Plánka, L., 731Plocek, J., 87Pluháček, A., 245Podlešák, J., 729Podolka, L., 489, 1017Podrábský, T., 567, 569Pochylý, R, 349Pokluda, J., 91,93, 561Pokorný, J., 641Pokorný, M., 747Polách, S., 1071Polák, J., 5G3Polák, M., 1133Polášek, J., 299Pollák, P., 725Pondělíček, B., 39Ponížil, P., 93Pospíchal, Z., 1077

Pospíšil, J., 703, 981Pospíšil, M., 147Pospíšil, S., 73Pospíšil, S., 69, 71, 75, 123, 1065Potůček, Z., 121Prax, P., 963Pražák, D., 843Preclík, V., 985Procházka, I., 105, 753, 817, 831, 859,

903Procházka, J., 247Procházka, J., 483, 729Procházku, P., 427, 429, 445, 1007Prokeš, A., 857Prokeš, F., 299Pry!, K., 941Přeučil, L., 167, 169Přeučil, M., 991Přibyl, J., 235Přikryl, P., 145, 269, 271Ptáček, L., 535, 547Pták. P., 45Pultar, M., 247Pumě, D., 1013, 1015

Quadrat, 0., 343

Rábová, Z., 203Rázek, V., 1053Reinisch, M., 571Renda, M., 729Rieger, F.,329Ríchta, K.,241Richter, 1., 827Richter, M., 711,843Ripka, P., 745, 909Rolim, J., 273Rosenkranz, JM 101, 127Rott, J., 849Rozložník, M., 21Roztočil, J., 747Rudolf, J., 715Rukl, M., 285Ruller, T., 983Rus, B.» 847Růžička, M., 541Růžička, P., 893

1152

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

Růžičková, H., 17Ryndová, A., 965Rypl, D., 419Ryšavá, H., 929Rytíř, V., 1139

Řeřicha, P., 623ílíčný, V., 731

Sadovsky, Z., 1133Sáhá, P., 343, U03Salyk, O., 139Samek, O., 859Sasko, J., 543Satrapa, L., 933Scibilia, M. R, 307Seborský, S., 655Sedláček, M., 739Sedlák, J., 995Sedlář, J., 265Seidl, L., 755Sekanina, B., 451Servít, M., 229, 245Schmeidler, K., 971Schmidt, J., 229Schröfel, J., 829Schurerová, E., 77Siegl, J., 553Sichrovský, P., 885Silber, R., 147Simandl, P., 873Skalický, J., 657Sklenák, S., 141, 143Sklenář, J., 947Sklenář, P., 353, 937Sklenka, li., 1067Skokan, J., 21Skořepova, J., 917Skrbek, B.,563Skrbek, M., 291, 295Skvan, V., 1135Slabý, P., 975, 1083, 1085Sládek, B., 697Sládek, I., 19Slámová, I., 35Slanina, Z., 213Slavik, O., 939

Smékal, Z., 707Šmolka, P., 333Smutná, J„ 523, 545, 597Smutný, V., 177Sobolík, V., 313Sochor, M„ 541, 913Sokol, Z., 513Sopko, B., 105, 107, 109, 123, 151, 831Souček, L., 321Souček, P., 1043Soukup, F„ 731Soukup, P., 197Soukup, V„ 217Sovka, P., 725Spousta, J., 97, 99, 589Spurný, F., 881Staněk, Z., 111Staňková, E., 995Starý, I., 187Starý, V., 549, 579Steidl.J.,577Steinberg, S., 27Stejskal, V., 893Straka, T., 689Strakoš, Z„ 21Streiblová, J., 911Strašák, P., 335Stříbrský, A., 189Studnička, J., 519Stupka, L., 107, 109Styblíková, R., 687Stýblo, M., 21Suchánek, J., 915Sutner, O., 507, 617Svačina, J., 733Svčcený, R„ 285Svoboda, J., 727Svoboda, P., 299Svoboda, T., 179Synáčkova, M., 1135

Šafář, M., 213Šafařík, P., 307, 315Šálek, J., 927, 931Saloun, P., 281Salplachtová, E., 263Sandera, P., 91, 93

1153

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

Sanovec, J., 1037, 1039Sarboch, J M 311Sašinka, 0., 1125Sebesta, VM 705Sejba, T., 1069Sejnoha, J., 427, 429, 1007, 1009Senk, J., 137Šenkýř, I., 971Šesták, J., 335Síba, J., 469Sikola, T., 97, 99, 587, 589Simák, B., 727Simek, Z.t 131Simonik, IM 673, 963.Simůnek, M , 687Sinor, M., 81Sítina, P., 729Skabrada, J., 989Skabrahová, D., 17Skoda, P., 599Slais, K., 153Šlapal, J., 51Šmarda, V., 605Smejkal, J M 1.011Snorek, M., 243, 291, 297Soch, M., 289Sole, F., 711Spaniel, M., 509, 541Spinka, J., 837Šrámek, B., 901Srytr, P., 947, 1137Stamberg, K., 939Šťastný, B., 947Šťastný, J., 107, 109Stědroň, M., 107, 109Štědrý, F., 979Stefka, J., 589Stekl, I., 69Štěpánek, P., 319Štěpánek, R., 265Stěpaník, J., 971,979Štěpánková, O., 163, 167, 169Stěpková, D., 59Štětina, J., 593Šťovíček, P., 43Sulc, J., 349Sustrová, L., 949

Suta, D., 897Svábenský, O., 731Svajda, M., 865, 377Švec, M., 731Švejcar, J., 529, 537, 545, 563, 569, 597

Takács, M., 319Talácko, J., 1041Tawadrous, M., 753Tax, P., 177Tayari, J., S83Teplý, J., 155Terzijski, I., 613Tesař, V., 305, 311,319Tesner, L., 1045Tichý, J., 901Tlustý, J M 699Togelová, K., 645Togni, M., 645Tocháček, M., 441,507Tolar, J. t 43Toman, J., 631Tománek, P., 839Tomaszewski, K., 113, 115Tomáško, J., 635Tomek, K., 1133Tomiak, Z., 123Toužín, J., 133Trdlička, J.,231,273Trlica, J., 343Trojan, S., 901Trtík, K., 483Trunec, M., 345, 571Tuček, K., 1065Tůma, J., 691Tůma, L., 99Tůma, M., 21Tušla, P., 77Tutko.M., 769Tvrdík, P., 231, 273Tykal, M., S43

Uhdeová, N.} 839Uhlíř, I., 901Uhlíř, J,, 725Urban, M., 117Urbánek, J., 1055

1154

WORKSHOP 9G INDEX

Urbasková, H., 993Ustohal, V., 547, 599

Vacek, J., 443Vacek, V., 63Vačkář, J., 1057Valášek, M., 467Valáškova, L., 723Valenta, F., 541Valenta, M., 277Valenta, P., 711, 843Valenta, R., 915Válka, L., 565Vandrovec, P., 239Vaněk, T., 489Vaniček, 1., 951Vaničková, M., 107, 109Vaňková, M., 965Vasut, S., 965Vébr, LM 1083, 1089, 1091Vechct, S., 563Vejražka, R, 755, 757Veljinová, V., 1139Verbürg, T., 955Věříš, J., 749, 1097Veselá, E., 77Veselka, F., 649Veselka, T., 689Veselý, M., 133, 141Veselý, V., 1125Vespalec, R., 131Veverka, B., 197Videcká, Z., 1057Višinka, R., 673Vitásek, J., 731Vítek, J. L., 481, 483, 491, 493, 497Vítek, K., 509Vítek, P., 497, 721Vlach, B., 565, 571,575, 597Vlček, J., 917, 1131Vlček, M., 185Vlček, T., 163, 167, 169Vobecký, J., 881Vobecký, M., 73, 75VodsIoň.J.,337Vojtkuláková, Z., 525, 537, 567Vokurka, J., 907

Volf, J., 917, 1083, 1085Voltr, J., 959Vondrová, R., 911Vondřich, J., 463Vopálka, D., 939Voráček, X, 889Vorlíček, M., 1001, 1015Voženílek, P., 661Vráblík, A., 1139Vratislav, S., 119, 627Vrba, J., 905, 907Vrba, K., 717Vrba, R., 867Vrbová, M-, 67Vrto, I., 273Vtípil, J., 913Vyčítal, J., 341Vyskočil, L., 107Vyskočil, S., 109Vytlačil, D., 499

W. Benz, K., 635Wald, F., 247, 513Wasserbauer, V., 21Weigel, J., 731Wendroff, B., 25Werner, T., 171Wcstman, E., 443Wilfert, O., 857Winklerova, B., 1105Wohlgemuth, J., 613Wohimuth, F., 669Wohlmuthová, A., 911Wolterbeek, II., 955

Zahradník, P., 185Zahumenský, E., 1031Záleský, J., 951Zális, K., 693Zapletal, J., 49Zápotočný, J., 755Záruba, J., 1017Zbořil, F., 223Zdražil, V., 683Zehentner, J., 761Zeithammerova, J., 945Zeman, A., 83

1155

WORKSHOP 96 INDEX

Zeman, J., 1065 Zolotarev, I., 461Zeman, T., 727 Zralý, M., 1107Zeman, V., 717 Zykan, P., 943, 1135Zemánek, P., 255 Zykan, P., 945Zemánkova, A., 1093 Zýma, J., 1061Zemánkova, H., 997Zemcik, LM 547 Žabičková, I., 987Zemčík, P., 265 Žáček, J., 655Zikmund, T., 185 Žácck, K., 875Zima, P., 315 Žáček, M., 127Zimola, B., 1139 Žára, J-, 253, 279Zítek, P., 215 Ženíšek, A., 17Zlámal, P., 741 Žitný, R., 335Zlatník, C , 37

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