Technical Report Writing

Technical Report Writing Chemical Engineering Department

Dr. Moustapha Salem Mansour

First year Spring 2009

Table of contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................................. 1

1.1. Types of Technical Reports ............................................................... 2

1.1.1. Technical-background report ...................................................... 2

1.1.2. Instructions .................................................................................. 2

1.1.3. Feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports ................. 2

1.1.4. Primary research report ............................................................... 2

1.1.5. Technical specifications .............................................................. 3

1.1.6. Report-length proposal ................................................................ 3

1.1.7. Business proposed ....................................................................... 3

1.2. Audience and Situation in Technical Reports .................................... 3

1.3. Topics for Technical Reports ............................................................. 4

1.3.1. Editorializing ............................................................................... 4

1.3.2. Fuzzy topics................................................................................. 4

1.3.3. Tough technical topics ................................................................ 4

1.4. General Characteristics of Technical Reports .................................... 4

1.4.1. Graphics ...................................................................................... 4

1.4.2. Accurate detail............................................................................. 4

1.4.3. Information sources ..................................................................... 4

1.4.4. Documentation ............................................................................ 5

1.4.5. Realistic audience and situation .................................................. 5

1.4.6. Headings and lists ....................................................................... 5

1.4.7. Special format ............................................................................. 5

1.4.8. Production ................................................................................... 5

1.4.9. Length .......................................................................................... 5

1.4.10. Technical content ...................................................................... 5

2. Visual Elements ...................................................................................... 6

2.1. Making a visual aid truly visual ......................................................... 6

2.2. Deciding when to use a visual aid ...................................................... 7

2.3. Selecting the best type of visual aid in a given situation ................... 7

2.3.1. Conventions of Visual Perception ............................................... 8

2.3.2. Some types of visual aids and their uses ..................................... 8

2.4. Designing the visual aid ................................................................... 14

2.4.1. Making a visual aid relevant ..................................................... 14

2.4.2. Making a visual aid clear .......................................................... 16

2.5. Integrating the Visual Aid into the Test ........................................... 18

2.5.1. Positioning ................................................................................. 18

2.5.2. Printing ...................................................................................... 19

2.6. Formatting Contentions that Make Reading Easier ......................... 19

3. The technical Report ............................................................................. 22

3.1. Types of Reports .............................................................................. 22

3.2. Organization of reports .................................................................... 24

3.2.1. Organization of a design report ................................................. 24

3.3. Preparing the report .......................................................................... 27

3.4. Presenting the results ........................................................................ 27

3.4.1. Subheadings and Paragraphs ..................................................... 28

3.4.2. Tables ........................................................................................ 28

3.4.3. Graphs ....................................................................................... 28

3.4.4. Illustrations ................................................................................ 29

3.4.5. References to Literature ............................................................ 29

3.4.6. Sample Calculations .................................................................. 30

3.4.7. Mechanical Details .................................................................... 31

4. Oral Presentations ................................................................................. 32

4.1. Topic and Situation for the Oral Presentation .................................. 32

4.2. Contents and Requirements for the Oral Presentation ..................... 33

4.3. Preparing for the Oral Report ........................................................... 34

4.4. Delivering an Oral Presentation ....................................................... 34

4.5. Planning and Preparing Visuals for Oral Presentations ................... 35

4.5.1. Tips for the preparation off the visuals ..................................... 36

5. Making Your Writing Readable ............................................................ 37

5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 37

5.2. Information selection ....................................................................... 37

5.2.1. Establish your Topic and Purpose ............................................. 37

5.2.2. Use Keywords Prominently ...................................................... 38

5.2.3. Explain Important Concepts when Writing for Nonspecialist

Readers ................................................................................................ 38

5.2.4. Use Standard Terminology when Writing for Specialist

Readers ............................................................................................... 39

5.2.5. Structure your Text to Emphasize Important Information ........ 40

5.2.6. Construct Well Designed Paragraphs ....................................... 40

5.2.7. Field-Test Your Writing ............................................................ 41

5.3. Information ordering ........................................................................ 41

5.3.1. Optimal Ordering of Noun Phrases ........................................... 42

5.4. Editing For Emphasis ....................................................................... 45

5.4.1. Combine Closely Related Sentences ......................................... 46

5.4.2. Be Concise ................................................................................. 49

6. Project Proposal .................................................................................... 52

6.1. The contents of project proposal can be structured as follows: ....... 52

6.2. NATURE OF THE REPORTS: ....................................................... 52

6.3. Technical-industrial project proposals: ............................................ 53

7. Checklist for the Technical Report ....................................................... 54

Technical Reports Writing (HS x12) First year Chemical Engineering Department

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1. INTRODUCTION

The major focus of many technical writing courses is the technical report. Just about

everything you study, everything you write is geared toward preparing you to write this final report.

The early, short assignment involving instructions or descriptions and the like give you practice

using headings, lists, notices, and graphics; in handling numbers and abbreviations; and of course in

producing good, clear, well-organized writing.

For many students, the technical report is the longest document they've ever written. It

normally involves some research; often the information comes not only from published sources in

the library, but also sources outside the library, including nonpublished things such as interviews,

correspondence, and video tapes. It may also be the fanciest document: it uses binding and covers

and has special elements such as a table contents, title page, and graphics.

As you think about what you want to write about for this project, don't shy away from topics

you are curious about or interested in, but don't know much about. You don't need to do exhaustive

research; normally, you can pull together information for an excellent report from several books and

a half-dozen articles. Your real focus is the writing: how well adapted to a specific audience it is,

how clear and readable it is, how it flows, how it's organized, how much detail it provides. You are

also focused on format: how well you use headings, lists, notices; how well you incorporate

graphics; how well you handle the front- and back-matter elements; and how nice a job you do of

turning out the final copy of the report.

You don't need to be a trained graphic designer to produce a fine-looking report. Basic

word-processing skills and a decent printer and access to nice (but inexpensive) binding are all you

need. Plan on doing a first-rate job on the report; remember that past students have shown

prospective employers their reports and have benefited by doing so.

If you are planning a technical report, your job in this unit then is define the following:

Report topic: Decide what subject you are going to write on; narrow it as much as possible.

Report audience: Define a specific person or group of people for whom you are going to

write the report. Define the circumstances in which this report is needed.

Report purpose: Define what the report will accomplish—what needs of the audience it is

going to fufill.

Report type: Decide on the type of report—for example, technical background report,

feasibility report, instructions, or some other.

You can do these in any order: for some people, it helps to start by defining an audience or a report

type first. For others, beginning by picking a topic is more stimulating.

Once you have defined these elements, you can start testing your report-project ideas by asking

yourself these questions:

Is there hard, specific, factual data for this topic?

Will there be at least one or two graphics?

Is there some realistic need for this report?


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1.1. Types of Technical Reports

In this course you can choose to write one of the following types of reports

1.1.1. Technical-background report

The background report is the hardest to define but the most commonly written. This type of

technical report provides background on a topic—for example, solar energy, global warming, CD-

ROM technology, a medical problem, or U.S. recycling activity. However, the information on the

topic is not just for anybody who might be interested in the topic, but for some individual or group

that has specific needs for it and is even willing to pay for that information. For example, imagine

an engineering firm bidding on a portion of the work to build a hemodialysis clinic. The engineers

need to know general knowledge about renal disease and the technologies used to treat it, but they

don't want to have to go digging in the library to find it. What they need is a technical background

report on the subject.

1.1.2. Instructions

These are probably the most familiar of all the types of reports. Students often write backup

procedures for the jobs they do at their work. Others write short user manuals for an appliance,

equipment, or program. If there is too much to write about, they write about some smaller

segment—for example, instead of instructions on using all of MS-Word, just a guide on writing

macros in MS-Word.

1.1.3. Feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports

Another useful type of report is one that studies a problem or opportunity and then makes a

recommendation. A feasibility report tells whether a project is "feasible"—that is, whether it is

practical and technologically possible. A recommendation report compares two or more alternatives

and recommends one (or, if necessary, none). An evaluation or assessment report studies something

in terms of its worth or value For example, a college might investigate the feasibility of giving

every student an e-mail address and putting many of the college functions online. The same college

might also seek recommendations on the best hardware and software to use (after the feasibility

report had determined it was a good idea). In practice, however, it's hard to keep these two kinds of

reports distinct. Elements of the feasibility and recommendation report intermingle in specific

reports—but the main thing is to get the job done!

1.1.4. Primary research report

Primary research refers to the actual work someone does in a laboratory or in the field—in other

words, experiments and surveys. You may have written a "lab report," as they are commonly called,

for one of your previous courses. This is a perfectly good possibility for the technical report as well.

In this type of report, you not only present your data and draw conclusions about it, but also explain

your methodology, describe the equipment and facilities you used, and give some background on

the problem. You can modify this type by summarizing other primary research reports. For

example, you could report on the research that has been done on saccharine.


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1.1.5. Technical specifications

In this report type, you discuss some new product design in terms of its construction, materials,

functions, features, operation, and market potential. True specifications are not much on writing -

the text is dense, fragmented; tables, lists, and graphics replace regular sentences and paragraphs

whenever possible. Thus, specifications are not a good exercise of your writing abilities. However,

you can write a more high-level version - one that might be read by marketing and planning

executives.

1.1.6. Report-length proposal

As you may be aware, proposals can be monster documents of hundreds or even thousands of

pages. (Please, not this semester.) Most of the elements are the same, just bigger. Plus elements

from other kinds of reports get imported—such as feasibility discussion, review of literature, and

qualifications; these become much more elaborate. The problem with writing a proposal in our

technical-writing class is coordinating it with the proposal you write at the beginning of the

semester (a proposal to write a proposal, come on!). Several students have set up scenarios in which

they proposed internally to write an external proposal, in which they went after some contract or

grant.

1.1.7. Business proposed

If you are ambitious to run your own business, you can write a business plan, which is a plan or

proposal to start a new business or to expand an existing one. It is aimed primarily at potential

investors. Therefore, it describes the proposed business, explores the marketplace and the

competition, projects revenues, and describes the operation and output of the proposed business.

Don't feel constrained by this list; if there is a type of technical document you want to write not

listed here, talk to your instructor. It may be that we are using different names for the same thing.

1.2. Audience and Situation in Technical Reports

A critical step in your early report planning is to define a specific audience and situation in which

to write the report. For example, if you wanted to write about CD audio players, the audience

cannot be this vague sort of "anybody who is considering purchasing a CD player." You have to

define the audience in terms of its knowledge, background, and need for the information.

Why does the audience need this information?

How will readers get access to this information?

You also have to define the audience in terms of who they are specifically: that means things like

names, organization or company, street address and phone numbers, and occupation or position.

Just as critical to the planning process is defining the situation. When you define audience, you

define who the readers are, what they know or don't know in relation to the topic, what experience

or background they have in relation to the topic, and why they want or might need the information.

Sometimes this leaves out a critical element: just what are the circumstances that bring about the

need for the information.


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1.3. Topics for Technical Reports

Just about any topic can be worked into a good technical-report project. Some are a little more

difficult than others; that's where your instructor can help. And, that is why some technical writing

course includes a proposal assignment: it gives your instructor a chance to see what you want to do

and to guide you away from problems such as the following:

1.3.1. Editorializing

For the report project, avoid editorial topics. For example, don't attempt to write a technical report

on the pro's and con's of gun control, abortion, marijuana, and the like. You can, however, develop

these topics: for example, describe the chemical, physiological aspects of marijuana or the medical

techniques for abortion or the developmental stages of the fetus. These get into substantial technical

areas. But avoid editorializing—there are other courses where you can do this.

1.3.2. Fuzzy topics

Some topics just don't work, for some reason. For example, dream analysis can be very fuzzy and

nebulous. So can UFOs. You want your report to have hard factual data in it. The preceding topics

are difficult to pin down this way. However, good reports have been written on the apparatus used

in dream research laboratories. Maybe somebody can even figure out a good way to handle UFOs.

1.3.3. Tough technical topics

As mentioned earlier, don't shy away from interesting topics that you don't feel you know enough

about. No one expects a doctoral thesis. Use the report project as a chance to learn something new.

Of course, it's common sense that we often write better about things we know about. If this is a

concern for you, look around you in your work, hobbies, or academic studies. At the same time,

however, don't be concerned that your has to be about computers, electronics, or some other

"technical" topic. Remember that the word technical refers to anybody of specialized knowledge.

1.4. General Characteristics of Technical Reports

You're probably wondering what this technical report is supposed to look like. Ask your instructor

to show you a few example reports. In addition to that, here is a brief review of some of the chief

characteristics of the technical report:

1.4.1. Graphics

The report should have graphics. Graphics include all kinds of possibilities, as a later chapter in this

book will show. If you can't think of any graphics for your report project, you may not have a good

topic. Get in touch with your instructor, who can help you brainstorm for graphics.

1.4.2. Accurate detail

The report should be very detailed and accurate. The point of the report is to go into details, the

kind of details your specific audience needs.

1.4.3. Information sources

Your report should make use of information sources. These may include not only books and articles

that can be found in libraries but also technical brochures, interviews or correspondence with

experts, as well as first-hand inspections. If you don't believe any information sources are necessary

for your report project, contact your instructor.


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1.4.4. Documentation

When you use borrowed information in your technical report, be sure to cite your sources. The

style of citing your sources (also called "documenting" your sources). One style commonly used in

science and engineering is called the number system.

1.4.5. Realistic audience and situation

The report must be defined for a real or realistic group of readers who exist in a real or realistic

situation. Most students invent an audience and situation. And the audience can't merely be

something like "anybody who might be interested in global warming." Instead, it has to be real,

realistic, and specific: for example, "Texas Coastal Real Estate Developers Association, interested

in reliable information on global warming, to be used to aid in long-range investment planning."

1.4.6. Headings and lists

The report should use the format for headings that is required for the course, as well as various

kinds of lists as appropriate.

1.4.7. Special format

The technical report uses a rather involved format including covers, binding, title page, table of

contents, list of figures, transmittal letter, and appendixes. These have to be prepared according to a

set standard, which will be presented in a later chapter.

1.4.8. Production

The technical report should be typed or printed out neatly. If graphics are taped in, the whole report

must be photocopied, and the photocopy handed in (not the original with the taped-in graphics). The

report must be bound in some way.

1.4.9. Length

The report should be at least 8 1.5 spaced typed or printed pages (using 3/4 -inch margins),

counting from introduction to conclusion. This is a minimum; a report of this length is rather

skimpy. There is no real maximum length, other than what your time, energy, and stamina can

handle. But remember that sheer weight does not equal quality (or better grade). If you get into a

bind with a report project that would take too many pages, contact your instructor—there are

numerous tricks we can use to cut it down to size.

1.4.10. Technical content

You must design your report project in such a way that your poor technical-writing instructor has a

chance to understand it - in other words, you must write for the nonspecialist. Also, at some point,

you may get concerned about the technical accuracy of your information. Remember that this is a

writing course, not a course in engineering, nursing, science, electronics, or the like. Make a good-

faith effort to get the facts right, but don't go overboard.


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2. Visual Elements

There are times when words alone are not the best way to transfer information or points of view.

Also, sometimes words need to be combined with visual aids, formatting (the use of white space

and indenting), or other visual elements. For example, appropriate formatting can make a technical

report much easier to read, so much easier that the formatting becomes necessary given the

limitations on the time and attention of an audience. The same can often be said of other visual

elements, such as drawings, figures, charts, or graphs, which can quickly summarize an important

point or present it in a different way.

It is known that you can increase the strength and memorability of a message simply by repeating it

or, even better, by repeating it in a different form. Thus, when a visual presentation is added to a

verbal one, the combination can produce a much stronger and more easily remembered message

than either presentation alone. Further, a visual aid can present a compact summary of the main

points of a verbal text. (Have you ever heard the expression "a picture is worth a thousand words"?)

Finally, a visual element can often summarize in a more memorable form than words alone can.

Given these advantages of visual aids, a communicator ought to be able to use them effectively.

This involves knowing

1. How to make a visual aid effective

2. When to use the visual aid

3. How to select the best type of visual element in a given situation (e.g., pie chart, bar graph,

line graph)

4. How to integrate the visual aid into the text

2.1. Making a visual aid truly visual

Take about 2 to 5 seconds to look at Table 2-1 and then cover it up. Do not look at any of the

following tables or discussions. Now try to write .down the main points made by the table. When

you have finished this, look at the presentation of the same information in Table 2-2 and see if you

can quickly add any more main points to your list. Do this before you continue.

Typically, people who read only Table 2-1 note (1) that job satisfaction declines in each of the two

main groups of occupations. These readers will sometimes notice (2) that there is a large difference

in job satisfaction between the two groups-that is, that most of the first group is relatively satisfied

(93 to 82 percent satisfied) whereas most of the second group is much less satisfied (only 52 to 16

percent satisfied). Very few readers of only Table 2-1 will notice (3) that the job satisfaction of

skilled printers is higher than that of nonprofessional white-collar workers. These last two

observations (points 2 and 3) are very hard to "see" in the format used in Table 2-1.

In contrast, most readers of Table 2-2 easily and quickly note all three observations, as well as a few

other, more subtle ones, simply because of the format of the table. Notice that Table 2-2 makes it

visually quite clear that the job satisfaction ratings of the two groups overlap and that the skilled

trade and factory workers as a group are less satisfied than the professionals.


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Table 2-1 Proportion of occupational groups who would choose similar work again

Professional occupation percent skilled trades occupations percent

Ubran university professors 93 Skilled printers 52

Mathematicians 91 Paper workers 42

Physicists 89 Skilled auto workers 41

Biologists 89 Skilled steel workers 40

Chemists 86 Textile workers 31

Lawyers 85 Unskilled steel workers 31

School superintendents 84 Unskilled steel workers 21

Journalists 82

White-collar workers 43

Table 2-2 Alternate arrangement for proportion of occupational groups who would choose similar work

again

Professional occupation percent

Ubran university professors 93

Mathematicians 91

Physicists 89

Biologists 89

Chemists 86

Lawyers 85

School superintendents 84

Journalists 82

White-collar workers 43

skilled trades occupations percent

Skilled printers 52

Paper workers 42

Skilled auto workers 41

Skilled steel workers 40

Textile workers 31

Unskilled steel workers 31

Unskilled steel workers 21

2.2. Deciding when to use a visual aid

Communicators often wonder when they should use a visual aid in a communication. Three

suggested principles for deciding this are to use a visual aid

1. Where words alone would be either impossible or quite inefficient for describing a concept

or an object

2. Where a visual aid is needed to underscore an important point, especially a summary

3. Where a visual element is conventionally or easily used to present data

2.3. Selecting the best type of visual aid in a given situation

When you design a particular visual aid, you are consciously or unconsciously making

certain decisions. You are deciding-that the particular type of aid yon choose (a line graph,

bar chart, pie diagram, and photograph) is the best type to make your point and that the

arrangement and highlighting of material on the page is, again, the best to make your point.

Unfortunately, there is little information available on which to base such decisions. If you


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are like most writers, you probably choose one type of visual aid over another simply

because it is the first thing you think of using.

The purpose of this section is to sketch out some better or more conscious reasons for

choosing. The section will first identify some conventions of visual perception and then

examine several common types of visual -aids to see what they do and do not show well.

2.3.1. Conventions of Visual Perception

There are a number of general statements we can make about our expectations of visual

information. First, we expect written things to proceed from left to right. Note that in scientific and

technical graphs, we place the independent variable on the x-axis so that the more important

variable moves from left to right. For instance, we plot time on the x-axis and frequency on the y-

axis, as illustrated in Figure 2-1. This pattern is so universal that Figure 2-2 looks at best odd and at

worst disturbing.

Figure 2-1 Preferred location of independent

variable on a graph

Figure 2-2 Unconventional location of

independent variable on a graph

Second, we expect things to proceed from top to bottom, and, third, we expect things in the center

to be more important than things on the periphery. Fourth, we expect things in the foreground to be

more important than things in the background; fifth, large things to be more important than small

things; and sixth, thick things to be more important than thin things. Note that writing that, is larger,

thicker, or bolder than the surrounding type is usually more important: a heading, a title, or an

especially important word in a passage. Seventh, we expect areas containing a lot of activity and

information to contain the most important information. Eighth, we expect that things having the

same size, shape, location, or color are somehow related to each other. Lastly, ninth, we see things

as standing out if they contrast with their surroundings because of line thickness, type face, or color.

2.3.2. Some types of visual aids and their uses

There are six main types of visual aids with which a scientist or engineer should be familiar: (1) line

graphs, (2) bar graphs, (3) pie charts, (4) tables, (5) photographs, and (6) line drawings. Each of

these types has particular strengths and weaknesses, and to use any one appropriately, you must

decide what point you are trying to make and then select the type of visual aid which makes that

kind of point well.


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LINEGRAPHS

Line graphs, show well continuity and direction as opposed to individual or discrete points,

direction as opposed to volume, and the importance of a nodal point, if there is one. These

characteristics are illustrated in Figure2-3. Line graphs do not show well them importance of one

particular point which falls of a node, the relationship of many lines, or the inter section of three or

more lines, lf its important to be able to trace each line on a graph, you should probably not put

more than three or four on a single graph, especially if they intersect frequently, or you may

produce a graph as hard to follow as the one in Figure 2-4.

Figure 2-3 River flow before (1963) and

after (1977) construction of Aswan High

Dam on the Nile River

Figure 2-4 Reference of families for girls

versus boys in six countries

BAR GRAPHS

Bar graphs show relatively well the discreteness or separateness of points as opposed to their

continuity, volume as opposed to direction, the relationships among more than three or four items at

a time, the contrast between large and small numbers, and the similarities and differences between

similar numbers. These characteristics are evident in the variant of the bar graph presented in Figure

2-5 and in Figure 2-6. Bar graphs can be arranged with either horizontal (Figure 2-5) or vertical

bars (Figure 2-6), depending on the type of information they represent. The bars are normally

separated by spaces.

Figure 2-5 Bar Chart Showing annual energy saving


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Figure 2-6 Vertical bar chart

HISTOGRAMS

A histogram looks like a bar chart, but functionally it is similar to a graph because it deals

with two continuous variables (functions that can be shown on a scale' to be decreasing or

increasing). It is usually plotted like a bar chart, as shown in Figure 2-7. The chief visible

difference between a histogram and a bar chart is that there are no spaces between the bars

of a histogram.

Figure 2-6 Histogram for failure records

SURFACE CAHRTS

A surface chart is shown in Figure 2-8. It may look like a graph, but it is not. To a technical person

its' construction may seem so awkward that he might wonder when he would ever need to use one.

Yet as a means for conveying Illustrative information to non technical readers, it can serve a very

useful purpose.


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Figure 2-8 Surface chart adds thermal data to hydro data to show total energy resources

Like a graph, a surface chart has two continuous variables that form the scales against which the

curves are plotted. But unlike a graph, individual curves cannot be read directly from the scales.

The uppermost curve is achieved as follows:

1. The curve containing the most import-ant or largest quantity of data is drawn first, in the

normal way. This is the Hydro curve in Figure 2-8.

2. The next curve is drawn in above the first curve, using the first curve as a base (i.e. zero)

and adding the second set of data to it. For example, the energy resources shown as being

available in 1980 are:

Hydro 15,000 MW

Thermal 7,000 MW

In Figure 2-8, the lower curve for 1980 is plotted at 15,000 MW. The 1980 data for the next curve is

7,000 MW, which is added to the first set of data so that the second curve indicates a total of 22,000

MW. (If there is a third set of data, it is added on in the same way).

PIE DIAGRAMS

Pie diagrams show relatively well the relationship among three or four items which total 100

percent, the contrast between large and small percentages, and the similarities between relatively

similar percentage (they show that well that 27 percent and 29 percent are about equal). Pie

diagrams do not show well the small differences between two similar percentages (you can not

usually see the differences between 27 and 29 percent).

They also do not show well absolute values (unless you label the parts of the pie) or the relationship

among more than five or six parts; with too many parts it is hard to see relationships of part to part

and part to whole. These strengths and weakness is illustrated in figure 2-9.


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Figure 2-9 Distribution of fatalities in 181 fatal car-truck crashers

TABLES

Tables are convenient for presenting lots of data and for giving absolute values where precision is

very important. However, since they present items one at a time in columns, they emphasize the

discrete rather than the continuous and make it very difficult to show trends or direction in. the data.

Tables are not predominantly visual: the reader's mind must translate each number into a

relationship with each other number, as already described in the job satisfaction example at the

beginning of this chapter. Thus, for maximum visual impact, tables should probably be a last choice

as a visual aid and used only when it is important to provide a great deal of information with

precision in a very small space.

PHOTOGRAPHS

Photographs are useful when you do not have the time, the money, or the expertise to produce a

complicated line drawing; when you are trying to produce immediate visual recognition of an item;

when you are emphasizing the item's external appearance (as opposed to its internal structure or a

cross section); and when you are not concerned with eliminating the abundant detail a photograph

provides. While photographs can be air-brushed to eliminate some undesired detail, they still are not

preferred when you need to focus on some one aspect by eliminating a lot of detail and when you

have the time and resources to produce a good line drawing.

LINE DRAWINGS

The term line drawing includes several types of drawings which focus on external appearance,

physical shape, function, or relationship. These include "simplified photos," maps (see Figure 2-

10), anatomical drawings, parts charts, and drawings of models (such as atomic or molecular

models as seen in Figure 2-11) or objects from any field of science or engineering. Also included

are flow charts, organizational charts, schematic charts, block diagrams, as seen in Figure 2-12,

architectural plans, and blueprints. While there are many types of line drawings, all of them share

certain functions. They allow you to show things which you can't normally see in a photograph

because of size, location, or excessive detail. They also allow you to easily highlight a particular

shape, part, or function.


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Figure 2-10 map Showing UK Standard regions Figure 2-11 Model for polyethylene

Figure 2-12 flow diagrams for programming sequence


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2.4. Designing the visual aid

Once you have decided .where a visual aid is needed and what type it should be, you must design it

so that it is as relevant, clear, and truthful as possible. This will usually be at least a two-stage

process: designing a rough copy and then producing the finished COPY, If you work for a company

which has an art or illustration department you may be able to get a technical illustrator to produce

the finished copy for you and to counsel you in the design stage. However, even if you have such

help, you should be the real designer of the visual aid: you have the best knowledge of the subject

and best know the purpose of the aid and the context in which it is being used.

2.4.1. Making a visual aid relevant

Since you place a visual aid in a text to make a point, you should be sure that it makes the point

you intend. For instance, suppose that you are discussing expected energy saving from the use of

solar energy in the future. You have posed three possible sources of the savings-residences, total

energy systems such as industrial parks and shopping centers, and solar-based electric power plants-

and have broken down the specific savings as illustrated in Table 2-3.

Table 2-3 Expected annual saving from solar energy

Annual Savings (1015

Btu)

Year Residences Total energy

systems

Solar-based electric

power plants

1985 0.4 0.24 -

1990 1.2 0.92 1.4

1995 1.9 1.9 53

Now that you have your data, you want to construct a visual aid to show the growth in savings and

the relative contributions of each source. You construct five possible versions of a visual aid,

presented in Figures 2-13 through 2-17, and now have to choose the one most appropriate to your

point. On what basis do you choose? What are the differences among the five visual aids?

Figure 2-13 Annual energy savings from solar energy, version I


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Figure 2-14 Annual energy savings from solar energy, version 2




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First let us consider the bar graphs. Among the bar graphs, Figure 2-13 presents the most

information in the smallest space and the clearest vision of total growth; however, in comparison to

the other charts, it obscures the comparisons between items in the same year and between the same

item in different years. Figure 2-14 obscures the total growth but makes the comparisons already

mentioned much clearer, especially between the same item in different years. On the other hand,

Figure 2-15 clarifies the comparison between items in the same year but obscures comparisons

between years. The line graphs in Figures 2-16 and2-17 have the same strengths and weaknesses as

their respective bar graph counterparts, but in addition they also bring out more strongly the idea of

direction and rate of change. So how do you choose one (or two) from among the group? You pick

the one which best matches the focus you wish to take in your report or talk.

If you are not much concerned about total growth but want to focus on the contribution of each area

for savings, then you would probably choose Figure2-14. If you are interested in the growth of the

contribution of each area, you would probably choose Figure 2-16. If you are primarily interested in

the increase in total savings, you would probably choose Figure 2-13 or 2-17.

2.4.2. Making a visual aid clear

Making a visual aid clear involves two separate activities: making it conceptually clear and making

it technically clear. Making it conceptually clear means having a clearly defined and relevant point

and a good form for the point. Conceptual clarity is discussed above. Technical clarity is a simpler

matter and will be treated here. It involves having an informative title, appropriate headings and

labels, and enough white space so that an audience has the best possible chance of finding the

"right" meaning for the visual aid.

To really see the benefit of proper labeling and sufficient white space, look at the series of graphs

presented in Figure 2-18. Graph (a) is an extremely bad example of a visual aid since it has none of

the labeling information usually presented. Graphs (b) and (c) present more information, but still

not enough to really get the message across. (Notice that graph c lacks enough information even

though it provides everything except the title and two critical labels.) Graph (d) provides an

adequate title and labels, but the grid in the background is so obtrusive that a reader can hardly see

the important lines and labels. Finally, graph (e) provides adequate information and enough white

space to let it be seen; from these, a careful and hardworking reader can probably figure out the


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message (you should note that version d is typical of most student reports, which are done quickly

checked mainly for accuracy rather than readability).

Figure 2-18 The necessity of labels, headings and titles in visual aids


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2.5. Integrating the Visual Aid into the Test

Once you have decided to use a visual aid in a particular spot in the text, you must incorporate it so

that it seems to belong there. The visual aid needs to be tied to the text and explained since it

appears in the text and make sense to readers. In addition, if the communicator does NOT EXPLAIN

the importance of the visual aid (its main point, limitations, assumptions and implications), then the

readers will have to provide these of information for themselves. As a general rule, when readers

are put in the position, they will -at least sometimes- see points or implications rein those the

communicator's wants them to see or perhaps even completely miss the communicator's point. The

easiest way to integrate a visual aid with the text is to explain its main points and any special

implications a reader should note.

2.5.1. Positioning

Try to always put the visual aid after you have mentioned it and not are reverse: in other words, do

not put a visual aid in a spot within the text. Before pointing out to it, for example do not put a

figure in the text, and then point to it. Note that all illustrations in the present notes are referred to

first, then they are inserted into the text.

You must not only refer to every illustration in a report, but a real effort must be made to keep the

illustration on the same page as the description it supports. This can become problem if the

description is long.

However, a reader who has to keep flipping back and forth between the text and illustrations will

soon tire, and the reason for including the illustrations will be defeated.

When reports are typed on only one side of the paper, full page illustrations can become an

embarrassment. Try to limit the size of the illustrations so they can be placed beside, above or

below the words, and lien to make sure that they are correctly placed. Horizontal full page

illustrations may be inserted sideways on a page (landscape), but must always be positioned so that

they are read from the right, see Figure 2-19. This holds true whether they are placed on a left- or

right-hand page.

Figure 2-19 Page-size horizontal drawings should be positioned so they can read from the right

When an illustration is too large to fit on a normal page, or is going to be referred to frequently, you

should consider printing it on a foldout sheet and inserting it at the back of the report. If the

illustration is printed only on the extension panels of the foldout, the page can be left opened out for

continual reference while the report is being read, see Figure 2-20. This technique is particularly

suitable for circuit diagrams, plant layouts and flow charts.


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Figure 2-20 large illustrations can be placed on a fold out sheet at rear of report

2.5.2. Printing

Always discuss printing methods with the person who will be making copies of your report before

you start making reproduction copy. Certain reproduction equipment cannot handle some sizes,

materials and colors. For example, heavy blacks and light blues may not reproduce well on some

electrostatic copiers, light browns cannot be copied by other types of equipment, and photographs

can be reproduced clearly by very few.

2.6. Formatting Contentions that Make Reading Easier

There are many features of technical writing that make it look different from most writing we see in

newspapers, books and personal letters. Look for instance at Figure 2-21, the beginning of a typical

engineering report. You will notice that its has some very interesting formatting features:

1. Single-spacing

2. Short paragraphs

3. Lists

4. Headings (underlined titles)

5. Numbers to mark the various paragraphs

6. Liberal use of white space

All of these features occur frequently in scientific and technical writing because they are

functional; single-spacing saves space, and the others make a text easier to read, especially for busy

and inattentive readers. Headings clearly announce the contents of a section so that, busy readers

can skip that section if they don't need details. Short paragraphs and white space make a report easy

on the eye, even though it may be single-spaced. The numbering, indentation and lists provide clues

to the organization of the report: they allow a reader to skip freely from section to section without

reading everything.


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Figure 2-21 Formatted version of discussion of technical report


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To get a good idea of how helpful these simple formatting considerations can be, look at the

unformatted version of the Discussion section of the report, presented in Figure 2-22. Do you agree

that it is much more difficult to read? Do you agree that formatting makes the version in Figure 2-

21 more functional, that is, easier to read and understand?

Figure 2-22 Unformatted version of discussion of figure 2-21


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3. THE TECHNICAL REPORT

A successful engineer must be able to apply theoretical and practical principles in the development

of ideas and methods and also have the ability to express the results clearly and convincingly.

During the course of a design project, the engineer must prepare many written reports which explain

what has been done and present conclusions and recommendations. The decision on the advisability

of continuing the project may be made on the basis of the material presented in the reports. The

value of the engineer‟s work is measured to a large extent by the results given in the written reports

covering the study and the manner in which these results are presented.

The essential purpose of any report is to pass on information to others. A good report writer never

forgets the words “to others.” The abilities, the functions, and the needs of the reader should be kept

in mind constantly during the preparation of any type of report. Here are some questions the writer

should ask before starting, while writing, and after finishing a report:

What is the purpose of this report?

Who will read it?

Why will they read it?

What is their function?

What technical level will they understand?

What background information do they have now? The answers to these questions indicate the type of information that should be presented, the

amount of detail required, and the most satisfactory method of presentation. 3.1. Types of Reports

Reports can be designated as formal and irtfortrrul. Formal reports are often encountered as

research, development, or design reports. They present the results in considerable detail, and the

writer is allowed much leeway in choosing the type of presentation. Informal reports include

memorandums, letters, progress notes, survey-type results, and similar items in which the major

purpose is to present a result without including detailed information. Stereotyped forms are often

used for informal reports, such as those for sales, production, calculations, progress, analyses, or

summarizing economic evaluations.

Figures 13-1 through 13-3 present examples of stereotyped forms that can be used for presenting

the summarized results of economic evaluations. Although many general rules can be applied to the

preparation of reports, it should be realized that each industrial concern has its own specifications

and regulations. A stereotyped form shows exactly what information is wanted, and detailed

instructions are often given for preparing other types of informal reports. Many companies have

standard outlines that must be followed for formal reports. For convenience, certain arbitrary rules

of rhetoric and form may be established by a particular concern. For example, periods may be

required after all abbreviations, titles of articles may be required for all references, or the use of a

set system of units or nomenclature may be specified.


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Figure 3-1 Example of form for an informal summarizing report on factory manufacturing cost.

Figure 3-2 Example of form for an informal summarizing report on capital investment.


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Figure 3-3 Example of form for an informal summarizing report on income and return.

3.2. Organization of reports

The organization of a formal report requires careful sectioning and the use of subheadings in order

to maintain a clear and effective presentation? To a lesser degree, the same type of sectioning is

valuable for informal reports. The following discussion applies to formal reports, but, by deleting or

combining appropriate sections, the same principles can be applied to the organization of any type

of report.

A complete design report consists of several independent parts, with each succeeding part giving

greater detail on the design and its development. A covering Letter of Transmittal is usually the

first item in any report. After this come the Title Page, the Table of Contents, and an Abstract

or Summary of the report. The Body of the report is next and includes essential information,

presented in the form of discussion, graphs, tables, and figures. The Appendix, at the end of the

report, gives detailed information which permits complete verification of the results shown in the

body. Tables of data, sample calculations, and other supplementary material are included in the

Appendix. A typical outline for a design report is as follows:

3.2.1. Organization of a design report

1. Letter of transmittal

Indicates why report has been prepared

Gives essential results that have been specifically requested

2. Title page

Includes title of report, name of person to whom report is submitted, writer‟s name and

organization, and date

3. Table of contents

Indicates location and title of figures, tables, and all major sections

4. Summary

Briefly presents essential results and conclusions in a clear and precise manner

5. Body of report

A. Introduction

Presents a brief discussion to explain what the report is about and the reason for the report;

no results are included


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B. Previous work

Discusses important results obtained from literature surveys and other previous work

C. Discussion

Outlines method of attack on project and gives design basis

Includes graphs, tables, and figures that are essential for understanding the discussion

Discusses technical matters of importance

Indicates assumptions made and their justification

Indicates possible sources of error

Gives a general discussion of results and proposed design

D. Final recommended design with appropriate data

Drawings of proposed design

a. Qualitative flow sheets

b. Quantitative flow sheets

c. Combined-detail flow sheets

Tables listing equipment and specifications

Tables giving material and energy balances

Process economics including costs, profits, and return on investment

E. Conclusions and recommendations

Presented in more detail than in Summary

F. Acknowledgment

Acknowledges important assistance of others who are not listed as preparing the report

G. Table of nomenclature

Sample units should be shown

H. References to literature (bibliography)

Gives complete identification of literature sources referred to in the report

I. Appendix

i. Sample calculations

One example should be presented and explained clearly for each type of calculation

ii. Derivation of equations essential to understanding the report but not presented in detail in the

main body of the report

iii. Tables of data employed with reference to source

iv. Results of laboratory tests

1. If laboratory tests were used to obtain design data, the experimental data, apparatus and

procedure description, and interpretation of the results may be included as a special

appendix to the design report.

3.2.1.1. Letter of Transmittal

The purpose of a letter of transmittal is to refer to the original instructions or developments that

have made the report necessary. The letter should be brief, but it can call the reader‟s attention to

certain pertinent sections of the report or give definite results which are particularly important. The

writer should express any personal opinions in the letter of transmittal rather than in the report

itself. Personal pronouns and an informal business style of writing may be used.


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3.2.1.2. Title Page and Table of Contents

In addition to the title of the report, a title page usually indicates other basic information, such as the

name and organization of the person (or persons) submitting the report and the date of submittal. A

table of contents may not be necessary for a short report of only six or eight pages, but, for longer

reports, it is a convenient guide for the reader and indicates the scope of the report. The titles and

subheadings in the written text should be shown, as well as the appropriate page numbers.

Indentations can be used to indicate the relationships of the various subheadings. A list of tables,

figures, and graphs should be presented separately at the end of the table of contents.

3.2.1.3. Summary

The summary is probably the most important part of a report, since it is referred to most frequently

and is often the only part of the report that is read. Its purpose is to give the reader the entire

contents of the report in one or two pages. It covers all phases of the design project, but it does not

go into detail on any particular phase. All statements must be concise and give a minimum of

general qualitative information. The aim of the summary is to present precise quantitative

information and final conclusions with no unnecessary details. The following outline shows what

should be included in a summary:

1. A statement introducing the reader to the subject matter

2. What was done and what the report covers

3. How the final results were obtained

4. The important results including quantitative information, major conclusions, and

recommendations

An ideal summary can be completed on one typewritten page. If the summary must be longer than

two pages, it may be advisable to precede the summary by an abstract, which merely indicates the

subject matter, what was done, and a brief statement of the major results.

3.2.1.4. Body of the Report

The first section in the body of the report is the introduction. It states the purpose and scope of the

report and indicates why the design project originally appeared to be feasible or necessary. The

relationship of the information presented in the report to other phases of the company‟s operations

can be covered, and the effects of future developments may be worthy of mention.

References to previous work can be discussed in the introduction, or a separate section can be

presented dealing with literature-survey results and other previous work.

A description of the methods used for developing the proposed design is presented in the next

section under the heading of disczmion. Here the writer shows the reader the methods used in

reaching the final conclusions. The validity of the methods must be made apparent, but the writer

should not present an annoying or distracting amount of detail. Any assumptions or limitations on

the results should be discussed in this section.

The next section presents the recommended design, complete with figures and tables giving all

necessary qualitative and quantitative data. An analysis of the cost and profit potential of the

proposed process should accompany the description of the recommended design.


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The body of a design report often includes a section giving a detailed discussion of all conclusions

and recommendations. When applicable, sections covering acknowledgment, table of

nomenclature, and literature references may be added.

3.2.1.5. Appendix

In order to make the written part of a report more readable, the details of calculation methods,

experimental data, reference data, certain types of derivations, and similar items are often included

as separate appendixes to the report.

This information is thus available to anyone who wishes to make a complete check on the work, yet

the descriptive part of the report is not made ineffective because of excess information. 3.3. Preparing the report

The physical process of preparing a report can be divided into the following steps:

1. Define the subject matter, scope, and intended audience

2. Prepare a skeleton outline and then a detailed outline

3. Write the first draft

4. Polish and improve the first draft and prepare the final form

5. Check the written draft carefully, have the report typed, and proofread the final report

In order to accomplish each of these steps successfully, the writer must make certain the initial

work on the report is started soon enough to allow a thorough job and still meet any predetermined

deadline date. Many of the figures, graphs, and tables, as well as some sections of the report, can be

prepared while the design work is in progress.

3.4. Presenting the results

Accuracy and logic must be maintained throughout any report. The writer has a moral responsibility

to present the facts accurately and not mislead the reader with incorrect or dubious statements. If

approximations or assumptions are made, their effect on the accuracy of the results should, be

indicated. For example, a preliminary plant design might show that the total investment for a

proposed plant is $5,500,000. This is not necessarily misleading as to the accuracy of the result,

since only two significant figures are indicated. On the other hand, a proposed investment of

$5554,328 is ridiculous, and the reader knows at once that the writer did not use any type of logical

reasoning in determining the accuracy of the results.

The style of writing in technical reports should be simple and straightforward. Although short

sentences are preferred, variation in the sentence length is necessary in order to avoid a disjointed

staccato effect. The presentation must be convincing, but it must also be devoid of distracting and

unnecessary details. Flowery expressions and technical jargon are often misused by technical

writers in an attempt to make their writing more interesting. Certainly, an elegant or forceful style

is sometimes desirable, but the technical writer must never forget that the major purpose is to

present information clearly and understandably.


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3.4.1. Subheadings and Paragraphs

The use of effective and well-placed subheadings can improve the readability of a report. The

sections and subheadings follow the logical sequence of the report outline and permit the reader to

become oriented and prepared for a new subject.

Paragraphs are used to cover one general thought. A paragraph break, however, is not nearly as

definite as a subheading. The length of paragraphs can vary over a wide range, but any thought

worthy of a separate paragraph should require at least two sentences. Long paragraphs are a strain

on the reader, and the writer who consistently uses paragraphs longer than 10 to 12 typed lines will

have difficulty in holding the reader‟s attention.

3.4.2. Tables

The effective use of tables can save many words, especially if quantitative results are involved.

Tables are included in the body of the report only if they are essential to the understanding of the

written text. Any type of tabulated data that is not directly related to the discussion should be

located in the appendix.

Every table requires a title, and the headings for each column should be self-explanatory. If

numbers are used, the correct units must be shown in the column heading or with the first number in

the column. A table should never be presented on two pages unless the amount of data makes a

break absolutely necessary.

3.4.3. Graphs

In comparison with tables, which present definite numerical values, graphs serve to show trends or

comparisons. The interpretation of results is often simplified for the reader if the tabulated

information is presented in graphical form. If possible, the experimental or calculated points on

which a curve is based should be shown on the plot. These points can be represented by large dots,

small circles, squares, triangles, or some other identifying symbol. The most probable smooth curve

can be drawn on the basis of the plotted points, or a broken line connecting each point may be more

appropriate. In any case, the curve should not extend through the open symbols representing the

data points. If extrapolation or interpolation of the curve is doubtful, the uncertain region can be

designated by a dotted or dashed line. The ordinate and the abscissa must be labeled clearly, and

any nomenclature used should be defined on the graph or in the body of the report. If numerical

values are presented, the appropriate units are shown immediately after the labels on the ordinate

and abscissa. Restrictions on the plotted information should be indicated on the graph itself or with

the title.

The title of the graph must be explicit but not obvious. For example, a log-log plot of temperature

versus the vapor pressure of pure glycerol should not be entitled “Log-Log Plot of Temperature

versus Vapor Pressure for Pure Glycerol.” A much better title, although still somewhat obvious,

would be “Effect of Temperature on Vapor Pressure of Pure Glycerol.” Some additional

suggestions for the preparation of graphs follow:


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1. The independent or controlled variable should be plotted as the abscissa, and the variable that is

being determined should be plotted as the ordinate.

2. Permit sufficient space between grid elements to prevent a cluttered appearance (ordinarily, two

to four grid lines per inch are adequate).

3. Use coordinate scales that give good proportionment of the curve over the entire plot, but do not

distort the apparent accuracy of the results.

4. The values assigned to the grids should permit easy and convenient interpolation.

5. If possible, the label on the vertical axis should be placed in a horizontal position to permit

easier reading.

6. Unless families of curves are involved, it is advisable to limit the number of curves on any one

plot to three or less.

7. The curve should be drawn as the heaviest line on the plot, and the coordinate axes should be

heavier than the grid lines.

3.4.4. Illustrations

Flow diagrams, photographs, line drawings of equipment, and other types of illustrations may be a

necessary part of a report. They can be inserted in the body of the text or included in the appendix.

Complete flow diagrams, prepared on oversize paper, and other large drawings are often folded and

inserted in an envelope at the end of the report.

3.4.5. References to Literature

The original sources of any literature referred to in the report should be listed at the end of the body

of the report. References are usually tabulated and numbered in alphabetical order on the basis of

the first author‟s surname, although the listing is occasionally based on the order of appearance in

the report.

When a literature reference is cited in the written text, the last name of the author is mentioned and

the bibliographical identification is shown by a raised number after the author‟s name or at the end

of the sentence. An underlined number in parentheses may be used in place of the raised number, if

desired.

The bibliography should give the following information:

1. For journal articles:

(a) Authors‟ names, followed by initials,

(b) Journal, abbreviated to conform to the “List of Periodicals” as established by Chemical

Abstracts,

(c) volume number,

(d) issue number, if necessary,

(e) page number, and

(f) year (in parentheses).

The title of the article is usually omitted. Issue number is omitted if paging is on a yearly basis. The

date is sometimes included with the year in place of the issue number. McCormick, J. E., Chem. Eng., 9503175-76 (1988).

McCormick, J. E., Chem. Eng., 95:75-76 (Sept. 26, 1988).


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Gregg, D. W., and T. F. Edgar, AKhE J., 24753-781 (1978).

2. For single publications, as books, theses, or pamphlets:

(a) authors‟ names, followed by initials,

(b) title (in quotation marks),

(c) edition (if more than one has appeared),

(d) volume (if there is more than one),

(e) publisher,

(f) place of publication, and

(g) year of publication.

The chapter or page number is often listed just before the publisher‟s name. Titles of theses are

often omitted.

Peters, M. S., “Elementary Chemical Engineering,” 2d ed., p. 280, McGraw-Hill Book Company,

New York, 1984.

Heaney, M., PhD. Thesis in Chem. Eng., Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, CO. 1988.

3. For unknown or unnamed authors:

(a) alphabetize by the journal or organization publishing the information.

Chem. Eng., 9.5(13):26 (1988).

4. For patents:

(a) patentees‟ names, followed by initials, and assignee (if any) in parentheses,

(b) country granting patent and number, and

(c) date issued (in parentheses).

Fenske, E. R. (to Universal Oil Products Co.), U.S. Patent 3,249,650 (May 3, 1986).

5. For unpublished information:

(a) “in press” means formally accepted for publication by „the indicated journal or publisher; (b) the

use of “private communication” and “unpublished data” is not recommended unless absolutely

necessary, because the reader may find it impossible to locate the original material.

Morari, M., Chem. Eng. Progr., in press (1988).

3.4.6. Sample Calculations

The general method used in developing the proposed design is discussed in the body of the report,

but detailed calculation methods are not presented in this section. Instead, sample calculations are

given in the appendix. One example should be shown for each type of calculation, and sufficient

detail must be included to permit the reader to follow each step. The particular conditions chosen

for the sample calculations must be designated. The data on which the calculations are based should

be listed in detail at the beginning of the section, even though these same data may be available

through reference to one of the tables presented with the report.


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3.4.7. Mechanical Details

The final report should be submitted in a neat and businesslike form. Formal reports are usually

bound with a heavy cover, and the information shown in title page is repeated on the cover. If paper

fasteners are used for binding in a folder, the pages should be attached only to the back cover.

The report should be typed on a good grade paper with a margin of at least 1 in. on all sides.

Normally, only one side of the page is used and all material, except the letter of transmittal,

footnotes, and long quotations, is double-spaced. Starting with the summary, all pages including

graphs, illustrations, and tables should be numbered in sequence.

Written material on graphs and illustrations may be typed or lettered neatly in ink. If hand lettering

is required, best results are obtained with an instrument such as a LeRoy or Wrico guide. Short

equations can sometimes be included directly in the written text if the equation is not numbered. In

general, however, equations are centered on the page and given a separate line, with the equation

number appearing at the right-hand margin of the page. Explanation of the symbols used can be

presented immediately following the equation.

Proofreading and Checking

Before final submittal, the completed report should be read carefully and checked for typographical

errors, consistency of data quoted in the text with those presented in tables and graphs, grammatical

errors, spelling errors, and similar obvious mistakes. If excessive corrections or changes are

necessary, the appearance of the report must be considered and some sections may need to be

retyped.

Nomenclature

If many different symbols are used repeatedly throughout a report, a table of nomenclature, showing

the symbols, meanings, and sample units, should be included in the report. Each symbol can be

defined when it first appears in the written text. If this is not done, a reference to the table of

nomenclature should be given with the first equation.

Ordinarily, the same symbol is used for a given physical quantity regardless of its units. Subscripts,

superscripts, and lower- and upper-case letters can be employed to give special meanings. The

nomenclature should be consistent with common usage.


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4. ORAL PRESENTATIONS

One of the assignments in this technical writing course is to prepare and deliver an oral

presentation. You might wonder what an oral report is doing in a writing class. Employers look for

course work and experience in preparing written documents, but they also look for some

experience in oral presentation as well.

4.1. Topic and Situation for the Oral Presentation

For the oral report, imagine that you are formally handing over your final written report to the

people with whom you set up the hypothetical contract or agreement. For example, imagine that

you had contracted with the Govemorate of Alexandria to write a visitor's guide to the city of

Alexandria. Once you had completed it, you'd have a meeting with the officers in charge to

formally deliver the guide. You'd spend some time orienting them to the

guide, showing them how it is organized and written, and discussing some of its highlights. Your

goal is to get them acquainted with the guide and to prompt them for any concerns or questions.

Here are some brainstorming possibilities in case you want to present something:

Topics: You can start by thinking of a technical subject, for example, solar panels,

microprocessors, drip irrigation, or laser surgery. For your oral report, think of a subject

you'd be interested in talking about, but find a reason why an audience would want to hear

your oral report.

Place or situation: You can find topics for oral reports or make more detailed plans for

them by thinking about the place or the situation in which your oral report might naturally

be 'given: at a neighborhood association? at the parent teachers' association meeting? at a

religious meeting? at the gardening club? at a city council meeting? at a meeting of the

board of directors or high-level executives of a company? Thinking about an oral report

this way makes you focus on the audience, their reasons for listening to you, and their

interests and background.

Purpose: Another way to find a topic is to think about the purpose of your talk. Is it to instruct

(for example, to explain how to run a text editing program on a computer), to persuade (to vote

for or against a certain technically oriented bond issue), or simply to inform (to report on

citizen participation in the new recycling program).

Informative purpose: An oral report can be primarily informative. For example, as a member of a

committee involved in a project to relocate the plant, your job might be to give an oral report on the

condition of the building and grounds at one of the sites proposed for purchase. Or, you might be

required to go before the city council and report on the success of the new city-sponsored recycling

project.

• Instructional purpose: An oral report can be primarily instructional. Your task might be to

train new employees to use certain equipment or to perform certain routine tasks.

• Persuasive purpose: An oral report can be primarily persuasive. You might want to convince

members of local civic organizations to support a city-wide recycling program. You might

appear before city council to persuade its members to reserve certain city-owned lands for park

areas, softball and baseball parks, or community gardens.


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4.2. Contents and Requirements for the Oral Presentation

The focus for your oral presentation is clear, understandable presentation, well-organized, well-

planned, well-timed discussion You don't need to be Mr. or Ms Slick -Operator - just present the

essentials of what you have to say in a calm, organized, well-planned manner

When you give your oral presentation, we'll all be listening for the same things. Use the

following as a requirements list, as a way of focusing your Preparations

• Plan to explain to the class what the situation of your oral report is. who you are, and who they

should imagine they are Make sure that there is a clean break between this brief explanation and

the beginning of your actual oral report.

• Make sure your oral report lasts no longer than few minutes.

• Pay special attention to the introduction to your talk Indicate the purpose of your oral report,

give an overview of its contents, and find some way to interest the audience

• Use at least one visual- preferably a transparency for the overhead projector. Flip charts and

objects for display are okay Bui please avoid scribbling stuff on the chalkboard or relying

strictly on handouts

• Make sure you discuss key elements of your visuals Don't just throw them up there and ignore

them. Point out things about them; explain them to the audience

• Make sure that your speaking style and gestures are okay Ensure that you are loud enough so

that everybody can hear, that you don't speak too rapidly (nerves often cause that).

• Plan to explain any technical aspect of your topic very clearly and understandably Don't race

through complex, technical stuff--slow down and explain it carefully so that we understand it.

• Never present large a large body of information orally without summarizing its main points (on

a transparency, for example)

• Use "verbal heading"- by now, you've gotten used to using headings in your written work.

There is a analogy in oral reports with these, you give your audience a very clear signal you are

moving from one topic or part of your talk to the next.

• Plan your report in advance and practice it so that it is organized. Make sure that listeners

know what you are talking about and why, which part of the talk you are in, and what's coming

next. Overviews and verbal headings greatly contribute to this sense of organization.

• End with a real conclusion People sometimes forget to plan how to end an oral report and end

by just trailing off into a mumble. Remember that in conclusions, you can summarize (go back

over high points of what you've discussed), conclude (state some logical conclusion based on

what you have presented), provide some last thought (end with some final interesting point but

general enough not to require elaboration), or some combination of these three. And certainly,

you'll want to prompt the audience for questions and concerns.

• As mentioned above, be sure your oral report is carefully timed to few minutes. Some ideas on

how to do this are presented m the next section.


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4.3. Preparing for the Oral Report

Pick the method of preparing for the talk that best suits your comfort level with public speaking

and with your topic. However, do some sort of preparation or rehearsal—some people assume that

they can just jump up there and ad Mb for few minutes and be relaxed, informal. It doesn't often

work that way- drawing a mental blank is the more common experience.

Here are the obvious possibilities for preparation and delivery:

• Write a script, practice it, keep it around for quick-reference during your talk.

• Set up an outline of your talk, practice with it, bring it for reference.

• Set up cue cards, practice with them, use them during your talk.

• Write m script and read from it

Of course, the spontaneous or impromptu methods are also out there for the brave and the

adventurous. However, please bear in mind that many people will be listening to you—you

owe them a good presentation, one that is clear, understandable, well-planned, organized, and

informative.

It doesn't matter which method you use to prepare for the talk. Of course the head-down style of

reading your report directly from a script has its problems. There is little or no eye contact or

interaction with the audience. The delivery tends toward a dull monotone that either puts listeners

off or is hard to understand.

For some reason, people tend to get nervous in this situation. Try to remember that your

classmates and instructor are a very forgiving, supportive group. You don't have to be a slick

entertainer—just be clear, organized, understandable, informative. The nerves will wear off

someday, the more oral presenting you do.

4.4. Delivering an Oral Presentation

When you give an oral report, focus on common problem areas such as these:

• Timing-Make sure you keep within the time limit. Anything under the limit is also a problem.

Do some rehearsal, write a script, or find some other way to get the timing just right. It should

take about two minutes to go through a single transparency in the talk.

• Posing, speed— sometimes, speakers who are a bit nervous talk too fast. That makes it hard for

the audience to follow. In general, it helps listeners to understand you better if you speak a bit

more slowly and deliberately than you do in normal conversation. Slow down, take it easy, be

clear.

• Make sure your watch is visible and check it occasionally to see how the time is running. If

you see you are running short or long, try to adjust the speed of your presentation to

compensate.

• Volume-Obviously, you must be sure to speak loud enough so that all of your audience can

hear you. You might find some way to practice speaking a little louder in the days before the

oral presentation.

• Gestures and posture-Watch out for nervous hands flying all over the place. This too can be

distracting and a bit comical. Plan to keep your hands clasped together or holding onto the

podium and only occasionally making some gesture, and make sure that your gestures and


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posture are okay. For example, don't slouch on the podium or against the wall, and avoid

fidgeting with your hands.

• A verbal crutches- As for speaking style, consider slowing your tempo a bit-a common

tendency is to get nervous and talk too fast. Also, be aware of how much you say things like

"uh," "you know," and "okay."eehhh" and other lands of nervous verbal habits. Instead of

saying "uh" or "you know" every three seconds, just don't say anything at all. In the days before

your oral presentation, exercise speaking without these verbal crutches. The silence that

replaces them is not a bad thing- -it gives listeners time to process what you are saying

• Never read directly from prepared text, there is nothing more deadly to an audience

• Make frequent eye contact with your audience throughout the talk Do not stare at your notes or

at the screen. Do not direct your talk to one or two individuals, leaving the rest of the audience

isolated

• Sound enthusiastic about your subject, or at least interested in it If you seem bored by your

material, you can be guaranteed your audience will follow the lead!

4.5. Planning and Preparing Visuals for Oral Presentations

Prepare at least one visual for this report. Here are some ideas for the medium" to use for your

visuals.

• Transparencies for overhead projector for most college classrooms and, in fact, business

conference rooms, the overhead projector is the best way to show things to the whole group.

Design your visual on a sheet of blank paper, then photocopy it, and then get a transparency of

it. You may have access to equipment like this at your work; most copy shops can make

transparencies for you.

• Pasteboard size charts-Another possibility is to get some posterboard and draw and letter what

you want your audience to see. If you have a choice, consider transparencies~-it's hard to make

charts look neat and professional.

• Handouts- You can ran off copies of what you want your listeners to see and hand them out

before or during your talk. This option is even less effective than the first two because you can't

point to what you want your listeners to see and because handouts take listeners attention away

from you. Still, for certain visual needs, handouts are the only choice.

• Objects-If you need to demonstrate certain procedures, you may need to bring in actual

physical objects. Rehearse what you are going to do with these objects; sometimes they can take

up a lot more time than you expect.

Please avoid just scribbling your visual on the chalkboard. Whatever you can scribble on the

chalkboard can be neatly prepared and made into a transparency or posterboard-size chart, for

example. Take some time to make your visuals look sharp and professional-use a straightedge,

good dark markers, neat lettering or typing. Do your best to ensure that they are legible to the entire

audience.


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As for the content of your visuals consider these ideas:

• Outline of your talk, report, or both If you are at a loss for visuals to use in your oral

presentation, or if your presentation is complex, have an outline of it that you can show at

various points during your talk.

• Drawing or diagram of key objects-If you describe or refer to any objects during your talk,

try to get visuals of them so that you can point to different components or features.

• Tables charts, graphs—If you discuss statistical data, present it in some form or table, chart,

or graph. Many members of your audience may have trouble "hearing" such data as opposed to

seeing it.

• Key terms and definitions A good idea for visuals (especially when you can't think of any

others) is to set up a two-column list of key terms you use during your oral presentation with

their definitions in the second column.

• Key concepts or points similarly, you can list your key points and show them in visuals.

(Outlines, key terms, and main points are all good, legitimate ways of incorporating visuals into

oral presentations when you can't think of any others.)

During your actual oral report, make sure to discuss your visuals, refer to them, guide your listeners

through the key points in your visuals. It's a big problem just to throw a visual up on the screen and

never even refer to it.

4.5.1. Tips for the preparation off the visuals

• Lay-out, try to always present your transparencies in the Landscape position rather that the

Portrait position

• Do not present more than about eight lines on a single transparency. Transparencies crowded

with information are useless.

• Use large-type fonts on transparencies. Ordinary size type does not look good.

• If you hand-write the transparency, use large Mock, lettering with horizontal guidelines to

keep your lines straight

• If you show a process flowchart, make sure the units and streams are labeled. A bunch of

unlabeled boxes and lines with arrows is worthless to the audience.

• If you show data plots, be sure the axes are clearly labeled.

• Do not over fill your transparency with mixed, unmatched colors. Some of the best color

combinations are: white on blue, yellow on blue, Black on white , black on yellow, red on

yellow.

• Do not crowd your visuals with too many mixed font types/sizes


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5. MAKING YOUR WRITING READABLE

5.1. Introduction

Most readers of scientific or technical writing do not have as much time for reading as Hey

would like to have and therefore, must read selectively. This is especially true for managers,

supervisors, executives, senior scientists and other busy decision makers, who often skim-read for

main points and ideas. However, it is also true for professionals who often need TC read more

closely and slowly, for thorough understanding, and it is true for technicians. workers and

consumers who may need to read and follow operating instructions. These different types of readers

are selective in different ways: the skim-reading decision maker may be looking for bottom-line

cost figures and performance data; the professional may be looking for the main thread of an

argument: Ac technician. worker or consumer may need to use operating instructions only as a

checklist.

For such readers, writing is readable to the extent that it provides the information they need,

located where they can quickly find it, in a form in which they can easily use it. This lakes

considerable effort on the w riter's part. If you can make your writing readable, you will greatly

increase its chances of being read an used: i.e. you will increase its effectiveness. How can you

make your writing readable? Unfortunately, there is no simple formula to follow. There are steps

that you can take, however, that should be of some help; these are discussed in what follows. First

we make suggestions for selecting appropriate information and for making this information

accessible to the reader. Then we suggest a number of things you can do to make it easier for the

reader to absorb details.

5.2. Information selection

5.2.1. Establish your Topic and Purpose

Make it clear whet the main topic of the report of the section is. Then state your purpose

explicitly, so that your readers can anticipate how you will be dealing with the topic. Readers of

scientific and technical writing are typically purpose-directed and pressed for time. So. rather than

reading word for word and cover to cover, they often prefer to merely "consult" a document,

looking only for the information they need. When you define your topic and state your purpose, you

make it easier for the reader to determine right away how to process the document; whether to read

it closely, skim-read it. pass it on to someone else, or disregard it. A clear statement of topic and

purpose allows the reader to form certain expectations about the rest of the text, specifically, how

the topic is likely to be developed. It is a well-known fact that we process information most quickly

and efficiently when it accords with our preconceptions, this is why it is important to create the

right preconceptions in the reader's mind in the first place

Scientific and technical writing genres customarily have various features signed to announce

the topic and set up initial expectations, titles, abstracts, summaries, overviews etc... Use these to

full advantage by loading them with keywords and main ideas instead of vague phrases if you are

writing a report dealing with some problematic issue as is the case with most reports be sure to

include a well written problem statement at the beginning Engineering and other applied sciences


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are fundamentally problem-oriented, and so as discussed in chapter 6. a good problem statement

usually has important orientation value.

5.2.2. Use Keywords Prominently

Build sections and paragraphs around keywords related to the main topic If possible, make

these keywords visually prominent by using them in headings, subheadings, topic statements and

sentence subjects Once you have established a conceptual framework at the beginning of your text,

you can turn your attention by filling it in with appropriate details To make sure that your

discussion is a coherent one. you should strive to link these details as directly as possible to the

main topic the best way to do this is to establish a hierarch) of intermediate topics and subtopics for

the various units and subunits of vour text with each being directly related to the immediately

higher topic or subtopic These intermediate topics and subtopics should consist of appropriate

keywords as discussed above

A well-structured discussion is highly functional in at least two respects First it builds on the

basic framework established at the beginning of the text, allowing for easier interpretation and

promoting greater coherence at the same time As new information is progressively added to the

initial framework, it is interpreted in terms of this framework and integrated into it As such, this

new information is transformed into given information and can then be used to help interpret

succeeding pieces of new information. Second, a hierarchically structured text facilitates selective

reading. Since the sections and subsections are arranged in a general-to-specific order, the reader

can quite easily zero in on desired levels of details - specially, if the respective topics of these

sections and subsections are made visually prominent through the use of headings and subheadings.

5.2.3. Explain Important Concepts when Writing for Nonspecialist Readers

When writing for nonspecialists be sure to clarify the important technical concepts in your text

by using examples, analogies, visual aids, or other forms of verbal or visual illustration. Research

by information theorists in the past few decades suggests that communication proceeds best when

there is a fairly even balance between given information and new information. This is what you

should strive for in your own writing this means that you must have some idea of who your readers

are and what sort of background knowledge they have. For example if you are describing the

function of a refinery distillation column the terms "bubble cap trays" would be perfectly

comprehensible to a chemical engineer, to anyone else it would not. Therefore, if for some reason

you had to communicate with such technical information to a nonspecialist reader, you would have

to insert some background information more familiar to the reader to provide a proper framework

for interpreting the new information

In technical writing, it frequently happens that the writer feels it necessary to introduce key

concepts that may be unfamiliar to the reader In general it is important to define such concepts, not

necessarily with a formal definition but rather with some kind of illustration How is the concept

used? What is t similar to? What does it look like'' If technical terminology is used, what is a non-

technical way of saying more or less the same thing Not only will answering such questions with

the reader's needs in mind help the reader understand that particular concept but more important

specially if the concept is a typical one it will enrich and sharpen the reader's interpretation of the


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text as a whole It will provide some of the given information that a specialist reader would

automatically and implicitly associate with that particular concept but which a nonspecialist reader

would not.

There are several ways to illustrate and explain unfamiliar concepts for the nonspecialist

reader. Visual aids, of course, should be used whenever the concept is suited to visual presentation.

Often, however, a concept is too abstract to be presented visually In such cases; specific examples

of the concept are usually the most powerful means you can use to help the nonspecialist reader.

Analogies help explaining an unfamiliar concept b} showing that it is

similar in certain ways to a familiar concept: they are useful in situations where the concept is so

unfamiliar that you simply cannot think of any ordinary examples of it. Paraphrases, on the other

hand, are useful in precisely the opposite situation: where the concept is familiar to the reader but

only if restated in more recognizable terms. Paraphrases have a distinct advantage over examples

and analogies in that they usually take up less space: sometimes even a one-word paraphrase will

accomplish the purpose. Definitions, of course are a familiar way of explicating new concepts. Here

is an example of an extended definition, explaining what the technical term "Remark Coefficient"

means:

The Remark Coefficient

In the production of powdered detergents, spray drying is the icchn que

used to evaporate the solvent from the liquid reaction mixture and

physically form the finished powder product. In spray drying, the liquid is

sprayed into the top of a tall tower and allowed to fall freely in the bottom

of the tower, where it is removed as a dry powder. The solvent evaporates

during the course of the fall. Particles dried in this fashion have an unusual

shape, like that of a saddle (or a potato chip), and

Analogy consequently, fail through the air in an unusual manner. Rather than

falling in a vertical path, the particle fall in a helical (spiral) path. The

shape of the helical path is described by the Remark coefficient, which is

Paraphrase the ratio of the diameter of the helix to the height required for one

passage of the particle around the perimeter of the helix. The

Definition coefficient, which is a function of drying conditions, is sought to be

maximized, so that the length of flight of the panicle is made much

greater than the actual height of the spray-drying tower.

Paraphrase

5.2.4. Use Standard Terminology when Writing for Specialist Readers

When writing for specialists, on the other hand, do not overexplain. That is. do not exemplify,

define, illustrate, paraphrase, or otherwise explain concepts the reader is likely to already be

familiar with. Instead, simply refer to such concepts with the standard terminology of the field.

Technical terms permit efficient and precise communication between specialists who know the

concepts that such terms refer to. They should be used for that purpose, and used freely, even if

they appear to be incomprehensive jargon to an outsider. When used among specialists, standard


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technical terms are not only comprehensible, but arc often "information-rich" in the sense that they

may trigger a host of associated concepts in the reader's memory. These associated concepts then

become part of the "given information" in the message. Adding more given information in the form

of examples, analogies, etc... would only produce a disproportionate and inefficient give/new ratio

for that type of reader.

What do you do, though, if you are writing to a mixed audience of specialists and

nonspecialists? This is always a very challenging sometimes impossible'- situation, but there are a

few things you can do. First, you might divide and conquer" produce two separate pieces of

writing, or a single piece with two parts to it. so that each group of readers can be addressed with

appropriate terminology. Alternatively, you might stick to a single text but briefly define the

technical terms as you go along. The least objectionable way of doing this, usually, is to insert a

short familiar paraphrase immediately after each technical term: in the Remark coefficient example,

for instance, notice how the writer has inserted the paraphrase (spiral) after the less familiar term

helical.

5.2.5. Structure your Text to Emphasize Important Information

Structure the different parts of the text so as to give greatest prominence to the information you

expect the reader to pay most attention to For mam ideas, use a hierarchical structure, for details,

use a listing structure A hierarchical text structure allows the reader to move quickly through the

text seeing what the mam ideas are. how they arc linked together and what kind of detailed support

they have many readers, specifically busy decision makers habitually read this way Thus, if you are

writing for that type of reader you should try to organize and present vour information in a highly

hierarchical pattern, with main levels of subordination

On the other hand, if you are writing for a reader who will be focusing more on details try to

use a more coordinate structure, i.e. with the details arranged in list A list-like structure whether it is

formatted as a list or not, draws the reader's attention to all of the items making up the list. Instead

of one statement being subordinated to another, as in a hierarchical structure the statements in a list

are all on the same level and thus share equal prominence Perhaps the most obvious examples of

this phenomenon are lists of instructions, which are expected to be read and followed step by step

The same phenomenon can also be seen in carefully reasoned arguments and explanations, which

are often cast in the form of a list-like sequence of cause-and-effect statements Chronological

sequences, too. As found m descriptions of test procedures or in progress reports, are often

presented as lists

5.2.6. Construct Well Designed Paragraphs

Make sure that each paragraph has a good topic statement and a clear pattern of organization

the paragraph is a basic and highly functional unit of discourse in scientific and technical writing.

By definition a paragraph is a group of sentences focusing on one main idea If vou use a topic

statement to capture the main idea and a clear pattern of organization to develop it. you make it easy

for die reader to either read the paragraph in detail or read it selectively. The topic statement, of

course, should be presented within the first two sentences of the paragraph, and it should contain

one or more keywords for readers to focus their attention on. The pattern of organization you select


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for the remaining sentences in die paragraph should (1) be consistent with expectations likely to be

raised by the topic statement. (2) be appropriate to the subject matter and the most important (3) be

appropriate to die anticipated use of the paragraph by the reader. If you adhere to these principles

with all your paragraphs, you will greatly enhance the overall readability of your writing.

5.2.7. Field-Test Your Writing

Field-test your manuscript with its intended users or with representative substitutes Up to tins

point you have had to make guesses about whether or not you arc providing your readers with a

proper mix of given information and new information for their purposes Your decisions about what

kind of terminology to use. What kind of structure to use, when to use verbal or visual illustrations,

and so on. have been made on the basis of guesswork about the background knowledge of your

readers and the reasons they will have for reading your writing This is why field-testing is an

important part of making any manuscript maximally useful Field-testing allows you to see whether

the assumptions you have made about your readers are accurate or not. This is so important that you

should not put it off until the final stage; as soon as you have finished writing a good first or second

draft, try it out with few intended users. Have them read it as if it were the final draft submitted for

actual use Tell them to mark it up raise questions about it, criticize it. Talk to them about it. ask

them for their comments Docs it leave anything out? Does it mislead them'' Does it raise

unanswered questions'' if they are using it for Reference purposes, can they easily find what they

need? If they are skimming it for main points, can they easily locate and understand them?

If you are writing a research proposal or article, for example, you might want to show your

draft to other researchers in that area, so as to guard against the possibility that you have overlooked

something important, misrepresented someone else's research, or to make sure that nothing you

have written is substantively wrong. If you arc writing a progress report for a group project, this

would be a good time to show it to other members of the team.

5.3. Information ordering

One of the most important parts of speech in scientific and technical writing is the noun phrase

(NP). It can be defined as any noun or noun-plus-modifier combination (or any pronoun) that can

function as the subject or object of a sentence. Some examples are tables, water, y/e. a potential

buyer, the growing demand for asphalt, and strict limitations on the size of plates that can be

handled. Note that each of these NPs can serve as the subject of a sentence:

Tables usually have four legs.

Water can be dangerous.

We have an emergency.

A potential buyer has arrived.

The growing demand for asphalt is obvious.

Strict limitations on the size of plates that can be handled have been established.

By contrast, a singular countable noun, such as table, is not a NP, because it cannot function by

itself as die subject or object of a sentence. We cannot say:

Table usually has four legs.


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Instead, we would have to say

A table usually has four legs

or

The table usually has four legs.

or Samir's table has four legs.

5.3.1. Optimal Ordering of Noun Phrases

In English, NPs are expected to occur in certain orderings according to grammatical and functional

criteria. These will be discussed in order of importance, beginning with the most important

A) Put Given Information Before New Information

As will all languages. English sentences typically contain a mixture of given information and

new information. That is, some NPs in a sentence refer to concepts or objects that have already

been discussed or that are presumed to be understood from the context, this is given information.

Other NPs refer to concepts or objects that have not set been discussed and are

not presumed to be understood from the context; this is new information Let us consider a

specific example of the optimal ordering of NPs.

The 5-year plan does not indicate a clearly defined commitment to long-range

environmental research For instance, where the plan docs address long-range research, it

discusses the development of techniques rather than the identification of important Song-

range issues.

The key NPs in both sentences are in italics By the time the first sentence has been read and

understood, the phrases the 5-vear plans and long-range environmental research have been

mentioned and are part of the given information possessed by the reader Notice that the words "the

given information" come at the beginning of the second sentence and that the new nour phrases "the

new information", come at the end of the second sentence Tins ordering of given before new is

desirable because the given information of the second sentence serves as a kind of glue between the

information presented in the first sentence and the new information presented in the second

sentence. Such an ordering allows a reader to more easily fit the new information into a meaningful

context and to see the connection between the two sentences.

B) Put Topical Information in Subject Position

Often, more than one NP in a sentence carries given information. In that case, which of

these NPs should be promoted to subject position? Ideally. the NP that carries information most

closely related to the paragraph topic - call it "Topical Information" - should go there

Consider the following example:

Not all investors will benefit from Saving Certificates of the Investment

authority Investors exceeding a deposit of LE 26886 (LE 53768 joint return)

would have an after-tax yield far lower than with alternative investments, such

as money market funds, or Treasury bills. Alternative investments would also

yield better after-tax yieldsand no penalty if the certificate was redeemed

within the one-) car maturity period. The last sentence in this paragraph has three definite NPs which contain given information

Alternate investments, after-tax yields and the certificate. Of these, the last seems to come closest to


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being thought of as topical information, the word Certificate, after all, does appear in the topic

statement. But what is the real topic of this paragraph? Isn't it different kinds of investors! Notice

for example, that the word investors appears not only in the topic statement but in the subject

position of the next sentence. Notice also that investors are referred to b\ implication as the

delegated agent of the passive mam verb: was redeemed (by investors) ideally, then, we should try

to insert the word investors in the subject position of the third sentence, too. if it is all possible

Indeed it is.

Not all investors will benefit from Saving Certificates of the Investment

Authority. Investors exceeding a deposit of LE 26886 (LE 53768 joint return)

would have an after-tax yield far lower than with alternative investments, such

as money market funds, or Treasury bills. Investors redeeming their

certificates within the one-year maturity period would also have a lower after-

tax yield and would pay a penalty besides. Not only does this rewritten version keep the focus on the topic of the paragraph and thus

contribute to paragraph unity- it also establishes parallelism between the second and thud

sentences, thus making it much clearer to the reader that we are talking about two different classes

of investors: those who exceed a deposit of LE 26886 (LE 33768 joint return) and thos. who

redeem their certificate early

C) Put "Light" NPs Before "Heavy" NPs

As seen earlier. NPs vary considerably in length, complexity, preciseness. etc.. If we use the

word heavy to describe NPs which are long and complex and the word light for NPs which are short

and simple, the preferred stylistic ordering is light NPs before heavy NPs For instance, consider the

following passage:

We have received and acted upon requests for equipment from several branch

offices We have sent the research, development and testing office in Alexandria

a gas analyzer, The second sentence of this passage is awkward and difficult to read. It has a very heavy

indirect object - the research, development and testing office in Alexandria - and a very light

direct object -a gas analyzer. Thus the ordering of NPs in this sentence, as it stands, is heavy

.... Light. A more readable version of the second sentence and thus a better version, would

order the NPs light... heavy as follows

We have sent a gas analyzer (Direct Object)

to the research, development and testing office in Alexandria (Object of preposition)

Notice that in moving the heavy NP to the end, we have to insert the preposition

The following represents a flowchart for editing sentences in paragraphs:


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5.4. Editing For Emphasis

Although some readers may prefer to skim-read, others have to read more closely and

thoroughly, concentrating on details. For these readers, there is a danger of getting lost in the

details, of overlooking main points and "not seeing the forest for the trees", so to speak.

Consequently the details themselves begin to loose significance; the reader cannot sec exactly how

they fit into the larger picture and thus cannot evaluate their importance. The reading process as a

whole bogs down at this point, and the reader is forced to stop and start over.

When the readers get bogged down in detail like this, it is often the water's fault. Many writers

make little effort to organize details in a coherent, unified way, preferring instead to have the reader

do all the work. But this invites the kind of failure just described Readers are often pressed for time

or, tired or have other things on their mind. Many readers lack the kind of background knowledge

the writer has. Still others have poor reading techniques and arc unable to decipher poor writing, no

matter how hard they work at it. In general readers are at the mercy of the writer, they depend on

the writer to present details in such a way that the role of these details in support of main points is

readily apparent. If the writer fails to do this, there is little the reader can do except try to figure

things out.

It thus fells on the writer to mold the details of a text so that they reinforce the main points in

unified fashion. This is somewhat similar, actually, to the demands made on a speaker engaged in a

serious conversation. Face-to-face conversation is an intensive form of communication in which the

speaker is acutely aware of the listener and vice versa. Because of this close speaker-listener

relationship, conversations are governed by certain unwritten rules; say what you mean, don't beat

around the bush, get to the point, be honest, etc. If the speaker violates any of these rules, the

conversation will begin to break down unless the listener rescues it with a corrective comment such

as "I don't see what you are driving at" or "What's your point?" The possibility of such immediate

feedback from the listener forces the speaker to make every detail relevant to the conversation, most

listeners are simply intolerant of irrelevant details and will either intervene or break the

conversation off if the speaker strays too far from the topic of discussion.

Good conversationalists, of course, are aware of such constraints and employ various

techniques to make it clear to the listener that they are observing the rules. For one thing, they use

emphatic intonation, physical gestures, inverted sentence structure, intensifiers and other devices to

signal important words- key words, topical words, words earning new information. Conversely they

use none of these devices for the less important words- those that cany given information or

redundant information. As for empty meaningless words that serve no communicative purpose at

all, they are simply omitted. In general, both by giving prominence to important words and by

subordinating or omitting unimportant ones, good conversationalists emphasize those aspects of a

detailed discussion that link the discussion to the main point or purpose of the conversation. As a

result, the listener not only absorbs those details but also sees just how they support the main point.

Writers should do the same kinds of things as good conversationalists. They may not be in

close touch with their audience as speakers are and so they may not have such immediate demands

placed on them, and they cannot, of course, use intonation and gestures in their writing. But writers


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do have an audience, and this audience needs to know, just as listeners do. how the details of a

discussion are related to the main points. Furthermore, writers have as many devices as speakers do

for helping the reader sec how details support main points. In short the use of emphasis is as

appropriate and indeed necessary to good writing as it is to good conversation.

In what follows we will describe the most common and useful devices used by good writers to

create emphasis within individual sentences. These fall into three categories: devices used to

highlight important words and phrases, devices used to subordinate relatively unimportant words

and phrases, and devices used to eliminate unnecessary words and phrases

5.4.1. Combine Closely Related Sentences

Combine closely related sentences unless there is a compelling reason not to (such as

maintaining independent steps in a list of instructions or avoiding extreme sentence length): put

main ideas in main clauses. Many inexperienced writers have a tendency to use nothing but short,

simple sentences, producing a very choppy style of writing which irritates the reader with its sing-

song rhythm and, worse fails to put emphasis on important ideas. This tendency derives, probably,

from two principal sources: (1) An overemphasis in many quarters on the need to avoid dangling

modifiers, comma splices, and other problems associated with complex sentence structures, and (2)

Erroneous belief, promoted by readability formulas, short sentences make reading easier. Dangling

modifiers, comma splices, and other errors of sentence structure and punctuation should, of course

be avoided - but not at the expense of emphasis, unity, and coherence. And although a short

sentence by itself may be easier to read than a long sentence, the repeated use of short sentences

may have just the opposite effect The best approach to take regarding sentence length is to let the

form reflect the content. If an idea is complex enough to require qualification, the best way to

qualify it may be with a relative clause, an adverbial phrase, or some other complex modifier. On

the other hand, if an idea is simple and straightforward, a simple sentence may be the best way to

represent it. Often, these choices can be made properly only within the context of an entire

paragraph. For example consider the following paragraph from a student report:

ORIGINAL VERSION

At the present time electric car utilization is not possible. The problems holding it back

are satisfactory performance and costs. Performance problems of lack of speed, short

mileage range, and lack of acceleration are present. Cost problems are the price of

battery replacement and the base price of the electric car. It is possible though, with

research and development, that these problems can be solved in the future.

Each of the first two sentences, taken in isolation, is grammatically correct and easy to read.

When you look at them together, however, you notice that there excessive overlap between them:

sentence 2, in other words, contains too much given information (The problems holding it back).

This unnecessary redundancy can be eliminated by combining these sentences;

At the present time electric car utilization is not possible because of performance and

cost problems.


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Not only does this move reduce the wordiness of the first two sentences, it also creates a better topic

statement: it is more unified and emphatic, and it introduces the key terms performance problems

and cost problems, (notice how these terms are the subjects of the next two sentences). If we also

change sentence 3 to satisfy given-new and light-heavy criteria, we can reduce the wordiness of the

paragraph and increase its readability still further. The overall result is this:

FIRST REWRITE

At the present time electric car utilization is not possible because of performance

and cost problems. The performance problems are lack of speed, short mileage

range, and lack of acceleration. The cost problems are the price of batten

replacement and the base price of the car. It is possible, though with research and

development, that these problems can be solved in the future

This is a significant improvement, but we have other options that might improve it even more. For

example, now that we have converted the original sentence 2 into a prepositional phrase, we can

shift it into presubject position in place of the time adverbial originally there:

Because of performance and cost problems, electric CAN utilization is not possible at the

present lime.

This puts more focus on the key terms performance problems and cost problems and less focus on

the less time important time adverbial. Another change we could make, though not as compelling a

one as thos just described, would be to combine the two sentences in the middle

with a semicolon These two sentences are closely related in function; linking them formally would

reflect this relatedness

FINAL VERSION

Because of performance and cost problems, electric car utilization is not possible

at the present time. The performance problems are lack of speed, short mileage

range, and lack of acceleration: the cost problems are the price of battery

replacement and the base price of the car. It is possible. though, with research and

development that these problems can be solved in the future.

ln general, combining sentences is often a good way to create emphasis in your writing. By

making it easy for your readers to see the relatedness of ideas, you make it easier for them to absorb

these ideas. You can also show explicitly that one idea is logically subordinate to another by putting

the more important idea in the main clause of the sentence and the less important idea in a

subordinate clause. For example, suppose you wanted to combine the two sentences in italics in the

following paragraph:

NEGATIVE EXAMPLE

Electric cars must be able to meet the same safety standards that gasoline cars must

meet as set up by the Ministry of Environmental Affairs. These standards are derived

from an established crash test. In the crash test, the car is propelled against a solid wall

at 30 mph. The data obtained from the crash test are analyzed for fuel spillage, fuel

system integrity, windshield retention, and zone intrusion.

In combining the two italicized sentences, we could subordinate the more detailed sentence to the

more general first one:


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These standards are derived from an established car test in which the car is propelled against a

solid wall at 30 mph.

Alternatively, we could maintain prominence on the details and subordinate instead the idea that the

crash test is an established one:

These standards are derived from propelling the car against a solid wall at 30 mph. which is an

established car test.

Clearly the first option is the more appropriate one in this context: the fact that the crash test is an

established one underscores the main idea of the paragraph, as stated in the topic sentence.

REVISED VERSION

Electric cars must be able to meet the same safety standards that gasoline cars must

meet as set up by the Department of Transportation. These standards are derived

from an established crash test in which the car is propelled against a solid wall at

30 mph. The data obtained from the crash test are analyzed for fuel spillage, fuel

system integrity, windshield retention, and zone intrusion.

There are times when it is best not to combine sentences. For example, if you are giving a list of

instructions and want to emphasize independent steps in accordance with how the user might carry

out the instructions, you might want to state these steps in independent sentences. To see how this

might apply in a specific case, consider the following set of instructions for replacing

a brake line an automobile:

1. Disconnect the union nuts at both ends

2. Unclip the line from the chassis

3. Pull the line out

4. Install the new line in the chassis clips

5. Moisten the ends in brake fluid

6. Tighten the union nuts.

You could leave these set of instructions as is in the form of a formatted list Or you could

combine some of the steps ( 2 with 3. 5 with 6) to create more realistic four-step sequence of

disconnect-remove-install-reconnect. as is done in tins excerpt from a repair manual

To replace a brake line, disconnect the union nuts at both ends. Unclip the line

from the chassis and pull it out. install the new line in the chassis clips Moisten the

ends in brake fluid, then tighten the union nuts.

To combine sentences beyond this however, would be a mistake because it would destroy the

emphasis we want to maintain on certain individual steps. For example, if we were to combine

sentences 2 and 3 in the repair manual version, this would be the result:

NEGATIVE EXAMPLE

To replace a brake line, disconnect the union nuts at both ends Unclip the line

from the chassis, pull it out. and install the new line in the chassis clips.

Moisten the ends in brake fluid, then tighten the union nuts.

By lumping together the remove and install steps like this (Unclip the line from the chassis,

pull it out. and install the new line in the chassis clips), we would be creating an imbalance in the


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sequence: no mechanic would consider this to be a single step, as the form of the description

implies.

It is also best not to combine sentences when the result would be too long a sentence Suppose,

for example, you have been writuig a proposal for a computer-aided design system and have

included this paragraph in your summary.

The proposed system is required to alleviate the increase in demand. The

system will do that by removing the burden of data entry from the present

system. CADDS. This is accomplished by utilizing the microcomputer as a

stand-alone data entry system. The microcomputer has all of the graphics and

software capabilities required to implement this concept.

As it stands, this paragraph is a nicely written one. with an adequate topic statement, a clear

general-to-specific pattern of development, and properly constructed sentences satisfying the given-

new. light-heavy and topical criteria. The result is a highly readable paragraph with appropriate

emphasis on the main ideas and key words. If you were to combine the sentences into one. on the

other hand, much of this emphasis would be destroyed:

NEGATIVE EXAMPLE

The proposed system is required to alleviate the increase in demand by

utilizing the microcomputer as a stand-alone entry system with all the

necessary graphics and soft ware capabilities to remove the burden of data

entry from the present system. CADDS.

This is a more economical version, no doubt, insofar as it contains 16 fewer words than tic original.

But is it more readable? Absolutely not! In fact it is a perfect example of the kind of

incomprehensive gobbiedygook that so many readers of technical writing complain about. the

lesson to be learned from this example . then, is this: do not combine sentences just for the sake

of doing so; do it only when it serves a purpose.

5.4.2. Be Concise

While the more important words and phrases of a text should be highlighted, the less important

ones should be subordinated - or perhaps even eliminated altogether Unnecessary words and

phrases will only detract from the emphasis you have carefully tried to build up through the use of

combined sentences, signal words and identifiers. A bloated, wordy style can submerge your

readers in a sea of empty terms, making it next to impossible for them to follow. your main points

and be persuaded to your point of view. In' fact, foggy language is more likely than not to rum

readers against you.

Inexperienced writers sometimes think that they must use a wordy, bloated style of writing in

order to create a certain professional image. They seem to believe that by using pretentious

language, they will enhance their image as experts in their field. Actually, what evidence there is

suggests just the opposite: pretentious, wordy language is less likely to promote one's credibility as

an expert than is concise, direct, simple language. For example, consider the following two abstracts

presented in a conference; one version (Version 1) being noticeably wordier than the other (Version

2).


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Version 1

IN the experiment of the series using mice, it was discovered that total removal of the

adrenal glands effects reduction or aggressivenss and that aggressheness in

adrenalectomised mice is restorable to the level of intact mice by treatment with

corticosterone. These results point to the indispensability of the adrenals for the full t

expression of aggression. Nevertheless, since adrenalectomy is followed by an

increase in the release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). and since ACTH has

been . reported (P. Brain. 1972) to decrease the aggressiveness of intact mice, it is

possible that the effects of adrenalectomy on aggressiveness of intact mice, it is

possible that the effects of adrenalectomy on aggressiveness are a function of the

concurrent increased levels of ACTH. However, high levels of ACTH. in addition to

causing increases in glucocorticoids (which possibly accounts for the depression of

aggression in intact mice by ACTH). also result in decreased androgen levels. In view

of the fact that animals with low androgen levels are characterized by decreased

aggressiveness the possibility exists that adrenalectomy, rather than affecting

aggression directly, has the effect of reducing aggressiveness by producing an ACTH-

mediated condition of t decreased androgen levels.

Version 2

The experiment in our series with mice showed that the total removal of the

adrenal glands reduces aggressiveness. Moreover, when treated with corticosterone.

mice that had their adrenals taken out became as aggressive as intact animals again.

These findings suggest that the adrenals are necessary for animals to show full

aggressiveness.

But removal of the adrenals raises the levels of adrenocorticotrophic hormone

(ACTH). and P. Brain found that ACTH lowers the aggressiveness of intact mice.

Thus the reduction of aggressiveness after this operation might be due to the higher

levels of ACTH which accompany it.

However. high levels of ACTH have tow effects. First the level of glucocorticoids

rise, which might account for P. Brain's results. Second, the levels of androgen fall.

Since animals with low levels of androgenare less aggressive it is

possible that removal of the adrenals redues aggressiveness only drrectly by ratsing the levels

of ACTH it cuases androgen levels to drop .

Obviously, Version 2 is easier to read, and its style is more appropriate therefore the more concise

abstract of Version 2 (155 words versus 179 for Version 1) is definmtely preferred This style is not

so "noun-heavy", it has higher percentage of verbs and adectives than

Version 1. For example, instead of saying effects reduction of it simply says reduces lnstead of

point to the indispensability of the adrenals . it has suggests that the adrenals are necessary instead

of producing a condition of decrease androgen levels . it has couses androgen levels to drop Second

the Version 2 style has simpler sentence structure with fewer and shorter adverbial phrases before

the sentence subject This means that the reader reaches the main verb of the sentence sooner,

making it easier to process the sentence as a whole Thirdly, the Version 2 style avoids unnecessary


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technical terms in favor of more comrnooplace equivalents, even when it requires more words to

make the substitution In place of adrenalectmised mice, for example. Version 2 has mice that had

their adrenals taken out instead of are aunction of. there is are due to. Finally, the style of Version 2

uses more pronouns and demonstrative adjectives: their in sentence 2. these in sentence 3. this in

sentences5 and it in the last part of sentence 9. By contrast, the Version 1 style has only one

demonstrative These, leading off sentence 2 Pronouns and demonstrative adjectives, in general,

help make a text more cohesive - provided, of course, that it is clear to the reader what they refer to.

This last point deserves some discussion before we end. Scientists, engineers, and other

technical people sometimes use full nouns phrases repeatedly to avoid being "imprecise". They

have heard of cases, perhaps, where a single misinterpretation of a pronoun by a single reader has

led to some accident or mishap, which in turn has led to the writer's company being sued for

damages. Therefore, they tend to avoid pronouns and demonstratives altogether, preferring instead

to repeat full noun phrases over and over. This strategy is certainly a safe one. and indeed it should

be used in appropriate circumstances (such as when writing operating instructions for a potentially

hazardous macliine or when writing a legally binding contract). There are many circumstances,

however, where such caution is uncalled for. and where in feet it simply disrupts the coherence of

the text. Consider this example

NEGATIVE EXAMPLE

In order to keep from delaying the construction phase of the Office Building, the

Technical Division needs to know the loads that will be placed upon the footings. I

have investigated the proposed use of the structure and various footing systems to

determine the loads that will be placed upon the footings. This report gives the loads of

the footings and explains how these loads were derived

There is no reason to describe the loads every time they are referred to Pronouns and

demonstratives can be used instead without any real risk of misinterpretation, and the result will be

more coherent and more concise text.

REVISED VERSION

In order to keep from delaying the construction phase of the Office Building, the

Technical Division needs to know the loads that will be placed upon the footings. 1

have investigated the proposed use of the structure and various footing systems to

determine these loads. This report gives the loads and explains how they were derived

In general when you have to refer repeatedly to some object or concept that has first been

introduced with a long noun phrase, you can usually use a shortened version of tins noun phrase and

a demonstrative adjective or definite article without muck if any. risk of ambiguity


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6. PROJECT PROPOSAL

A project proposal deals with work plans of a certain subject.

Project proposals usually serve the following purposes with respect to the different functional

types of projects.

A) Institution building projects:

They help in the institutional building up, its approaches and capabilities, set standards of

performance and help continuing staff development.

B) Direct support projects:

Provide data, information and analysis of a certain idea and in some cases embody the

technical details and findings of a certain project.

C) DIRECT TRAINING PROJECTS.

D) Upgrading of the efficiency of certain institutions in industry, administration and

other activities.

E) Experimental and pilot projects:

Provide data, information and analysis on different aspects of experimental research or pilot

activities and the results thereof, in detailed support of the findings and the recommendations

of the project.

F) SPECIAL SUPPORT PROJECTS.

Which provide development support of communication, documentary services,

e.g. CAD, computer services...etc.

6.1. The contents of project proposal can be structured as follows:

a) Title page.

b) An abstract of the documentary output or a list of KEYWORDS reflecting the principal

subject fields of the project.

c) An introduction providing information on:

1) Project activity or subacthity related to the project proposal.

2) Project staff responsible for the production.

3) Specific purposes the project is intended to serve.

4) Different means and methods which could be utilized to achieve the goals of the project.

5) Future expected results on implementation of the included study.

d) A summary of findings and recommendations.

e) Substantive sections or chapters.

f) Annexes as appropriate.

6.2. NATURE OF THE REPORTS:

They may be:

1) Technical (production and upgrading).

2) Administrative.

3) Investment potential.

4) Training activities.


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6.3. Technical-industrial project proposals:

These proposals may deal mainly with.

1) Erection of completely new production line for a certain commodity, e.g. a fertilizer plant.

2) Upgrading the efficiency of already working industrial plants, e,g, pulp and paper, oil, leather

tanning factories.

3) Implementation of new production technologies and application of new machinery (research

and pilot plant projects) .

Such project proposals should include the following MAIN POINTS:

1- Present situation of the unit or state-of-art including.

a) Description of the commodity.

b) Raw materials required or used in daily and annually consumed amounts.

c) Production line chemicals, machinery, additives ..etc.

d) Services, water, electricity, man power, environmental conditions of the unit and

its suitability.

e) Cost of production, deficits, benefits, wages..etc.

f) Proposed capacity in case of installation of a completely new factory.

g) Pre-feasibility study of poini f.

2- Critical discussion of the present situation and proposed steps required for upgrading the

efficiency (not required in case of installation of new factories).

3- Recommendations for better production (technical and mechanical) and development of the

required steps to achieve the required targets.

4- A time schedule for implementation of the proposed project.

5- In case of new factory installation, study of foreign markets should be included, export-

import prices, foreign and local currency required...etc.

6- Different expenditure items required, total budget of the project ..etc.


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7. CHECKLIST FOR THE TECHNICAL REPORT

Use the following questions to ensure that your technical report is structured properly

according to common expectations:

Do you include all the required components in the required order, for example, transmittal

letter, followed by title page, followed by figure list, and so on? (See the chapter on report

format for details.)

Do you address your report to a real or realistic audience that has a genuine need for your

report? (See this chapter and the chapter on audience for details.) Do you identify in the

introduction what background the audience needs to read and understand your report?

Does your report contain specific, factual detail focused on the purpose of the report and the

needs of the audience and aimed at their level of understanding?

Does your report accomplish its purpose? Is that purpose clearly stated in the introduction?

Does your report use information sources and do you properly document them? (See the

chapter on finding information and the chapter on documenting borrowed information for

details.)

Does your report use the format for headings that is standard for this course? (See the

chapter on headings for details.)

Does your report use the format for lists that is standard for this course? (See the chapter on

lists for details.)

Does your report use graphics and tables? Does your report use the format for graphics and

tables that is standard for this course? Specifically, are your figure titles (captions) to our

class specifications? (See the chapter on graphics and tables for details.)

Is page 1 of your introduction designed according to the standard for this course? (See the

chapter on report format for details.)

Does every new section (which starts with a first-level heading) start on a new page? Have

you check for widowed headings (headings that start at the very bottom of a page)? stacked

headings (two or more consecutive headings without intervening text)? lone headings (a

single heading within a section)? parallelism in the phrasing of headings? (See the chapter

on headings for details.)

Does the title page of your report include a descriptive abstract, and is it written according to

the specifications in the chapter on abstracts?

Do you include an informative abstract in your report; is it positioned properly in relation to

the other report components; and is it written according to the specifications in the chapter

on abstracts? Specifically, does your informative abstract summarize the key facts and

conclusions of your report rather than act as just another introduction or descriptive

abstract?

Does the introduction of your report include the elements necessary in good introductions,

such as audience, overview, purpose? Do you avoid the problem of having too much

background in the introduction, or having an introduction that is all background? (See the

chapter on introductions for details.)

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/final.html



http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/aud.html

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/libris.html

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/docu.html

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/headings.html

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/lists.html

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/graphics.html


http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/headings.html

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/abstrax.html

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/abstrax.html

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/textbook/introds.html

Technical Report Writing

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