Book # 1

BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND VOCABULARY

TECHNICAL ENGLISH COURSE M.Sc. Rosa Elena Cabrera Toapanta

LATACUNGA - ECUADOR

AERONAUTICAL CAREER This content has been prepared as a teaching guide for students of the aeronautical career, who need to master the English grammatical structures to develop an understanding of the technical information regarding various aircraft, all this through a collaborative and personal work.

M.Sc. Rosa E. Cabrera T. ENGLISH TEACHER AND TECHNICAL TRANSLATOR AT ECUADORIAN AIR FORCEEmail: rosehelenct@gmail.comMethodological Suggestions

1. Read, study and comprehend the grammatical rules included in the different units.

2. Solve the exercises.

3. Check, verify and correct the answers.

4. Study and comprehend the lists of words (nouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions, etc.), which appear at the end of each unit.

UNI 1

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLESA. A/AN have the same meaning, and are used before singular nouns.

A repair has the necessary structural strength.

An airplane is delivered for repair. B. The indefinite articles a, an depends on the pronunciation of the words that follow the articles, not their spelling. AN is used before a consonant sound (a, e, I, o, u) and a before consonants (all the other letters i.e., b, c, d, f, g).

C. When u is pronounce as /ju:/, use a.

a unit

Use an before h, when h is not pronounced.

an hour

an HEPA (High Efficiency Particle Arrestor)

D. Do not use a or an before plural nouns.

There could be some cracks. Corrosion inhibitors are materials.

E. Weak forms of one are: a / an. We use the full form one when we emphasize the number one, not two, three, four, etc. One plane arrived late, not two.

Apply one layer of paint not two. PLURAL COUNT FORMS

-es to words ending in: ch; ; s ; z ; sh ; x

-es changing

y to i to words ending in a consonant + y

-s to other wordsIrregular

plurals have

different forms:

Nouns ending in f or fe, delete the f/fe and add ves

boxesswitchesclassesinchesbrushescapabilitiesresponsibilitiesimpuritieslibraries

discrepancies

drillscoilstablestires

plugschildren

feet

men

Shelf=shelvesLife=lives

DEMONSTRATIVESSPEAKERSINGULARPLURAL

Close toThisThese

Farther fromThatThose

A. We can use this, that, these and those:

Before a noun

(Adjective)Without a following noun (Pronoun)

This report is for you.That connector is rated for the specified operation.These inserts shall be retained within the shell.Those contacts eliminate damage from abuse. This is for you.

That is circular threaded.

These are of a void less construction.

These help to correct any misaligned pins during the engagement.

SOME, ANY, NO

A. Some and any are used to talk about an indefinite quantity.

This section gives some data about the types of mechanical fasteners.

Do not cut into any surrounding structures.

B. Some and any are used before uncountable nouns (oil, fuel, grease) and plural nouns (clamps, blades, nuts).

C. Some is generally used in affirmative sentences and any in negative sentences.

There are some blisters or evidence of scaling and flaking.

Cracks or holes are not allowed in any web of bulkhead stations 294.50 and 1156.

D. Any is used in affirmative sentences that really have a negative meaning; for instance, with words like never, without, hardly.

It never gives any good results.

The plane got there without any trouble. Theres hardly any oil left.

E. Any can also mean it doesnt matter which. (Affirmative sentence)

Scratches may be oriented in any direction.

Damage is defined as any visible change to the surface of an airplane part.

F. Nois usedbeforea noun whilenotisused afterthe auxiliary verb. No meansnot a / not any.

There are no scratches or missing primer on the fuselage.

There are not any scratches or missing primer on the fuselage.

THE POSSESSIVE CASE (S AND S)A. This possessive case is used to show ownership. The pilots bag = the bag of the pilot (singular)

The passengers passports = the passports of the passengers (plural)

B. Normally of is used for things. Preparation for removal and installation of transformer-rectifier

Apply a light coat of lubricant to both sides of gasket

ONE, ONES

A. Use one instead of repeating a singular noun.

A: The mechanic is removing the old fastener.

B: Did you order the new one? (= the new fastener)

B. Use ones instead of repeating a plural noun.

A: Do you need large bolts or small ones. (= small bolts)

B: Large ones. (= large bolts)

C. Only use one and ones in place of countable nouns.

ANTICIPATORY ITIn some sentences the pronoun it comes before, or anticipates, the subject of a sentence. It does not refer to a particular person or thing; it only takes the position before the verb usually filled by the subject.ITVERB (BE)ADJECTIVETHAT NOUN CLAUSE

ITisanticipated (that)the circuit can be affected by another circuit.

ITwasessential(that)all turnbuckle terminals be screwed into the barrel.

CONJUNCTIONS and SENTENCE CONNECTORS

A. Coordinating conjunctionsareconjunctionswhich connect two equal parts of a sentence.

B. A subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it depends for its full meaning.C. Correlative conjunctions appear in pairs. Either...orNeither...norboth...andNot only...but also

And is used as a conjunction when the words or phrases are of equal importance and both conditions exist. It shows addition, complementary (+) and

Each seat back is hydraulically reclining,furthermore

moreover

in addition

also

as well as

besides

in fact

similarly

likewiseyou can manually fold the back forward.

The conjunction 'but' is used to show contrast, contradiction or concession between two phrases. The first phrase leads you to expect a certain event and the second phrase tells you quite a contradictory outcome.

Difference, comparison, incompatibility

(-) But

The system was inoperative;

however,

whereas,

whilst,

although,

despite,

in spite of,

nevertheless

even though,

in contrast,

nonetheless,

on the contrary,

on the other hand,

regardless ofthe aircraft took off.

Notice the punctuation. If the word(s) begin the sentence, a comma follows the dependent clause.

However, if all AC generators are lost, the aircraft battery will continue to supply DC electrical power to operate vital systems.

Condition (()

These terms are used to introduce a conditional clause of provisionality. This clause states a requirement, a demand, or an essential condition.

The back jaw can be used as an anvil

All dimensions are in inches,if,

unless,

provided (that),

providing (that),

only if,

whether or not,

should,

whilethe work being done is light.

otherwise specified.

Time (()

DO not return the cylinder to service

until

after

before

since

whenwheneverwhileas soon asas long asthe test has been accomplished.

Used to introduce clauses that state the purpose for which something is done.

Consequence, result: (()So

The flame should be kept moving;Small openings are created at the edges of the tape;The skins are so thin;so that,

therefore,consequently,thus,as a result,

hence,accordingly,

the metal does not overheat.air can escape.

they do not block the radar signals.

Reason, explanation

(( ) As

Blades that have been heated for any repair must be rejected;since,

because,

because of

due to,only cold straightening is authorized.

Objective (()

I'll use a digital clock

Hydraulic pressure must be regulatedso as to,

to,

in order tonot be confused the hours.

use it to perform the desired tasks.

A summation is a brief summary of main points or a restatement of the main idea. It can also be a statement which combines effect or results with a summary. Most summations begin with an adverbial phrase.

Consequently,

In brief,

All in all,

In all,

In conclusion,

To conclude,

To put it briefly,

In short,

To summarize,

In other words,

In summary,longeron repair is similar to stringer repair.

light can produce electricity using a solar cell.

RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES THAT-WHICH

Adjective clauses can be introduced by the relative pronouns.

That/which/who and relate to the subject of the clauses. In this type of structure, the clauses are linked to part or all the main clauses.

WHICH/ THAT/

Adjective clauses may be introduce by the relative pronouns which/that and relate to the object of the clause. The relative pronouns may be omitted.

A paint booth may be a small room in which components of an aircraft are painted.

The aircrafts voltage depends on which battery is selected for that aircraft.

These conditions can cause arcing, which may result in a fire or system failures.

Terminal strips should be mounted in such a manner that loose metallic objects cannot fall across the terminals or studs.

Some aircraft have nacelles that are designed to house the landing gear when retracted.

WHERE/WHEN used as relative Adv.

Someone adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative adverbs. Where/ when are relative to the place or time.

A specifically designed switch should be used in all circuits where a switch malfunction would be hazardous.

Contact burning or welding may occur when the switch is closed.

The speed brake control in the cockpit can deploy all spoiler and speed brake surfaces fully when operated.

Fixtures and/ or jigs should be used where possible.

EMPHATIC DO

When we want to stress or emphasize an action, we can use do, does, or did before the verb.

Schematic diagrams do indicate the location of components.

The rib lacks a cap strip, but does have a flange around the entire piece.

The oxidizing flame does have some specific uses.

IMPERATIVE

A. Use the imperative form in:

Instructions

Warnings

Invitations

Offers

Advice

Requests

Do not perform wire repair while using explosive solvent/paint products on the aircraft. Remove 12 mounting nuts (3) (and washers, if installed) and discard.

B. To make imperative more polite, we can use the word please. Tighten the nut, please.

C. The imperative has exactly the same form as the infinitive without TO: it is used for giving orders, making suggestions, and encouraging people to do thing.

Sand off any excess and prepare the area for refinishing.

D. An imperative can be made more emphatic by putting do before it.

Do protect the interiors of structural steel and aluminum tubing against corrosion.

E. Negative imperatives are constructed with do not (or dont) Dont worry.

Do not lean out of the window.

TENSES

Present Tense of the Verb BeA. There are three basic completions for sentences that begin with a subject + the verb be:

A noun, as in:

The manager is an Air Force officer. The technicians are airmen.

An adjective, as in: The inspection of rib upper chord is applicable

An expression of place, as in:

The manager is in the hangar. The airmen are in the hangar too.

Present SimpleA. The present tense is the fundamental tense of technical English and is the basic tense of all technical documentation. It is mostly used in the 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they).

The fuselage acts as a pendulum suspended from the rotor.

Hand tools include rivet cutters, bucking bars, hand riveters, countersinks, and dimpling tools.

B. The present simple is used to describe all generalities, systems, processes, recurring phenomena, laws, etc.

A transformer changes electrical energy.

Connector backshells come in a wide variety of types depending on the application.

C. The present simple is used to talk about things that happen repeatedly for example, every day, usually, often or sometimes.

The rivet head often breaks away and climbs the drill, which is a signal to withdraw the drill.

D. The present simple is also used to talk about facts that are generally true.

Atmospheric temperature changes cause the humidity in the air to condense on the inside of aircraft surfaces and pool in all low areas.

E. After he/she/it, verbs end in s or es, e.g. he works; she goes.

-es after s/-ch/-sh:pass(passes watch( watchesfinish(finishes

do (does go (goes

study ( studies carry ( carries

A light illuminates inside the button to indicate that it is pressed.

F. Use do/does + not for negative sentences.

Aluminum alloys do not possess the corrosion resistance of pure aluminum.

The neutral flame is used for most welding because it does not alter the composition of the base metal.

Present ContinuousA. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The present continuous is used to talk about something that is happening at the moment we speak.

Examples:

The use of structural adhesives is becoming widespread within the aircraft field, both for repair and for initial fabrication.

C. Spelling:

work ( working run ( running lie (lying

remove ( removing be ( being

Past Tense of the Verb BeA. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The past tense of the verb be (was/were) is used to talk about a definite time in the past e.g., last week, yesterday, in 1980, two years ago etc.

Examples:

The damage became readily apparent when the cable was removed and bent.

When the spark plugs are removed from the engine, identify them to coincide with the cylinder and location from which they were removed.

Take care to ensure the electrolyte is returned to the cell from which it was extracted.

Were any malfunctions reported in-flight involving true airspeed?

Past SimpleA. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The past simple is used to talk about a definite time in the past, e.g., last year, yesterday, in 1980, two years ago etc.

C. Many verbs are regular. The past simple of regular verbs ends in ed, e.g., work ( worked.

Example:

The color code and contact size corresponded to the information contained on the data plate.

GTC (Gas Turbine Compressor) did not sustain rotation when GTC control switch was released to RUN.

D. Some verbs have irregular past simple forms e.g., go ( went. ( See page 238. Past ContinuousA. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The past continuous is used for something that was in the middle of happening at a past time or to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted.

C. Spelling:

work ( working run ( running lie (lying

remove ( removing be ( being

Present PerfectA. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The present perfect is used to talk about something that started in the past and continuous up to the present.

I have worked in CEMA for three years. (I work in CEMA now)

C. The past simple is used for something that started and finished in the past.

I worked in CEMA for three years. (I do not work in CEMA now)

D. The present perfect is also used to talk about experiences in our lives, up to now.

E. The present perfect is also used to talk about a past action, when we can see the result of the action now.

The pilot has damaged the plane. (The plane is damaged now)

have/has + past participle.

The past participle of regular verbs ends in ed e.g., work ( worked Some verbs have irregular past participle forms, e.g., be (been)Going ToA. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. We use going to talk about something that we have already decided to do in the future.

C. We also use going to when we can see a future action coming because of the present situation.

A thorough review of the aircraft manufacturers service instructions is going to provide many helpful suggestions on inspections.Modals WILL - SHALL

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The modal auxiliary verb will is used to express a mandatory declaration of purpose or when it is necessary to express a future event.

The modal auxiliary verb shall is used to express a provision that is compulsory.

Maintenance personnel shall refer to specific aircraft maintenance technical order for special instructions for use of these bolts.

Overheating will cancel the memory and melt the filaments.

Coatings other than dope will not increase fabric tension after aging.

CAN

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The modal auxiliary verb Can is used to express ability.

C. Can is also used to physical or technical capacity.

Examples:

These dimensional changes can have detrimental effects upon a wood structure, particularly when two parts are bonded together with grains in different directions.

Over tightening of fittings can also cause crushing of the underlying wood member and possible bending of the metal fitting.

COULD

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) is mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

The modal auxiliary verb Could is used to express possibility.

Consult the local fire department for authority to use specific equipment. Noncompliance could cause personnel injury.

If the water touches molten magnesium, a steam explosion could occur. B. Could is also used as the past form of can:

A man fell into the fuel tank yesterday. The technicianscouldn'tsave him.

MUST

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) are mostly used as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The modal auxiliary verb Must is used when we think that something is necessary.

Shop procedures must follow the manufacturers recommendations.

C. Must is also used to talk about the present, e.g., I must change the tire now, or the future e.g., I must change the tire tomorrow.

D. To talk about the past, we use had to : Example:

I had to change the tire yesterday.

E. Must not is used to tell someone not to do something.

F. In technical and legal English, shall does not indicate the future, but an idea of necessity. Shall = must.G. Must, shall and have to are commonly used to express necessity.

The repair parts must not cause a blockage of any floor beam holes.

Remove maximum depth of a scratch or gouge must not exceed that given for pressurized fuselage skins.

MAY, MIGHT

A. The modal auxiliary verbs May and Might express probability and are used to indicate that an action or event could happen.

B. In a technical context, these apply more to natural phenomena, unplanned technical incident, malfunction, etc., and also indicate an acceptable or suggested means of accomplishment.

Excess tension may warp critical components, such as longerons, wing rib, and trailing edges out of position, weakening the airframe structure.

The surface might be difficult to wet due to the presence of wax.

SHOULD

A. The modal auxiliary verb Should is used to express a recommendation or advice rather than a necessity, about the present or the future. Should also indicates a non-mandatory but preferred method of accomplishment.

Electrical junctions should be mechanically and electrically secure.

B. If "should" comes at the beginning of a sentence, and the sentence is not a question, then it can be replaced with "if". There is no difference at all.

Should freezing or seizing occur, a sharp twist of the operators wrist usually disengages the electrode from the parent metal.

If freezing or seizing occurs, a sharp twist of the operators wrist usually disengages the electrode from the parent metal.VERB TENSES

We can find few tenses in technical documents, and the verb forms are variants of the infinitive form.

Verbal Forms

InfinitivePresentPastPast participlePresent participle

To repairrepair - repairsrepairedrepairedrepairing

To cutcut - cutscutcutcutting

To writewrite - writeswrotewrittenwriting

A. The infinitive form in technical language is used to express an action that is a purpose of something. Example:

The purpose is to prevent back-flow through the pressure relief valves.

B. The present form in technical English is used in the present simple tense with the 3rd person singular (it) or 3rd person plural (they). It describes generalizations, systems, processes, etc. Example:

The performance of the system depends on the quality of the design.

C. The past form of technical information is used to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Example:

The mechanic followed manufacturers instructions wherever applicable to prevent injury

D. The past participle form is used in perfect tenses, in both present and past tense, and they are also used for passive voice. Examples:

Tear is a discontinuity which has progressed through the full thickness of the material.

In areas where minor amounts of oil or grease have penetrated the wood surface, removal may be accomplished by use of an absorbent type of cleaner

Many of the illustrations have been provided by the manufacturers.

E. The present participle form is used with the progressive tenses and also as adjective or noun. Examples:

This is essential in order to clearly see the parts you are inspecting.Burnishing is the polishing of a surface by sliding contact with another smooth, harder metallic surface.

A cable cutting blade has no teeth.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

A. The passive voice is used in writing much more often than in speech. It can be found in newspapers and magazine articles, and it is very common in scientific and technical writing.

B. In the active voice the subject does the action.

C. In the passive voice the subject receives the action.

Passive Verb-FormsA. Passive verb-forms are made with the different tenses of to be, followed by a past participle.

TENSEPASSIVE VOICE

Present simpleEnglish is taught here.

Present progressiveThe aircraft is being painted.

Past simpleI was not informed.

Past progressiveI felt as if I was being watched.

Present perfectThe rudder has been repaired.

Present perfect progressiveThe scan has been being started.

Past perfectI knew why I had been chosen.

Past perfect progressiveI have known how long the aircraft had been being inspected.

FutureYoull be told in advance.

Future progressiveYoull be being nominated in the near future.

Future perfectEverything will have been done by the 20th.

Future perfect progressiveBy next year, the new hangar will have been being built.

Going toWho is going to be trained?

Modal structureHe ought to be careful.

Modal structureHe should be careful.

Passive voice:

Maximum paint thickness was determined by lightning testing.

Perfect tenses:

Wipe off MEK before it has evaporated with a clean cloth.

As an adjective form:

Today, scientists are also interested in how the atmosphere affects the performance of the aircraft and its equipment.

PARTICIPLES

There are two kinds of participles in English: present participle and past participle.

A. Present Participle:

The present participle is the ing-form.

Progressive / continuous tenses: I am speaking.

As an adjective form: The film is interesting.

As a gerund: He is afraid of flying.

As a noun: Improper functioning of brakes could cause serious consequences.

B. Spelling rules for the formation of the Present Participle.

RULEEXAMPLE

Base form of the verb + '-ing ':workingfixing

If a one or two syllable verb ends in consonant + vowel + consonant, double the final consonant and add '-ing ':runningstopping

occurringbeginning

When a verb ends in '-l ' the '-l' is doubled and '-ing' is added (in British English):travelling

cancelling

When a verb ends in silent '-e ', the silent '-e' is dropped and '-ing' is added:closingmoving

When a verb ends in an '-e ' which is not silent, the final '-e' is not dropped and the ending '-ing ' is added:being

agreeingseeing

When a verb ends in '-ie ', the '-ie ' is changed to '-y' and the ending '-ing ' is added:tie tying

lie - lying

I use a knife for cutting leather.

After completing a few inspections you will be surprised at how familiar you will be with your aircraft.

Oxidation is called rusting when talking about ferrous materials.

Participles used as adjectivesA. Many adjectives can be identified by their endings. Another major subclass of adjectives can also be formally distinguished by endings, this time by -ed or -ing endings:

-ed formcomputerized, determined, placed, deleted, cracked, misunderstood, unknown

-ing formannoying, exasperating, gratifying, misleading, worrying

Remember that some -ed forms, such as misunderstood and unknown, do not end in -ed at all.

B. We use the -ed participle as a subject adjective; it describes how the subject of a sentence feels or how we feel about something:

He was interested in the program.

The technician is exhausted.C. We use the -ing participle as an object adjective; it describes the object of the sentence or talks about the person or thing that makes us feel interested:

The program was interesting (for him). If a story is exciting, you are excited when you read it.

After a tiring day, you feel tired.

You may be worried if you have a worrying problem.

D. When we put participles before a noun, it usually expresses some more permanent characteristic: it is more like an adjective than a verb: a broken window, an interesting handbook.

E. Finally, most participial adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively:

AttributivePredicative

That's an irritating noiseThat noise is irritating

This is an exciting filmThis film is exciting

When participial adjectives are used predicatively, it may sometimes be difficult to distinguish between the adjectival and verbal uses:

Consider the following pair:

[1] The noise is annoying

[2] The noise is annoying the employees

In [1], we can modify annoying using very:

[1a] the noise is (very) annoying

But we cannot modify it in the same way in [2]:

[2a] *the noise is (very) annoying the employees

We can also identify -ing forms as verbal if it is possible to change the -ing form into a non-progressive verb:

ProgressiveNon-progressive

The inspectors are workingThe inspector work

The paint is dryingThe paint dries

The presence of a by-agent phrase (by the manufacturers manual, by the schematic diagram) indicates that the -ed form is verbal. Conversely, the presence of a complement, such as a that-clause, indicates that it is adjectival.

-ing formA. -ing form after verb.- The most common verbs usually B. followed by the ING form in technical contents are:

advise allow anticipate appreciate admit attempt avoid begin carry on - complete - cant help - can't stand - consider continue defer - delay - deny detest dislike -discuss endure - enjoy escape - excuse face - feel like finish forbid forget - get through - give up - go on - have help imagine intend involve - keep like leave off - mention - mind miss permit postpone practice - prefer-propose - put off quit recall recommend remember regret resent - remember report resist - resume - risk - see spend (time) - start stop suggest tolerate try understand - waste (time) - watch

To lower potential fire hazards, avoid using electric sanders around dope, paints, and adhesives.

C. -In form after a preposition. - The ing form is used after all prepositions.

You should check the oil before starting.

D. -ing form special cases.- Use the ing form after: as, like, than, any/some/no.

Any binding or malfunctioning of an engine control system should be traced to its source and corrected.

Why dont you do something useful, like cleaning the hangar?

E. -ing form or infinitive.- Some verbs can be followed by either an ing form or an infinitive. The most important are:

attempt- can afford cant bear begin cease commence continue dislike dread hate intend like loathe love neglect prefer propose remember (cant) stand start try undertake

Some people hate working/to work in the early morning.

F. When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerundora present participle. It is important to understand that they are not the same.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like anoun, it is usually a gerund: Gathering and distributing various air pressures for flight instrumentation is the function of the pitot-static system.

Heating the probe must not affect the resistance of the sensor element.ADJECTIVES

A. An adjective always has the same form to talk about singular, plural, masculine, feminine.

B. Adjectives say what something is or seem like. They can be used in two ways:

1. Before nouns. This is called attributive positionatypicalrepair

When we use more than one adjective in a phrase, this order is usually followed:

AgeColorOriginMaterialPurposeNoun

anewblackSwissplasticarmyknife

2. In the complement of a sentence This is called predicative position. This happens when we are really describing the subject of the sentence, not the action of the verb.

the old unitthe unit is old

the faulty panelthe panel is faulty

the electrical wiringthe wiring is electrical

C. Sometimes an adjective does occur immediately after a noun, especially in certain institutionalized expressions:

The Director General

Times past

D. We refer to these as POSTPOSITIVE adjectives. Postposition is obligatory when the adjective modifies a pronoun:

somethinguseful

everyonepresent

thoseresponsible

COMPARISONS

Comparison of Adjectives and AdverbsA. The comparative form is used to compare two thing or people.

These fasteners have a shank diameter larger than hex-drive bolts.

B. The superlative is use to compare three or more things or people.

The depth of rework is the largest.

C. The word than is used after the comparative and the before the superlative

larger than

the largest

D. Form of comparative and superlative adjectives: Short adjectives (adjectives of one syllable), add er / -estCOMPARATIVESUPERLATIVE

thick

loosethicker

looserthickestloosest

E. Longer adjectives (adjectives of three or more syllables), need more / most.

COMPARATIVESUPERLATIVE

important

(im por - tant)

expensive

(ex pen sive)more important

more expensivethe most important

the most expensive

F. Adjectives of two syllables ending in a consonant + -y (-ty) take out the y and add ier / - iest.

COMPARATIVESUPERLATIVE

dirty

(dir ty)dirtierthe dirtiest

G. Most other adjectives of two syllables use more / most.

COMPARATIVESUPERLATIVE

modern

(mo dern)

careful

(care ful)more modern

more carefulthe most modernthe most careful

H. Some words have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

COMPARATIVESUPERLATIVE

good

bad

farbetterworse

further/fartherthe best

the worst

the furthest/farthest

I. The correlative construction as ... as is an excellent method of indicating similarity, or dissimilarity:

The ferritic steels are not as tough at cryogenic temperature as at room temperature.

J. Double comparative

There is a method of comparison with the idiomatic construction of: the .., the: Two comparatives are used to express two parallel progressions, states, etc.

The larger the contact, the larger the difference

The lower the temperature, the more brittle the steel becomes.

The socket inside diameter will be from 0.002 to 0.005 inch larger than the pin outside diameter. The larger the contact, the larger the difference

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

The mechanic is careful.

It is a bad opinion.All personnel must observe the danger areas carefully.

It functions badly.

A. Compare:

He is a very slow worker. He is working very slowly.

B. An adjective (slow, clear, heavy etc.) describes the qualities of people or things; used before nouns or after the verb be (is, are).

He is a very cautious technician.

The nozzle is very large.

It is very old.

C. Adjectives always have the same form for singular, plural, masculine or feminine. Examples:

a new cylinder two new cylinders

a new valve two new valvesD. An adverb of manner (carefully, periodically, directly) describes how something happens.

He submits information carefully.

They must be inspected periodically.

Place a short sleeve directly over the spray nozzle.

Formal Characteristics of AdverbsAdjectiveslowquicksoftsuddengradual

Adverbslowlyquicklysoftlysuddenlygradually

E. Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding ly to the adjective.

ADJECTIVEADVERB

slowcarefulslowly

carefully

F. Words ending in a consonant + -y (-ty) take away y and add -ily.

ADJECTIVEADVERB

greasysteadygreasily

steadily

G. Words ending in le, change the le to ly.

ADJECTIVEADVERB

adjustablecomfortableadjustably

comfortably

H. Some words are also used as both adjectives and adverbs.

You are a fast worker.

You work fast.

You are a hard worker.

You work hard.

I. The following verbs can only be used with adjectives:

Be, become, get, grow, keep, remain, seem, sound, stay, turn.

ADVERBS

A. Adverbs are used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb:

[1] The pilot flies carefully

[2] The mechanics are extremely clever

[3] This plane goes incredibly fast

In [1], the adverb carefully tells us how the pilot flies. In [2], extremely tells us the degree to which the mechanic is clever. Finally, in [3], the adverb incredibly tells us how fast the plane goes.

B. With verbs, we use adverbs to give more information about the action to say how, where or when it is done:

Carefully inspect the entire air system periodically.

The engine is very quiet. It runs very quietly.

C. Other words that end in ly can be both adjectives and adverbs (daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early).

A daily report is published daily.

We get up early to catch an early plane.

D. But some words that end in ly are adjectives, not adverbs. For example: costly, timely, kindly, oily, orderly, quarterly. These words cannot be used as adverbs.

He works in a very orderly way.

NOUN ADJUNCTS

Adjectives usually modify or describe

A loose bolt

A heavy aircraft

Nouns can also modify nouns. They are called noun adjuncts. They are always singular.

A hangar that repairs aircraft is a repair station.

My brother drives trucks. He is a truck driver.

1. A tank for fuel.

A fuel tank

2. Maintenance for an aircraft.

Aircraft maintenance

3. A tank that has oil in it.

Oil tank

The Noun as Adjective StructureA. The word order in technical English is very important. Aeronautical technical terms use a lot compound words. They have a head word and the words before it are a qualifier that is a chain of words (they function as adjectives).

NOUN AS ADJECTIVEHEAD WORDMEANING

Fuelcontrolcontrol of the fuel

Flightplanplan for flight

Empennagestructurestructure of the empennage

Aviationmechanicmechanic of aviation

Safetyclipsclips for safety

B. The exact relationship between the first word and the second depends on the particular expression. For instance:

Place. - The first noun gives the place that the second comes from, or is found in, or is used in, or happens in.

the office party

the skin crack

a traffic jam

Time. - The first gives the time when the second happens, or the time when the second is meant to be used.

day vision

night glasses

night watch

Material. - The first noun says what the second consists of.

aluminum fuselage

magnesium surface

paint film

Functional relationship. - The first noun says something about the function, job, or role of the second: what it is used for.

hinge support

control tower

maintenance technician

Direct object. - The second refers to an activity. The first noun is the direct object of the verb that describes that activity.

traffic control (somebody controls traffic)

damage repair ( somebody repairs damages)

hardness tester (somebody tests hardness)

Complement.- If the second noun was the subject of a clause, the first noun would be the complement (after be)

a man driver ( the driver is a man)

Part.- The second noun refers to a part or section of the first.

a table leg

the plane door

a panel button

Measurement.- we usually use the noun as adjective structure.

a ten-pound box

a five-liter can

two 20-liter tanks

C. The basic principle in a compound word is that one word is the key word or the head word, the smallest item in the chain, and the other words are the qualifiers (nouns or adjectives) used to identify it.

QUALIFIERQUALIFIERQUALIFIERQUALIFIERQUALIFIERQUALIFIERHEAD WORD

AircraftMaintenanceManual

ForwardFuselageWindshieldSealing

HorizontalStabilizerTrainingEdgePanels

MainLandingGearDoorAllowableDamage

LowerAftNacelleAccessDoorLatchAdjustment

D. The sense of compound words depends on the word order; the head word is the last word. The interpretation must be logical, avoid translating literally.

COMPOUND WORDSMEANING

Stall warning transmittera device which produces a signal to warn

Superchrgae control systemthe system of controlling the supercharger

Thread ring gagea ring-type gage used for checking external threads

Carburetor air temperaturethe temperature of the induction air before it enters the carburetor

Cold tank systema lubrication system wherein the oil cooler is located in the scavenge oil subsystem

PREPOSITIONS

A. They are used to show the relationship of a noun or the object of the preposition to some other word in the sentence.

B. Prepositions typically come before a noun:

across hangar after work at home before Tuesday by Shakespearefor lunch

in Latacunga

on fire

to school

with pleasure

C. The prepositions which we have looked at so far have all consisted of a single word, such as in, of, at, and to. We refer to these as SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS.

D. COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS consist of two- or three-word combinations acting as a single unit. Here are some examples: according to along with apart from because of contrary todue to except for instead of prior to regardless of

Like simple prepositions, these two-word combinations come before a noun:

according to the FAR

contrary to my advice

due to complaint

E. Three-word combinations often have the following pattern:

Simple PrepositionNounSimple Preposition

We can see this pattern in the following examples:

in aid of on behalf of in front of in accordance with in line within line with in relation to with reference to with respect to by means of

Again, these combinations come before a noun:

in aid of contributions

in front of the window

in line with inflation

PREPOSITIONS: WHERE?Use prepositions to complete this page. The first or the last letter is given

PREPOSITIONS: WHERE TO?

Use prepositions to complete this page. The first or the last letter is given

SUFFIXES & PREFIXESMany words in English are formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to base forms. A base form, or stem, is the most basic form of a word. To this base form, we may add a prefix at the beginning or a suffix at the end.

Base form:rely

Suffix -able: reliable

Prefix un-: unreliable

SUFFIXES FUL AND LESS

We can add the suffixes ful and less to some nouns to make adjectives. The suffixes ful and less have opposite meanings:

Useful full or having; and

Useless without or not having

SUFFIX LYAdjectives are changed into adverbs adding LY.

correct correctly slow slowly

careful Carefullyimmediate immediately

easy easily reasonable reasonably

SUFFIX-ER

The suffix-er and or can be added to some verbs to make nouns to express the meaning of one who or that which

He teaches students to read.

Hes a teacher

She operates radios.

She is a radio operator.

*Collector, visitor, educator, and instructor are spelled with or.

SUFFIX -WARDThe suffix -ward (s) is used to form adjectives and adverbs which indicate a direction in time or space.

EXAMPLES: northward, southward, eastward, westward, upward (s), downward (s), backward (s).

SUFFIXES ENT / - ANT

We can add the suffixes ent / - ant to some verbs to make adjectives. They express that has, shows or does

absorbabsorbentdifferdifferent

insistinsistentassistassistant

ADJECTIVES SUFFIXES

The following suffixes can be added to nouns to form adjectives:

-ysilk/silky-ousdanger/dangerous

-lyfriend/friendly-ichero/heroic

-fuluse/useful-icalmechanic / mechanical

-lesshome/homeless-ishstyle/stylish

-ernnorth/northern-likechild/childlike

-almonument/monumental-arfamily/familiar

-arystation/stationary

NOUN SUFFIXES

The suffixes ion, -ation, -tion, and sion are added to verb to make noun which name an action, condition, quality, or result

instruct + ion instruction

observe + ation observation

intend + tion intention

decide + sion decision

THE SUFFIX -ERN

The suffix -ern indicates that something occurs in or is situated in a certain direction. It is added to nouns to form adjectives:northern, southern, eastern, western.

-EN SUFFIX (ADJ---VERB)

strength

short

wide

deep

tight

sharp

length

loose

sad-en

strengthen

shorten

widen

deepen

tighten

sharpen

lengthen

loosen

sadden(to make stronger)

(to make shorter)

(to make wider)

(to make deeper)

(to make tighter)

(to make sharper)

(to make longer)

(to make looser)

(to make sadder)

SUFFIXES: -ABLE/-IBLE

The following suffixes may be added to nouns and / or verbs to form adjectives:

-ableacceptacceptable-tiveproduceproductive

-ibleforceforcible-ativetalktalkative

-iveprotectprotective

SUFFIXES Y, TY, HY

The suffixes Y, TY, HY, form adjectives into abstract nouns.

ADJECTIVENOUN

-Yhonesthonesty

-TYcertaincertainty

-ITYelectricelectricity

-ITYsecuresecurity

-ILITYresponsibleresponsibility

SUFFIX NESS

We can add the suffix ness to some adjectives to make nouns.

darkdarkness

greatgreatness

readyreadiness

quickquickness

friendlyfriendliness

NOUN SUFFIXES

The suffixes AL; -ANCE; -ENCE; MENT and Y are added to verbs to make nouns which name an act, condition, quality or result.

VERBSUFFIXNOUN

Approve+ - al

approval

Allow+ - anceallowance

Refer+ - encereference

Employ+ - mentemployment

Recover+ - yrecovery

SUFFIX -FY / -IFY

The suffixes fy and ify can also be added to some adjectives and nouns to make verbs. They have the meaning of to make, become, or cause to become.

clearclarify

electricelectrify

justjustify

liquidliquefy

solidsolidify

SUFFIX IST

The noun suffix ist can be added to some nouns to express the meaning one who or that which.

Violin+ -istviolinist

Type+ - ist

typist

Biology+ - istbiologist

The PREFIX CO-

Co- is a prefix which has the meaning of Joint and Together with.

Cooperate, coordinate, coworker, coauthor, coexist.

SUFFIX -AL

We can form nouns by adding the suffix al to certain verbs. When we add this suffix, it has the meaning of the act of or the process of .

approveapprovaldismissdismissal

arrivearrivalrefuserefusal

denydenialremoveremoval

disapprovedisapprovalwithdrawwithdrawal

SUFFIX Y

The meaning of certain verbs may be changed to express an act or action of by adding the suffix y to the verb, changing the verb into a noun.

discoverdiscoverydeliverdelivery

recoverrecoveryinquireinquiry

SUFFIX - IZE

The suffix - ize can be added to various nouns and adjectives to make verbs that mean make or cause to be.

equal+ - izeequalize ( make equal)

familiarfamiliarize ( cause to be/ become familiar)

modernmodernize = ( make modern)

itemitemize (to make a list of items)

SUFFIX LIKE

We can add the suffix like to some nouns to make adjectives. The suffix like, expresses the idea of resembling or having the characteristic of something.

Cuplike (resembling a cup/ having the characteristics of a cup)

Fencelike

Fanlike

When-like is added to words ending in double L the words are hyphenated.

Gel-like

SUFFIXES AL AND -IALThe suffixes al and ial can be added to some nouns to form adjectives. They have the meaning of, like, or suitable for.

accidentaccidentaladditionadditional

commercecommercialmanagermanagerial

NEGATIVE PREFIXES

un-The opposite ofUnable, unbelievable, undo, unfair, unreliable,

deThe opposite ofdeactivate, decode, decompose, deconstruct, decontaminate, decrease, deflate, deform

non-NotNon-smoker, nonconformist, non-essential, non-fiction

in-The opposite ofInaccessible, incomplete, incorrect, inevitable, insane

il-The opposite of (before l)Illegal, illegitimate, illicit, illiterate, illogical

im (before m or p)The opposite fImmature, impatient, imperfect, impolite, impossible

ir (before r)The opposite ofIrrational, irregular, irrelevant, irresistible, irresponsible

in + other consonants or vowelThe opposite ofIncomplete, intolerable, incorrect, instability, inability, inaccessible, inadequate

disThe opposite ofDisconnect, dishonest, dislike, disloyalty, disobedient, disobey, dissatisfied

mis-Wrong, badMisbehave, misconception, misunderstand

anti-againstAntibody, anticlimax, anti-nuclear, anti- racist, antisocial

a-The opposite ofAtypical, atonal

PREFIXES OF POSITION

re-Again, backReact. Re-apply, rebuild, recycle, re- use

inter-Between, amongInteractive, intercontinental, international

super-More than, very specialSuperimpose, supermarket, supernatural, supersonic, superstar

over-Too muchOverconfident, overeat, overestimate, overpopulated, overreact, overwork

under-Too littleUndercharge, undercook,

pre-beforePre-Christmas, pre- Raphaelite, prewar

post-afterPostgraduate, postmodern, post- war

extra-Exceptionally, outsideExtracurricular, extraordinary, extraterrestrial

PREFIXES OF NUMBER

onemono-, uni-,monopropellant, unidirectional

twobi-, du-biaxial, duplex

tendeci-decimal

manypoly-, multi-polyphase, multifunctional

Contents

1THE INDEFINITE ARTICLES

1PLURAL COUNT FORMS

2DEMONSTRATIVES

2SOME, ANY, NO

3THE POSSESSIVE CASE (S AND S)

3ONE, ONES

4ANTICIPATORY IT

4CONJUNCTIONS and SENTENCE CONNECTORS

7RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES THAT-WHICH

7WHICH/ THAT/

7WHERE/WHEN used as relative Adv.

8EMPHATIC DO

8IMPERATIVE

9TENSES

9Present Tense of the Verb Be

9Present Simple

10Present Continuous

11Past Tense of the Verb Be

11Past Simple

12Past Continuous

12Present Perfect

13Going To

13Modals

13WILL - SHALL

13CAN

14COULD

14MUST

15MAY, MIGHT

15SHOULD

16VERB TENSES

16Verbal Forms

17ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

17Passive Verb-Forms

18PARTICIPLES

19Participles used as adjectives

20-ing form

22ADJECTIVES

23COMPARISONS

23Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

25ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

26Formal Characteristics of Adverbs

26ADVERBS

27NOUN ADJUNCTS

28The Noun as Adjective Structure

30PREPOSITIONS

34SUFFIXES & PREFIXES

at

in

opposite

on

under

1 above, 2 below

between

beside, next to

1 behind, 2 in front of

1 by,

2 near

3 not far from

4 a long way

3

1

2

4

2

1

1 among, 2 in the middle of of

down

1 into, 2 out of

1 to, 2 towards, 3 from

past

up

round, around

along

1 onto, 2 off

across

1 over, 2 under

back to

through

1

2

2

1

1

2

3