INTRODUCTIONThe natural environment produces most everything humans needto survive. However, to attain knowledge, security, convenience,creature comforts and longevity, society relies on manufacturedproducts and services. Derived from the Latin phrase manu factus,meaning to make by hand[1], manufacturing affects almost everyaspect of our lives, from the cars we drive to the water we drink. Theability of a nation to meet the need of its inhabitants through theproduction of goods and services is a major determining factor inthe prosperity and longevity of that nation. The ancient Romanswere able to sustain a flourishing empire for several centuriesthrough the development of freshwater transportation technology(aqueducts) and a well-maintained system of roads. These wereachievable because Roman engineers were able to identify criticalneeds of the empire and developed products and methods to meetthose needs. This article presents an introduction to manufacturing,production processes, and the concepts, technologies, and strategiesemployed to provide the high-quality products and services thatmake modern society possible.

From Concept to Finished ProductManufacturing is the process of taking raw materials or componentsand making them into a finished product. Figure 1 illustrates thegeneral manufacturing process from initial concept to a distrib-utable product. The purpose of manufacturing a product is typical-ly to meet an identified need or to fulfill a void (i.e., the shortage orabsence of a product). Once a need or void is identified and the fea-sibility of developing and manufacturing the desired product is

assessed, it is necessary to formulate a plan to fulfill the require-ments. This is accomplished by establishing design parameters. Thematerials are then selected and a prototype is developed.If the prototype meets design and performance requirements, the

concept is then moved into the production stage. In this stage, amanufacturing process is selected and the production system is cho-sen. Quality assurance and control ensure the product meets designrequirements and performance specifications and is sufficiently freeof defects. The finished product can then be packaged and distrib-uted. The following sections present additional detail of the productdesign, development, and production processes.

PRODUCT DESIGN & DEVELOPMENTThe first step in designing a product is to properly define the need.Clearly defining a need, and with it the required performance speci-fications and operational parameters, will result in a more focused andefficient product development process. Feasibility analyses for sys-tems, assemblies, and subsystems can be conducted once the relevantparameters are set. Material choices can also be made at this point.Once the design is sufficiently mature, a prototype can be built.Through the use of metrics, design parameters, such as design

function, end user, design fit, operating environment, desired lifecycle, and desired quantity, are defined to ensure high product qual-ity. From these parameters, the range of potential materials andprocesses that may be considered for production can be more read-ily identified by the design team.

Design ParametersIdentification and definition of design specifications and perform-ance requirements is critical to the successful development of aproduct. Some considerations include design function, the end user,design fit, operating environment, desired life cycle, and desiredquantity. If these specifications and parameters are not definedupfront, the cost and time required to develop a product couldincrease unchecked, possibly at an exponential rate. It is more diffi-cult to remedy design oversights later in the development process,and the cost of correction can increase by an order of magnitude ateach successive step in the product development cycle.Design parameters also significantly influence material selection

for a product. Choosing the proper material, or combination ofmaterials, is dependent on the operating conditions, environment,and desired life span of the product. Material selection is also depend-ent on environmental restrictions, and the chosen material and/orprocessing method must comply with applicable regulations.

Product Design ToolsThere are several tools that can be used to develop performancerequirements. One of the more prevalent techniques for transforminguser needs into quantifiable design, quality, and performance criteria,

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3 9

Christopher W. FinkAMMTIACRome, NYtechsolutions 9

An Introduction to Manufacturing

Figure 1. Manufacturing Process from Initial Concept to FinishedProduct.

ConceptDevelopment

Product Design&Development

Identify – needs and requirementsResearch – feasibility

Establish Metrics – Used to convert needs & requirements to design parametersSet Design Parameters

– Design requirements– Performance specifications

Concept DesignSelect MaterialsMaterial Properties– Environmental regulations

Develop Protype

Production

FinishedProduct

Select Manufacturing Process & Equipment – How to fabricate a productgiven design & materials

– Machinery– Tools

Choose Production Type – Maximize output & quality, while minimizing unit cost– Mass production– Job shop– Agile manufacturing

Maintain Quality – Meet design requirements & performance specifications– Quality assurance– Quality control– Statistical quality control

Package and distribute – finished product

The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 310

at both the system and subsystem level, is Quality FunctionDeployment (QFD)[2]. QFD is a methodology for transformingthe needs that are provided by the customer into design specifica-tions and performance requirements and then quantifying how wellthe customer’s needs are met. Beyond the mere synthesis of perform-ance specifications, a QFD can be used to prioritize customer needsand evaluate subsequent engineering solutions to ensure that designand development efforts are focused appropriately.In the past, the relationship between design engineers and man-

ufacturing engineers has often been represented by the sentiment of“we design it, you build it”[3]. As a result, manufacturing staff haveoften been left to solve unanticipated production problems becausethey were not involved in the design process. A different approach,which can eliminate this mentality and potentially reduce unex-pected problems, is to employ multidisciplinary design teams.Comprised of representatives from all stages of the product devel-opment cycle, multidisciplinary design teams ensure that the prod-uct can be made from existing materials and processes, will meetdesign specifications, and will perform as required while meetingbudgetary constraints. In addition to ensuring that the proper met-rics are established, these teams ensure that the selected designoption is the best choice for all stages of production and develop-ment rather than the one that is most familiar to the design team.

Material SelectionOne of the most daunting tasks of any design activity is choosingthe materials for production. Material selection for all compo-nents is influenced by design specifications, performance require-ments, process limitations, and environmental factors. Choosinga material without first taking into account all requirements andspecifications can result in poor quality or defective productsand abnormally high maintenance and replacement costs. Inaddition, material selection can be limited by the process neededto produce a material. For example, some materials that can befabricated in a laboratory setting have difficulty being scaled upto a satisfactory production rate because the fabrication processisn’t fully developed.Designers have a tendency to develop design concepts based on

familiarity with materials and processes. While being familiar withthe materials and processes in use can be valuable, a narrow view mayexclude combinations of materials and processes that could prove tobe a more efficient and produce higher quality components[4].

Environmental Factors in Material SelectionIn addition to design specifications, performance parameters, andprocess limitations, environmental factors can have a significantimpact on the selection of materials for a product. For example, theRemoval of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive was enactedby the European Union (EU) in July 2006, with the goal ofrestricting “the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical andelectronic equipment”[4]. The hazardous substances outlined forrestriction in the 2006 RoHS Directive are lead, cadmium, mercu-ry, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), andpolybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE). Restriction on the use of

lead has had a significant impact on the international electronicsindustry, as manufacturers have had to switch to lead-free soldersfor new electronic components in order to meet EU regulations.While there is no US equivalent to RoHS, the directive has hada significant impact on US commercial manufacturing sinceUS-based manufacturers must adhere to these regulations tomaintain a global market share.

PrototypingTypically, the last step before scaling up production is building aprototype of the product. Physical prototypes are built to validatethe product’s design and material choices, and to ensure that theproduct meets performance specifications and design require-ments. In some cases, prototypes may also be employed to validateone or more production processes.The process of prototyping can be very expensive, since produc-

tion machinery and materials may have to be obtained to build aprototype, which may or may not meet requirements. However,these costs are necessary since the design must be validated beforeit can enter into full production. Toward the end of 20th century,the growing need for an easier method of creating models and pro-totype parts led to the invention of rapid prototyping (RP) systems.

Rapid PrototypingRapid prototyping systems, such as 3-D printing, additive fabrica-tion, and solid free-form fabrication, transform computer-aideddesign (CAD) drawings into layers (thin cross-sections that collec-tively make up a component). These layers are then manufacturedone on top of another until the model is complete.[5]Stereolithography, which was the first type of RP system created,was invented in 1986.[5] Through the use of processes like fusedeposition modeling, selective laser sintering (SLS), and stereolith-ography, the RP industry has revolutionized the way new productsare designed and manufactured. It no longer takes hours to set upthe tooling and computer numerical control (CNC) systems tomake prototypes and short-run parts. Rapid prototyping enablesdesign teams to quickly fabricate functional models and identifycandidate production processes.

THE PRODUCTION PROCESSDetermining how to make a product in many cases is just as diffi-cult as deciding what product to make to fulfill a need. The selec-tion of the manufacturing process that will be used to fabricate aproduct is often dictated by the design of the product; however,process limitations can alter the final design of the product whenthe processes available lack the ability to produce the desired mate-rial with properties that meet performance requirements. Forinstance, the process for manufacturing a certain product may notbe sustainable outside of a prototype setting, resulting in the needfor a materials substitution or even a complete component redesign.In addition to material limitations, tool selection can affect manu-facturing processes. The term “tool” represents more than simplehand tools; it represents any and all equipment (e.g., CNCmachin-ery, automated systems, etc.) needed to produce a component.

techsolutions 9

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3 11

Manufacturing Process and Equipment SelectionOnce the basic product has been developed, the manufacturingprocesses are selected. For example, to fabricate a plastic componentthe proper molding process (e.g., traditional injection molding, resintransfer molding, or vacuum assisted resin transfer molding) must beselected to ensure product quality and meet customer demand.Maintaining product quality while meeting production demand aretypically the primary considerations when selecting a manufacturingprocess. In addition, the manufacturing process is often selectedbased on the design of the product. In some cases, after the processis selected the design is altered to accommodate the limitations of thefabrication process (e.g., machine production capacity).Machinery and tools needed to fabricate the product are selected as

part of the manufacturing process. Similar to the selection of themanufacturing process, there are many factors (too many to discuss inthis article) that are considered when selecting machinery and tools.For instance, the machinery must be able to handle the productionrate, and it is often selected based on the ability to hold a dimension-al tolerance, durability, and ease of maintenance. The manufacturingprocesses and machinery must also adhere to the production method-ology that best meets these production requirements.The production rate requirements for a manufacturing line are

largely determined based on product demand. The production raterequirements influence the amount of flexibility in a line.Production lines with minimal product variety but large productionquantities traditionally yield a lower unit cost (cost per product).The lower unit cost is partially attributed to the simplicity ofthe manufacturing line, but it is primarily less because the initialstartup costs are distributed over a larger number of units produced.However, production lines that have limited flexibility have difficul-ty adapting to changing customer needs.

CNC MachiningInvented in 1947 by John Parsons[6], a CNC machine is anymachine that uses computer logic code to control movements andperform material shaping operations[7]. The logic code used to con-trol a CNC machine is generated from an electronic version of anengineering drawing. The drawing is entered into a computer-aidedmachining (CAM) program, which subsequently assigns tool pathsand writes the logic code required to perform the operation. CNCis used for several types of machining equipment, including lathes,milling machines, laser cutters, abrasive waterjet cutters, and stamp-ing machines.CNC machines produce higher quality components and have

lower reject rates than conventional machines because of their abil-ity to maintain precise coordinates on all work axes. CNC machinesalso produce components at a faster rate because they have shortersetup and cycle times. In addition to producing higher quality com-ponents at a faster rate, CNC machinery can be easily adapted forboth low volume and mass production, thereby eliminating theneed for expensive specialty production machinery. As the technol-ogy behind CNC systems has evolved, smaller manufacturing cellswith the ability to produce several different components with evenhigher accuracies have been developed.

Rapid MachiningRapid machining is considered in some manufacturing circles to bethe next evolution of CNC machining. Both additive (i.e., building

one layer at a time) and subtractive (i.e., machining from a solidblock) prototyping systems have become conventional design toolsbecause they offer product designers a greater selection of produc-tion materials and can make parts with greater accuracy, produce abetter surface finish, and can be produced much faster than previ-ous prototyping processes. 3D printing and other RP systems haveestablished themselves solidly as viable agile, rapid manufacturingsolutions that will continue to foster change in the 21st centurymanufacturing industry.

Robotics and AutomationAlong with CNC machining and rapid prototyping, the use ofautomated processes and robotics has revolutionized the manufac-turing industry (see Figure 2). The earliest use of industrial robotsin a manufacturing environment was during the 1960’s, when thefirst programmable transfer machine (i.e., robot) was introduced.This machine, nicknamed Unimate after the parent company, wasused by General Motors to weld cast auto body parts[8].The term automation quickly gained broad usage as processes

became less dependent on human intervention. Originally devel-oped to reduce direct labor costs[9], automation has improvedprocess efficiency, safety, and overall quality. Automation and robot-ics have transformed the manufacturing industry by shorteningprocess cycle times and eliminating the need for workers in someprocesses. For example, in the automotive industry all welding ofautomobile chassis is performed by robots. Not only is robotic weld-ing completed faster than welding performed by humans, but thewelds are consistently more accurate. This automated processenables manufacturers to produce cars faster and reduce the overallcost of building a car.Robots are used in almost all facets of manufacturing processes.

In many factories, robots and automated processes are used for eachstep of product assembly, including inspection, packaging, and stor-ing for shipment. Automated systems have eliminated human errorin most processes; they have also eliminated human involvement inmany hazardous procedures. For instance, robots now handle andstore hazardous materials and perform other dangerous tasks thatwere previously carried out by humans.Robotics and automation have made manufacturing processes safer,

AMMTIACA D VA N C E D M AT E R I A L S , M A N U FA C T U R I N G A N D T E S T I N G

Figure 2. CNC milling of components for the Joint Strike Fighter[10].

The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 312

more accurate, and faster, while simultaneously eliminating the needfor many assembly workers. These advances have reduced the numberof lower skill jobs but have also created a demand for a new level ofskilled workers to supervise the automated processes. These new jobsare needed to prevent errors from occurring during the manufacturingprocess and to minimize the impact of errors when they do occur.

Selecting a Production SystemA production system is an operational method that is established tomeet all facets of a customer’s production requirements. The threemost common production system types are mass production, jobshop production, and agile production. Setting up a successfulproduction system is a delicate balancing act between achieving pro-ductivity requirements (i.e., rate and variety) and managing costs.Therefore, the optimummanufacturing lines (e.g., processes, machin-ery, and tools) are set up using the production system that will producethe highest quality goods at the lowest cost, while possessing theflexibility in machinery to adjust to meet changing customer needs.The type of production system that is selected depends mostly on

the number of parts needed in a production run and the variety ofparts desired. The quantity of parts to be produced is typically setin a production forecast. This forecast also helps production man-agers order the proper types and quantities of raw materials to beginproduction, regardless of the type of production system.

Mass Production (High Volume, Low Variety)The concepts of mass production and the assembly line originatedin Henry Ford’s Highland Park production facility in the early 20thcentury[11]. Mass production is most commonly used to manufac-ture a large quantity of product. Facilities that perform traditionalmass production are typically capable of producing large quantitiesof a limited variety of products. The production of goods in largequantities is traditionally the least expensive method per unit ofproduct because the production costs are distributed over thousands,sometimes millions, of products. However, the lack of process agili-ty can hinder mass production facilities because transitioningprocesses and machinery to make new products can be expensive.

Job Shop (Low Volume, High Variety)A job shop production facility traditionally adapts to accommodatethe job at hand and typically produces several types of componentsin smaller quantities. These facilities often modify the productionline after completion of each run in order to accommodate the nextproduct. Job shops are especially useful for fabricating spare parts orcritical out-of-date parts because the part can be produced quickly.Moreover, the machinery in job shops is versatile and can be set upto fabricate a variety of products. Several large production facilitieswill have an internal job shop to handle refurbishing or orders forindividual parts (usually warranty-related). However, most inde-pendent job shops are small facilities that have five to ten machinesand between ten and 40 employees. Figure 3 shows an example ofthe layout for a low volume, high variety assembly line.

Agile Manufacturing (High Volume, High Variety)An agile manufacturing facility combines the production ratecapabilities of a mass production facility with the versatility tomanufacture a variety of products. Establishing a production facil-ity to manufacture products at a high rate while possessing theability to adapt to meet customer demand can be challenging andrequires extensive personnel support. Production lines must be setup to enable a rapid reconfiguration of the process without sacri-ficing quality or producing an unacceptable amount of waste. Toestablish an agile production facility, production teams create toolkits for each product. These kits consist of any and all tooling (e.g.,drill bits) and accessories (e.g., brackets that secure material formachining) that are used to fabricate a given product.To optimize space in a fast-paced manufacturing facility, pro-

duction lines are operated as lean as possible. This allows thevacant space to be used to store excess inventory. Running a leanproduct line means that the throughput (i.e., the amount of workthat can be done in a period of time) is maximized while the work-in-progress (i.e., unfinished products) is minimized. A product“pull” methodology is employed rather than a “push” to ensurethat parts are produced only as they are needed. In a pull system,when a production station reaches a certain inventory level, the

techsolutions 9

BR

ENG PARK

ASB 820 ASB 230OFFICES

226

223

224

210 210 210P/U P/U

TOOL PARKFUNCTIONAL TEST EQUIPMENT TOOL PARK

ASB280

STD TOOL&

TOOL INSPV. STAB.

L.E. INSTL.529

M.C.S.C.

BR

STAGING& STORAGE

S.C. CLASS.PARTS

FUNCT.TEST

S.C.

225 225

FAJ FAJ

220 220

FAJ FAJ

220 220

HARNESS & CONSOLE ASSEMBLYS.C.S.C. BR

BR

F.F.

200FAJ

4123 4125

4126

412241214120411941184117

4124

RTP / 200 P/U

200 P/U / RTP

4116

Figure 3. Example of a Job-Shop (Low Volume, High Variety) Assembly Line: F-22 Final Assembly.

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3 13

operators signal to processes upstream (i.e., closer to the beginningof the production line) that a certain amount of a component (e.g.raw material or semi-finished product) is needed to ensure that theflow of products is continuous. As a result of following this method-ology, products are manufactured as needed, and no unnecessaryinventory is retained.When running a high production-rate, agile manufacturing facil-

ity, a concerted effort must be undertaken to ensure that the prod-ucts meet quality standards. Since there are a variety of productsbeing fabricated, the potential for defects and parts that need to bereworked increases. Quality control measures and processes areestablished to ensure that a high level of quality is maintained acrossall production lines.Agile manufacturing facilities need to be operated with a spirit of

innovation and a focus on continuous improvement. An openforum for improving the processes used to manufacture a product isvital, as workers from all levels of production will be able to giveinput that leads to improved production efficiency and quality.

QualityThe ability to manufacture high quality products is paramountand often supersedes production rate and cost. A product is deter-mined to be of sufficient quality when customer expectations andrequirements are met or exceeded in all areas. Fabricating qualityproducts requires a fluid relationship between management, whoset the quality standards, processes, and methodologies, and theproduction operators.Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) measures are

implemented to ensure that the customer expectations are met. Thedefinitions of QA and QC are commonly mistaken for one anoth-er. According to the American Society of Quality (ASQ), QA isdefined as “the planned and systematic activities implemented in aquality system so that quality requirements for a product or servicewill be fulfilled,” whereas QC is defined as “The observation tech-niques and activities used to fulfill requirements for quality”.[12]The essential difference between the two is that QA is performedbefore manufacturing takes place, while QC takes place during andafter the manufacturing process.

Statistical Quality ControlStatistical quality control (SQC) is an example of a QC methodol-ogy that is used to ensure that products of the highest quality can bemade efficiently. Process controls, like SQC, place an emphasis onmaintaining control of the process to ensure quality. Typically, prod-ucts have a critical dimension that must be precisely controlled. Ifthese dimensions fall within a standard deviation range from themean (average) dimension (see Figure 2), the process is said to becontrolled. The concept of statistical process control was originatedby Walter Shewart, an engineer at Bell Labs in the 1920’s[13]. Theevolution of quality control methodologies has led to the use ofstatistical methods to help identify the root cause of defects. Inmany cases, employing quality control methods to identify rootcauses of defects is built into a business management theory.

Measurement ToolsThe ability to measure and ensure a certain level of quality is only asgood as the tools used to assess the quality of a product. There is awide range of tools available to assess the physical attributes of acomponent, regardless of its size or shape. For example, measure-ment of the inner diameter of a hole can be performed using anadjustable measuring device, such as a caliper or micrometer, or apre-measured validation device (commonly referred to as a go/no-gogage). When measuring dimensions on a smaller scale, a device calledan optical comparator will magnify a given area of the component,which is then compared to a scaled drawing of the part. When adimension needs to be measured to the hundred-thousandth or mil-lionth of an inch, a computer-operated device called a coordinatemeasurement machine (CMM) is used to take measurements andcompare them to an electronic version of the component drawing.

COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURING VS. DEFENSEMANUFACTURINGWhile manufacturing for the commercial and defense sectors havesome similarities, they are easily distinguished by their differences.Commercial manufacturing is driven by profit and maintaining orincreasing their market share among the consumer base. In thedefense sector, national defense and system readiness are paramountissues, as they are the expressed missions of the DoD. It is true that

AMMTIACA D VA N C E D M AT E R I A L S , M A N U FA C T U R I N G A N D T E S T I N G

Figure 4. Sample Control Chart.

1/1/05

1/2/05

1/3/05

1/4/05

1/5/05

1/6/05

1/7/05

1/8/05

1/9/05

1/10/05

1/11/05

1/12/05

1/13/05

1/14/05

1/15/05

1/16/05

1/17/05

1/18/05

1/19/05

1/20/05

1/21/05

1/22/05

1/23/05

1/24/05

1/25/05

1/26/05

1/27/05

1/28/05

1/29/05

1/30/05

1/31/05

NumberofImperfections

Number of Imperfections per Production Run

� Upper Control Limit� Lower Control Limit� Sample Mean� Average Daily Imperfections

�

�

�

�

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

�

�

�

�

�

� �

�

�

�

�

�� � �

��

�

������� ����� ����� ����� �

��� ���� �� ��� ��� �� ����� �

������� ����� ����� ����� �

The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 314

most defense manufacturing is performed by private contractors andturning a profit is a goal but, unlike the commercial market, thedefense market is relatively fixed, thus limiting market growth. Also,all defense products are subject to stringent acquisition rules for con-tracting, known as the Defense Federal Acquisition RegulationSupplement (DFARS). Beyond purchasing and contracts, DFARSregulates many aspects of how defense contractors conduct business,such as engineering and design, supplier selection and subcontract-ing, quality metrics, and, depending on the type of contract, theamount of profit the company may take is also predetermined.However, regulatory and contractual matters are not the only dif-

ference; defense systems are traditionally produced in smaller quan-tities than commercial products. For example, Boeing has producedmore than 1,400 commercial 747 jumbo jets since their inceptionin 1969,[14] whereas they have only produced 744 B-52’s for theUS Air Force[15]. Coupled with high development costs and finiteproduction runs (the last B-52 was delivered in 1962), theDepartment of Defense has opted to use prime contractors (e.g.,Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman) to produceaircraft at their own facilities. However, commercial productionfacilities strive to run at maximum capacity with little room forsurge. Conversely, military production requires facilities to possessthe capacity to meet any surge caused by the onset of conflict,retirement of a previous system, or other eventualities. This funda-mental difference in production methodology has prompted sever-al commercial manufacturers to cease military production work.

SUMMARYEach production situation is unique and has its own challenges.However via thorough planning, careful product design, and due

diligence in production and quality management, any product canbe made to meet and possibly exceed customer requirements.Designing a product to meet a need starts with identifying theform, fit, and function of that product. Metrics like the QFDare instrumental in transforming customer needs into designrequirement and performance specifications. After developmentof requirements and specifications, materials and processes areselected that will meet those requirements. A plan for productionthat takes into account the materials, tools, and labor requiredfor production is imperative to ensure the product meets the cus-tomer’s needs. This production plan has a significant influence onthe type of production methodology (high volume/low variety, lowvolume/high variety, high volume/high variety) in the productionfacility. Selecting appropriate quality assurance measures (qualitycontrol programs, methodologies, and inspection tooling) willensure that goods made in the production facility will meet boththe design specifications and performance requirements as set forthby the design team.

REFERENCES[1] “Manufacture,” Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, Merriam-Webster Online, November 2008.[2] Akao, Y., “Development History of Quality Function Deployment,”The Customer Driven Approach to Quality Planning and Deployment,Minato, Tokyo 107 Japan: Asian Productivity Organization, p. 339, 1994.[3] Boothroyd, G., P. Dewhurst, and W. Knight, Product Design forManufacture and Assembly, Second Edition Revised and Expanded, MarcelDekker, 2001.[4] “RoHS,” National Weights and Measures Laboratory, http://www.rohs.gov.uk/[5] “30 Years of Manufacturing Technology”, NASA Tech Briefs, Vol. 30,No. 6, June 2006.[6] “John T. Parsons,” National Inventors Hall of Fame, http://www.invent.org/Hall_Of_Fame/118.html[7] “CNC Machine Tool,” How Products are Made, http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/CNC-Machine-Tool.html[8] “The 2003 Inductees: Unimate,” Robot Hall of Fame, http://www.robothalloffame.org/unimate.html[9] Ostwald, P.F. and J. Munoz, Manufacturing Processes and Systems,9th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1997.[10] F-35 Lightning II Program, Joint Strike Fighter Program, http://www.jsf.mil.[11] “The Life of Henry Ford,” The Henry Ford, http://thehenryford.org/exhibits/hf/chrono.asp.[12] “Quality Assurance and Quality Control,” American Society forQuality, http://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/quality-assurance-quality-control/overview/overview.html.[13] “Walter A. Shewhart,” American Society for Quality, http://www.asq.org/about-asq/who-we-are/bio_shewhart.html.[14] “747 Model Summary Through October 2008,” Boeing,http://active.boeing.com/commercial/orders/displaystandardreport.cfm?cboCurrentModel=747&optReportType=AllModels&cboAllModel=747&ViewReportF=View+Report[15] “B-52 Stratofortress,” Air Force Link, http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=83.

techsolutions 9

Figure 5. F-22 Raptor Assembly. Photo Courtesy of US Air Force