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Teaching Written Expression to

Students with Special Needs

SpEd 620 Brownbridge

Why teach writing?

Reading Improvement

Required Communication

Influence Others

Thought Clarification

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Writing to Learn

•  What do you have to say?

•  Be active. •  Do it. •  Student chooses the

words. •  Productive. •  Output.

•  What did they have to say?

•  Sit still. •  Pay attention. •  Teacher chooses the

words. •  Consumptive. •  Input.

Reading to Learn

Virginia DeBolt, 1998

WRITING PROCESS

!Daily Opportunities to explore and create writing

! Progression through a number of levels

! Part of well balanced literacy program

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Purposes of Writing • To record events • To explain • To hypothesize • To persuade • To invite a response • To predict • To command, direct,

or request

• To amuse, entertain • To narrate • To invent • To inform • To find out • To invite reflection • To summarize • To comment or give an

opinion Dancing with the Pen

STAGES OF THE WRITING PROCESS

~ PREWRITING ~ ~ DRAFTING ~ ~ REVISING ~

~ PROOFREADING ~ ~ PUBLISHING ~

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Prewriting The writer establishes and clarifies a purpose

of writing, brainstorms possible topics, collects pertinent materials, identifies an audience, chooses an appropriate form of

writing, and establishes an initial organizational strategy.

The teacher helps students select topics, encourages them to talk to generate ideas

and language about the topic, provides resources, suggestions, and materials and

discusses appropriate format and audience.

INSPIRATION FOR TOPIC IDEAS

• PERSONAL INTEREST INVENTORIES

• CLASS INTEREST INVENTORIES

• MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, PERIODICALS

• RADIO, TV, INTERNET

• INTERVIEWS

• DREAMS, MEMORIES, EXPERIENCES

• LITERATURE RESPONSE

• DISCUSSION, BRAINSTORMING,

ROLE PLAYING, IMAGINATION

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WAYS TO PREWRITE

•  BRAINSTORMING •  FREE WRITING

•  TOPIC OR WORD CHARTS

•  LISTS

•  JOURNALLING

•  WEBBING

•  MAPPING

•  CLUSTERING •  IMAGE STREAMING •  VISUALIZATION •  FAST WRITING •  GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS •  THINKING •  DAYDREAMING

PREWRITING STRATEGIES ~ Graphic Organizers – brainstorming webs,

mind maps, and other charts that help organize thoughts and ideas ~

~ Come Aboard a R.A.F.T. – Role, Audience, Format, Topic ~

~ Descriptive Word Prompters ~ ~ Five Senses Chart ~

~ Handprint Organizer ~

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Cooperative Learning Structures

for Prewriting 4-S Brainstorming

Formations Inside-Outside Circle

Round Robin Team Discussion Team Interview

Think-Pair-Share

Drafting The writers express ideas in an uninterrupted flow while keeping the purpose and audience

in mind. They get information on paper, concentrate on content and explore topic possibilities. Invented spellings, blanks,

cross-outs, and abbreviations are acceptable.

The teacher offers encouragement, helps organize information, gives assistance

focusing on the topic, provides enough time and structure to ensure students get off to a

good start.

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What is the purpose for writing this piece? What will my audience want to know about this topic? How can I best arrange my information? What main ideas do I want to present? What details will support my main ideas? What will make a good lead to catch the reader’s attention? How can I end the piece effectively?

-Gary R. Muschia

Revising The writers narrow down topics, eliminate irrelevant writing, reorganize writing, write additional drafts, and research information.

Content quality, clarity, smooth flowing ideas, and descriptive language is

emphasized.

Teachers encourage peer revision sessions and encourage students to talk to other

students about their writing and add, cut, and reorder their writing.

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Revision is not editing for mechanics and spelling. It is probably the most

difficult stage to teach students.

Encourage students to: •  Write on one side of the paper.

•  Use markers or pens so they can concentrate on ideas and not on erasing.

•  Skip lines so it is easy to mark out/change words.

All writing does not have to be revised, BUT…

Teach students to ask themselves: •  Can I improve my writing? •  Should I write from a different point of

view? •  Are there places where my writing could

be clearer, more interesting, more informative, or more convincing?

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REVISING METHODS ARRR

Adding, Rearranging, Removing, Replacing

ARMS Add, Remove, Move Around,

Substitute

RAG Read Around Group

Proofreading/Editing

Teachers should encourage peer proofreading, provide vocabulary, give

instruction of specific skills, help students evaluate their writing, and encourage students

to consult reference materials.

Writers should correct mechanical errors (spelling, punctuation, and capitalization). Writing should be read aloud before the

final copy is made. An editing checklist is a good tool.

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Teach basic editing conventions to students and encourage them to

use them in editing Teach popular acronyms such as:

C Capitalization O Organization P Punctuation/Paragraphs S Sentences/Spelling Use editing checklists

Cooperative Learning Structures for Editing/Proofreading

Corners Experts Edit Pairs Confer Roundtable

Teams Confer

Virginia Debolt, 1998

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Publishing •  Writers make their final copies and share their

finished work. •  Writers feel that their writing is important

when they share. •  Teachers should encourage students to share

by reading aloud, publishing, organizing a class book, making their own books, displaying final drafts, and sharing with bulletin boards, electronic bulletin boards, multimedia presentations, newsletters, newspapers, oral presentations, journals, etc.

Author’s Chair is a popular way for students to share their

writing. Response to writing

2 Hugs and a Wish

TAG

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1. Topics are written on pieces of chart paper and hung around the room. 2. Each team is given a marker. 3. Designate teams to go to one of the papers. 4. Team is given one minute to write on the paper about specific topic. 5. Teams rotate to next paper when time is called. 6. Teams are given one minute to read what the previous team has written. 7. Teams put a question mark beside ones that they have a question on or disagree. 8. Team has an additional thirty seconds to write any other information. 9. Continue this procedure until each team has rotated to all the papers.

Rotating Writing Activity

WRITING WORKSHOP A BLOCK OF TIME SCHEDULED EACH

DAY WITH STUDENTS WORKING THROUGH THE WRITING PROCESS.

THIS TIME TYPICALLY BEGINS WITH A

TEACHER DIRECTED MINI-LESSON FOLLOWED BY STUDENTS WRITING ON

THEIR OWN.

THE TEACHER MOVES FROM INSTRUCTOR TO FACILITATOR AND

PROMOTER OF WRITING WITH FOCUS ON INDIVIDUALIZATION.

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THE WRITING WORKSHOP IS HIGHLY STRUCTURED

AND GENENRALLY REQUIRES:

åA TIMETABLE å RULES å CLASSROOM SPACE å A TYPICAL å STUDENT MATERIALS LESSON

A TYPICAL LESSON���

•  LESSON STARTS WITH A MINI-LESSON THAT IS USUALLY 5-20 MINUTES LONG

•  STUDENTS PROCEED WITH THEIR OWN WRITING. THEY WILL BE AT VARIOUS STAGES IN THE PROCESS

•  AT THE END OF THE LESSON STUDENTS NEED A CHANCE TO SHARE THEIR WRITING

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MATERIALS + DATE STAMP 5 STACKING TRAY

WITH VARIOUS KINDS AND COLORS OF PAPER

! MARKERS, PENS, COLORED PENCILS

. BASKETS FOR WRITING PAPERS

y STAGE STAMPS AND INK PAD

& ATLAS

! RUBBER STAMPS FOR DECORATION

1CHARTS STAPLER " HOLE PUNCH TAPE $ STICKY NOTES & DICTIONARIES THESAURUS & WORD BOOKS ( PHONE BOOKS

Motivation •  (2-3 years to develop)

•  (More prevalent in writing than reading)

•  lack of self-confidence/ self-efficacy

•  lack of intrinsic motivation

•  lack of independence

(many students do not see writing at home)

(need by 3rd grade or very tough to teach)

(words to spell, topic to write …)

-J.M. Cunningham

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Solutions/ Addressing Motivation Problems

Self-Selected Writing

This is an approach where students choose what to write about and how to write without the guidance of a teacher

Single Draft Writing

Process writing assumes that students work on more than one draft. However, single draft writing is initially done without standards. This is a shaping process, in which students work on their own time to complete one single draft.

Phonic Spelling Inventive spelling is accepted at this phase.

Positive Sharing This is when students can share their first drafts in a positive atmosphere. In this positive approach, students can begin sharing with questions like, “I’d like to know more about …”

-J.M. Cunningham

Writing isn’t just a speaking problem….

•  Spelling

•  Capitalization

•  Punctuation

•  Formatting

•  Usage (more tolerant in speech than writing)

-J..M. Cunningham

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Solutions: Writing Isn’t Just a Speech Problem

•  Word Walls for high frequency words •  Writing mini-lessons •  Editing instruction (how to use a Word

Wall and editor’s checklist to proofread and correct you own paper independently)

-J.M. Cunningham

Meta-analysis review of writing research…

George Hallocks of Chicago stated, “If you want to teach students

appropriate, mechanical writing, you must teach students to proofread and correct their own paper using a small

set of rules …. editor’s checklist”.

-J.M. Cunningham

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•  The natural inability to “juggle” all the components of writing at the same time

•  Need student to have an acceptable first draft. •  “Good writers must handwrite, spell, capitalize, and

format” •  Taking dictation is a horrible writing activity

•  Student can do one worksheet but doesn’t generalize to writing and spelling on test, not a writing paper

•  By the end of elementary the automaticity has developed such that the first draft is “adequate” to the last draft

(Take 4-5 years to develop)

-J.M. Cunningham

The Writing Process & Writer’s Workshop

•  Revision … ways to change content (add, delete, re-order, replace content)

•  Editing … rule-based ways of finding and correcting errors

•  Copying

-J.M. Cunningham

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Mini-lessons begin in a “huddle” in the front of the classroom. The children are close and can see the teacher write as she “thinks aloud” and

talks about what she is doing and why. The teacher writes and models all the things writers may do. Mini-lessons vary according to grade

level and the observed needs of children.

-J.M. Cunningham

Great ideas for Mini-Lessons 1.   Actual class procedures used during

the writing period

2.   Rules for the writing period made by teacher and/or students

3.   Teacher models writing using “think-alouds”

4.   Working together with the class on shared writing

5.  “Words Authors Use” (word a day: publish, illustrate, edit, topic, dedicate, etc.)

6.   Grammar and Usage: •  nouns – words that mean a

person,place or thing •  verbs – words that show action •  adjectives – words that describe

7.   Capital letters 8.   Punctuation marks 9.   How to “Set a Scene” (setting) 10.  Fiction 11.   Non-fiction 12.  Mysteries

13.  Stories that teach 14.  “Feelings” in writing 15. Read a book, any book! Books

are great writing models 16. How to add to or change a story 17. Staying on the topic 18. Rhyming words 19. Synonyms 20. Homonyms 21. Antonyms 22. Poetry (This could turn into a

week of mini-lessons) 23. Letter Writing 24. Interviews 25. Riddles 26. Jokes 27. Newspapers 28. How to make a list 29. Student pieces (Always use a

piece that a student has down correctly) -J.M. Cunningham

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•  Bring in something already written (with mistakes), and put on the overhead. •  Revise- Is it interesting? Does it do what I wanted? •  Get the student to elicit ways that address change. •  Cut poor parts out (kids like to see you cut it out!) •  Typically when adding revision during a mini-lesson,

do not say what you are writing (teachers typically do). If you don’t say while writing, students have the chance to read. •  Tape the parts to overhead •  Ask if anyone wants to revise

-J.M. Cunningham

Copying without new mistakes!

• First – must be revised & approved.

• Second – must be revised, edited, & approved.

Step 1: Copy one sentence at a time. Check every sentence to see if copied. Use fingers word by word to help copy correctly.

-J.M. Cunningham

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There are many different types of genres or types of writing. Each one

must be learned separately!

-J.M. Cunningham

Solutions to the Multiple-Genres Problem

Initially self-selected until enough confidence…motivation to write then address multiple-genres by:

•  Focused writing lessons on a variety of types of writing (i.e., teacher selected writing)

•  Carefully crafted prompts – problem is not prompting students, it’s when we prompt – this is the heart of a focused writing lesson

•  Genre-based writing scales – not to teach students to edit, but how to revise

•  use descriptive writing scales (teacher uses rubric, not students)

•  Scale is in a yes/no – present/not present format

•  one item at a time -J.M. Cunningham

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What students read affects how they write…

The Prior-Knowledge Problem

•  You cannot write well about what you do not know

•  You cannot write well about what you do not understand

•  You cannot write clearly and interestingly unless you know the vocabulary

Prompted writing disadvantages some students because of their lack of adequate prior-knowledge.

-J.M. Cunningham

1.  Self-selected writing

2.  Experience-based teaching of science, social studies, and

current events.

-J.M. Cunningham

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Teachers should conference with students in all stages of the

writing process. Students should do most of the talking.

The teacher is a coach not a critic. Focus should be on one point/key element.

Conferences should last no more than two minutes. Key Questions:

How are you doing? Are you having any problems? What’s the best part of your piece of writing?

What are you going to do next?

Peer Conferencing

Use Gambits

Use Peer Response Forms

Use Modeling and Reinforcement

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Cooperative Learning Structures for Conferencing

Corners Inside-Outside Circle

Numbered Heads Together Pairs Confer Roundrobin Roundtable

Teams Confer

Virginia Debolt, 1998

10 Rules for Writers 1.  Write. 2.  Write. 3.  Write often. 4.  Write about anything. 5.  Write about everything. 6.  Write about what you see. 7.  Write about what you learn. 8.  Write about what you think. 9.  Write about what you read. 10. WRITE!!! Virginia DeBolt, 1998