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![Page 1: Teaching Writing Effectively Research & Practice Timothy Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago shanahan@uic.edu .](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062518/5697bf981a28abf838c9128a/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Teaching Writing Teaching Writing EffectivelyEffectively
Research & PracticeResearch & PracticeTimothy Shanahan
University of Illinois at Chicago
www.shanahanonliteracy.com
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Writing: The Neglected “R”Writing: The Neglected “R”
Of the “3 Rs,” writing has been accorded the least attention
Notion has been that reading is a widely needed skill, but that writing is an elite skill
The National Reading Panel did not consider writing research (though it was on the list of topics that it considered)
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According to the National According to the National Commission on Writing…Commission on Writing…
More than 90% of mid-career professionals indicate that writing is important in their work
Writing is essential for success in higher education, and yet more than 50% of college freshmen have serious writing problems
Fewer than 30% of elementary and high school students meet NAEP’s writing proficiency standards
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National Assessment National Assessment
Grade
Below
Basic Basic Proficient Advanced
4 16% 60% 23% 1%
8 16% 56% 27% 1%
12 22% 55% 22% 1%
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According to NAEP…According to NAEP…
Students can write, but they cannot produce writing at high levels of skill, maturity, and sophistication
Few students can produce precise, engaging, and coherent prose
Fewer than a quarter can write convincing, elaborated responses with compelling language
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Two Basic IssuesTwo Basic Issues
What does research say about writing instruction?
What is the connection between writing and reading?
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The PThe P33A Writing CurriculumA Writing Curriculum
Purpose Writers need to write for a variety of purposes
Process Writers need to engage successfully in the writing process
Product Writers need to produce effective pieces of writing
Audience Writers need to meet the needs of a variety of audiences
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Research ReviewResearch Review
Best review of writing instruction in the past 20 years:
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 445–476.
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Graham & Perin ReviewGraham & Perin Review
Examined 123 experimental and quasi-experimental studies of writing instruction grades 4-12
Studies covered 11 different approaches to the teaching of writing
Quality of writing was the outcome measure
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Process Writing ApproachProcess Writing Approach
Extended writing opportunities
Writing for real audiences
Engaging in the writing process
High levels of student interaction and ownership
Personalized individual feedback and (perhaps) some systematic instruction
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Explicit InstructionExplicit Instruction
Grammar Explicit systematic instruction of parts of speech and sentences
Sentence combining Creating more sophisticated sentences through combination of sentences
Strategy instruction Teaching strategies for planning, revising, editing
Summarization Explicit systematic instruction in how to summarize text
Text structure Explicit systematic instruction in text organization
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ScaffoldingScaffolding
Prewriting Engaging students in prewriting practice
Inquiry Helping students plan by analyzing data
Procedural facilitation External prompts: guides, heuristics
Peer assistance Having students work together
Models Examinations of specific types of text
Product goals Assigning writing goals
Feedback Information is provided on the adequacy of the writing
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Alternative ModelsAlternative Models
Word Processing Provides technological support for students to use computers for writing and revising
Extra writing Increased opportunities to write or to engage in a particular type of writing
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Graham & Perin ResultsGraham & Perin Results
d n
Strategy instruction .82 20
Summarization .82 4
Peer assistance .75 7
Product goals .70 5
Word processing .55 18
Sentence combining .50 5
Prewriting .32 5
Process approach .32 21
Inquiry .32 5
Models .25 6
Grammar -.43 11
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Graham & Perin Results (cont.)Graham & Perin Results (cont.)
Process writing had a moderate effect on student writing in grades 4-6 when the teachers received professional development and no effects in grades 7-12
Grammar was the control in all but one study (it was not effective in any study)
Strategy instruction was effective across all grade levels, but bigger effects on struggling students
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Graham & Perin Results (cont.)Graham & Perin Results (cont.)
Impossible to draw meaningful conclusions on text structure instruction (too few students, results too varied, etc.)
Inquiry studies were all done at grades 7-12 and had small-to-moderate effects
All of the peer assistance studies were significant (grades 4-12)
Lots of unexplained variability in size of effect for word processing
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ConclusionsConclusions
It is evident that there are many writing instruction procedures that have reasonably large and reliable impacts on students’ writing quality (strategy teaching most effective, but many other things work, too)
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ConclusionsConclusions
Lots we don’t know:
1.Need to regroup these studies by content of teaching (separate from instructional process and facilitation of writing)
2.Need more “complete” studies (combining successful routines that fit together)
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Reading-Writing RelationsReading-Writing Relations
Shared knowledge and process
Author-audience relationships
Collaborative uses
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Reading-Writing RelationsReading-Writing Relations
Tierney, R. J., & Shanahan, T., (1992). Research on the reading-writing relationship. Handbook of Reading Research (vol. 2).
Shanahan, T. (2006). Relations among oral language, reading, and writing development. Handbook of Writing Research.
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Shared knowledge-processShared knowledge-process
There are sizeable correlations among various measures of reading and writing
Children’s decoding skills and spelling skills are related
Children’s vocabulary and text structure ability are related to comprehension
High amounts of shared variance in multivariate studies
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Shared knowledge-process Shared knowledge-process (cont.)(cont.)
Instruction in reading can improve writing achievement and instruction in writing can improve reading achievement
Invented spelling improved decoding skills (NRP, 2000)
Summarization, modeling, sentence combining and writing in response to literature and expository text have all been found to improve writing and reading
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Author-audience relationshipsAuthor-audience relationships
Awareness of author is an essential dimension of critical reading
Awareness of readers is an essential dimension of writing quality
Engaging in reflective reading and writing activities is useful for developing these insights
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Collaborative UsesCollaborative Uses
Reading and writing can be used in combination to improve the accomplishment of various tasks (such as learning)
Writing about what one reads can improve understanding and recall
The reading within revision is essential to writing quality
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ConclusionsConclusions
Research clearly demonstrates that reading and writing are closely allied—depending upon similar knowledge and skills, providing essential insights across the modes of language, and increasing the ability of students to learn effectively
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Teaching WritingTeaching Writing
Given the research that has been conducted, what would an effective writing program look like?
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Principle 1Principle 1
Writing instruction and practice would take place daily and would be of sufficient duration to develop quality writers.
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Principle 1 (cont.)Principle 1 (cont.)
30-45 minutes per dayTime for both instruction and useDon’t hesitate to encourage writing
practice in all subjects and tasks
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Principle 2Principle 2
Writing fluency would be an early goal and instruction would foster fluency in a variety of ways.
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Principle 2 (cont.)Principle 2 (cont.)
Young children obviously suffer from difficulty in writing sufficient amounts
Teach spelling and handwriting
Peter Elbow’s work on turning off your editor (limit the amount of early editing)
Writing marathons
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Principle 3Principle 3
Writing instruction would be closely connected to reading instruction.
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Principle 3 (cont.)Principle 3 (cont.)
Writing using what you have learned in reading
Writing about what you read (summaries and critiques)
Writing to help you think about what you read (write before you speak)
Writing to a model (pattern writing)
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Principle 4Principle 4
Writing instruction would include explicit strategy instruction in how to write effectively in grades 4 and up
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Principle 4 (cont.)Principle 4 (cont.)
Modeling
Explicit instruction in the what, when, how, and why of strategy
Guided practice
Opportunity to use it collaboratively with peers
Opportunity to use it independently
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Principle 5Principle 5
Writing instruction would focus on communication and include opportunities for social collaboration
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Principle 5 (cont.)Principle 5 (cont.)
Write for real audiencesWrite for a variety of audiences
(reflection, conversation, correspondence, publication)
Cooperative work
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Principle 6Principle 6
Writing would be taught and practiced within the subject areas
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Principle 6 (cont.)Principle 6 (cont.)
Each discipline has its own kinds of writing and levels of precision
Opportunity to write extended essays
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Useful ResourcesUseful Resources
Culham, R. 6+1 Traits of writing. New York: Scholastic.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. Scaffolded writing instruction. New York: Scholastic.
Graham, S., et al. Best practices in writing instruction. New York: Guilford.
Temple, C., et al. The beginnings of writing. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.