Teaching Languages in Schools:

Rationale, Potential, Constraints and Recommendations with particular relevance to Mandarin Chinese

Report prepared for the

New Zealand China Council by

Martin East Professor of Language Education

The University of Auckland

August 2018

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Teaching Languages in Schools: Rationale, Potential, Constraints and Recommendations with particular relevance to Mandarin ChineseMartin EastContents

Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 2 The value of language learning ........................................................................................................ 3 Constraining factors ......................................................................................................................... 4

Teaching quality and capability ................................................................................................... 4 Time-tabling and curriculum choices .......................................................................................... 5 Lack of status and entrenched monolingualism .......................................................................... 5 Lack of a national languages policy ............................................................................................. 5

Chinese language learning to New Zealand ..................................................................................... 6 The Mandarin Language Assistant programme ........................................................................... 8

Constraining factors ......................................................................................................................... 8 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................ 9 References ...................................................................................................................................... 10

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Summary In his role as New Zealand’s Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade,McKinnon (1992) had argued, “[w]e really must learn to speak other languages … New Zealand’sability to earn a living – our very future in fact – depends on young New Zealanders acquiringinternationallanguageskills”(p.1).This,amongotherarguments,hasinfluencedthediscourseaboutlanguage learningsince that time. NewZealand’s revisedschool curriculum(MinistryofEducation,2007)underscoresthisdiscourse:

Learninganewlanguageextendsstudents’linguisticandculturalunderstandingandtheirabilitytointeractappropriatelywithotherspeakers.…Throughsuchinteraction,studentsacquireknowledge, skills, andattitudes that equip them for living in aworldofdiversepeoples,languages,andcultures.(p.24).

Despitethispositiverhetoric,WardandEast(2016)identifiedfourkeyfactorsimpactonthesuccessoflanguageprogrammesinschools:1. Thequalityandcapabilityofteachingstaff2. Timetablingandcurriculumchoicesinschools3. Thelackofstatusforlanguages,compoundedbyanentrenchedmonolingualism4. Thelackofalanguagespolicyorcompulsioninthecurriculum.

China’semergenceasanimportantmemberoftheworld’seconomyhashighlightedagrowingneedforothernationsto“acquireproficiencyincommunicatinginChinese”(Seneff,2006,p.1). OnekeywayofachievingthishasbeenthroughMandarinLanguageAssistant(MLA)programme.MLAs:• help to raise the cultural awareness of both teachers and students in local schools, as ‘cultural

envoys’;• increasestudents’interestinlearningChineselanguageandculture;• introduceculturalknowledgeinclassandfacilitatevariousculturalactivities;• encourageschoolstoattempttoestablishChineseprogrammes.(Kai,2015)Eriksen(2018),however,argueswithregardtotheMLAsthat“NZschoolsareheavilyreliantontheProgrammeandthereisnoplanasyetonthepartofgovernmentforthedevelopmentofincreasedcapacityforChineseteachinginNZschools”(p.12).Thereis,shemaintains,“anurgentneedforNewZealandtotakegreaterownershipofitsChineselanguageteachingcapacityandtoestablishon-goingplansforfunding,teachingandlearningChineselanguageinNewZealandschools”(p.2).Enrolmentstatisticshighlightthatonly2%ofthesecondaryschoolpopulationwasstudyingChinesein2017,therebygreatlylimitingthepotentialforstudentstoattainhigherlevelsofproficiencyinthelanguage.To address current limitations across all languages, Ward and East (2016) argue that “primarysupportefforts”needtobetargetedatensuringeffectiveteaching“intermsoffacilitating,andfunding,quality teachereducationandqualityPLDopportunities” (p.60) -more teachersareneeded. Theysuggestthat:1. effectivepedagogyiscrucial;2. teachersneed tobewilling to ‘embrace change’ - effective teacher education initiatives andon-

goingPLDopportunitiesneedtosupportthemindoingthis.Theserequiregovernmentfunding;3. thewholeschoolethosneedstobesupportiveoflanguagelearning;4. localcommunitiesneedtobeeducatedaboutthevalueoflearninganadditionallanguage;5. anationallanguagespolicyneedstobedeveloped.

AsMcKinnon(2014)maintained,“youcannotignoreChinatoday…thekindofrelationshipthatwe’rebuildingupistoensurethatNewZealanderscanbenefitbythisrelationship…wedeeplyvaluethisrelationship,andwehavegottotakeitseriously,andwehavegottokeepworkingatit.”

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The value of language learning “We reallymust learn to speakother languages.” This unequivocal declaration, in a speech entitled‘Englishisnotenough’,wasmadebyDonMcKinnonin1992inhisroleasNewZealand’sDeputyPrimeMinisterandMinisterofForeignAffairsandTrade.McKinnon(1992)wentontoassert:

The curricula in New Zealand schools and courses available in universitiesmust equipyoungpeoplewithlanguageandculturalskills.…NewZealand’sabilitytoearnaliving–our very future in fact – depends on young New Zealanders acquiring internationallanguageskills.(p.1).

Thus,atthestartofthe1990s,thepoliticalmessagearoundlearninglanguagesinNewZealandwasbeing framed in terms of the “practical and tangible benefits of being able to communicate in alanguage”(Sakuragi,2006,p.20).Thismessagehadstudentsinmindwhowere“learninglanguagesbecausetheyneededtousetheminanever-shrinkingworld”(Benson&Voller,1997,p.11,emphasisinoriginal),builtontheassumptionthat“thefinaljustificationfordevelopingstudents’proficiencyina foreign language is tomake theminteractionallycompetenton the internationalscene”(Kramsch,1986,p.367).Theaboveutilitariandiscoursehas influenced theprogressionof language teachingand learning inNew Zealand’s schools since the early 1990s. It finds clear expression in a range of contemporaryMinistryofEducationdocuments,amongthemtherevisedNewZealandCurriculum(NZC)forschools(MinistryofEducation,2007)andtheInternationalCapabilitiesreport(MinistryofEducation,2014).Inthecontextofabroadercurriculumaimto“encouragestudentstoparticipatemoreactivelyinNewZealand’sdiverse,multiculturalsocietyandintheglobalcommunity”(MinistryofEducation,2007,p.4),theNZC learningareaLearningLanguages“putsstudents’abilitytocommunicate”atthecentreofthelanguagelearningendeavour(p.24).Inessence,thecurriculumstatementargues:

Learninganewlanguageextendsstudents’linguisticandculturalunderstandingandtheirabilitytointeractappropriatelywithotherspeakers.…Throughsuchinteraction,studentsacquireknowledge, skills, andattitudes that equip them for living in aworldofdiversepeoples,languages,andcultures.(p.24)

LearningLanguagesisalsoideallyplacedtohelpstudentstodevelopthevaluesandkeycompetenciesthatunderpintheentirecurriculum.Specifically,studentsaretobeencouragedtovalue:diversity,asfound inourdifferent cultures, languages, andheritages;equity, through fairness and social justice;andcommunityandparticipationforthecommongood(MinistryofEducation,2007,p.10).Theyareexpectedtodevelopkeycompetenciessuchas:relatingtoothers(interactingeffectivelywithadiverserangeofpeopleinavarietyofcontexts),andparticipatingandcontributing(beingactivelyinvolvedincommunities)(p.12).Furthermore, Learning Languages is built on the premises that language learners “learn tocommunicate by communicating” (Nunan, 2004, p. 8), and that “themost effective way to teach alanguageisbyengaginglearnersinreallanguageuseintheclassroom”(Willis&Willis,2007,p.1).Inthis light values such as innovation, inquiry, and curiosity, and key competencies such as thinking(usingcreative,critical,andmetacognitiveprocessestomakesenseof information,experiences,andideas), andmanaging self (with students seeing themselves as capable learners) support learner-centredandexperientialcommunicativeapproachestolanguagelearningsuchastask-basedlanguageteaching(East,2012a).The Ministry of Education commissioned International Capabilities Report (2014) builds on theexpectationsaroundlanguagelearningandlanguageusethatitwasanticipatedwouldbedeveloped

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through Learning Languages.The report argued that international capabilities are “how the NewZealandCurriculum(NZC)KeyCompetencieslookwhenyoungpeopleapplythemininterculturalandinternational contexts” (p. 1). The report referred to such capabilities as “global competence”,“international-mindedness”, and “cross-cultural competence” (p. 4). These capabilities wereconsideredassociallyandeconomicallyimportantforNewZealand,andwouldcontributetohelpingyoungNewZealanderstoachievesuccess(p.6).Seen from a relational/utilitarian perspective, therefore, acquiring an additional language providesseveral advantages in terms of future employability (Nuffield Languages Inquiry, 2000). It has alsobeenestablished that acquiringanadditional languagehasdistinct learning gains, improvingyounglearners’ cognitive abilities and enhancing their academic achievement (e.g., Barik & Swain, 1976;Bialystok, 2005; Stewart, 2005). Learner-focused communicative approaches arguably equip younglanguage learners with the skills they need to relate successfully to others ininternational/interculturalcontexts.Constraining factors Despite positive government rhetoric right back to the early 1990s and a current context that is,theoretically at least, a strong basis for effective communicatively-oriented language learning,statisticsthattracktake-upoflanguagesinschools(EducationCounts,n.d.)paintalessthanpositivepicture.Tan(2015)reportedadropinthenumbersofstudentslearninganadditionallanguagetoitslowestpercentageinover80years.Eriksen(2018)noted:

In the formal educational setting of New Zealand secondary schools second languagelearninghasbeendeclining for severalyears. In2016,19%of secondarystudentswerelearninga second language,down from24% in2003.Thepicture is slightlydifferent inprimary schools, where over the same period, the proportion of students learning asecondlanguageremainedstableataround18%,exceptfrom[sic]asmalldropinthepasttwoyears.In2016itsatat17%.(p.3).

WardandEast (2016)noted thedecrease instudentnumbers in thesecondarysectoras leading toconsequencessuchas“studentsconverged intomulti-levelclasses,andtheclosureofL2[additionallanguage]programmesinschools”(p.45).Theyidentifiedfourkeyimpactingfactors:1. Thequalityandcapabilityofteachingstaff(East,2008;Gibbs&Holt,2003)2. Timetablingandcurriculumchoicesinschools(Jones,2014;Shearn,2003)3. The lack of status for languages, compounded by an entrenched monolingualism (e.g., McGee,

Ashton,Dunn,&Taniwaki,2013)4. The lack of a languages policy or compulsion in the curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007;

Peddie,1997).Teaching quality and capability Huguet (2006) speculated that students’ attitudes and motivation towards learning an additionallanguagemay bemodified through howtheir teaching and learning programmes are delivered. AsLightbownandSpada(2006)putit:

Teacherscanmakeapositivecontributiontostudents’motivationto learnifclassroomsareplacesthatstudentsenjoycomingtobecausethecontentisinterestingandrelevanttotheirageandlevelofability,thelearninggoalsarechallengingyetmanageableandclear,andtheatmosphereissupportive.(p.64)

Nevertheless,East(2012b)arguedthat“despitehavingreal-worldcommunicationasagoal,courseshavefrequentlybeendeliveredinateacher-fronted,step-by-step,hierarchicalwaywhereattentiontogrammaticalruleshasbeenseenasanimportantpre-cursortoeffectivecommunication”(p.132).East

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noted Dörnyei’s (2001) argument that the “best motivational intervention” may therefore be “toimprovethequalityofourteaching”(p.26).

Time-tabling and curriculum choices WithintheNZCitself,asignificantchallengeforlanguagelearningispresented(MinistryofEducation,2007,p.44).BoardsofTrusteesarerequiredtobeworkingtowardsmakinganadditionallanguageanentitlement for all students in school Years 7 to 10 (11+ to 14+ years of age). If schools candemonstratethattheyaretakingstepstowardsofferingalanguageprogramme(eveniftheyhavenotyet introduced one), this is currently sufficient to fulfil the curriculum requirement. Indeed, thedecentralisation of curriculum decisions (as a consequence of the 1989 policy directive known asTomorrow’sSchools) means that schools are free to shape their own curricula and decidewhat istaught,andhow it is taught.Tan(2015)quotedNational’sEducationMinisterHekiaParataonthis-“students,andtheirparents,decidewhichofthemanyoptionsavailableatschooltopursue”(¶20).Lack of status and entrenched monolingualismOnesignificantchallengeatthesocietallevelisthebeliefthatEnglishistheonlyessentiallyimportantlanguage (Benton, 1996; East, 2000; May, 2002). Despite McKinnon’s early governmental rhetoricaround the importance of language learning, Kaplan (1993) drew attention to “some hostility tolanguage issues in the population” alongside a government which, in his view, actually showed“profound disinterest” in language issues (p. 5). May (2005) mirrored Kaplan’s earlier sentiment.Notingthat, intheearly1990s,NewZealandwas in fact“oneof themost linguisticallyhomogenousnation-statesintheworld”(¶4),one“clearreflectionoftheEnglishmonolingualbias”wasa“palpablelackofinterestinlanguageissues,amongbothpolicymakersandthewiderpublic”inNewZealand(¶9).More recently, East (2008) argued that “[e]ntrenchedmonolingual and Anglocentric [English-only]attitudesarguablyworkagainstthesuccessfulintroductionofmeaningfulcoursesinforeignlanguagesinschools”(p.129).Heconcluded(East,2012a)that“[t]hereisaveryrealsenseinwhichmanyNewZealanderssimplydonotseethepointoflearninganadditionallanguage”(p.31).Lack of a national languages policy Alliedtolackofcompulsioninthecurriculumasaconsequence,forexample,ofTomorrow’sSchools,and entrenched monolingual-mindedness, early advocacy for a national languages policy (Waite,1992),alongsidemorerecentcanvassingforsuchapolicy(RoyalSocietyofNewZealand,2013),hasfailedtoprovidesufficienttractiontoseeapolicyestablished.Building on the above constraints, Ward and East (2016) reported a study that examined factorsinfluencing curriculum leaders in schools as they made decisions about additional languageprogrammes.Findingsfrominterviewswithprincipalsandleadersoflanguagesinfourschools(n=7)andanon-linesurveyof teachers (n=112)werepresentedagainst the four intersecting themesidentifiedabove.Although,overall,itwasfoundthatlanguagesprogrammescanbesuccessful,lackofstatuswasseenasamajor impacting factor.Challengeswith timetablingandacrowdedcurriculumwere also identified, alongside the emphasis on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering andMathematics) subjects, lack of compulsion and the need for a national languages policy. Quality ofteaching emerged as being key to success. That is, teachers spoke about the importance of havingvibrantandenthusiasticteachersforlanguagesprogrammes.Inessence,thesituationinNewZealandwithregardtostudenttake-upofadditionallanguages“hasnot been a positive one,” with teachers of additional languages “frequently facing demotivatedstudents,lowenrolmentsandconsiderableattrition”(East,2012b,p.128).

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Chinese language learning to New Zealand In the faceof theabovescenarios (communicativeandutilitarianmotivations for language learningalongside significant constraints in practice), the case of the teaching and learning of MandarinChinese(hereafterChinese)standsoutasimportant.Seneff (2006) argued that China’s emergence as an importantmember of theworld’s economyhashighlightedagrowingneedforothernationsto“acquireproficiencyincommunicatinginChinese”(p.1).HeconcludedthatthoseproficientinChinesewouldbeabletotakeadvantageofthisknowledgeinbuildingsuccessfulrelationshipswithChina.LoBianco (2011)described the ascendance of Chinese as ‘the gigantic up-and-comer’. Arguing that“[t]heunderlyingdemandforChineseisclearlytiedtoitsmassiveeconomicandstrategicpresenceintheglobalage,andinaconsensusamongobserversthatthispowerwill increaseratherthanwane”(xxiii),LoBiancoassertedthatChinese“willsecureitspresenceamongtheprioritytaughtlanguagesin African, European, Australasian and wider American settings” (p. xxi). Indeed, Tsung andCruickshank (2011) noted the increasing establishment of Chinese language programmes in USschools and universities. Orton (2010) argued that Australians need to learn to speak Chinese andunderstandChinesecultureinordertostrengthentheirrelationshipwithChinaandtofostermutualeconomic and social benefits for both countries. Similar arguments have been presented regardingNewZealand(e.g.,Bowman&Conway,2013).TheNewZealandMinistryofForeignAffairsandTrade(n.d.)hasacknowledgedthatChinais“oneoftheworld’s fastest-growing economies and its vast population and growingmiddle class representhugepotential.”It isnotedthatChinais“NewZealand’slargesttradingpartneringoodsandsecondlargestoverall includingtrade inservices.”TheNewZealand-ChinaFreeTradeAgreement“cementsthetradingrelationshipbetweenourtwocountries,andfreesupbusiness forexporters, theservicesectorandinvestors.”Statistics recording thenumbersof studentsstudyinga language inNewZealand’sschoolsbetween2008and2017(EducationCounts,n.d.)demonstratethatChineseisbuckingthetrendofdecreasingenrolmentsidentifiedbyEriksen(2018).Inboththeprimary/intermediatesector(Figure1;Table1)andthesecondarysector(Figure2;Table2), thenumbersofstudentsstudyingChinese,shownasapercentageofthetotalschoolroll,haveincreased.1

Figure 1:Chineselanguagestudents(Years1-8)aspercentagesoftotalroll2008–2017

1 StatisticsdrawnfromEducationCounts(https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/home)

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Table 1:Chineselanguagestudents(Years1-8)aspercentagesoftotalroll2008–2017

Figure 2:Chineselanguagestudents(Years9-13)aspercentagesoftotalroll2008–2017

Table 2:Chineselanguagestudents(Years9-13)aspercentagesoftotalroll2008–2017Furthermore, as Table 3 reveals, particularly in the primary/intermediate sector the number ofschoolsofferingChinesetostudentshasmarkedlyincreased.

Table 3:NumberofschoolsteachingChinese,2008-2017Overall, statistics reveal growth: considerably so in the primary/intermediate sector and moremoderatelyinthesecondarysector.GrowthisevidentinboththenumbersofstudentstakingChineseand the number of schools offering Chinese. The statistics support Eriksen’s (2018) assertion that“ChineseisnowthemostpopularlanguagetaughtinNewZealandprimary/intermediateschools”(p.2).

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TheMandarinLanguageAssistant(MLA)programmerepresentsaparticularlysignificantmechanismtosupporttheincreaseintheteachingandlearningofChineseinNewZealand’sschools,particularlyintheprimary/intermediatesector. The Mandarin Language Assistant programme According to Tsung and Cruickshank (2011), Confucius Institutes worldwide have become “animportantplatformforteachingChineseasasecondlanguage”(p.2).Specifically,theMLAprogrammeispartofthisplatformand,inNewZealand,isasignificantconsequenceoftheFreeTradeAgreementwith China. China’s Office of the Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) supports threeConfuciusInstitutesinNewZealand.MLAsserveatermofoneacademicyearinaschoolandhelptopromotethelearningofChinesewhilstalsohavingtheopportunitytoimprovetheirEnglishandworkalongside experiencedNewZealand teachers. Eriksen (2018) noted that the programme is popularandinhighdemand.Tworecentsmall-scalestudiessoughttoidentifytheimpactoftheMLAprogrammeinNewZealand.Lin(2013)undertookasurveytoestablishtheperceivedbenefitsandchallengesof theprogrammeforMLAs(n=23).BuildingonLin’swork,Kai(2015),herselfaone-timeMLA,undertookasmall-scalestudy into the perceived effectiveness of the MLA programme in Auckland. She focused on fiveAucklandschoolswhohadengagedanMLAtoworkwithYear7/8studentsforthe2014academicyear. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with school principals (one in each school) andclassroomteachers(oneineachschoolwhohaddesignatedresponsibilitytooverseetheMLA’swork).AlthoughKai’s (2015) conclusions are not generalisable due to the small and localised sample, sheassertedthatherfindingssupportedaviewthat“overalltheMLAprogrammeplaysapositiveroleinpromotingthedevelopmentofChineselanguageteachingandChinesecultureinlocalschools”(p.ii).TheMLAs:• helpedtoraisetheculturalawarenessofbothteachersandstudentsinlocalschools,as ‘cultural

envoys’;• increasedstudents’interestinlearningChineselanguageandculture;• introducedculturalknowledgeinclassandfacilitatedvariousculturalactivities;• encouragedschoolstoattempttoestablishChineseprogrammes.Constraining factors Notwithstanding the positive role thatMLAs play in the promotion and development of Chinese inNew Zealand, Lin (2013) identified several ways in which the programme might be improved,includinghowMLAsmightbebetterpreparedfortheirrolesinNewZealandschools,andprovidingMLAswithsuitableteachingmaterials.SeveralconstraintsalsoemergedfromKai’s(2015)research,including:1. too short a work term (one year) - due to the nature of the programme, the MLAs, who are

enrolledasmastersstudentsintheirhomeuniversities,areonlyallowedtobeawayfromtheiron-campusstudyforupto12months,withtheMLApositionseenasakindofinternshipwithinthedegree;

2. preparation in Chinamisalignedwith actualwork inNewZealand (in particularwith regard toclassroommanagement);

3. atendencyforschoolstorelyontheMLAsas‘normalteachers’,puttingtheminchargeoflessonplanning,teachingandassessment;

4. noclearcurriculumforMLAstoreferto,leadingtolackofaunifiedapproach;5. difficulty for MLAs in adapting to the local teaching style, managing classes, and maintaining

students’interestduetoateachingapproachinfluencedbyaChineseeducationbackground.Subsequent correspondence with key leaders within the Confucius Institutes in Auckland andWellingtonconfirmswaysinwhichseveralconstraintsarebeingaddressed.Forexample,intermsof

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MLA preparation, professional development has been enhanced to acclimatise MLAs better forworking inNewZealand’s schools (TonyBrowne, personal communication, 16/07/2018;NoraYao,personalcommunication,30/07/2018).WithregardtoPoint2above,bothConfuciusInstituteshaveworkedwithHanbantoprovidemoreNZrelatedinput,whichmainlyfocusesonunderstandingtheNZeducationsystemandhowtoworkwithaleadteacherintheclassroom.Leadteacherworkshopsarein place to address Point 3 above and to clarify expectations. With regard to Point 4 above, theConfucius Institute in Auckland has recently produced a ‘primary school framework’ document forMLAstofollow;thisframeworkhasbeenintroducedtoMLAsnationwide. Point 5 above arguably represents the most crucial barrier to the increasing success of the MLAprogramme,andonewhere lead teachersmustplaya leading role.WhenMLAs “bringwith themacompletesetofunderstandingsaboutteachingand learning, framedbywhat isknownasConfucianHeritageCulture(CHC),whichisatpointsinconflictoratvariancewithWesternnotions”(Bjorning-Gyde, Doogan, & East, 2008, pp. 78-79), there is a clash between “‘transmission’ which relies onmastery of knowledge and rote-learning of rules andmeanings” and a learner-centred model that“focusesoninteractiveengagement,learnerautonomyandthedevelopmentofcommunicativeskills”(p.80).Several of Kai’s (2015) identified constraints were echoed by Eriksen (2018), who noted schools’heavyrelianceontheprogramme,includingMLAsoftenfindingthemselvesresponsiblefordevelopinganddeliveringChineseprogrammeseventhoughtheyareintendedonlytobeassistantstoteachers.Eriksenwent on to note, however, that “there is no plan as yet on the part of government for thedevelopmentofincreasedcapacityforChineseteachinginNZschools”(p.12).LoBianco (2011)pointedout a broader contextual problem forNewZealand, that is, “themultiplepresencesofChineseasalanguageofheritage,acommunitylanguageandaforeignlanguage”(p.xvii).These ‘multiple presences’ create dilemmas for teaching Chinese in schools because the threeaudiencesaredistinct,havedifferentlearningneedsandaspirations,andimpactoneachotherwhentaught in combined classes. For example, the presence of international Chinese students in seniorsecondary Chinese classrooms can become a deterrent to enrolment for first language speakers ofEnglish. Even more broadly, and in common with constraining factors that influence all languagelearninginNewZealand(seeearlier),otherproblemsforChinese,inLoBianco’swords,willcontinuetobe“teachershortages,absentstudentmotivationandinsufficientcurriculumtime”(p.xiii).Eriksen(2018)concludedthattherewas“anurgentneedforNewZealandtotakegreaterownershipof its Chinese language teaching capacity and to establish on-going plans for funding, teaching andlearningChineselanguageinNewZealandschools”(p.2).This‘urgentneed’mustbeseenagainsttherealitythat,despitepositiveupwardtrendsintermsofthetake-upofChinesebystudentsinschools,only2%ofthesecondaryschoolpopulationwasstudyingChinesein2017,therebygreatlylimitingthepotential for students to attain higher levels of proficiency in the language. There is scope forconsiderablegrowth.ThisgrowthneedstolookatwaysofsupportingChineseteachinginschoolsthatmovesbeyondarelianceontheMLAs.Recommendations WardandEast(2016)arguedthatprimarysupporteffortsneedtobetargetedatensuringeffectiveteaching “in terms of facilitating, and funding, quality teacher education and quality PLDopportunities”(p.60).Essentially,moreteachersareneeded,andtheseteachersrequireadequatelyfundedandresourcedpre-serviceandin-serviceteachereducation.BuildingonWardandEast(2016),thebelowrecommendationsarepresentedasmeanstostrengthenlanguageteachingandlearninginNewZealand,withparticularfocusonhowChinesemightbebettersupported:1. Given the optional status of languages, effective pedagogy is crucial. Teachers are arguably the

most important key to student enrolment, success and continuation. Thismay be perceived aspressurisingforteachers,butitsinfluenceinstudentdecision-makingshouldnotbedownplayed.

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2. Teachersneedtobewilling to ‘embracechange’andconsidermore learner-centredexperientialapproaches to language teaching. Effective teacher education initiatives and on-going PLDopportunitiesneedtosupportthemindoingthis.Theserequiregovernmentfunding.

3. Clearer pathways for students beyond secondary school that de-emphasise STEM subjects andpromotethevalueoflanguagelearningmighthelpwithstudentrecruitmentandretention.

4. In schoolswith successful languages programmes, principals regard languages as an importantpartofthecurriculum.Thewholeschoolethosneedstobesupportiveoflanguagelearningasoneofawholerangeoflearningopportunities.

5. Localcommunitiesneedtobeeducatedaboutthevalueoflearninganadditionallanguage.6. A national languages policy is currently lacking, and this lack should be addressed (see also

Eriksen,2018).Ward and East (2016) asserted that enhanced opportunities for language learning could only bestrengthened by “positive and supportive seniormanagement, buy in from other colleagues, and aproficient teaching staff” (p. 60). It was also important to challenge a ‘monolingual’ mindset andpromotethe importanceofmultilingualismintoday’sworld, therebyraisingthestatusofadditionallanguagelearning.Asafinalconclusion,LoBianco(2011)warned:

Constantlyhitchingschoollanguageteachingtotradestatisticshasresultedinanalmostcompleteabsenceofarationaleforlanguagesforsubstantiveeducational,intellectualandculturalreasons.…Basinglanguageteachingchoicesexclusivelyoncontingenteconomicfortunes of different economies risks chopping and changing languages when tradefortuneschange.(p.xv)

Notwithstandingthepragmaticandutilitarianmotivationsforlanguagelearningthathavebeenpartof the discourse in New Zealand for many years (see, e.g., McKinnon, 1992), other rationales forlanguage learning serve to guard against the vagaries of language choice determined by traderelationships.LoBianco (2011)argued,however, that, in thecaseof teachingand learningChinese,“civilizationalclaimsforitspresenceineducationcurriculaarealreadysufficient”(p.xv).Recently,andinhiscurrentroleasChairoftheNewZealandChinaCouncil,McKinnon(2014)argued,“youcannotignoreChinatoday…thekindofrelationshipthatwe’rebuildingupistoensurethatNewZealanders canbenefitby this relationship…wedeeplyvalue this relationship, andwehavegot totakeitseriously,andwehavegottokeepworkingatit.”

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