Teaching English LanguageMethods and approaches

Contents

1 Language education 11.1 Need for language education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 History of foreign language education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2.1 Ancient to medieval period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.2 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.3 19th–20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.3 Teaching foreign language in classrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4 Online and self-study courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4.1 Audio recordings and books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4.2 Internet and software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.5 Learning strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5.1 Listening as a way of learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5.2 Reading as a way to learn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5.3 Learning vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.5.4 Code switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.6 Teaching strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6.1 Blended learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6.2 Skills teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6.3 Sandwich technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6.4 Mother tongue mirroring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6.5 Back-chaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.7 Language education by region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.8 Language study holidays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.9 Minority language education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.9.1 Minority language education policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.9.2 Materials and e-learning for minority language education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.10 Acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.12 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

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2 Teaching English as a foreign language 102.1 Teaching techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1.1 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.1.2 Communicative language teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.1.3 Blended learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.1.4 Online classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.2 Qualifications for TEFL teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.3 Pay and conditions worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.4 TEFL region and country locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.4.1 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.4.2 Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.4.3 Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.4.4 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.4.5 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Direct method (education) 183.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.3 Essentials of direct method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.4 Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.5 Nature of direct method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.6 Merits of direct method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.7 Demerits of Direct method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.8 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.9 Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.11 Historical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.13 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 Grammar-translation method 224.1 History and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.2 Principles and goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.3 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.5 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234.6 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

CONTENTS iii

4.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5 Audio-lingual method 245.1 Oral drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245.3 Historical roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245.4 In practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255.5 Fall from popularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255.6 Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255.7 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255.8 Main Features of Audio Lingual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255.9 Techniques of Audio Lingual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.10 Emphasizing the audio in the Audio-Lingual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.11 Aims of Audio Lingual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.12 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.13 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

6 Communicative language teaching 296.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6.1.1 Societal influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296.1.2 Academic influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296.1.3 Communicative syllabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6.2 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306.3 Classroom activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306.4 Critiques of CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

7 English for academic purposes 327.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

8 English for specific purposes 338.1 Definition of ESP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

8.1.1 Absolute characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338.1.2 Variable characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

8.2 Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

8.6.1 Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348.6.2 Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348.6.3 Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

8.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358.7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358.7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368.7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 1

Language education

“Language Teaching” redirects here. For the journal, seeLanguage Teaching (journal).

Language education is the teaching and learning of aforeign or second language. Language education is abranch of applied linguistics.

1.1 Need for language education

Increasing globalization has created a large need for peo-ple in the workforce who can communicate in multiplelanguages. The uses of common languages are in areassuch as trade, tourism, international relations, technol-ogy, media, and science. Many countries such as Korea(KimYeong-seo, 2009), Japan (Kubota, 1998) andChina(Kirkpatrick & Zhichang, 2002) frame education poli-cies to teach at least one foreign language at the primaryand secondary school levels. However, some countriessuch as India, Singapore, Malaysia, Pakistan, and thePhilippines use a second official language in their gov-ernments. According to GAO (2010), China has recentlybeen putting enormous importance on foreign languagelearning, especially the English language.

1.2 History of foreign language ed-ucation

1.2.1 Ancient to medieval period

Although the need to learn foreign languages is almost asold as human history itself, the origins of modern lan-guage education are in the study and teaching of Latinin the 17th century. Latin had for many centuries beenthe dominant language of education, commerce, religion,and government in much of the Western world, but itwas displaced by French, Italian, and English by the endof the 16th century. John Amos Comenius was one ofmany people who tried to reverse this trend. He com-posed a complete course for learning Latin, covering theentire school curriculum, culminating in hisOpera Didac-tica Omnia, 1657.

In this work, Comenius also outlined his theory oflanguage acquisition. He is one of the first theoriststo write systematically about how languages are learnedand about pedagogical methodology for language acqui-sition. He held that language acquisition must be alliedwith sensation and experience. Teaching must be oral.The schoolroom should have models of things, and fail-ing that, pictures of them. As a result, he also publishedthe world’s first illustrated children’s book, Orbis Sensual-ium Pictus. The study of Latin diminished from the studyof a living language to be used in the real world to a sub-ject in the school curriculum. Such decline brought abouta new justification for its study. It was then claimed thatits study developed intellectual abilities, and the study ofLatin grammar became an end in and of itself.“Grammar schools” from the 16th to 18th centuries fo-cused on teaching the grammatical aspects of ClassicalLatin. Advanced students continued grammar study withthe addition of rhetoric.[1]

1.2.2 18th century

The study of modern languages did not become part ofthe curriculum of European schools until the 18th cen-tury. Based on the purely academic study of Latin, stu-dents of modern languages did much of the same ex-ercises, studying grammatical rules and translating ab-stract sentences. Oral work was minimal, and studentswere instead required to memorize grammatical rulesand apply these to decode written texts in the target lan-guage. This tradition-inspired method became known asthe grammar-translation method.[1]

1.2.3 19th–20th century

Innovation in foreign language teaching began in the 19thcentury and became very rapid in the 20th century. It ledto a number of different and sometimes conflicting meth-ods, each trying to be a major improvement over the pre-vious or contemporary methods. The earliest applied lin-guists included Jean Manesca, Heinrich Gottfried Ollen-dorff (1803–1865), Henry Sweet (1845–1912), Otto Jes-persen (1860–1943), and Harold Palmer (1877–1949).

1

2 CHAPTER 1. LANGUAGE EDUCATION

Henry Sweet was a key figure in establishing the applied linguis-tics tradition in language teaching

They worked on setting language teaching principles andapproaches based on linguistic and psychological theo-ries, but they left many of the specific practical detailsfor others to devise.[1]

Those looking at the history of foreign-language educa-tion in the 20th century and themethods of teaching (suchas those related below) might be tempted to think thatit is a history of failure. Very few students in U.S. uni-versities who have a foreign language as a major manageto reach something called “minimum professional pro-ficiency”. Even the “reading knowledge” required for aPhD degree is comparable only to what second-year lan-guage students read and only very few researchers who arenative English speakers can read and assess informationwritten in languages other than English. Even a numberof famous linguists are monolingual.[2]

However, anecdotal evidence for successful second orforeign language learning is easy to find, leading to adiscrepancy between these cases and the failure of mostlanguage programs, which helps make the research ofsecond language acquisition emotionally charged. Oldermethods and approaches such as the grammar transla-tion method or the direct method are dismissed and evenridiculed as newer methods and approaches are inventedand promoted as the only and complete solution to theproblem of the high failure rates of foreign language stu-dents.Most books on language teaching list the various meth-ods that have been used in the past, often ending withthe author’s new method. These new methods are usu-ally presented as coming only from the author’s mind,as the authors generally give no credence to what wasdone before and do not explain how it relates to the new

method. For example, descriptive linguists seem to claimunhesitatingly that there were no scientifically based lan-guage teaching methods before their work (which led tothe audio-lingual method developed for the U.S. Armyin World War II). However, there is significant evidenceto the contrary. It is also often inferred or even statedthat older methods were completely ineffective or havedied out completely when even the oldest methods arestill used (e.g. the Berlitz version of the direct method).One reason for this situation is that proponents of newmethods have been so sure that their ideas are so newand so correct that they could not conceive that the olderones have enough validity to cause controversy. This wasin turn caused by emphasis on new scientific advances,which has tended to blind researchers to precedents inolder work.[2](p. 5)There have been two major branches in the field of lan-guage learning, the empirical and theoretical, and thesehave almost completely separate histories, with each gain-ing ground over the other at one point in time or another.Examples of researchers on the empiricist side are Jes-person, Palmer, and Leonard Bloomfield, who promotemimicry and memorization with pattern drills. Thesemethods follow from the basic empiricist position thatlanguage acquisition basically results from habits formedby conditioning and drilling. In its most extreme form,language learning is seen as basically the same as anyother learning in any other species, human language beingessentially the same as communication behaviors seen inother species.On the theoretical side are, for example, Francois Gouin,M.D. Berlitz, and Elime de Sauzé, whose rationalist theo-ries of language acquisition dovetail with linguistic workdone by Noam Chomsky and others. These have led toa wider variety of teaching methods ranging from thegrammar-translation method to Gouin’s “series method”to the direct methods of Berlitz and de Sauzé. Withthese methods, students generate original and meaningfulsentences to gain a functional knowledge of the rules ofgrammar. This follows from the rationalist position thatman is born to think and that language use is a uniquelyhuman trait impossible in other species. Given that hu-man languages share many common traits, the idea is thathumans share a universal grammar which is built into ourbrain structure. This allows us to create sentences that wehave never heard before but that can still be immediatelyunderstood by anyone who understands the specific lan-guage being spoken. The rivalry of the two camps is in-tense, with little communication or cooperation betweenthem.[2]

1.4. ONLINE AND SELF-STUDY COURSES 3

1.3 Teaching foreign language inclassrooms

Main article: Methods of teaching foreign languagesLanguage education may take place as a general school

High school Spanish taught as a second language to a classof native English speakers at an American private school inMassachusetts.

subject or in a specialized language school. There aremany methods of teaching languages. Some have falleninto relative obscurity and others are widely used; stillothers have a small following, but offer useful insights.While sometimes confused, the terms “approach”,“method” and “technique” are hierarchical concepts.An approach is a set of assumptions about the nature oflanguage and language learning, but does not involve pro-cedure or provide any details about how such assumptionsshould be implemented into the classroom setting. Suchcan be related to second language acquisition theory.There are three principal “approaches":

1. The structural view treats language as a system ofstructurally related elements to code meaning (e.g.grammar).

2. The functional view sees language as a vehicle toexpress or accomplish a certain function, such as re-questing something.

3. The interactive view sees language as a vehicle forthe creation and maintenance of social relations,focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiationand interaction found in conversational exchanges.This approach has been fairly dominant since the1980s.[1]

A method is a plan for presenting the language materialto be learned, and should be based upon a selected ap-proach. In order for an approach to be translated into amethod, an instructional system must be designed con-sidering the objectives of the teaching/learning, how the

content is to be selected and organized, the types of tasksto be performed, the roles of students, and the roles ofteachers.

1. Examples of structural methods are grammar trans-lation and the audio-lingual method.

2. Examples of functional methods include the oral ap-proach / situational language teaching.

3. Examples of interactive methods include the directmethod, the series method, communicative lan-guage teaching, language immersion, the SilentWay, Suggestopedia, the Natural Approach, TotalPhysical Response, Teaching Proficiency throughReading and Storytelling and Dogme languageteaching.

A technique (or strategy) is a very specific, concretestratagem or trick designed to accomplish an immediateobjective. Such are derived from the controlling method,and less directly, from the approach.[1]

1.4 Online and self-study courses

Hundreds of languages are available for self-study, fromscores of publishers, for a range of costs, using a varietyof methods.[3] The course itself acts as a teacher and hasto choose a methodology, just as classroom teachers do.

1.4.1 Audio recordings and books

Audio recordings use native speakers, and one strength ishelping learners improve their accent.[4] Some recordingshave pauses for the learner to speak. Others are continu-ous so the learner speaks along with the recorded voice,similar to learning a song.[5]

Audio recordings for self-study use many of the methodsused in classroom teaching, and have been produced onrecords, tapes, CDs, DVDs and websites.Most audio recordings teach words in the target languageby using explanations in the learner’s own language. Analternative is to use sound effects to show meaning ofwords in the target language.[6][7] The only language insuch recordings is the target language, and they are com-prehensible regardless of the learner’s native language.Language books have been published for centuries,teaching vocabulary and grammar. The simplest booksare phrasebooks to give useful short phrases for travelers,cooks, receptionists,[8] or others who need specific vocab-ulary. More complete books include more vocabulary,grammar, exercises, translation, and writing practice.Also, various other “language learning tools” have beenentering the market in recent years. There are as simpleexamples as Vocabulary Stickers, but also technologicallycomplex augmented reality translation apps.

4 CHAPTER 1. LANGUAGE EDUCATION

1.4.2 Internet and software

Software can interact with learners in ways that booksand audio cannot:

1. Some software records the learner, analyzes the pro-nunciation, and gives feedback.[9]

2. Software can present additional exercises in areaswhere a particular learner has difficulty, until theconcepts are mastered.

3. Software can pronounce words in the target lan-guage and show their meaning by using pictures[10]instead of oral explanations. The only language insuch software is the target language. It is compre-hensible regardless of the learner’s native language.

Websites provide various services geared toward lan-guage education. Some sites are designed specifically forlearning languages:

1. Some software runs on the web itself, with the ad-vantage of avoiding downloads, and the disadvan-tage of requiring an internet connection.

2. Some publishers use the web to distribute audio,texts and software, for use offline.

3. Some websites offer learning activities such asquizzes or puzzles to practice language concepts.

4. Language exchange sites connect users with com-plementary language skills, such as a native Spanishspeaker who wants to learn English with a native En-glish speaker who wants to learn Spanish. Languageexchange websites essentially treat knowledge of alanguage as a commodity, and provide a marketlikeenvironment for the commodity to be exchanged.Users typically contact each other via chat, VoIP, oremail. Language exchanges have also been viewedas a helpful tool to aid language learning at languageschools. Language exchanges tend to benefit oralproficiency, fluency, colloquial vocabulary acquisi-tion, and vernacular usage, rather than formal gram-mar or writing skills.

Many other websites are helpful for learning languages,even though they are designed, maintained and marketedfor other purposes:

1. All countries have websites in their own languages,which learners elsewhere can use as primary mate-rial for study: news, fiction, videos, songs, etc. Ina study conducted by the Center for Applied Lin-guistics, it was noted that the use of technology andmedia has begun to play a heavy role in facilitatinglanguage learning in the classroom. With the help ofthe internet, students are readily exposed to foreign

media (music videos, television shows, films) and asa result, teachers are taking heed of the internet’s in-fluence and are searching for ways to combine thisexposure into their classroom teaching.[11]

2. Translation sites let learners find the meaning of for-eign text or create foreign translations of text fromtheir native language.[12][13]

3. Speech synthesis or text to speech (TTS) sites andsoftware let learners hear pronunciation of arbitrarywritten text, with pronunciation similar to a nativespeaker.

4. Course development and learning management sys-tems such as Moodle are used by teachers, includinglanguage teachers.

5. Web conferencing tools can bring remote learnerstogether; e.g. Elluminate Live.

6. Players of computer games can practice a target lan-guage when interacting in massively multiplayer on-line games and virtual worlds. In 2005, the virtualworld Second Life started to be used for foreign lan-guage tuition, sometimes with entire businesses be-ing developed.[14][15] In addition, Spain’s languageand cultural institute Instituto Cervantes has an “is-land” on Second Life.

Some Internet content is free, often from governmentand nonprofit sites such as BBC Online, Book2, ForeignService Institute, with no or minimal ads. Some is ad-supported, such as newspapers and YouTube. Some re-quires a payment.

1.5 Learning strategies

Language learning strategies have attracted increasing fo-cus as a way of understanding the process of languageacquisition.

1.5.1 Listening as a way of learning

Clearly listening is used to learn, but not all languagelearners employ it consciously. Listening to understand isone level of listening but focused listening[16] is not some-thing that most learners employ as a strategy.

1.5.2 Reading as a way to learn

Many people read to understand but the strategy of read-ing text to learn grammar and discourse styles can also beemployed.[17]

1.6. TEACHING STRATEGIES 5

1.5.3 Learning vocabulary

Translation and rote memorization have been the twostrategies that have been employed traditionally. Thereare other strategies that also can be used such as guess-ing, based on looking for contextual clues, spaced rep-etition with a use of various apps, games and tools(e.g. DuoLingo, LingoMonkey andVocabulary Stickers).Knowledge about how the brain works can be utilized increating strategies for how to remember words.[18]

1.5.4 Code switching

Main article: Code-switching

Code switching, that is, changing between languages atsome point in a sentence or utterance, is a commonlyused communication strategy among language learnersand bilinguals. While traditional methods of formal in-struction often discourage code switching, students, es-pecially those placed in a language immersion situation,often use it. If viewed as a learning strategy, whereinthe student uses the target language as much as possi-ble but reverts to their native language for any elementof an utterance that they are unable to produce in the tar-get language (as, e.g., in Wolfgang Butzkamm's conceptof enlightened monolingualism), then it has the advan-tages that it encourages fluency development and motiva-tion and a sense of accomplishment by enabling the stu-dent to discuss topics of interest to him or her early in thelearning process—before requisite vocabulary has beenmemorized. It is particularly effective for students whosenative language is English, due to the high probability ofa simple English word or short phrase being understoodby the conversational partner.[19]

1.6 Teaching strategies

1.6.1 Blended learning

Main article: Blended learning

Blended learning combines face-to-face teachingwith distance education, frequently electronic, eithercomputer-based or web-based. It has been a majorgrowth point in the ELT (English Language Teaching)industry over the last ten years.Some people, though, use the phrase 'Blended Learning'to refer to learning taking place while the focus is on otheractivities. For example, playing a card game that requirescalling for cards may allow blended learning of numbers(1 to 10).

1.6.2 Skills teaching

When talking about language skills, the four basic onesare: listening, speaking, reading and writing. However,other, more socially based skills have been identifiedmore recently such as summarizing, describing, narrat-ing etc. In addition, more general learning skills such asstudy skills and knowing how one learns have been ap-plied to language classrooms.[20]

In the 1970s and 1980s, the four basic skills were gener-ally taught in isolation in a very rigid order, such as lis-tening before speaking. However, since then, it has beenrecognized that we generally use more than one skill at atime, leading to more integrated exercises.[20] Speakingis a skill that often is underrepresented in the traditionalclassroom. This is due to the fact that it is consideredharder to teach and test. There are numerous texts onteaching and testing writing but relatively few on speak-ing.More recent textbooks stress the importance of studentsworking with other students in pairs and groups, some-times the entire class. Pair and group work give oppor-tunities for more students to participate more actively.However, supervision of pairs and groups is importantto make sure everyone participates as equally as possible.Such activities also provide opportunities for peer teach-ing, where weaker learners can find support from strongerclassmates.[20]

1.6.3 Sandwich technique

Main article: Sandwich technique

In foreign language teaching, the sandwich technique isthe oral insertion of an idiomatic translation in the mothertongue between an unknown phrase in the learned lan-guage and its repetition, in order to convey meaning asrapidly and completely as possible. The mother tongueequivalent can be given almost as an aside, with a slightbreak in the flow of speech to mark it as an intruder.When modeling a dialogue sentence for students to re-peat, the teacher not only gives an oral mother tongueequivalent for unknown words or phrases, but repeats theforeign language phrase before students imitate it: L2 =>L1 => L2. For example, a German teacher of Englishmight engage in the following exchange with the students:

Teacher: “Let me try - lass mich versuchen -let me try.”Students: “Let me try.”

1.6.4 Mother tongue mirroring

Main article: Mother tongue mirroring

6 CHAPTER 1. LANGUAGE EDUCATION

Mother tongue mirroring is the adaptation of the time-honoured technique of literal translation or word-forword translation for pedagogical purposes. The aim isto make foreign constructions salient and transparent tolearners and, in many cases, spare them the technical jar-gon of grammatical analysis. It differs from literal trans-lation and interlinear text as used in the past since it takesthe progress learners have made into account and onlyfocuses upon a specific structure at a time. As a didacticdevice, it can only be used to the extent that it remainsintelligible to the learner, unless it is combined with anormal idiomatic translation. This technique is seldomreferred to or used these days.

1.6.5 Back-chaining

Main article: Back-chaining

Back-chaining is a technique used in teaching oral lan-guage skills, especially with polysyllabic or difficultwords.[21] The teacher pronounces the last syllable, thestudent repeats, and then the teacher continues, workingbackwards from the end of the word to the beginning.[22]

For example, to teach the name ‘Mussorgsky' a teacherwill pronounce the last syllable: -sky, and have the stu-dent repeat it. Then the teacher will repeat it with -sorg-attached before: -sorg-sky, and all that remains is the firstsyllable: Mus-sorg-sky.

1.7 Language education by region

Main article: Language education by region

Practices in language education may vary by region how-ever the underlying understandings which drive it are fun-damentally similar. Rote repetition, drilling, memorisa-tion and grammar conjugating are used the world over.Sometimes there are different preferences teaching meth-ods by region. Language immersion is popular in someEuropean countries, but is not used very much in theUnited States, in Asia or in Australia.The languages being learned differ; in the United States,Spanish is the most popular language to be learned,whereas the most popular languages to be learned inAustralia are Italian and Mandarin Chinese.

1.8 Language study holidays

See also: Language school

An increasing number of people are now combiningholidays with language study in the native country. This

enables the student to experience the target culture bymeeting local people. Such a holiday often combines for-mal lessons, cultural excursions, leisure activities, and ahomestay, perhaps with time to travel in the country af-terwards. Language study holidays are popular across Eu-rope (Malta &UK being themost popular because almosteveryone speaks English as a first language) and Asiadue to the ease of transportation and variety of nearbycountries. These holidays have become increasingly morepopular in Central and South America in such countriesas Guatemala, Ecuador and Peru. As a consequence ofthis increasing popularity, several international languageeducation agencies have flourished in recent years.[23]

With the increasing prevalence of international businesstransactions, it is now important to have multiple lan-guages at one’s disposal. This is also evident in businessesoutsourcing their departments to Eastern Europe.

1.9 Minority language education

1.9.1 Minority language education policy

The principal policy arguments in favor of promoting mi-nority language education are the need for multilingualworkforces, intellectual and cultural benefits and greaterinclusion in global information society.[24] Access to edu-cation in a minority language is also seen as a human rightas granted by the European Convention on Human Rightsand Fundamental Freedoms, the European Charter forRegional or Minority Languages and the UN HumanRights Committee.[25] Bilingual Education has been im-plemented in many countries including the United States,in order to promote both the use and appreciation ofthe minority language, as well as the majority languageconcerned.[26]

1.9.2 Materials and e-learning for minor-ity language education

Suitable resources for teaching and learning minority lan-guages can be difficult to find and access, which has led tocalls for the increased development of materials for mi-nority language teaching. The internet offers opportuni-ties to access a wider range of texts, audios and videos.[27]Language learning 2.0 (the use of web 2.0 tools for lan-guage education)[28] offers opportunities for material de-velopment for lesser-taught languages and to bring to-gether geographically dispersed teachers and learners.[29]

1.10 Acronyms and abbreviations

See also: English language learning and teaching for in-formation on language teaching acronyms and abbrevia-tions which are specific to English.

1.11. SEE ALSO 7

• ALL: Apprenticeship Language Learning

• CALL: computer-assisted language learning

• CLIL: content and language integrated learning

• CELI: Certificato di Conoscenza della Lingua Ital-iana

• CLL: community language learning

• DELE: Diploma de Español como Lengua Extran-jera

• DELF: diplôme d'études en langue française

• EFL: English as a foreign language

• ELL: English language learning

• ELT: English language teaching

• FLL: foreign language learning

• FLT: foreign language teaching

• HLL: heritage language learning

• L1: first language, native language, mother tongue

• L2: second language (or any additional language)

• LDL: Lernen durch Lehren (German for learningby teaching)

• LOTE: Languages Other Than English

• SLA: second language acquisition

• TELL: technology-enhanced language learning

• TEFL: teaching English as a foreign language N.B.This article is about travel-teaching.

• TEFLA: teaching English as a foreign language toadults

• TESOL: teaching English to speakers of other lan-guages

• TPR: Total Physical Response

• TPRS: Teaching Proficiency through Reading andStorytelling

• UNIcert is a European language education system ofmany universities based on the Common EuropeanFramework of Reference for Languages.

1.11 See also

• American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Lan-guages

• Eikaiwa school

• Error analysis (linguistics)

• Foreign language anxiety

• Foreign language writing aid

• Foreign language reading aid

• Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas

• How to learn a foreign language

• Language festival

• Lexicography

• Linguistic rights

• List of language acquisition researchers

• Monolingual learner’s dictionary

• Self access language learning centers

1.12 Notes[1] Richards, Jack C.; Theodore S. Rodgers (2001). Ap-

proaches and Methods in Language Teaching. CambridgeUK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00843-3.

[2] Diller, Karl Conrad (1978). The Language Teaching Con-troversy. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. ISBN0-912066-22-9.

[3] “Reviews of Language Self-Study Courses: Comparison,Problems, Ratings”. Lang1234. Retrieved 17 July 2012.

[4] “Good Accents”. Lang1234. Retrieved 5 August 2012.

[5] “Shadowing Step by Step”. ForeignLanguageExper-tise.com. Retrieved 17 July 2012.

[6] Amazing Hear-Say, by Donald Rivera, Penton OverseasInc., ISBN 1-56015-677-5, ISBN 1-59125-350-0, ISBN1-59125-353-5, ISBN 1-59125-349-7, ISBN 1-59125-351-9

[7] “Lessons for Beginners in English, mp3”. 15 August2013. Retrieved 3 May 2014.

[8] “Workers and Guests Have Different Language Needs ina Hotel”. 20 April 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2014.

[9] “Scoring Your Pronunciation”. Lang1234. Retrieved 5August 2012.

[10] “Language Guide”. Language Guide. Retrieved 17 July2012.

8 CHAPTER 1. LANGUAGE EDUCATION

[11] “What We Can Learn From Foreign Language TeachingIn Other Countries”. Center for Applied Linguistics. Re-trieved 8 May 2012.

[12] “Google Translate”. Retrieved 3 May 2014.

[13] “Bing Translator”. Microsoft. Retrieved 3 May 2014.

[14] Dorveaux, Xavier (15 July 2007). “Study and teach inSecond Life”. iT’s Magazines. Retrieved 15 July 2007.

[15] Dorveaux, Xavier (15 July 2007). “Apprendre une languedans un monde virtuel”. Le Monde. Retrieved 15 July2007.

[16] Andrew Weiler: focused listening

[17] Andrew Weiler: strategy of reading

[18] Andrew Weiler: How to remember vocabulary

[19] Butzkamm, Wolfgang (1998). “Code-Switching in aBilingual History Lesson: The Mother Tongue as a Con-versational Lubricant”. International Journal of BilingualEducation and Bilingualism 1:2, pp.81-99.

[20] Holden, Susan; Mickey Rodgers (1998). English languageteaching. Mexico City: DELTI. ISBN 968-6820-12-4.

[21] “Backchaining.” Glossary. Retrieved April 4, 2009, fromhttp://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/backchaining.html

[22] “Backchaining.” Teaching English. Retrieved April4, 2009, from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-wiki/backchaining

[23] “Travel agents missing out on profitable language travelholidays – Sprachcaffe”. TravelWeek. Retrieved 2015-03-04.

[24] Sachdev, I; McPake, J (2008). “Community Languagesin Higher Education: Towards realising the potential”.Routes into Languages. p. 76. Retrieved 26 June 2009.

[25] de Varennes, Fernand (2004). “The right to education andminority language”. EUMAP: EU Monitoring and Advo-cacy Program Online Journal. Archived from the originalon 4 April 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.

[26] National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity andSecond Language Learning (July 1999). “Two-WayBilin-gual Education Programs in Practice: A National and Lo-cal Perspective”. Center for Applied Linguistics. Re-trieved 26 June 2009.

[27] Sachdev, I; McPake, J (2008). “Community Languagesin Higher Education: Towards realising the potential”.Routes into Languages. pp. 61–62. Retrieved 26 June2009.

[28] Diouri, Mourad (2009). “Language learning 2.0 in action:web .0 tools to enhance language learning” (PDF). 4thPlymouth e-Learning Conference 2009. Archived fromthe original (PDF) on 22 November 2009. Retrieved 26June 2009.

[29] Ikeda, A. Sho; Doty, Christopher (14March 2009). “NewRoles for Technology in Language Maintenance and Re-vitalization”. 1st International Conference on LanguageDocumentation and Conservation (ICLDC). Retrieved 26June 2009.

1.13 References

• Pérez-Milans, M (2013). Urban schools and Englishlanguage education in late modern China: A Criticalsociolinguistic ethnography. New York & London:Routledge.

• Gao, Xuesong (Andy). (2010).Strategic LanguageLearning.Multilingual Matters:Canada, 2010

• Kim Yeong-seo (2009) “History of English educa-tion in Korea”

• Kirkpatrick, A & Zhichang, X (2002).”Chinesepragmatic norms and “China English”. World En-glishes. Vol. 21, pp. 269–279.

• Kubota, K (1998) “Ideologies of English in Japan”World Englishes Vol.17, No.3, pp. 295–306.

1.14 Further reading

• Bernhardt, E. B. (Ed.) (1992). Life in language im-mersion classrooms. Clevedon, England: Multilin-gual Matters, Ltd.

• Genesee, F. (1985). Second language learningthrough immersion: A review of U.S. programs.Review of Educational Research, 55(4), 541–561.

• Genesee, F. (1987). Learning Through Two Lan-guages: Studies of Immersion and Bilingual Educa-tion. Cambridge, Mass.: Newbury House Publish-ers.

• Lindholm-Leary, K. (2001). Theoretical and con-ceptual foundations for dual language education pro-grams. In K. Lindholm-Leary, Dual language edu-cation (pp. 39–58). Clevedon, England: Multilin-gual Matters Ltd.

• McKay, Sharon; Schaetzel, Kirsten, FacilitatingAdult Learner Interactions to Build Listening andSpeaking Skills, CAELA Network Briefs, CAELAand Center for Applied Linguistics

• Meunier, Fanny; Granger, Sylviane, “Phraseologyin foreign language learning and teaching”, Amster-dam and Philadelphia : John Benjamins PublishingCompany, 2008

1.15. EXTERNAL LINKS 9

• Met, M., & Lorenz, E. (1997). Lessons from U.S.immersion programs: Two decades of experience.In R. Johnson & M. Swain (Eds.), Immersion ed-ucation: International perspectives (pp. 243–264).Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

• Swain, M. & Johnson, R. K. (1997). Immersion ed-ucation: A category within bilingual education. InR. K. Johnson & M. Swain (Eds.), Immersion edu-cation: International perspectives (pp. 1–16). NY:Cambridge University Press.

1.15 External links• Language Education at DMOZ

• LANGWISER - Social platform for online languagelearning

• CILT UK, The National Centre for Languages

• The REALIA Project

• UCLA Language Materials Project

Chapter 2

Teaching English as a foreign language

Further information: English as a second or foreignlanguage

Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) refersto teaching English to students whose first language is notEnglish. TEFL can occur in the student’s own country,either within the state school system, or privately, e.g., inan after-hours language school or with a tutor. TEFL canalso take place in an English-speaking immigrant coun-try, for people who have moved (either temporarily forschool or work, or permanently). TEFL teachers may benative or non-native speakers of English. Other acronymsfor TEFL are TESL 'Teaching English as a Second Lan-guage', TESOL 'Teaching English as a Second or OtherLanguage', and ESL 'English as a Second Language'.

2.1 Teaching techniques

See also: Language teaching methods

2.1.1 Reading

TEFL that uses literature aimed at children and teenagersis rising in popularity. Youth-oriented literature offerssimpler material (“simplified readers” are produced bymajor publishers), and often provides a more conversa-tional style than literature for adults. Children’s literaturein particular sometimes provides subtle cues to pronunci-ation, through rhyming and other word play. One methodfor using these books is the multiple-pass technique. Theinstructor reads the book, pausing often to explain cer-tain words and concepts. On the second pass, the instruc-tor reads the book completely through without stopping.Textbooks contain a variety of literature like poetry, sto-ries, essays, plays etc. through which certain linguisticitems are taught.

2.1.2 Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching (CLT) emphasizes in-teraction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learn-ing a language. Despite a number of criticisms,[1] it con-tinues to be popular, particularly in Japan, Taiwan,[2]and Europe. In India CBSE ( Central Board of Sec-ondary Education) has adopted this approach in its af-filiated schools.The task-based language learning approach to CLT hasgained ground in recent years. Proponents believe CLTis important for developing and improving speaking, writ-ing, listening, and reading skills, and that it prevents stu-dents’ merely listening passively to the teacher without in-teraction. Dogme[3] is a similar communicative approachthat encourages teaching without published textbooks, in-stead focusing on conversational communication amongthe learners and the teacher.[4]

2.1.3 Blended learning

Blended learning is a combination of face-to-face teach-ing and online interactions (also known as computer-assisted language learning), achieved through a virtuallearning environment (VLE).VLEs have been a major growth point in the English Lan-guage Teaching (ELT) industry over the last five years.There are two types:

• Externally hosted platforms that a school or insti-tution exports content to (e.g., the proprietary WebCourse Tools, or the open source Moodle)

• Content-supplied, course-managed learning plat-forms (e.g. the Macmillan English Campus)

The former provides pre-designed structures and tools,while the latter supports course-building by the languageschool—teachers can blend existing courses with games,activities, listening exercises, and grammar referenceunits contained online. This supports classroom, self-study or remote practice (for example in an internet café).Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan in India has launched a

10

2.3. PAY AND CONDITIONS WORLDWIDE 11

web portal ECTLT where learners can learn English andother subject online and interact with their own teachersof KVS across the country.

2.1.4 Online classroom

Advances in technology made it possible to get a TEFLqualification online. Students can enroll into onlineclasses that are accredited by organizations such as Ac-creditat. It should be noted that there is no single over-arching accreditation body for TEFL.[5] Study materialsare divided into modules. Students take one or multipletests per study module. Support is handled by tutors, whocan be reached via email. After successfully finishing thelast module the student is granted a certificate. It comesin digital form or can be shipped to the student’s address.Getting such a certificate can be beneficial in many ways.The student can get a bigger paycheck or teach English inforeign countries.

2.2 Qualifications for TEFL teach-ers

Qualification requirements vary considerably from coun-try to country and among employers within the samecountry. In many institutions it is possible to teach with-out a degree or teaching certificate. Some institutions willconsider it necessary to be a native speaker with an MATESOL. A university degree in English language and lit-erature can also be of value, as indeed can any special-ist degree. Other institutions consider a proof of En-glish proficiency, a University degree and a basic teach-ing qualification to be more than sufficient. However, thelevel of academic qualification need not be the most im-portant qualification, as many schools will be more inter-ested in your interpersonal skills. For trainers wishing toenter the academic field, publications can be as importantas qualifications, especially if they relate to English use inyour field. Where there is a high demand for teachers andno statutory requirements, employers may accept other-wise unqualified candidates. Each country is different,and acceptance depends on demand for English teachersand the teacher’s previous teaching and life experiences.As a general rule, schools will tend to prefer qualificationsthat involve a significant amount of assessed teaching: itis often said that “Learning to teach without classroompractice is like learning to drive without ever encounter-ing traffic”.[6] Shorter courses and online courses oftenlack assessed teaching practice. Course makers have rec-ognized this and have begun introducing combined TEFLcourses which have an element of assessed teaching.[7]

Some educational facilities are now offering two or threewell-defined certificates instead of one general certificate.For example, Introduction to Language Teaching - 40

hours, Practice of Language Training - 30 hours, and Lit-eracy - 30 hours.Private language schools are likely to require at least acertificate based on successful completion of a courseconsisting of a minimum of 100 hours. Major pro-grams like EPIK will offer a higher salary to teachers whohave completed any TEFL Course, online or otherwise,so long as the program meets the minimum 100 hourrequirement.[8] Internet-based TEFL courses are gener-ally accepted worldwide, and particularly in Asia, wherethe largest jobs markets exist in China, Korea, Taiwanand Japan.[9]

InAsia there has also been a tendency to hire TEFL teach-ers on superficial criteria, such as race (with Caucasianspreferred) on the assumption that an English teacher, ornative English speaker should be 'white', this is provenespecially true in a Thailand, a big employer of TEFLteachers, with adverts frequently calling explicitly fornative-English speakers. Partly this is driven by com-mercial expectations in the private sector, where parentsfeel that paying extra fees for TEFL teacher should war-rant an American or British TEFL teacher, the schoolswill not risk losing students over this. Nascent demandfrom China also means that quite often an inexperiencedand/or under qualified person may get favoured over oth-ers if their nationality fits the parent-driven demand, tothe exclusion of many Filipino teachers with masters ineducation.Age/gender requirements might also be encountered. Insome countries outside Europe and America, for examplethe Middle East, schools might hire men over women orvice versa. And they might hire only teachers in a cer-tain age range; usually between 20 and 40 years of age.Anyone under 19 may be able to teach TEFL, but usuallyonly in a volunteer situation, such as a refugee camp.

2.3 Pay and conditions worldwide

As in most fields, the pay depends greatly on educa-tion, training, experience, seniority, and expertise. Aswith much expatriate work, employment conditions varyamong countries, depending on the level of economic de-velopment and how much people want to live there. Inrelatively poor countries, even a low wage may equate to acomfortable middle class lifestyle.[10] EFL Teachers whowish to earn money often target countries in East Asiasuch as China, South Korea and Japan where demand ishigh. The Middle East is also often named as one ofthe best paying areas, although usually better qualifica-tions are needed: at least a CELTA and one or two years’experience.[11]

There is a danger of exploitation by employers. Spain inparticular has encountered widespread criticism given theoverwhelming number of small tomedium businesses (in-cluding TEFL schools) which routinely dodge the teach-

12 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

ers’ social security contributions as a means of maximis-ing profits. The result is that most teachers are entitledto less unemployment or sick pay than they would be en-titled to if their salaries and contributions were declaredin accordance with the law. Similar situations increasein countries with labor laws that may not apply to foreignemployees, or which may be unenforced. An employermight ignore contract provisions, especially regardingworking hours, working days, and end-of-contract pay-ments. Difficulties faced by foreign teachers regardinglanguage, culture, or simply limited time can make itdifficult to demand pay and conditions that their con-tracts stipulate. Some disputes arise from cross-culturalmisunderstandings. Teachers who can't adapt to livingand working in a foreign country often leave after a fewmonths. It is especially difficult at this time for teach-ers to recognize which jobs are legitimate, as many ofthe leading jobs boards allow unfiltered paid posting, butthere are new sites that have risen up to help stop theseissues.[12]

2.4 TEFL region and country loca-tions

2.4.1 Europe

Major European cities have established language schoolson-site or operated as agencies sending teachers to var-ious locations. September is the peak recruiting month,and many annual contracts last from October until June.Employers prefer graduates with experience in teachingBusiness English or in teaching young learners.Instructors from the United Kingdom and Ireland, coun-tries within the European Union, do not need any visasto work within the EU, which reduces demand for non-EU teachers. Immigration laws require that non-EU jobapplicants submit documents from their home countriesin person after the European employer files an officiallydocumented job offer. If the worker has travelled to Eu-rope to find the job, this means they must return homeand wait for some time. Following the process correctlydoes not guarantee getting a visa. Many private-sectoremployers do not subsidise them at all, because they areable to hire the staff easily from the EU countries.International schools hire some experienced and well-qualified non-EU teachers. Education ministries, i.e.those of France and Spain, offer opportunities for as-sistant language instructors in public schools. Part-timeemployment is usually allowed under an education visa,but this visa also requires proper attendance at an ac-credited EU college or university, institute, or other ed-ucational program. Other teachers work illegally undertourist visas, since the “don't ask, don't tell” method isthe only viable solution to avoiding impossible bureau-cracy and eventual job rejection.

Despite claims from websites that sell courses, stateschools often do not accept brief TEFL courses as a sub-stitute for a university degree in English education.[13] InSpain it is impossible to get a job with a state school un-less you go through the process of getting your foreignteaching degree accepted in Spain and then pass the civilservice examination (“oposiciones”).Demand for TEFL tends to be stronger in countries whichjoined the European Union recently. They also tend tohave lower costs of living. Non-EU teachers usually findlegal work there with less difficulty. The Balkan formerYugoslav countries have seen recent growth in TEFL—private schools have recruited Anglophone teachers therefor several years.Very few foreign instructors work in Scandinavia, wherestricter immigration laws and a policy of relying on bilin-gual local teachers apply.

2.4.2 Asia

Cambodia

Demand for English teachers in Cambodia has grownover the past decade, though the country has a small pop-ulation and is dependent on foreign aid for much of itseconomic development, limiting growth.

China

Many opportunities exist within the People’s Republic ofChina, including preschool, university, private schoolsand institutes, companies, and tutoring. NGOs, suchas Teach For China, are an opportunity as well. Theprovinces and theMinistry of Education in Beijing tightlygovern public schools, while private schools have morefreedom to set work schedules, pay, and requirements.English teaching salaries in China are dependent on mul-tiple factors including; Teaching hours specified in con-tract, location, inclusions/bonuses, and public vs pri-vate sector. It is important to note that due to highdemand, salaries have increased significantly over re-cent years. A standard contract within the public schoolsystem generally entails less than 20 hours of teach-ing time, weekends off, included accommodations, flightstipend/reimbursement for 1 year contracts, paid pub-lic holidays, medical insurance and Z visa (working per-mit) sponsorship. These positions offer an average basesalary of 6,000 - 7,000 RMB per month in smaller citiesand rural areas. In Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, andGuangzhou these positions now offer 10,000 RMB plusper month due to higher living costs. The private sec-tor is less uniform with salaries going as high as 20,000RMB per month for DOS’s in major cities.[14] Private po-sitions tend to demand higher hours, may include teach-ing in multiple locations, and often require weekend andevening working schedules. They also are more flexible

2.4. TEFL REGION AND COUNTRY LOCATIONS 13

with housing options, often offering teachers a choice be-tween provided accommodations, or a stipend towardsrental costs.By law, all non-Chinese English teachers should hold aminimum bachelor’s degree in any discipline, be at least25 years old, have at least 2 years of working experience(unrelated is fine).[15] Due to demand, these rules are of-ten overlooked, and schools often are able to obtain workpermits for teachers who do not meet the minimums, al-though this is tightening up in the major cities.Public schools usually pay during vacations, but not forsummer break unless the teacher renews the contract,[16]while many private schools have shortened vacationschedules and may pay for whatever short number of daysis allowed for vacation.Company jobs vary, depending on the number of employ-ees they want to train. They may employ a teacher for oneor two classes, or a complete set of 14 to 16 hours a week.Tutoring also varies, as in some cases a whole family ofstudents or just one family member.Some teachers work successfully on an independent ba-sis with several contracts for tutoring, individual collegeclasses, and some company work. The majority of teach-ers accept contracts with schools. Public school con-tracts are fairly standard, while private schools set theirown requirements. Schools try to hire teachers fromAnglophone countries, but because of demand, otherswith good English language skills can find positions.Be aware, there are many small business which recruitforeign teachers and find them either a formal job ortutoring positions. Many of these small businesses areknown to rip off unsuspected foreigners. If offered posi-tions or you feel this may be the case, a good search withGoogle may produce hopefully good reports. For biggercities, there are large expat communities and many onlinegroups which can be used for researching as well. Thereare also a few webpages/Facebook groups such as teach-ingjobsaroundchina which were created by Expats listingquality safe jobs that the Expats have experience with.Before deciding whether to work with the recruitmentagency or school, ask their SAIC business license num-ber for Chinese schools; local business license for foreignagencies; check recruiter’s website and make sure it hasa clearly stated address. Remember, legitimate employerwill offer you Z visa. Never accept working on tourist orbusiness visa.[17]

Hong Kong

Hong Kong was once a British Crown colony, andEnglish-language education is taken seriously there, asdemonstrated by government-funded research.[11] HongKong was handed back to the People’s Republic of Chinain 1997 and became known as Hong Kong Special Ad-ministrative Region (HKSAR).

Teaching English in Hong Kong has become quite abusiness. Many English teaching institutions have sinceopened. Big private names include Headstart Group Lim-ited and English for Asia. Native English speakers mayquickly find a job teaching English, although foreign-ers should be aware of shady companies who often pulltricks on their employees. A qualification in TeachingEnglish as a Foreign Language (TEFL) has become a pre-requisite to enter the Native English-speaking TeacherScheme (NET scheme), which is funded by the HKSARgovernment and provides the ultimate career destinationfor an English teacher. On top of attractive salary, hous-ing is provided with all the other fringe benefits includ-ing full holiday pay, provident fund and health insurance.Housing or rental support is the biggest incentive to for-eign teachers as housing cost in HK is ranked one of thehighest in the world.Once a teacher is on the NET scheme, they can movefrom school to school after completion of, normally, atwo-year contract. Therefore, a teacher has a lot of op-portunities to land themselves an ideal position at an idealschool, provided they have strong track record. Whilemany foreigners think coming to HK with a short onlineTEFL qualification is sufficient, both public and privateschools are looking for TEFL qualifications listed withthe Hong Kong Council for Accreditation of Vocationaland Academic Qualifications and Hong Kong EducationBureau There are less than a handful of them. Acquir-ing one of those qualifications gives a foreigner a definiteadvantage to securing a preferred teaching position at aformal school, whether private or public, kindergarten,primary or secondary. When selecting NET, schools willnot normally consider learning centre experience due tothe differences in class size, continuity of student group,level of classroom management skills and sophisticationin teaching pedagogy required between schools and cen-tres.

Japan

In Japan, the JET Programme employs assistant languageteachers and teaching assistants to work in Japanese highschools and elementary schools. Other teachers workin eikaiwa (private language schools). The largest ofthese chains are Aeon and ECC. The sector is not wellregulated. Nova, one of the largest chains with over900 branches, collapsed in October 2007, leaving thou-sands of foreign teachers without income or, for some, aplace to live. Other teachers work in universities. Agen-cies are increasingly used to send English speakers intokindergartens, primary schools, and private companieswhose employees need to improve their Business English.Agencies, known in Japan as haken, or dispatch compa-nies, have recently been competing among themselves toget contracts from various Boards of Education for El-ementary, Junior and Senior High Schools, and wageshave decreased steadily. JALT (the Japan Association for

14 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Language Teaching) is the largest NPO (not-for-profit or-ganization) for language teachers (mainly native Englishspeakers), with nearly 3,000 members.[18]

Laos

English language has been increasingly important in edu-cation, international trade and cooperation in Laos sincethe 1990s. The government started to promote foreigndirect investment, and the introduction of Laos as an ob-server at ASEAN in 1992 also increased the necessityof English. Laos was considered as a full member ofASEAN in 1997. From 1992-97, the government hadto improve its fluency in English.More recently, high-ranking officials, business people,and shareholders have started to work at their English.This trend looks set to increase as English is due to beincluded and taught in the field of education too.

Middle East and North Africa

Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and otherwealthy Persian Gulf states are the main locations for in-structors to work in this region. Many positions providea higher salary with more benefits but tend to requiremore qualifications and experience. Private academiesand university programs are the main venues of instruc-tion. Some public primary and secondary schools, suchas those in Abu Dhabi, have begun to recruit foreign En-glish instructors.Other Middle Eastern and North African countries of-fer more modestly-paid positions. Amideast and theBritish Council operate in a number of countries pro-viding teaching opportunities in their English languagecourses.English language is also taught in Iran as the second lan-guage since 6th grade.

Mongolia

The Peace Corps has 136 volunteers in Mongolia, manyof whom are English teachers[19] mostly teaching in thevast rural areas, where the population density is low.In Ulaanbaatar, a modest number of professional NETsteach at private institutes, universities, and some schools.In addition to foreign instructors from the major English-speaking countries, there are Filipinos teaching in Mon-golian schools, institutes and large industrial or miningcompanies.

South Korea

There is great demand for native English speakers willingto teach in South Korea, though it is dropping. In 2013,

the number of native English speakers teaching in pub-lic schools dropped 7.7% in one year to 7,011.[20] Mostof the nation’s provinces are removing foreign Englishteachers from their middle and high schools. As withJapan, Korea is also nurturing a government-run programfor teacher placement called English Program in Korea(EPIK). EPIK reported that it recruited 6,831 foreignteachers to work in Korean public schools. There are anumber of associations for English teachers in Korea, thelargest one with a significant number of native speakersis KOTESOL.Institutions commonly provide round-trip airfare and arent-free apartment for a one-year contract. Note thatsince March 15, 2008, visa rules have changed. Prospec-tive teachers must now undergo a medical examinationand a criminal background check, produce an originaldegree certificate, and provide sealed transcripts. On ar-riving in South Korea, teachers must undergo a furthermedical check before they receive an ARC (Alien Regis-tration Card) card.Korean labor law provides all workers with a severancepay equivalent to one month’s salary is paid at the end ofa contract. Most job contracts are for 1 year and includeentrance and exit plane tickets. Citizens of the USA,Canada and Australia[21] also receive back their pensioncontributions and their employers’ part of the pensioncontributions on leaving the country. The average start-ing pay for those with no previous teaching experienceand no degree in the English language is usually betweenUSD $1,800 to USD $2,200.[22]

There are four main places to work in South Ko-rea: universities, private schools, public schools (EPIK),and private language academies (known in South Ko-rea as hagwons). Private language academies (in 2005there were over thirty thousand such academies teach-ing English[23]), the most common teaching location inKorea, can be for classes of school children, housewives,university students (often at the university itself), or busi-nesspeople. There are numerous, usually small indepen-dent hagwons but also numerous large chains.

Taiwan

In Taiwan, most teachers work in cram schools, knownlocally as bushibans or buxibans. Some are part ofchains, like Hess and Kojen. Others operate indepen-dently. Such schools pay around US$2,000 per month.End-of-contract bonuses equivalent to an extra month’spay are not mandated by law as in South Korea, and areuncommon in Taiwan. Also, under current law it is illegalfor foreigners to teach English in pre-schools or kinder-gartens, though it is almost always overlooked by both theschools and the government, thereby making the practicecommon and accepted. To teach English and live in Tai-wan, you must be a holder of an Alien Resident Card(ARC) which is supplied to passport holders of native

2.5. SEE ALSO 15

English speaking countries, by hiring schools ARC can-didates must hold a bachelor’s degree from a four-yearuniversity, or an accredited.

Thailand

Thailand has a great demand for native English speakers,and has a ready-made workforce in the form of travel-ers and expatriates attracted by the local lifestyle despiterelatively low salaries. Teachers can expect to earn a min-imum starting salary of around 25,000 Baht.[24] BecauseThailand prohibits foreigners from most non-skilled andskilled occupations, a high percentage of foreign residentsteach English for a living, and are able to stay in the coun-try. There is also a growing demand for Filipino Englishteachers, as they are often hired for about half the salaryof a native speaker. Qualifications for EFL teachers inThailand have become stricter in the last couple of years,with most schools now requiring a bachelor’s degree plusa 120-hour TEFL course . It is possible to find work with-out a degree in Thailand. However, as a degree makesgetting a work permit far easier, to work without a degreeis often to work illegally, opening teachers up to exploita-tion by employers.[25]

2.4.3 Americas

There has been significant growth in TEFL within thewealthier non-Anglophone countries of North, Central,and South America as well as the Caribbean. In par-ticular, many teachers work in Argentina, Brazil, Chile,Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Paraguay,Uruguay and Venezuela. Chile has even made it a na-tional goal to become a bilingual nation within the com-ing years. As proof of its commitment to this goal theChilean Ministry of Education sponsors English OpensDoors, a program that recruits English speakers to workin Chilean Public High Schools.

Costa Rica

Costa Rica is a popular choice among EFL teachers inlight of the high market demand for English instructors,the stable economic and political atmosphere, and the vi-brant culture. Teaching positions are available throughpublic and private schools, language schools, universi-ties and colleges, and through private tutoring. Languageschools typically hire all year round, and teachers of Busi-ness English are also in high demand. There are qualityCosta Rica TEFL training courses that offer certificationas well as job placement assistance following completionof a course.

CECClassroom building on the National Polytechnic School cam-pus in Quito, Ecuador.

Ecuador

There is a TEFL course at CEC-EPN, Continuing Edu-cation Center, in English National Polytechnic School inQuito, Ecuador. (In Spanish, Centro de Educación Con-tinua - Escuela Politécnica Nacional).

CEC-EPN in Quito, Ecuador

•

•

•

•

2.4.4 Africa

TEFL in Africa has historically been linked to aid pro-grams such as the US Peace Corps or the multinationalVoluntary Service Overseas organization, as well as otheraid programs. Most African countries employ bilinguallocal teachers. Poverty and instability in some Africancountries has made it difficult to attract foreign teachers.There has been increasing government investment in ed-ucation and a growing private sector.

2.4.5 India

Oxford TEFL Kerala {Cochin International LanguageAcademy (CILA)} is the leading TEFL/ TESOL courseprovider in India. Additional English instruction takesplace at levels of public and private schools.

2.5 See also

• Applied linguistics

16 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

• English language learning and teaching

• Language education

• The Learning English Video Project

• List of countries by English-speaking population

• Second language acquisition

• Sociolinguistics

• Trinity College London ESOL

• Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas

• English Opens Doors

• Test of English as a Foreign Language known asTOEFL

• EF Standard English Test, open-access standardizedEnglish assessment tools

• Teaching English as a second language

• English as a second or foreign language

2.6 References[1] Van Hattum, Ton (2006). “Communicative Approach

Rethought”. tonvanhattum.com.br.

[2] “The Trend and Challenge for Teaching EFL at TaiwaneseUniversities”. sagepub.com.

[3] Meddings, L and Thornbury, S (2009) TeachingUnplugged: Dogme in English Language Teaching.Peaslake: Delta.

[4] Luke, Meddings (2004-03-26). “Throw away your text-books”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2009-06-22.

[5] “A Guide to TEFL Accreditation”. The Guardian. Re-trieved 23 April 2014.

[6] " World TEFL Info, World TEFL Info

[7] “Distance learning courses can also be a good introduc-tion, but feedback on your teaching practice is importantand most distance courses will not include this, and there-fore will not be acceptable to many teaching institutes.”The British Council

[8] http://www.epik.go.kr/contents.do?contentsNo=49&menuNo=278

[9] “Will this TEFL course be accepted or recognized?". es-linsider.com.

[10] “TEFL Pay”. Cactus TEFL. Retrieved 2010-05-19. Theredoes however seem to be a basic TEFL LAW, which statesthat if you're on a full-time contract of 24-26 teachinghours per week, you will have enough money to pay rentin a modest, possibly shared apartment, pay for food, getout and about to explore at weekends, have the odd beeror glass of wine of an evening, and, over the period of

your contract, get somemoney put aside for flights home atChristmas. Generally speaking, you tend to live fairly ba-sically, and what you earn is not usually enough to supportpartners, family back home or pay back debts or mortgageinstalments. In many ways, TEFL can be a bit of a returnto your student days, where there is less emphasis on ma-terial 'stuff' and more in being absorbed into the cultureof the experience.

[11] “TEFL Salary Map”. TEFLicious. Retrieved 2014-04-21.Hover over a country to see average monthly pay and re-quired qualifications.

[12] "- ESL Ready”. eslready.com.

[13] Teacher Training (TEFL) Frauds, Frank Adamo

[14] “Disney English Language Learning Director in China”.GaijinPot Jobs.

[15] “TEFL - China TEFL Jobs”. mytefl.net.

[16] Dr. Gregory Mavrides (2008). “Travel and Medical Ben-efits for Foreign Teachers in China”. Middle KingdomLife.

[17] “Finding A Safe And Honest Employer or School InChina”. eTeachersHub.

[18] “About JALT”. jalt.org.

[19] Peace Corps. “Mongolia | Asia | Peace Corps”.Peacecorps.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-02.

[20] . “Native English teacher head count continues decline-The Korea Herald”. Nwww.koreaherald.com. Retrieved2013-08-02.

[21] Australian Embassy, Republic of Korea: Australia-KoreaSocial Security Agreement

[22] http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED511524.pdf

[23] publications.gc.ca (PDF). p. 6 http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2007/ic/Iu44-41-2007E.pdf.Missing or empty |title= (help)

[24] “Teach English in Thailand”, With a degree, a respectedTEFL qualification and all the relevant paperwork you canexpect to earn a starting salary of around 25,000 Baht(US$800) a month but that could be as high as 60,000(US$1850) depending on your experience and the loca-tion of the school.

[25] “Government vs. Private Language Schools in Thailand”Some TEFL certificate providers have started offering res-idential courses in Thailand as a way of ensuring their stu-dents the necessary government-required experience andcultural awareness.

2.7 Further reading• Paul Z. Jambor “Protectionist Measures in Postsec-ondary Ontario (Canada) TESL”, U.S. Departmentof Education: Educational Resources InformationCenter, 2012

2.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 17

• Brandt, C. (2006). Success on your certificatecourse in English language teaching: A guide to be-coming a teacher in ELT/TESOL. London: Sage.ISBN 1-4129-2059-0, ISBN 978-1-4129-2059-9

• Paul Z. Jambor “The 'Foreign English Teacher' ANecessary 'Danger' in South Korea”, United Statesof America; Department of Education - EducationResources Information Center, 2010

• Teaching English Abroad, Susan Griffith, VacationWork Press, Oxford. Many editions. ISBN 1-85458-352-2, ISBN 978-1-85458-352-9

• Teach English in Italy, Frank Adamo, Lulu.com,Second Edition. ISBN 978-1-4461-9318-1

• English Teacher X Guide to Teaching EnglishAbroad, English Teacher X, Amazon.com andSmashwords.com, 2010 ASIN: B004SOYD70ISBN 1-4663-3005-8 ISBN 978-1466330054

2.8 External links• Teaching English article on Wikivoyage

Chapter 3

Direct method (education)

The direct method of teaching, which is sometimescalled the natural method, and is often (but not exclu-sively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains fromusing the learners’ native language and uses only the targetlanguage. It was established in Germany and Francearound 1900 and contrasts with the Grammar translationmethod and other traditional approaches, as well as withC.J.Dodson’s bilingual method. It was adopted by key in-ternational language schools such as Berlitz and Inlinguain the 1970s andmany of the language departments of theForeign Service Institute of the U.S. State Department in2012.[1]

In general, teaching focuses on the development of oralskills.[2] Characteristic features of the direct method are:

• teaching concepts and vocabulary through pan-tomiming, real-life objects and other visual mate-rials

• teaching grammar by using an inductive approach(i.e. having learners find out rules through the pre-sentation of adequate linguistic forms in the targetlanguage)

• centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation)

• focus on question-answer patterns

3.1 Definition

Direct method is a method of teaching language di-rectly establishing a direct or immediate association be-tween experience and expression,between the Englishword,phrase or idiom and its meaning through demon-stration, dramatization without the use of the mothertongue[3]

3.2 Aims1. Direct method aims to build a direct relation be-

tween experience and language, word and idea,thought and expression

2. This method intends that students learn how to com-municate in the target language

3. This method is based on the assumption that thelearner should experience the new language in thesame way as his/her

experienced his/her mother tongue[4]

3.3 Essentials of direct method

1. No translation

2. Concepts are taught by means of objects or by nat-ural contexts

3. Oral training helps in reading and writing

4. Grammar are taught indirectly[5]

3.4 Techniques

1. Question answer exercise- the teacher ask questionsof any type and the student answer

2. Dictation-the teacher chooses a grade appropriatepassage and reads it aloud

3. Reading aloud - the students take turn reading sec-tions of a passage, play or a dialogue aloud

4. Student self - correction- when a student makesa mistake the teacher will offer him/her a secondchance by giving a choice

5. Conversion practice- the students are given an op-portunity to ask their own questions to the other stu-dents or to the teacher, because, there is a teacher-learner interaction, as well as learner-learner inter-action

6. Paragraph writing- the students are asked to write apassage in their own words[6]

18

3.7. DEMERITS OF DIRECT METHOD 19

3.5 Nature of direct method

1. Direct method is also known as natural method, it isdeveloped as a reaction to the translation and gram-mar method and it take you into the domain of En-glish in most natural manner

2. The main objective is to impart perfect commandof foreign language, it is the crux of the problemmake them think in English in the same manner asin learning of his mother-tongue, in the most naturalway

3. it was found that there was very little pupil-participation and the teaching tended to be long,dulland drab nomologue by the teacher[7]

3.6 Merits of direct method

1. Facilitates understanding of language- it helps tounderstanding of language becomes easier due tothe inhibition of the linguistic interferences of themother tongue . it establishes the direct bond andhelps in understanding directly what he hears andreads

2. Improves fluency of the speech- if the student getsfluency of speech it results in easy writing and ittends to improve expression incomes speech and ex-pression in writing, it is the quickest way of learningand expanding vocabulary

3. Aids reading- the reading of language becomes easyand pleasant and helps in promoting a habit of crit-ical study

4. Improves to develop language sense

5. This method is based on full of activity so,it is veryinteresting, exciting

6. It emphasize on the target language,so it helps thepupil to express their thoughts and feelings directlyby the English without the usage of mother tongue

7. LSRW are developed

8. It helps in bringing the words of the passive vocab-ulary into active vocabulary

9. It helps in proceeding the English language fromparticular to general,it bridges the gap between thepractice and the theory

10. It makes use of audio-visual aids and also facilatesreading and writing

11. This method facilities alertness and participation ofstudents[8][9]

3.7 Demerits of Direct method

1. This method ignores systematic written work andreading activities

2. This method may not hold well in higher classeswhere the translation method is found suitable

3. Limited vocabulary- it restricts the scope of vocab-ulary as all words cannot be directly associated withtheir meanings

4. Lacked application- the method aims at active com-mand of a language, only the clever child can profitby this method

5. Lack of skilled teachers- most of the teachers in In-dian schools themselves have poor command of En-glish. The time allotted to English in the school alsois limited

6. This method does not suit or satisfy the needs of in-dividual students in large classes

7. This method is inconvenient in huge class

8. It ignores reading and writing aspects of languagelearning

9. Grammar are not thought systematically

10. It is time consuming in creating real life situations

11. Thismethod finds difficulty for slow learnersy.[10][11]

3.8 Principles

1. Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively inthe target language.

2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taughtduring the initial phase; grammar, reading and writ-ing are introduced in intermediate phase.

3. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefullygraded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students insmall, intensive classes.

4. Grammar is taught inductively.

5. New teaching points are introduced orally.

6. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstra-tion, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary istaught by association of ideas.

7. Both speech and listening comprehensions aretaught.

8. Correct pronunciation and grammar are empha-sized.

20 CHAPTER 3. DIRECT METHOD (EDUCATION)

9. Student should be speaking approximately 80% ofthe time during the lesson.

10. Students are taught from inception to ask questionsas well as answer them.

3.9 Pedagogy

The key Aspects of this method are:I. Introduction of new word, number, alphabet character,sentence or concept (referred to as an Element) :

• SHOW...Point to Visual Aid or Gestures (forverbs), to ensure student clearly understandswhat is being taught.• SAY...Teacher verbally introduces Element,with care and enunciation.• TRY...Student makes various attempts topronounce new Element.• MOLD...Teacher corrects student if neces-sary, pointing to mouth to show proper shapingof lips, tongue and relationship to teeth.• REPEAT...Student repeats each Element 5-20 times.

NOTE: Teacher should be aware of “high frequencywords and verbs” and prioritize teaching for this. (i.e.Teach key verbs such as “To Go” and “To Be” before un-usual verbs like “To Trim” or “To Sail"; likewise, teachApple and Orange before Prune and Cranberry.)II. Syntax, the correct location of new Element in sen-tence:

• SAY & REPEAT...Teacher states a phraseor sentence to student; Student repeats such 5-20 times.• ASK & REPLY IN NEGATIVE...Teacheruses Element in negative situations (e.g. “Areyou the President of the United States?" or“Are you the teacher?"); Students says “No”.If more advanced, may use the negative with“Not”.• INTERROGATIVES Teacher provides in-tuitive examples using 5 “w"s (Who, What,Where, Why, When) or How”. Use randomvariations to practice.• PRONOUNS WITH VERBS Using visu-als (such as photos or illustrations) or gestures,Teacher covers all pronouns. Use many ran-dom variations such as “Is Ana a woman?" or“Are they from France?" to practice.• USE AND QUESTIONS...Student mustchoose and utilize the correct Element, as wellas posing appropriate questions as Teacher did.

III. Progress, from new Element to new Element (withinsame lesson):

A. Random Sequencing:1. After new Element (X) is taught and learned,go to next Element (Y).2. After next Element (Y) is taught and learned,return to practice with Element (X).3. After these two are alternated (X-Y; Y-X;Y-Y, etc), go to 3rd Element (Z).4. Go back to 1 and 2, mix in 3, practice (X-Y-Z; Z-Y-X; Y-Y-Z, etc.) and continue buildingup to appropriate number of Elements (may beasmany as 20 per lesson, depending on student,see B.1), practicing all possible combinationsand repeating 5-20 times each combination.B. Student-Led Limits:1. Observe student carefully, to know whenmental “saturation” point is reached, indicat-ing student should not be taught more Elementsuntil another time.2. At this point, stop imparting new informa-tion, and simply do Review as follows:C. Review: Keep random, arbitrary sequenc-ing. If appropriate, use visuals, pointingquickly to each. Employ different examples ofElement that are easy to understand, changingcountry/city names, people names, and wordsstudent already knows. Keep a list of everythingtaught, so proper testing may be done.

D. Observation and Notation: Teachershould maintain a student list of words/phrasesthat are most difficult for that student. The listis called “Special Attention List”

IV. Progress, from Lesson to Lesson:

• LESSON REVIEW The first few minutesof each lesson are to review prior lesson(s).• GLOBAL REVIEW Transition from Les-son Review to a comprehensive review, whichshould always include items from the SpecialAttention List.

V. Advanced Concepts:

• Intermediate and Advanced Studentsmayskip some Element introduction as appropriate;become aware of student’s language abilities,so they are not frustrated by too much review.If Student immediately shows recognition andknowledge, move to next Element.• Non-Standard Alphabets: Teaching Stu-dent to recognize letters/characters and read-ing words should employ same steps as in above

3.12. SEE ALSO 21

Aspect I. and alphabet variations may be taughtusing Aspect III. Writing characters and wordsshould initially be done manually, either on pa-per or whiteboard.

• Country Accents: Any student at interme-diate stages or higher should be made aware ofsubtle variations in pronunciation, which de-pend on geography within a country or fromcountry to country.

It should be noted that an integral aspect of the DirectMethod is varying the setting of teaching; instructors trydifferent scenarios using the same Element. This makesthe lessons more “real world,” and it allows for someconfusing distractions to the student and employ organicvariables common in the culture and locale of languageuse.[12]

3.10 Conclusion

Direct method of teaching English can be applied in thelower classes where less explanatory devise in teachingEnglish is required, the method is good at laying a firmbasis for acquiring linguistic habit .however, the directmethod of teaching can create problems as sometimesthe students fail to follow what is being taught prop-erly,however many teachers did modify the direct methodto meet practical requirements of own schools, imple-mented main principles, teaching through oral practiceand banning all translation into target language. obvi-ously compromise was needed. direct method did pavethe way for more communicative, oral based approach,and as such represented an important step forward in thehistory of language teaching.[13]

3.11 Historical context

The direct method was an answer to the dissatisfac-tion with the older grammar translation method, whichteaches students grammar and vocabulary through directtranslations and thus focuses on the written language.There was an attempt to set up conditions that imitatemother tongue acquisition, which is why the beginningsof these attempts were called the natural method. At theturn of the 18th and 19th centuries, Sauveur and Frankeproposed that language teaching should be undertakenwithin the target-language system, which was the firststimulus for the rise of the direct method.[14]

The audio-lingual method was developed in an attempt toaddress some of the perceived weaknesses of the directmethod.

3.12 See also• Language education

• Second language acquisition

3.13 Notes[1] See http://inlingua.com

[2] http://www.inlingua-beograd.com/learn_serbian.php?lang=en&web_page_ls=About%20school

[3] naik, hemavathi .s. content cum methodlogy of teachingenglish. sapna book house in2013. p. 68.

[4] muthuja, babu. teaching of english (2009 ed.). centrumpress. p. 87.

[5] teaching of enghlish (2005 ed.). aph publishing corpora-tion. p. 66. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)

[6] muthuja, babu. teaching of english (2009 ed.). centrumpress. p. 87.

[7] teaching of enghlish (2005 ed.). aph publishing corpora-tion. p. 66. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)

[8] muthuja, babu. teaching of english (2009 ed.). centrumpress. p. 87.

[9] naik, hemavathi .s. content cum methodlogy of teachingenglish. sapna book house in2013. p. 68.

[10] muthuja, babu. teaching of english (2009 ed.). centrumpress. p. 87.

[11] naik, hemavathi .s. content cum methodlogy of teachingenglish. sapna book house in2013. p. 68.

[12] Société internationale des écoles Inlingua (1999), InlinguaTeacher Manual (3rd Edition), Berne Switzerland.

[13] muthuja, babu. teaching of english (2009 ed.). centrumpress. p. 87.

[14] Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language. NewYork: Pantheon Books.

3.14 References• Bussmann, Hadumod (1996), Routledge Dictionaryof Language and Linguistics, London/New York,s.v. direct method

• Krause, C. A. (1916), The Direct Method in ModernLanguages, New York.

• Societe Internationale des Ecoles Inlingua (1973),Inlingua English First Book, Berne Switzerland.

• Societe Internationale des Ecoles Inlingua (1999),Inlingua Teacher Manual (3rd Edition), BerneSwitzerland.

Chapter 4

Grammar-translation method

The grammar translation method is a method ofteaching foreign languages derived from the classical(sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greekand Latin. In grammar-translation classes, studentslearn grammatical rules and then apply those rules bytranslating sentences between the target language and thenative language. Advanced students may be required totranslate whole texts word-for-word. The method has twomain goals: to enable students to read and translate litera-ture written in the target language, and to further students’general intellectual development.

4.1 History and philosophy

The grammar-translation method originated from thepractice of teaching Latin. In the early 1500s, Latinwas the most widely-studied foreign language due toits prominence in government, academia, and business.However, during the course of the century the use ofLatin dwindled, and it was gradually replaced by English,French, and Italian. After the decline of Latin, the pur-pose of learning it in schools changed. Whereas previ-ously students had learned Latin for the purpose of com-munication, it came to be learned as a purely academicsubject.Throughout Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, theeducation system was formed primarily around a con-cept called faculty psychology. This theory dictated thatthe body and mind were separate and the mind consistedof three parts: the will, emotion, and intellect. It wasbelieved that the intellect could be sharpened enough toeventually control the will and emotions. The way to dothis was through learning classical literature of the Greeksand Romans, as well as mathematics. Additionally, anadult with such an education was consideredmentally pre-pared for the world and its challenges.At first it was believed that teaching modern languageswas not useful for the development of mental disciplineand thus they were left out of the curriculum. Whenmodern languages did begin to appear in school curric-ula in the 19th century, teachers taught them with thesame grammar-translation method as was used for clas-sical Latin and Greek.[1] As a result, textbooks were es-

sentially copied for the modern language classroom. Inthe United States of America, the basic foundations ofthis method were used in most high school and collegeforeign language classrooms.

4.2 Principles and goals

There are two main goals to grammar-translation classes.One is to develop students’ reading ability to a levelwhere they can read literature in the target language. [2]

The other is to develop students’ general mental disci-pline. The users of foreign language wanted simply tonote things of their interest in the literature of foreignlanguages. Therefore, this method focuses on readingand writing and has developed techniques which facili-tate more or less the learning of reading and writing only.As a result, speaking and listening are overlooked.

4.3 Method

Grammar-translation classes are usually conducted in thestudents’ native language. Grammar rules are learneddeductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, andthen practice the rules by doing grammar drills and trans-lating sentences to and from the target language. Moreattention is paid to the form of the sentences being trans-lated than to their content. When students reach moreadvanced levels of achievement, they may translate en-tire texts from the target language. Tests often consist ofthe translation of classical texts.There is not usually any listening or speaking practice,and very little attention is placed on pronunciation or anycommunicative aspects of the language. The skill exer-cised is reading, and then only in the context of transla-tion.

4.4 Materials

The mainstay of classroom materials for the grammar-translation method is the textbook. Textbooks in the

22

4.7. NOTES 23

19th century attempted to codify the grammar of the tar-get language into discrete rules for students to learn andmemorize. A chapter in a typical grammar-translationtextbook would begin with a bilingual vocabulary list, af-ter which there would be grammar rules for students tostudy and sentences for them to translate.[1] Some typicalsentences from 19th-century textbooks are as follows:

The philosopher pulled the lower jaw ofthe hen.

My sons have bought the mirrors of theDuke.

The cat ofmy aunt ismore treacherous thanthe dog of your uncle.[3]

4.5 Reception

The method by definition has a very limited scope. Be-cause speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative outputwas missing from the curriculum, students would oftenfail at speaking or even letter writing in the target lan-guage. A noteworthy quote describing the effect of thismethod comes from Bahlsen, who was a student of Plötz,a major proponent of this method in the 19th century. Incommenting about writing letters or speaking he said hewould be overcome with “a veritable forest of paragraphs,and an impenetrable thicket of grammatical rules.”[4]

According to Richards and Rodgers, the grammar-translation has been rejected as a legitimate languageteaching method by modern scholars:

[T]hough it may be true to say that theGrammar-Translation Method is still widelypracticed, it has no advocates. It is a methodfor which there is no theory. There is no litera-ture that offers a rationale or justification for itor that attempts to relate it to issues in linguis-tics, psychology, or educational theory.[5]

4.6 Influence

The grammar-translation method was the standard waylanguages were taught in schools from the 17th to the 19thcentury. Despite attempts at reform from Roger Ascham,Montaigne, Comenius and John Locke, no other methodsgained any significant popularity during this time.Later, theorists such as Vietor, Passy, Berlitz, andJespersen began to talk about what a new kind of foreignlanguage instruction needed, shedding light on what thegrammar translation was missing. They supported teach-ing the language, not about the language, and teaching inthe target language, emphasizing speech as well as text.

Through grammar translation, students lacked an activerole in the classroom, often correcting their own workand strictly following the textbook.Despite all of these drawbacks, the grammar-translationmethod is still the most used method all over the world inlanguage teaching. This is not surprising asmost languageproficiency books and tests are in the format of grammar-translation method; and henceforth the use of the methodcontinues.

4.7 Notes[1] Richards & Rodgers 2001, p. 4.

[2] Richards & Rodgers 2001, p. 5.

[3] Titone 1968, p. 28, cited in Richards & Rodgers 2001, p.4.

[4] Bahlsen, Leopold (1905). The Teaching of Modern Lan-guages. Boston: Ginn & Co. p. 12.

[5] Richards & Rodgers 2001, p. 7.

4.8 References• Chastain, Kenneth. The Development of ModernLanguage Skills: Theory to Practice. Philadelphia:Center for Curriculum Development,1971.

• Rippa, S. Alexander 1971. Education in a Free Soci-ety, 2nd. Edition. New York: David McKay Com-pany, 1971.

• Richards, Jack C.; Rodgers, Theodore S. (2001).Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching(2nd ed.). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge Uni-versity Press.

• Rivers, Wilga M. Teaching Foreign Language Skills,2nd Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1981.

Chapter 5

Audio-lingual method

The audio-lingual method, Army Method, or NewKey,[1] is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign lan-guages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professesthat certain traits of living things, and in this case humans,could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedbackwhile incorrect use of that trait would receive negativefeedback.This approach to language learning was similar to an-other, earlier method called the direct method. Like thedirect method, the audio-lingual method advised that stu-dents be taught a language directly, without using thestudents’ native language to explain new words or gram-mar in the target language. However, unlike the directmethod, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teach-ing vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in theuse of grammar.Applied to language instruction, and often within the con-text of the language lab, this means that the instructorwould present the correct model of a sentence and thestudents would have to repeat it. The teacher would thencontinue by presenting newwords for the students to sam-ple in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is noexplicit grammar instruction—everything is simplymem-orized in form. The idea is for the students to practice theparticular construct until they can use it spontaneously. Inthis manner, the lessons are built on static drills in whichthe students have little or no control on their own output;the teacher is expecting a particular response and not pro-viding that will result in a student receiving negative feed-back. This type of activity, for the foundation of languagelearning, is in direct opposition with communicative lan-guage teaching.Charles C. Fries, the director of the English Language In-stitute at the University of Michigan, the first of its kindin the United States, believed that learning structure, orgrammar was the starting point for the student. In otherwords, it was the students’ job to orally recite the basicsentence patterns and grammatical structures. The stu-dents were only given “enough vocabulary to make suchdrills possible.” (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986). Fries laterincluded principles for behavioural psychology, as devel-oped by B.F. Skinner, into this method.

5.1 Oral drills

Drills and pattern practice are typical of the Audiolingualmethod. (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986) These include

• Repetition: where the student repeats an utteranceas soon as he hears it

• Inflection: Where one word in a sentence appears inanother form when repeated

• Replacement: Where one word is replaced by an-other

• Restatement: The student re-phrases an utterance

5.2 Examples

Inflection: Teacher: I ate the sandwich. Student: I ate thesandwiches.Replacement: Teacher: He bought the car for half-price.Student: He bought it for half-price.Restatement: Teacher: Tell me not to smoke so often.Student: Don't smoke so often!The following example illustrates how more than one sortof drill can be incorporated into one practice session :“Teacher: There’s a cup on the table ... repeatStudents: There’s a cup on the tableTeacher: SpoonStudents: There’s a spoon on the tableTeacher: BookStudents: There’s a book on the tableTeacher: On the chairStudents: There’s a book on the chairetc.”[2]

5.3 Historical roots

The Audio-lingual method is the product of three histor-ical circumstances. For its views on language, audiolin-gualism drew on the work of American linguists such asLeonard Bloomfield. The prime concern of American

24

5.6. TODAY 25

linguistics in the early decades of the 20th century hadbeen to document all the indigenous languages spoken inthe USA. However, because of the dearth of trained na-tive teachers who would provide a theoretical descriptionof the native languages, linguists had to rely on observa-tion. For the same reason, a strong focus on oral languagewas developed. At the same time, behaviourist psycholo-gists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that allbehaviour (including language) was learnt through repe-tition and positive or negative reinforcement. The thirdfactor that enabled the birth of the Audio-lingual methodwas the outbreak ofWorldWar II, which created the needto post large number of American servicemen all over theworld. It was therefore necessary to provide these sol-diers with at least basic verbal communication skills. Un-surprisingly, the new method relied on the prevailing sci-entific methods of the time, observation and repetition,which were also admirably suited to teaching en masse.Because of the influence of the military, early versionsof the audio-lingualism came to be known as the “armymethod.”[1]

5.4 In practice

As mentioned, lessons in the classroom focus on the cor-rect imitation of the teacher by the students. Not only arethe students expected to produce the correct output, butattention is also paid to correct pronunciation. Althoughcorrect grammar is expected in usage, no explicit gram-matical instruction is given. Furthermore, the target lan-guage is the only language to be used in the classroom.[1]Modern day implementations are more lax on this last re-quirement.

5.5 Fall from popularity

In the late 1950s, the theoretical underpinnings of themethod were questioned by linguists such as NoamChomsky, who pointed out the limitations of structurallinguistics. The relevance of behaviorist psychology tolanguage learning was also questioned, most famously byChomsky’s review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior in1959. The audio-lingual method was thus deprived of itsscientific credibility and it was only a matter of time be-fore the effectiveness of the method itself was questioned.In 1964, Wilga Rivers released a critique of the methodin her book, The Psychologist and the Foreign LanguageTeacher. Subsequent research by others, inspired by herbook, produced results which showed explicit grammati-cal instruction in the mother language to be more produc-tive. These developments, coupled with the emergence ofhumanist pedagogy led to a rapid decline in the popularityof audiolingualism.Philip Smith's study from 1965-1969, termed the

Pennsylvania Project, provided significant proof thataudio-lingual methods were less effective than a moretraditional cognitive approach involving the learner’s firstlanguage.[3]

5.6 Today

Despite being discredited as an effective teachingmethodology in 1970,[3] audio-lingualism continues tobe used today, although it is typically not used as thefoundation of a course, but rather, has been relegated touse in individual lessons. As it continues to be used, italso continues to gain criticism, as Jeremy Harmer notes,“Audio-lingual methodology seems to banish all forms oflanguage processing that help students sort out new lan-guage information in their own minds.” As this type oflesson is very teacher centered, it is a popular method-ology for both teachers and students, perhaps for severalreasons but in particular, because the input and outputis restricted and both parties know what to expect. Somehybrid approaches have been developed, as can be seen inthe textbook Japanese: The Spoken Language (1987–90),which uses repetition and drills extensively, but supple-ments them with detailed grammar explanations in En-glish.Butzkamm & Caldwell have tried to revive tradi-tional pattern practice in the form of bilingual semi-communicative drills. For them, the theoretical basis, andsufficient justification, of pattern drills is the generativeprinciple, which refers to the human capacity to generatean infinite number of sentences from a finite grammaticalcompetence.[4]

5.7 In popular culture

The fact that audio-lingualism continues to manifest itselfin the classroom is reflected in popular culture. Films of-ten depict one of the most well-known aspects of audio-lingualism: the repetition drill. In South Park Episode#172, Cartman applies the repetition drill while teach-ing a class of high school students. In Mad Max BeyondThunderdome, an LP record of a French lesson instructsa pair of obliging children to 'repeat' short phrases inFrench and then in English.

5.8 Main Features of Audio Lin-gual Method

• Each skills of language like listening, speak-ing,reading,writing were treated and taught sepa-rately in the audio Lingual method.

26 CHAPTER 5. AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD

• This method primarily focus on listening and speak-ing.

• The skills of writing reading is not neglected, but thefocus throughout remained on listening and speak-ing.

• Dialogue were the main features of the audio lingualsyllabus and they form the important media for in-structions in the method.

• Dialogues are the chief means of presenting lan-guage items .They provide learner an opportunity topractice ,mimic and memorize bits of language.

• Patterns drills is used as an important technique andessential part of this method for language teachingand learning.

• The Language Laboratory was introduced as an im-portant teaching aid.

• Mother tongue was not given so much importancejust ,same as the direct method but it was not fol-lowed so rigidly also.[5]

5.9 Techniques of Audio LingualMethod

The skill in the Audio Lingual method was taught in thefollowing order: Listening -speaking-reading-writting.Language was taught through dialogues which containeduseful vocabulary and common structures of communi-cation. Students were made to memorize the dialogueline by line. Learner mimicked the teacher or a tape lis-tening carefully to all features of the spoken target lan-guage. The pronunciation like that of native speaker wasimportant in presenting the model. Through repetition ofphrases and sentences of a dialogue was learnt. First itwas learnt by whole class, then smaller groups and finallyindividual learners. Reading and writing were introducedin the next stage. The oral lesson which was learned inprevious class was the reading material in order to es-tablish a relationship between speech and writing. Allreading material was introduced as orally first. Writing,in the early stages, was confined to transcriptions of thestructures and dialogues learnt earlier. Once learners hadmastered the basic structure they were asked to write re-ports composition based on the oral lesson.[5]

5.10 Emphasizing the audio in theAudio-Lingual Method

Modern audio -lingual theory give importance tolistening-speaking-reading-writing order in foreign -language learning. The ear training is important in de-

veloping speaking proficiency and hence ear training re-ceives particular emphasis. There are strong argumentsboth physiological and psychological , for proceedingspeaking practice with training in listening comprehen-sion.For Example: Speaking is effective through Eartraining .By hearing the sounds articulation of sounds ismore accurate, differentiation of sounds ,memorizationand internalization of proper auditory sounds images, anddevelopment of a feel for the new language, gaining atten-tion or interest for language.There has been practically nomuch study or experiments to determine how much timeshould be taken between listening experience and speak-ing practice.Systematic research is needed , not only onthe relationship between listening and speaking in foreignlanguage instruction , but also on how best to teach lis-tening comprehension as a skill in its own right.Listeningcomprehension is most neglected in language learning . Itis generally treated as incidental to speaking, rather thanas a foundation for it.Texts ,guides and course of studycontain tests for evaluating progress in listening compre-hension, but rarely they contain specific learning materi-als designed for the systematic development of this skill.Here are some materials which can be adapted for im-proving listening comprehension.

• The dialogue should be presented as a story,in for-eign language , using simple language.

Explain the meaning of some of the new words and ex-pressions that will appear in the dialogue through ges-tures, visual aids , use of synonyms,. The idea is to teachthe content in the story form.

• Different role play can be used to present the dia-logue .

• Without stopping go through the dialogue to nowhow entire conversation sounds at normal rate ofspeed.

• For better comprehension have a program based ontrue -false activity .

• Repeat the entire dialogue at normal rate of speedwithout interruption .This time have student closethere eyes to eliminate distraction , increase listeningconcentration .

• Give a listening comprehension test.

• At this point, periodically,listening comprehensionpractice can be given using dialogues from othercourses of

study,recorded materials which contain,for most lan-guage from previously learned by the students. Thespeaking practice would begin after listening com-prehension.The student would ready to speak at thistime.Speaking practice might proceed according to se-quence ;

5.13. DISADVANTAGES 27

1. Pattern practice based on material taken from thedialogue .

2. Mimicry practice of the dialogue itself3. Performance of the dialogue in front of class and at

seats with students changing roles and partners fromtime to time.

4. Dialogue adaptation

Memorization of dialogues techniques suggested hererepresent an approach that will enable student to memo-rize larger segments at a time and to perform dialogues asa whole withmore confidence.In themeantime if teachersare willing to use their imagination and experiment withnew techniques many ways can be found to emphasize theaudio in the audio-lingual method.[6]

5.11 Aims of Audio LingualMethod

• The aural-oral skills was used systematically toemphasis communication .The foreign language istaught for

communication ,with a view to achieve development ofcommunication skills.

• The teaching is emphasized to learner through morepractice. Practice is the device in the audio lingualmethod by which

the in- taking of language takes place.Every languageskills is the sum-total sets of habits which learner is ex-pected to acquire.Practice as a whole, therefore iS cen-tral to all the contemporary foreign language teachingmethods .And with audio-lingual method it is added withstress.

• The oral learning is given importance through outthe learning .The stress put on the aural -oral skills atthe early year of the foreign language course is con-tinued during the later years and the aural- oral skillsremains a center of concentration throughout evenwhen later reading and writing are introduced.Thelearners are asked to speak only that they have had achance to listen to sufficiently,they should read onlythat material which they have used as part of theiraural-oral practice.And then they have to write onlywhich they have read.Hence strict order of materialin terms of four skills followed.[7]

5.12 Advantages• Listening and speaking skills are emphasized and --especially the former-- rigorously developed.

• The use of visual aids has proven effective in vocab-ulary teaching.

• The method is just as functional and easy to executein larger groups.

• Correct pronunciation and structure is emphasizedand acquired.

• It is grounded on a solid theory of languagelearning.[8]

[9]

5.13 Disadvantages• The behaviorist approach to learning is now discred-ited. Many scholars have proven its weakness.

• It does not pay sufficient attention to communicativecompetence.

• It only language form is considered, while meaningis neglected.

• Equal importance is not given to all four skills.

• It is a teacher dominated method.

• It is a mechanical method since it demands patternpractice, drilling, and memorization over functionallearning and organic usage.

• The learner is passive role; the learner has little con-trol over their learning.[10]

5.14 References[1] Barker, James L. “On The Mortality of Language Learn-

ing Methods”. Speech November 8, 2001.

[2] Harmer, Jeremy. The Practice of English LanguageTeaching. 3rd Edition. pg. 79-80. Essex: Pearson Ed-ucation Ltd., 2001

[3] James L. Barker lecture on November 8, 2001 at BrighamYoung University, given by Wilfried Decoo.

[4] Butzkamm, Wolfgang; Caldwell, J.A.W. (2009). Thebilingual reform. A paradigm shift in foreign languageteaching. Tübingen: Narr Studienbücher. ISBN 978-3-8233-6492-4.

[5] Nagaraj (First in 1996 Sixth in 2005). English LanguageTeaching:Approaches , Methods, Techniques. Hyderabad:Orient Longman Private Limited. Check date values in:|date= (help)

[6] Allen, Harold B; Campbell, Russell N (1972) [1965].Teaching English as a Second Language (Second ed.).New York: McGraw-Hill,Inc. p. 98 Extra |pages= or |at=(help).

28 CHAPTER 5. AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD

[7] Joseph C,, Mukalel (1998). Approaches to English lan-guage teaching. Delhi: Discovery Pulshing House.

[8] Tanvir dhaka. lingual method.html http://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.in/2013/09/the-audio lingualmethod.html Check |url= scheme (help). Missing orempty |title= (help)

[9] http://myenglishpages.com/blog/the-audiolingual-approach/. Missing or empty |ti-tle= (help)

[10] Diane Larsen, Freeman (2000). Techniques and Principlesin Language Teaching. Oxford University Press.

5.15 External links• Saskatchewan Schools’ Audio-lingual method page

Chapter 6

Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the com-municative approach, is an approach to language teach-ing that emphasizes interaction as both the means and theultimate goal of study.

6.1 Background

6.1.1 Societal influences

Communicative language teaching rose to prominence inthe 1970s and early 1980s as a result of many disparatedevelopments in both Europe and the United States.[1]First, there was an increased demand for language learn-ing, particularly in Europe. The advent of the EuropeanCommon Market led to widespread European migration,and consequently there was a large population of peo-ple who needed to learn a foreign language for work orfor personal reasons.[2] At the same time, children wereincreasingly able to learn foreign languages in school.The number of secondary schools offering languages roseworldwide in the 1960s and 1970s as part of a generaltrend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, andforeign-language study ceased to be confined to the eliteacademies. In Britain, the introduction of comprehensiveschools meant that almost all children had the opportunityto study foreign languages.[3]

This increased demand put pressure on educators tochange their teaching methods. Traditional methods suchas grammar translation assumed that students were aim-ing for mastery of the target language, and that studentswere willing to study for years before expecting to use thelanguage in real life. However, these assumptions werechallenged by adult learners who were busy with work,and by schoolchildren who were less academically able.Educators realized that to motivate these students an ap-proach with a more immediate payoff was necessary.[3]

The trend of progressivism in education provided fur-ther pressure for educators to change their methods.[3]Progressivism holds that active learning is more effec-tive than passive learning,[4] and as this idea gained trac-tion in schools there was a general shift towards usingtechniques where students were more actively involved,

such as group work. Foreign-language education was noexception to this trend, and teachers sought to find newmethods that could better embody this shift in thinking.[3]

In the beginning time of language teaching, it was thoughtthat language teaching is a cognitive matter. The ideathen shifted from cognitive to socio-cognitive, which em-phasizes that language can be learnt throughout the so-cial process. However, in today’s process of languageteaching, incorporation of ICT has become mandatory inteaching any language.

6.1.2 Academic influences

The development of communicative language teachingwas also helped by new academic ideas. In Britain, ap-plied linguists began to doubt the efficacy of situationallanguage teaching, the dominant method in that countryat the time. This was partly in response to Chomsky’s in-sights into the nature of language. Chomsky had shownthat the structural theories of language prevalent at thetime could not explain the creativity and variety evidentin real communication.[2] In addition, British applied lin-guists such as Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdow-son began to see that a focus on structure was also nothelping language students. They saw a need for studentsto develop communicative skill and functional compe-tence in addition to mastering language structures.[2]

In the United States, the linguist and anthropologist DellHymes developed the concept of communicative com-petence. This was a reaction to Chomsky’s concept ofthe linguistic competence of an ideal native speaker.[1]Communicative competence redefined what it meant to“know” a language; in addition to speakers having mas-tery over the structural elements of language, accordingto communicative competence they must also be able touse those structural elements appropriately in differentsocial situations.[1] This is neatly summed up by Hymes’sstatement, “There are rules of use without which the rulesof grammar would be useless.”[3] Hymes did not makea concrete formulation of communicative competence,but subsequent authors have tied the concept to languageteaching, notably Michael Canale.[3]

29

30 CHAPTER 6. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

6.1.3 Communicative syllabi

An influential development in the history of communica-tive language teaching was the work of the Council ofEurope in creating new language syllabi. Education wasa high priority for the Council of Europe, and they setout to provide syllabi that would meet the needs of Euro-pean immigrants.[2] Among the studies used by the coun-cil when designing the course was one by the British lin-guist, D. A. Wilkins, that defined language using “no-tions” and “functions”, rather than more traditional cat-egories of grammar and vocabulary. Notional categoriesinclude concepts such as time, location, frequency, andquantity, and functional categories include communica-tive acts such as offers, complaints, denials, and requests.These syllabi were widely used.[2]

Communicative language-learning materials were alsodeveloped in Germany. There was a new emphasis onpersonal freedom in German education at the time, anattitude exemplified in the philosophy of Jürgen Haber-mas.[1] To fulfill this goal, educators developed materialsthat allowed learners to choose freely what they wantedto communicate. These materials concentrated on thevarious different social meanings a given item of gram-mar could have, and were structured in such a way thatlearners could choose how to progress through the coursethemselves.[1] The materials were used in teacher trainingcourses and workshops to encourage teachers to changeto using a communicative syllabus. Two similar projectswere also undertaken by Candlin at Lancaster University,and by Holec at the University of Nancy.[1]

Meanwhile, at the University of Illinois, there was a studythat investigated the effects of the explicit teaching oflearning strategies to language learners. The study en-couraged learners to take risks while communicating, andto use constructs other than rote memorized patterns. Atthe study’s conclusion, students who were taught commu-nicatively, fared no worse on grammatical tests than stu-dents who had been taught with traditional methods; and,they performed significantly better in tests of commu-nicative ability. This was the case even for beginners.[1]As a result of this study, supplemental communicativeactivities were created for the French CRÉDIF courseVoix et Visages de la France. These materials focusedon classroom autonomy; and, learners were taught vari-ous phrases they could use to negotiate meaning, such as“What’s the word for …” and “I don’t understand”.[1]

6.2 Outline

CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach toteaching, rather than as a teaching method with a clearlydefined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most of-ten defined as a list of general principles or features. Oneof the most recognized of these lists is David Nunan’s(1991[5]) five features of CLT:

1. An emphasis on learning to communicate throughinteraction in the target language.

2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learningsituation.

3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus,not only on language but also on the learning processitself.

4. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal expe-riences as important contributing elements to class-room learning.

5. An attempt to link classroom language learning withlanguage activities outside the classroom.

These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLTto show that they are very interested in the needs and de-sires of their learners as well as the connection betweenthe language as it is taught in their class and as it usedoutside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella defi-nition, any teaching practice that helps students developtheir communicative competence in an authentic contextis deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruc-tion. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the formof pair and group work requiring negotiation and coop-eration between learners, fluency-based activities that en-courage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays inwhich students practise and develop language functions,as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciationfocused activities.In the mid 1990s the Dogma 95 manifesto influencedlanguage teaching through the Dogme language teachingmovement, who proposed that published materials canstifle the communicative approach. As such the aim ofthe Dogme approach to language teaching is to focus onreal conversations about real subjects so that communica-tion is the engine of learning. This communication maylead to explanation, but that this in turn will lead to fur-ther communication.[6]

6.3 Classroom activities

Classroom activities used in communicative languageteaching include the following:

• Role-play

• Interviews

• information gap

• Games

• Language exchanges

• Surveys

• Pair-work

6.6. NOTES 31

• Learning by teaching

However, not all courses that utilize the CommunicativeLanguage approach will restrict their activities solely tothese. Some courses will have the students take occa-sional grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance. William Glasser’s“control theory” exemplifies his attempts to empower stu-dents and give them voice by focusing on their basic, hu-man needs: Unless students are given power, they mayexert what little power they have to thwart learning andachievement through inappropriate behavior and medi-ocrity. Thus, it is important for teachers to give studentsvoice, especially in the current educational climate, whichis dominated by standardization and testing (Simmonsand Page, 2010).[7]

6.4 Critiques of CLT

One of the most famous attacks on communicative lan-guage teaching was offered by Michael Swan in the En-glish Language Teaching Journal in 1985.[8] Henry Wid-dowson responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELTJournal (1985 39(3):158-161). More recently other writ-ers (e.g. Bax[9]) have critiqued CLT for paying insuf-ficient attention to the context in which teaching andlearning take place, though CLT has also been defendedagainst this charge (e.g. Harmer 2003[10]).Often, the communicative approach is deemed a successif the teacher understands the student. But, if the teacheris from the same region as the student, the teacher willunderstand errors resulting from an influence from theirfirst language. Native speakers of the target languagemay still have difficulty understanding them. This ob-servation may call for new thinking on and adaptation ofthe communicative approach. The adapted communica-tive approach should be a simulation where the teacherpretends to understand only what any regular speaker ofthe target language would and reacts accordingly (Hattum2006[11]).

6.5 See also

• Task-based language learning

• Notional-functional syllabus

• Learning by teaching (LdL)

• Language education

• Language exchange

• Teaching English as a foreign language

• English as an additional language

6.6 Notes[1] Savignon 2000.

[2] Richards & Rodgers 2001, p. 153–155.

[3] Mitchell 1994, p. 33–35.

[4] Whong 2011, pp. 129–134.

[5] Nunan 1991.

[6] Luke, Meddings (2004-03-26). “Throw away your text-books”. The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-03-10.

[7] Amber, Simmons (September 2010). “Motivating Stu-dents through Power and Choice”. English Journal 100(1): 65–69.

[8] Swan, Michael (1985) in the English Language TeachingJournal 39(1):2-12, and 1985 39(2):76-87

[9] Bax, S (2003) The end of CLT: a context approach to lan-guage teaching ELT J 2003 57: 278-287

[10] Harmer, J. (2003) Popular culture, methods, and contextELT J 2003 57: 288-294

[11] Hattum, Ton van (2006), The Communicative ApproachRethought, retrieved 2010-10-03

6.7 References• Mitchell, Rosamond (1994). “The communicativeapproach to language teaching”. In Swarbick, Ann.Teaching Modern Languages. New York: Rout-ledge. pp. 33–42.

• Richards, Jack C.; Rodgers, Theodore S. (2001).Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching(2nd ed.). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge Uni-versity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00843-3.

• Nunan, David (1991). Communicative Tasks and theLanguage Curriculum. Tesol Quarterly (25)2. pp.279–295.

• Savignon, Sandra J. (2000). “Communicative lan-guage teaching”. In Byram, Michael. RoutledgeEncyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning.London: Routledge. pp. 125–129.

• Whong, Melinda (2011). Language Teaching: Lin-guistic Theory in Practice. Edinburgh: EdinburghUniversity Press.

Chapter 7

English for academic purposes

English for academic purposes (EAP) entails trainingstudents, usually in a higher education setting, to use lan-guage appropriately for study. It is one of the most com-mon forms of English for specific purposes (ESP).An EAP program focuses instruction on skills required toperform in an English-speaking academic context acrosscore subject areas generally encountered in a universitysetting.[1] Programs may also include a more narrow fo-cus on the more specific linguistic demands of a par-ticular area of study, for example business subjects.[2]Programs may be divided into pre-sessional courses andcourses taken alongside students’ other subjects. In theformer case, sometimes EAP courses may be intendedto raise students’ general English levels so that they canenter university. In the UK, this often means endeav-ouring to help students get a score of 6 or above in theIELTS examination. In the US, this can mean helpingstudents attain a score of 80 or greater on the TOEFLor more than 4 on the iTEP. Outside Anglophone coun-tries, English-medium universities may have a prepara-tory school where students can spend a year or two work-ing on their English and academic skills before startingdegree courses. EAP courses running alongside otherdegree courses may be based on the American Englishand Composition model, or may employ Content-basedinstruction, either using material from the students’ de-gree subjects or as an independent, elective-like course.These in-sessional courses may be desirable more to helpstudents develop study skills and required academic prac-tices than for language development.[2]

In common with most language teaching, EAP instruc-tion teaches vocabulary, grammar and the four skills(reading, writing, speaking - including pronunciation -and listening), but usually tries to tie these to the spe-cific study needs of students; for example, a writing lessonwould focus on writing essays rather than, say, businessletters. Similarly, the vocabulary chosen for study tendsto be based on academic texts. In addition, EAP practi-tioners often find that, either directly or indirectly, theyare teaching study skills and often having to tackle differ-ences in educational culture, such as differing attitudes toplagiarism.[3] This trend has become more prominent asthe numbers of foreign students attending UK universi-ties, and other institutions across the Anglosphere, has

increased over the last decade.There is some debate amongst EAP teachers as to the bestway to help students with academic English.[2][4] On theone hand, students might be taught particular conventionsbut not expected to understand why they need to adapttheir writing; a pragmatic approach. On the other handstudents might be encouraged to challenge writing con-ventions and only adopt them if they seem justified; a crit-ical approach.[2][4] Recently attempts have been made totry and reconcile these opposing views. A critical prag-matic approach to EAP encourages students to developwriting conventions required by universities while alsoencouraging them to think about the reasons why theseconventions exist.[2][4]

7.1 See also• Contrastive rhetoric

7.2 References[1] “English for Academic Purposes”. Retrieved 22 July

2013.

[2] http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/7662/8/Catterall_%26_Ireland_(2010)_PESTLHE_Article.pdf

[3] http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/12666/1/41.pdf

[4] http://www.nuis.ac.jp/~{}hadley/publication/espj-harwood-hadley/critical-pragmatism-proof.pdf

7.3 External links• Journal of English for Academic Purposes

• British Association of Lecturers in English for Aca-demic Purposes (BALEAP)

• Garnet Education English for Academic PurposesJournals and Academic Papers

32

Chapter 8

English for specific purposes

English for specific purposes (ESP), not to be confusedwith specialized English, is a sphere of teaching Englishlanguage including Business English, Technical English,Scientific English, English for medical professionals, En-glish for waiters, English for tourism, English for Art Pur-poses, etc.[1] Aviation English as ESP is taught to pilots,air traffic controllers and civil aviation cadets who aregoing to use it in radio communications.[2] ESP can bealso considered as an avatar of language for specific pur-poses.[3]

8.1 Definition of ESP

8.1.1 Absolute characteristics

1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners(Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and ac-tivities of the discipline it serves.

3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to theseactivities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, studyskills, discourse and genre.

8.1.2 Variable characteristics

Strevens’ (1988) ESP may be, but is not necessarily:

1. restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g.reading only);

2. not taught according to any pre-ordained methodol-ogy (pp.1-2)

Dudley-Evans & St John(1998)

1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific dis-ciplines;

2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a dif-ferent methodology from that of general English;

3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, ei-ther at a tertiary level institution or in a professionalwork situation. It could, however, be for learners atsecondary school level;

4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or ad-vanced students;

5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge ofthe language system, but it can be used with begin-ners (pp. 4-5)

8.2 Teaching

ESP is taught in many universities of the world. Manyprofessional associations of teachers of English (TESOL,IATEFL) have ESP sections. Much attention is devotedto ESP course design.[4][5] ESP teaching has much incommon with English as a Foreign or Second Languageand English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Quickly de-veloping Business English can be considered as part of alarger concept of English for Specific Purposes.

8.3 See also• Test of English for Aviation

• EAP - English for academic purposes

• English for Specific PurposesWorld (online journal)

• Functional English

8.4 References[1] Esp-world.info

[2] Avia.ru

[3] Antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp, Dudley-Evans, 1997

[4] Asian ESP Journal - April 2007

[5] ITESLJ

33

34 CHAPTER 8. ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

8.5 Notes• Hutchinson, T. & A. Waters. 1987. English forSpecific Purposes: A learning-centered approach.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Eric.ed.gov, Dudley-Evans, Tony. An Overview ofESP in the 1990s. In: The Japan Conference on En-glish for Specific Purposes Proceedings (Aizuwaka-matsu City, Fukushima, Japan, November 8, 1997)

• Amazon.co.uk, Dudley-Evans, Tony (1998). Devel-opments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press.

• 978-0-8058-4418-4 Developmentalpsycholog-yarena.com, Helen Basturkmen. Ideas and Optionsin English for Specific Purposes. Published by:Routledge, 2005

• Eric.ed.gov, The Japan Conference on Englishfor Specific Purposes Proceedings (AizuwakamatsuCity, Fukushima, November 8, 1997) Orr, Thomas,Ed.

8.6 External links

8.6.1 Organizations

• Tesol.org, TESOL’s ESP Interest Section and theESP discussion list

• Espsig.iatefl.org, IATEFL ESP Special InterestGroup

• UNAV.es, IATEFL ESP SIG Website

8.6.2 Articles

• Esp-world.info, Hewings, M. 2002. A history ofESP through 'English for Specific Purposes’.

• Iteslj.org, Kristen Gatehouse. Key Issues in Englishfor Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum Develop-ment. The Internet TESL Journal.

• Antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp, Laurence Anthony. En-glish for Specific Purposes: What does it mean?Why is it different?

8.6.3 Journals

• [Asian ESP Journal] http://www.asian-esp-journal.com An academic research journal

• Elsevier.com, English for Specific Purposes An In-ternational Research Journal.

8.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 35

8.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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SimonP, Robert Foley, KF, DennisDaniels, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, TakuyaMurata, Angela, Deisenbe, Johnleemk, Robbot, Astro-nautics~enwiki, Chocolateboy, Altenmann, Dduck, Academic Challenger, Aleron235, Jimduck, Henry Flower, Mboverload, Andycjp,LiDaobing, Burschik, Babelfisch, Rich Farmbrough, TrbleClef, LindsayH, Saintswithin, Gronky, Dcabrilo, RJHall, CanisRufus, Kwamik-agami, ZayZayEM,Man vyi, OGoncho, Espoo, Carbon Caryatid, Billlund, Hoary, Burn, Stephan Leeds, Garzo, Chamaeleon, Woohookitty,Mindmatrix, RHaworth, Shreevatsa, Miss Madeline, GurraJG,Wikiklrsc, Sblive~enwiki, Graham87, BD2412, Josh Parris, FlaBot, Sinatra,Koroner, Nihiltres, Hottentot, Jeanpol~enwiki, Paul foord, Gurch, Gam3, Intgr, TeaDrinker, Windharp, Samwaltz, Wavelength, RussBot,Wimt, TEB728, Excession, Jeremy Visser, Paul Magnussen, Zzuuzz, Andrew Lancaster, Veinor, Lunalona, SmackBot, Gailtb, Unyoyega,TimHowles, Glennh70, HeartofaDog, GraemeMcRae, Ogdred, Ohnoitsjamie, Daviboz~enwiki, Chris the speller, Jibbajabba, Rogerhc,Scotttt1, Mr.Z-man, David Branson, DMacks, Kensor, Inthecityof, NotMuchToSay, Epingchris, Antonielly, Ckatz, 16@r, Makyen, Beet-stra, TastyPoutine, AdultSwim, RichardF, Vanished user, Iridescent, Mrtialis, Joseph Solis in Australia, Esurnir, Alanmoroney, RoehlSybing, ChrisCork, CmdrObot, R9tgokunks, Christinam, Paul500, Cydebot, Adrian Glamorgan, Mnbvc~enwiki, Jayen466, Tkynerd,Quibik, Daven200520, Jsteph, Andyjsmith, Marek69, Heroeswithmetaphors, Fayenatic london, Acerview54, Osx85, Darrenhusted, Hu-sond, Barek, Rothorpe, Lawikitejana, Nposs, David Eppstein, DGG, Owenant, ClubOranje, MartinBot, Ikwilhetweten, XVA, Ciotog, Free-billy, Alexkane, Pmbcomm, Plasticup, Shoessss, Secleinteer, Funandtrvl, Glenyshanson, Gottago, Mikolasz, TXiKiBoT, Philaweb, Pear-sonlon, Jmath666, RandomXYZb, Lova Falk, Endo999, Turgan, Sapphic, Cnilep, Multikev, WereSpielChequers, Jbmurray, Numbersin-stitute, Keilana, ComUSSR, Thelmadatter, Mr. Stradivarius, Ratemonth, ClueBot, Robbiemuffin, Iamlilyy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Estevoaei,No such user, Glossophile, Larissad~enwiki, Chris.let, Aitias, Volapuk49, Abusharjeel, XLinkBot, Prof Wrong, Dunyaedu, Alexius08,RyanCross, Wesselbindt, Maxpril, Addbot, Yolgnu, Jsg24, Boomur, Fieldday-sunday, Cuaxdon, Misterx2000, MrOllie, SpBot, Water-vast, Lightbot, JoshuaD1991, Yobot, Fraggle81, Languagewatch, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Piano non troppo, Tuanglen, Materialscientist,Typetrust, Ozean-schloss, Bklpari, J04n, Remember me (up to 7 days), MuffledThud, Urdina, A.amitkumar, Dougofborg, Thehelpfulbot,Reinhard Hartmann, FrescoBot, Rocku20008, Xuchong, Pier440, LittleWink, Eroen, LarsWashington, Languageteacher1945, Secondlife-languageeducator, DioniWan, Sgilanguages, Languagelabdotcom, Lam Kin Keung, Arvindcares, Nilo28, SeoMac, Lingofan, Zuberjuice,Charles Bloaks, A193280, Tbhotch, Brad Marhsall, Anbo6, Batistontain, Etarone, Never give in, Allformweek, GoingBatty, K6ka, Asceti-cRose, Philippe277, Barbara Patterson, H3llBot, Neddy1234, Donner60, Sailsbystars, Dinesh Chander Kapoor, Frondswithverve, Cwmhi-raeth, Skoot13, Laradoks, RogerDonald, Mr. Stradivarius on tour, BG19bot, Rossmar22, Joplusone, MeanMotherJr, BattyBot, Spkoh1,Cyberbot II, Syomunuka, Frosty, OcelotHod, LanguageCoach, Parsbyte, Begro, Vernecatherine, Kim9988, Monkbot, Slick4567, Dansghc,KasparBot and Anonymous: 269

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36 CHAPTER 8. ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

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