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Instructional Science 12 (1983) 171-190 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

T E A C H I N G A N D S T O R Y T E L L I N G : A N E T H N O G R A P H I C S T U D Y

O F T H E I N S T R U C T I O N A L P R O C E S S I N T H E C O L L E G E C L A S S R O O M

COLLEEN COOPER College of Agriculture, Michigan State University, ML U.S.A.

DEBORAH ORBAN Health Science Center, University of Texas, TX, U.S.A.

REBECCA HENRY College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, MI, b:S.A.

and JANET TOWNSEND Herman Miller, lnc., Zeeland, Michigan, MI, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

An ethnographic study was conducted which analyzed the complex teaching behaviors of a distinguished professor at a large university. Reputed to be a gifted instructor, his teaching was investigated through direct observation, videotaping, questionnaires and indepth interviews to determine specifically how the professor accomplished his teaching goals. A detailed descriptive account of teacher-student interaction is provided, as well as an analysis of why the instruction is successful from both perspectives. A major finding was that the instructor incorporated a storytell- ing technique to impart information and to involve students. This technique was repeatedly confirmed by students, teachers and investigators. Further, other teaching behaviors that promot- ed student learning were documented and analyzed. Finally, the implications of ethnographic research for understanding effective instruction is discussed.

I n t r o d u c t i o n

Stories are the stuff of life . . . . Stories are to teach, to learn, to entertain, to enjoy, to inspire. . , to tell. Telling stories is sharing life experience, real and imaginary. So stories are to tell by everyone with experience to share with those who have ears to hear. The teller and the listener together create the story, for like a song that lives only when it is sung and heard, a story lives only when it is told and heard. (Tooze, 1959)

Correspondence should be sent to: Colleen Cooper, 410 Agriculture Hall, Michigan State Univer- sity, East Lansing, MI 48824, U.S.A.

0020-4277/83/$03.00 © 1983 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

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YJ is a professor in agriculture who will not be easily forgotten by his students. For T J, instruction is serious business with a personal side. By combin- ing the art of storytelling with a scientific management of instruction, he guided his students through ten weeks of learning. In TJ's class, stories were used to effectively communicate and share information with students. Through stories he was able to teach, facilitate learning, entertain and inspire. However, neither TJ nor his students were fully aware of the integration of storytelling with teaching and its impact in the classroom. Our interest in TJ grew out of consultations and research with college faculty at Michigan State University. While many studies have emphasized the principles of effective instruction derived from educational psychology and communication, seldom has a master of teaching been studied in the college classroom. This study set out to explore and explain effective college teaching. The purpose of this paper is to describe how teaching and storytelling were integrated and developed within TJ's class. It will also address the impact this approach had on students' perceptions of their learning and motivation.

Prior Research

For years researchers and college teachers have been interested in learning more about classroom instruction. Some researchers have focused on character- istics of effective instructors (Wilson and Gaff, 1975; Eble, 1972; Axelrod, 1973). Others have examined the context of college instruction. Becker et al. (1968) observed and interviewed college students to gain insights into their attitudes and goals. Mann et al. (1970) studied activities and interpersonal relationships in the college classroom. Recently, researchers have begun to investigate how people interact in classrooms in order to attain their instructional goals. Florio (1978) and Mehan (1978) studied in detail how successful elementary teachers instruct. M o ore (1977) addressed the question of the nature of social order in an alternative high school. Cooper (1979, 1981) examined the dynamics of the instructional process in a college classroom.

To better understand the instructional process in the college classroom, four successful instructors at Michigan State University have been studied in detail. One instructor's methods of orchestrating teaching and learning in his class will be described. Th'is description will also entail how multiple corrobora- tive methods provided access into the instructional process and tapped the instructor's and students' perspectives of the same event. This inquiry process is rooted in the ethnographic research of Erickson (1976), McDermott (1977), Florio (1978), Mehan (1978) and Cooper (1979, 1981).

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Ethnographic Research Methods

When using ethnographic methods, the classroom activities are studied as they naturally occur in that setting. The research process begins with broad questions about complex social events. In this study, the event was the classroom session and the questions asked how the instructor and students interacted to attain their goals. These questions determined the choice of methods to investi- gate them. Next, data were gathered using observational notes, interviews, questionnaires, videotapes of the lessons and course documents. They were examined to identify patterns of behavior. From these patterns, tentative "hunches" or working hypotheses developed. The hunches led to more specific questions and further investigation to either confirm or to disprove the hunches. The cycle of questions, data collection, hunches and, subsequently, more specific questions continued until it was possible to describe both the components and dynamics of instruction in the classroom. However, the researchers' work was not complete until the description was found to be consistent with the partici- pants' understanding of the events. Thus, the study proceeded from data collec- tion to data integration and finally, to data verification. The method is inductive, since the decisions about what to observe are not made a priori. The process is interactive and developmental. This is because it involves multiple examinations of the same event and permits the event itself to lead to hunches which dictate the methods and direction of additional questions.

The Participants

TJ is a professor in the College of Agriculture and Natural Resources at Michigan State University. Recognized by students and colleagues alike as being an exceptional teacher, he was granted the Alpha Zeta Teaching Award in 1979. This is a long way from his roots on the Tennessee flood plains. As he explained, "I'll tell you why I went packin' offto college not in a quest for knowledge, but because cotton synthetics were being produced and cotton was in less demand." TJ's frankness led to an easy rapport in the classroom. While TJ and his students had fun with his image as a "Southerner in Yankee territory," he also used it to drive home a critical point about agriculture and economics. Student evaluation of TJ's performance consistently cited his ability to capture and maintain attention, even when topics were complex. He translated information about crop ecology and physiology into clear explanations, familiar examples, practi- cal applications and personal experience. His delivery was accented with ges- tures and drawings hastily sketched on a transparency. It was learned that TJ maintained his level of energy and enthusiasm throughout fourteen years of teaching the same course in Crop and Soil Science.

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To understand how TJ accomplished this, he was studied as he taught an introductory course to 115 students in a two-year Agriculture Technology Pro- gram. Students in this lecture-laboratory class were predominately males from farm backgrounds. As TJ explained, "They come to learn when and how to do things, but I want them to also know why, so they can make decisions and solve problems." It was found that these students were independent and pragmatic, preferring information which was concrete and functional with immediate ap- plicability. Other faculty described them as less able students, more difficult to teach than four-year students. With this in mind, it was surprising to observe students engaging in dialogue with TJ during the first class.

Research Process

INITIAL OBSERVATIONS: THE OBSERVER'S P E R C E P T I O N S

The initial broad question was, "What occurs during a typical class ses- sion?" To answer this, TJ's class was attended and activities were recorded through extensive behavioral notes. These notes were used as material for descriptive accounts. They also served as records of events and behavior patterns which later allowed comparison of the observers' perceptions and the cross- check of findings.

Reviewing early notes and observations, two specific and seemingly contra- dictory patterns of behaviors emerged. TJ appeared to exert strong control over the structure and pace of the lesson yet the informality of his communications with students created an immediate sense of relaxed, open rapport. It was hypothesized that this ability to maintain both control and informality were critical elements contributing to his effectiveness. Hunches were developed about his style which led to the next level of analysis. To confirm or disconfirm these hunches early observations were continued and notes were more closely analyzed. These revealed that his use of humor played a major role in achieving control and rapport. For example, his opening comments on the first day of class were about his height in relation to an antiquated overhead projector beside the lecturer's podium:

I guess I'll need a step ladder or stool to reach this thing. I've never seen anything like it. Ah ha! [Looks at graduate assistant] Dave, do you want to lecture for me? I need a stool to write on this thing.

His relaxed appearance and attitude continued throughout the term and stu- dents described it as a major factor in their mastery of the material.

With continued observations, another pattern of behavior which generated

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similar questions emerged. The course appeared to be stories within a longer story rather than a series of factual lectures. Like most effective storytellers, he had a special sense of when to change his pace, use an example, add a spark of humor or interject a personal note. Within his stories, he was able to weave the pragmatic "what" and "how" information with the principles or "whys" of the discipline. Although principles are generally less well received by students, they are necessary for complete understanding of agricultural decisions and practice. With finesse TJ was able to slip the "whys" into his presentations. In fact, it was difficult to untwine his stories to find the "hows, whats, and whys" as well as to locate the transitions between each of them.

The prospect of unraveling the decision-making which guided TJ's lectures and stories was challenging. Were these stories planned? How did he know when to use an example? What guided his pace? The critical questions remained: What were the students' perceptions of his presentation style? How did they interpret his behaviors in relation to their learning? This paper illustrates how this was accomplished.

An equally important pattern was found in the individual lesson. Each lesson appeared to have an explicit structure. The most visible evidence of this structure was TJ's instructional notes. During class he developed and recorded the ideas on an overhead transparency.

TJ was direct in separating essential material from general background information. He told students the essential material would be written on the overhead projector and highlighted with an asterisk. This material was impor- tant because of its usefulness in the field, and would appear on the weekly quiz or exam. On the first day he explained, "The reason I put an asterisk here is because this is likely to be the first question I'll ask you on Wednesday's quiz." With this statement, TJ had eliminated one ofthe most prevalent guessing games in college classrooms. His practice of labeling important material and being open about testing directly contradicted a common teacher attitude which places responsi- bility for assigning priority to information on the students. TJ's practices raised further questions and invited closer investigation. What was the rationale behind them? Did such behaviors have implications for TJ's perceived roles and respon- sibilities? What effect would TJ's practices have on students?

Each of these patterns - developing rapport, storytelling and structuring the class - led to a number of more specific questions. This series of questions focused primarily on TJ's decisions and behaviors and on students' perception of them. Observations of TJ's class were continued to cross-check information and search for some answers. He was interviewed in order to gain insights into his understanding of the instructional process.

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I N S T R U C T O R INTERVIEWS: TJ 'S P E R C E P T I O N S

An interview guide was developed to investigate what TJ did as well as how and why. The guide included general and specific questions about the structure of the course and typical class sessions. This discussion provided insight into YJ's beliefs about students and teaching. From the interview it was clear he enjoyed teaching. He said:

Teaching is fun. 1 like it when students get that "I didn ' t know that!" look on their faces. I get a high on them learning something for the first time.

TJ made reference to the story-like structure of the class:

I have a long story to tell. The lecture is not in little segments. I don ' t rush through to cover X amount . I think, "What do they need to know and how best can I get it to them?" I begin by

giving them a perspective and I end by tying it together. I just like to tell a story.

While teaching, TJ continually monitored students:

There are two kinds of expressions, bored and bewildered. If they're bored, I do a song and dance. If they're bewildered, I say it in another way.

He spoke of testing critical information:

I ment ion what will be impor tan t on the test. I only test them on impor tan t things. I don ' t teach things that aren' t relevant. If they can' t see this (the relevance), 1 show it to them. I don' t mind them knowing what I expect them to know.

TJ expressed his beliefs about his roles and responsibilities:

I view myself as a resource person. I like to feel I help them organize this area of study so they

can unders tand and go farther on their own. I try to model for them. Much is patterned on what I didn ' t learn as an undergraduate things faculty assumed I knew. I also view myself as a person with morals and ethics. I guess I 'm old fashioned. Students call me "Doctor or TJ." They phone me at home when they have a problem.

He liked to interact with students:

I get there no more than five minutes early unless there is an exam so students can ask questions. I talk with them about academic or nonacademic things; it breaks the ice. I use a lottery system and take two students to lunch each week - or I take the high scorer on a test.

Continued observations usually revealed a congruence between TJ's perceptions of his behavior and his actual behavior. Numerous strategies were used to

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e n c o u r a g e i n v o l v e m e n t and pa r t i c ipa t ion d u r i n g class sessions. He invi ted ques-

t ions, used e x a m p l e s d r a w n f r o m s tuden t s ' b a c k g r o u n d s , and ta lked to s tudents

ind iv idua l ly as he m o v e d t h r o u g h the class d i s t r ibu t ing h a n d o u t s o r quizzes. A

d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f T J ' s interest in s tuden t i n v o l v e m e n t o c c u r r e d ear ly in the

course. He a n n o u n c e d tha t each F r i d a y a d r a w i n g w o u l d be held to select two

s tudents w h o w o u l d be his guests fo r lunch. T J expla ined to us tha t this was a

m e c h a n i s m fo r ge t t ing to k n o w s tuden t s on a pe r sona l level. "! l ea rned tha t they

aren ' t such rascals ." A l t h o u g h T J cou ld expla in m a n y o f his behaviors , there

were aspects o f his c l a s s r o o m ac t ions tha t he could no t explain. He s imply

r emarked , "I do w h a t feels n a t u r a l . . . I d o n ' t th ink a b o u t it."

VIDEOTAPE REVIEW SESSIONS: TELLING A STORY

While T J cou ld no t easily verbal ize the decis ions which gu ided his behavior ,

his in fo rmal , taci t k n o w l e d g e cou ld be t apped . Several class sessions were

v ideo taped to a c c o m p l i s h this. Tapes were reviewed independen t ly with s tudents

and TJ . T h e y were a sked to tell the inves t iga to r s w h a t was h a p p e n i n g and w h e n

things changed . T h u s the tapes served as a s t imulus which helped par t i c ipan ts

in terpre t their behaviors . F r o m this it was no ted tha t telling a s to ry was an

o r g a n i z i n g f r a m e w o r k a r o u n d w h i c h class sessions Were s t ruc tu red and de-

livered.

M a n y hunches a b o u t the w a y T J del ivered i n f o r m a t i o n were c o n f i r m e d by

the s tuden ts and T J as they reviewed the v ideo tapes . T J and the s tudents m a d e

reference to storytel l ing. T w o s tudents said:

His presentation is just storytelling in his own way. I like the story-like manner that he uses. He makes a story out of this instead of saying this is it. You can tell the examples are not forced or planned. Crops and soils are a part of his ii'fe...

O t h e r s tuden ts re fer red to T J ' s "little s tor ies" wi th in the larger s to ry f r a m e w o r k :

One reason he's so good is the way he communicates. He motivates me to try harder; he's one of the best at MSU. He tells stories and backs them up with facts and examples. They click in my head. I can remember his stories. They help on tests.

He takes a special interest in you. He doesn't act like he's just there to make money. He's interested in each of us learning. (How do you know that?) One way is that he tells us his stories. I even write some of them down. (Are there particular times when he tells stories?) It seems logical to do it at the end - but it's throughout.

Usually it makes or breaks a class if the instructor is interested in it. TJ will give an example in class or make a story of it. He keeps you going.

He holds your interest; he uses relevant stories which break up the routine. He seems more human, down to earth. I see him as another individual rather than someone inaccessible up on a platform.

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TJ's stories were a means of giving structure to the lessons. Students reported the stories helped them remember by relating the class information to the real world. Stories added variety and made the instructor "more human" and accessible. Most students interpreted storytelling as an indication of TJ's interest in them as learners. However, one student commented:

A few people huffwhen he tells a story. The majority like it. Even when he's pressed for time, he takes time to tell his stories.

Before telling a story TJ would often ask a question to gather additional information about the students. This insured the story would be of interest to them. For example, he asked during class: "Who's from the 'thumb' area?"* Explaining this question to the researchers, he stated, "It gave me someone there from the 'thumb' I can talk to." "I can direct my comments to them."

Sometimes stories related information and involved students in drawing their own conclusions; for example, while viewing a tape TJ explained:

I 'm not sure, but I guess that I 'm telling the story but thinking that there are more consequences than the plowing. It's missing the punchline. So 1 tell it so far and have them fill in. I let them tell me. It gets the same informat ion across but it gives them a good feeling finishing the story.

Presenting information in the framework of a "long story" with "little stories" within it appeared to be a natural and effective way for TJ to teach. In addition, students reviewing the videotape indicated that the stories contributed to their increased involvement with the subject matter and with TJ during class. A detailed examination of a videotaped lesson was studied to examine the way a story unfolded.

V I D E O T A P E ANALYSES: A STORY IS TOLD

A segment of a videotape illustrated TJ's teaching practices. The videotape review sessions gave students and TJ an opportunity to recall and interpret their experiences. This five minute segment of tape was selected for two reasons; it generated a high frequency of comments during review sessions, and it repre- sented what was observed in the class. Each of the six students and TJ talked about specific activities they observed on tape. These activities illustrated four characteristics of TJ's teaching: 1) how information was presented in an organ- ized story-like manner; 2) how essential information was highlighted; 3) how co-occurring behaviors enhanced communication; and 4) how activities estab-

* A geographic region in Michigan

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l i s h e d a s ense o f r a p p o r t a n d s o l i d a r i t y in t h e c l a s s r o o m . E a c h o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r -

i s t ics o f T J ' s t e a c h i n g wi l l be f u r t h e r e x a m i n e d . B e l o w , t h e v i d e o t a p e s e g m e n t is

d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r s e c t i o n s . T h e t r a n s c r i p t , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' c o m m e n t s a n d re-

s e a r c h e r s ' a n a l y s e s a r e p r o v i d e d f o r e a c h s e c t i o n .

VIDEOTAPE SECTION 1

Transcript*

1A Then another characteristic of soil we want to talk about is soil s t ruc ture . . . before we get to crops, we're almost to that. Now this (structure) refers to not the size but to the arrangement of these particles.

1B This is one of the most difficult things to describe to someone who is not familiar with agriculture production and with soil to tell someone what a good soil structure is like. I guess the best way to describe is with a term many conservation people use and that is a crumb structure. What this means is if you take a clump of soil that is dry, but not absolutely dry, it will crumble in your hands if it has good soil structure. If it will not crumble in your hands something is wrong with it and usually what is wrong is that the structure has been destroyed in some way.

1C So if we can graphically draw this we can show this. If this is good, and if something happens so it becomes layered, it becomes bad. So we have a good structure being changed to a bad structure.

Location / Gestures**

at O.H. writing

pauses to write soil structure

moves to B

moves to T., stands by it, crosses legs and looks at S.

speaks slower, voice rises, enunciates clearly

hold out hand as if holding a clump of soil in his fingers - looks at S.

moves back to O.H.

illustrates on O.H.

Studen t s" C o m m e n t s His outlining is good for studying. His voice goes up-like right there; it breaks the tone and

helps me attend.

When he steps out he asks a question to the class and he answers. He doesn't just stand there and write. He talks with his hands. If you were deaf and dumb you could understand by watching his hands and reading the transparency.

He doesn't use big words either. He breaks it down to layman's terms. I guess you could find bigger words he could have used.

* All transcripts from videotape made 1-24-80 ** O.H. = Overhead, T. = Table, B. = Between O. H. and T., S. ---= Student

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He covers most things pretty evenly. He's very open about it; he doesn't try to teach things way above or go slow for those kids who aren't on farms.

The drawings really help. It gives the basic principle; like they say, a picture's worth a 1000 words.

Analysis of Behaviors (1 A) As this segment begins, TJ was in the midst of presenting and explain-

ing soil characteristics. He introduced the second characteristic, soil structure, by clearly labeling the transition. He captured and focused the students' attention in two ways. First, he wrote the important term on the transparency, then he reminded the students that an upcoming topic was crops. He knew the majority of the students considered "crops" the most important part of the class. With this comment, TJ related soil structure to crops which amplified student interest and established a sense of continuity between segments of the lecture. He proceeded by informing the students, in familiar language, what soil structure was and what it was not.

(1 B) TJ cued students that a new, perhaps difficult, concept was about to be described. He moved from the overhead projector to the table, looked at the students and gestured as if crumbling soil between his fingers. This signaled to the students that he was no longer lecturing. Note-taking stopped and students sat back to listen to TJ's explanation. Students noted that his description was simplified in "layman's terms." As he said "crumb structure" he slowed down, raised his voice and enunciated. These paralinguistic cues told students the information was important. As TJ continued, he made the description personal by explaining that you can determine quality of the structure by crumbling it in your hands. When it will not crumble inyour hands, something has gone wrong. TJ created a puzzling situation where soil destruction had occurred for an unknown reason. In addition, he made it your problem.

(1C) TJ returned to the overhead and drew a rough graphic of"good" and "bad" soil structure. His movement indicated additional information would appear on the transparency. The verbal marker "so," signaled a continuation of the lecture.

At this point in the analysis, three aspects of TJ's presentation were note- worthy. First, there was a purposeful redundancy as he described soil structure several times. Second, each description revealed a slightly different aspect of soil structure by tapping into multiple senses. He visually introduced and illustrated the topic by writing key words and drawing a picture. He verbally explained soil structure and used gestures to demonstrate tactically its qualities. Third, an affective component permeated TJ's teaching. Verbally and nonverbally, TJ communicated a non-stressful stituation to the students. As he leaned on the table, he cued students that a relaxed listening posture was appropriate. He acknowledged the concept might be difficult, but assured students he would

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d e s c r i b e it in t h e " b e s t w a y " he c o u l d . T h e n T J s l o w e d d o w n to g i v e t h e m a n

o p p o r t u n i t y t o l i s t e n c a r e f u l l y . H e s e e m e d to be s e t t i n g t h e s t a g e f o r f u r t h e r

i n f o r m a t i o n .

VIDEOTAPE SECTION 2

Transcript

2A Now why is this important? Well, soil structure inf luences. . , one of the most important things it influences is seed bed condition. It's very difficult if the soil has been worked when it's wet and you have a lot of clods of soil. It's very difficult to get a good seed bed prepared. You can go over this thing and go over it and still not get it down into a nice seed bed so there is soil all around the individual seeds.

2B So seed bed condition - it influences urn, I guess that's probably the most important thing. I'll put a little asterisk on it because as far as I 'm con- cerned that's why it's important. It can influence drainage a little bit but I don't want you to get that confused with water holding capacity. If the soil is in this little plate-like structure here with these all packed together, water will not move down it as easily. But this is talking about getting rid of water as opposed to talking about how much water it can hold in the first place. So let's just stick with this thing it influences seed bed condition and texture influences water holding capacity more.

Location/Gestures

writes on O.H.

moves to B.

moves to T., crosses legs, looks at S.

moves to O.H. writes on O.H.

moves to B.

reaches to O.H. to point to illustration

B. gestures with hands as if "holding water," reaches to underline asterisk

TJ' s Comment s

I suppose when I talk, it's a way of triggering my mind. I may have said it just to lead into another topic. Sometimes I do things and say things that may cause them to wonder. That was just a bridge I 'm sure, because this is something they can control. They can't change the soil texture, but structure is something they can change and will change in their management

practices.

Students ' Comment s That is an important thing. He explains it at a very general level. He wanted people to understand it.

He does go a little fast. He gets talking about something and gets going and going. Once in a while when I'm writing notes and he talks, it's hard to listen and write at the same pace.

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Analysis of Behaviors (2A) The lesson continued with another verbal marker, "now," and a

rhetorical question indicating soil structure was clearly important because of its direct relationship to farming. He again personalized his decription by incorpo- rating "you" into the example.

TJ stopped the videotape at this point when he was reviewing it. He remarked on the story-like flow of this section. The question bridged the descriptive (what) information to explanative (why) information. He was sur- prised by what he saw and heard, for he was not aware of all his moment-to-mo- ment teaching decisions and behaviors.

(2B) As TJ continued the lesson, he emphasized and summarized the importance of seed bed condition by using five different didactic techniques. First, he assigned a priority to the information, saying "that's the important thing." Second, he highlighted the term with an asterisk. Third, he explained why it was important. These three actions combined with his movement to the overhead projector were co-occurring cues that communicated and reinforced important material. Fourth, he clarified the concept by contrasting soil structure with water-holding capacity. Fifth, he followed the clarifying statement with a summary as he re-emphasized the main point and reaffirmed its importance with the asterisk.

During this explanation TJ positioned himself beside the overhead projec- tor while he wrote the main points on the transparency. He stood to one side when explaining the terms. To clarify the troublesome point, he moved closer to the audience and used gestures. Throughout this episode, TJ maintained these two relatively formal positions. He did not sit or lean on the table in the relaxed manner which seemed to be reserved for relating stories or personal experiences.

VIDEOTAPE SECTION 3

Transcript

3A Yeah.

3B

S. asks question about "hard pan"

Yes, hard pan is in fact a type of soil structure that's been destroyed. Ok, same thing.

Plow layer or hard pan. There are some other reasons too. Let me give you this. Let's say that was a "little a" under here to keep things straight for you. Let me give you a "little b."

Location / Gestures

Looks at student who raised his hand to ask a question moves closer to S.

gestures with hands

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VIDEOTAPE SECTION 3 (Continued)

Transcript

Soil structure can be destroyed by several means. One is prolonged flooding. The soil has been plowed and water has settled in the furrow made by the cultivator. What does it look like when that water has completely dried up? It's smooth isn't it? Sometimes you'll see the clay layers start to peel away from it. That is on a very small scale destroying soil structure. And that's what happens when you have flooding over a long period of time. I for the life of me cannot imagine how rice paddies persist over the number of years they are used.

Location/Gestures

moves to T. sits on edge, gestures, looks at S.

looks around at S., gestures a peeling motion

back to O.H., writes a (2)

TJ's Comments

The first day I said they could interrupt and ask questions at any time.

Students" Comments

On the syllabus he says "Feel free to ask questions at any time." It may say that five times, so you just speak up. He lists his home and his office phone numbers so we can call him.

Someone brought up another point so he explained it. He's interested in clarifying students' understanding. He's open to other things.

I think he enjoys teaching. He enjoys answering the questions and students help keep him sharp.

He's teaching for us to learn, he's there for us.

Analysis of Behaviors (3A) A request for clarification interrupted the flow of the lesson. TJ

acknowledged the student, responded and briefly elaborated. The students viewing the videotape made reference to TJ's accessibility and willingness to help clarify a concept. Their comments raised two questions. First, what was TJ saying and doing that was interpreted by students as being accessible and helpful? Second, what was it about this interaction that led to these responses?

This segment of the lesson was analyzed to better understand what TJ did and said. To accomplish this, Sinclair and Coulthard's (1975) method of dis- course analysis was used. According to their system, in typical instructional exchanges, the teacher informs, directs, elicits, or checks; the student elicits and informs; then the teacher follows with feedback. They define acts as behaviors

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which guide or direct the flow of discourse. These acts and their functions are interpreted by participants in order to determine what is taking place at the moment and what is appropriate to do next. Such acts develop a specific meaning in a given context. The analysis of this videotape section explores the ways acts were interpreted in TJ's class.

TJ was persistent in his response to students. In this episode (Table 1) he confirmed, restated, checked, rephrased and provided a cue. Students interpret- ed this as being "interested in clarifying student understanding." TJ's nonverbal behaviors were consistent with the verbal message. He casually leaned on the

Table I Discourse Analysis of an Instructional Episode

ACT FUNCTION ANALYSIS

S. raises hand init iates the interaction (A)* it 's permissible to interrupt a lecture

T3 - "Yea" acknowledges the S., (A) confirms Ws (leaning against relinquishes the f loor acceptable to table) interrupt

S. asks fo r confirmation el ici ts a response (A) S. can in i t iate a about his understanding response from T3. of hard pan It's appropriate

to ask for c lar i f icat ion and relate the information to personal experience

TJ - "Yes" evaluates S. inquiry (H) confirms that the (moves toward S.) S's inquiry is correct

Hard pan is a type of restates the S's inquiry (H) restates main soil that's been points destroyed

"Ok?" (looks around hands out, palms up)

"Plow layer or hard pan..." (gestures with hands as if packing down)

"There are some other reasons too..."

checks with class for general understanding comments , questions

clari f ies concept

signals a change

(A) provides opportunity for S.

(H) use analogous terms, stresses with gestures

(H) provides organ- izational cue, reasons w i l l be expanded

*A = accessible, H = helping learn

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table and ma in ta ined eye contact . He m o v e d closer to the s tudent who asked the quest ion and used an open -handed gesture as he said "ok . " It was clear T J was

not only willing to answer questions, but as one s tudent said, "He enjoys answering quest ions."

W h a t was it a b o u t this par t of the lesson tha t t r iggered these c o m m e n t s ?

First, there was a clear change in the f low of the lesson. The discussion was

initiated by the s tudent ra ther than the teacher. S tudent initiated interact ions are atypical accord ing to Mehan (1978). Second, TJ acknowledged the student and

responded with enthusiasm. He inco rpora t ed the s tudent ' s con t r ibu t ion into the

outl ine on the overhead , d rawing it to the a t t en t ion of the class. These responses served as powerfu l reinforcers of s tudent par t ic ipat ion. In cont ras t to mos t large

classes, s tudents can in ter rupt in TJ ' s class. Third, the n u m b e r of techniques that

T J used to clarify this point evidenced his concern for s tudent understanding. (3B) The interact ion was comple ted and the lesson cont inued. At tent ion

was refocused as T J moved to the overhead , p rovided an organiza t ional cue ("little a and b" in the outline), recapi tu la ted the ma in point , and wrote

"1. F looding" on the overhead. T J moved to his c u s t o m a r y spot at the table,

c o m m u n i c a t i n g it was time to listen, not write. A vivid picture of a f looded field was por t rayed . Then he asked, " W h a t does it look like when it dries up?" As he

answered , he s tr ipped away the imaginary clay layers and personalized the

exp lana t ion with "You' l l see the clay l a y e r s . . , peel away . . . . " While repeat ing the main point he wrote "2" on the overhead, a cue to p repare to once again listen

and write. A chuckle, a step f r o m the overhead and a reference to a related

puzzling si tuat ion provided a short break.

VIDEOTAPE SECTION FOUR

Transcript

4A So this is one way. And another way is by packing the soil, you literally force the soil into this destroyed structure, into this "bad way" like the picture I drew. And a third one is working, which puts together one and two, is working soil when it's too wet.

4B I will never forget on our little cotton farm in Tennessee when

we had some limestone applied and we had to apply a lot more limestone than you do here because it rains a lot more. And that's as we'll see in our next section, crop nutrition and fertilizers, that is one of the primary ways of reducing pH. So, we came in with tons and tons of limestone.

Location / Gestures

moves to B. moves to O.H. writes, then demonstrates forcing or pressure writes on O.H.

moves to T. and sits talks slowly pauses between phrases

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V I D E O T A P E SECTION F O U R (Continued)

Transcript

Ah, three years or so we had to put lime- stone on. And I remember one year when the spring was late, we didn't fall plow. We never fall plowed there. Why? S. - Erosion Too much erosion, right? The soils didn't freeze and get solid like they do here. So if you fall plowed and it rained it would wash it all away and we had enough soil from Illinois, Ohio and Minnesota washing down through their flooding (chuckles). I lived on the Mississippi flood plain and every year we'd get one half inch of their soil and we didn't want to give ours to Mississippi and those people farther south. You just didn't dare fal! plow.

TJ's Comments

Location / Gestures

gestures to S. with palms up waiting for a response

S. reponds

The example I 'm giving now happened to me. It is probably my first example of soil compaction that's why I'll never forget that one.

1 use personal examples, they're more vivid to me.

Students' Comments

This is an example of one of his stories. He moved to the table. He's saying "time out"; he's less formal, he's relaxed. I bet when he does that he leans against the table. People who have been writing notes sit back in their chairs like this (student sits back in a relaxed manner).

He's not afraid to laugh either. He gives the impression he enjoys his work. If an instructor gives you the feeling he enjoys his work, you do too. He creates a loose atmosphere, he relaxed everybody. That's what I mean by using his own experiences. The stories make it easier. It gives us a different perspective.

He goes on and relates his experience to what we're doing in class. He talks about his farm in Tennessee. How he farmed and why. He uses good examples. This story is very practical - how it packed down the soil and what happens to it. It's a good explanation. I like the little stories he tells. They break' the monotony of the lecture and are just fun. Kinda gives you a sense that those things really go on.

Analysis of Behaviors (4A) TJ brought the students' attention back to the lesson by moving to the

overhead as he summarized previous remarks. "So this is one w a y . . . " cued students it was time for another main point. TJ wrote "packing" on the overhead. He reinforced the point with comments, pressing gestures and a reference to the illustration.

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Table II Analysis and In te rpre ta t ion of Teaching - Storytel l ing Behaviors

Discourse Analysis and In te rpre ta t ion

I will never forge t on our l i t t l e co t ton Ia rm in Tennessee when we had some l imes tone applied.

and we have to apply a lot more l imes tone than you do here because it rains a lot more. And as we will see in our next sect ion of this crop nutr i t ion and fe r t i l i ze rs is a pr imary way ol reducing ph.

So we came in with tons and tons ol l imestone. Every th ree years we had to put l imes tone on. And I r emember one year when the spring was late .

We didn' t Iall plow. We never fall plowed there . Why? Too much erosion. Right? The soils didn' t f r eeze and get solid like they do here. So if you Iall plowed and it ra ined, i t would wash it all away. And we had enough soil from Illinois, Ohio and Minnesota washing down through Ilooding

(chuckles) I lived on the flood plain and every year we'd get the i r soil and we didn ' t want to give ours to Mississippi

So we didn't plow in Ia l l - - only the spring

Behavior as a Teacher

t rans i t iona l cue, r e la tes personal examples to con ten t

provides perspect ive , r e la tes to S. exper ience, previews next topic, presents new fac t

descr ibes agr icul ture p rac t i ce (what), explains what

asks question, e l ic i ts response, checks, explains why, gives humorous aside

provides in lormat ion , re la tes what and why

summar izes

Behavior as a Storytel ler

gives a s tory-l ike in- t roduct ion, set s tage, captures a t t en t ion , personalizes, uses common te rms

builds background informat ion, personalizes

en te r t a ins , gives a hyperbole, provides descript ion, message begins

builds cl imax, o i l e r s in te rp re ta t ion

builds cl imax chuckles with audience

delivers punch line

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(4B) A second transit ion was marked by TJ's movement f rom the overhead projector to a seated position on the table. His next comment , "I will never forget," was delivered in a slow, emphatic manner. He crossed his arms, leaned back and began to reminisce about his early years on a Tennessee farm. These co-occurring cues represented a distinct change in the pace and style of the presentation. (See Table II.)

Table II summarizes the major findings f rom the analyses and interpreta- t ion of TJ's teaching - storytelling behaviors. It was noted that TJ applied many of the principles and strategies identified as effective by researchers of col!ege teaching (Hilgard and Bower, 1975; Wilson and Gaff, 1975; Axelrod, 1973).

TJ presented essential informat ion in an organized manner, repeated

concepts to reinforce learning, provided students with feedbacl~, related con- cepts to the students' experiences and maintained open communicat ion.

In addit ion, TJ exemplified the qualities of a veteran storyteller (Baker and Green, 1977). TJ involved students in his stories; provided descriptive anecdotes and experiences, and directed the mood and flow of the class. As a storyteller, TJ was both creative and skilled. Stories were his means for conveying informat ion in an entertaining and meaningful fashion.

Ruth Tooze captured TJ style when she explained:

•.. Storytelling is a creative act in which the story garnered from the stuff of life passes through the teller, as light passes through a prism of glass to reveal all the colors it holds, to return to the stream of life itself• It becomes part of the life stuff of all the listeners as it completes the circle• So good storytelling will take all of the facets of varied experience, all the facets of a rich background, all the facets of understanding and insight, all the facets of the skills in using voice and body, all the facets of putting the words together• Every storyteller may learn to use all the means of telling a story well . . . . Any and every storyteller can become a good storyteller..• (Tooze, 1959).

Summary and Implications

This research has sought to understand more about effective college teach- ing. A college professor reputed for his outs tanding teaching abilities was selected for study. The goal' was to describe and analyze how this instructor successfully conducted the instructional process to guide student learning.

Because teaching is an interactive complex of events, ethnographic methods were used to s tudy the instructional process as it natural ly occurred. This research at tempted to uncover and clarify both the instructor's and students ' interpretations of classroom events by using multiple corroborative methods. Data were gathered through classroom observations and notes, class audiotapes, instructor 's materials, instructor interviews, videotapes of class sessions and •

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videotape review sessions with the instructor and students. The research process was interactive, inductive and developmental. It included the following activi- ties: 1) posing broad, general questions, 2) collecting data, 3) developing tenta- tive hypotheses, 4) confirming/disconfirming these hypotheses, and 5) develop- ing more specific questions. The process continued until it was possible to describe the components as well as the dynamics of instruction.

Throughout this study it was apparent to the researchers that TJ's teaching was highly effective. More importantly, students repeatedly confirmed this. What was it about TJ's teaching that prompted students and observers to respond so enthusiastically? The major conclusions of the study point to several aspects of TJ's instructional style: I. TJ's instruction was characterized as storytelling. As a storyteller, he con-

trolled his audience and subject matter to reach a desired goal. As a teacher, he facilitated learning by using principles of learning and motivation.

2. There was an obvious structure and clarity of information presented. One indicator was TJ's use of the overhead projector to display his outline. Essential information was highlighted through explicit verbal remarks and notations on the transparency. Student stress was reduced by eliminating ambiguity, thereby freeing the student to focus on essential information.

3. The instruction was filled with planned redundancy. Critical points were presented verbally and nonverbally in different modes.

4. Instruction was personalized and geared to students and their experiences. Students remarked that TJ's practical examples and common language made learning more meaningful.

5. Finally, TJ was adept at involving students in class proceedings. He created a climate of relaxed communicat ion and student input. Through examples and questions he invited participation.

This study illustrates that a naturalistic research process which taps the conscious and tacit knowledge of the instructor, students and researchers per- mits a description of the dynamics of the instructional process. Equally impor- tant, we have begun to understand how dynamics are interpreted by students as contributing to their cognitive and affective learning. Furthermore, this under- standing is available to both the researcher and the teacher.

Hopefully this story will make a difference in other college classrooms. It is our belief that it can. Effective teaching, like effective storytelling, is both art and science. From the perspective of teaching, an effective teaching style is develop- mental and improves with attention and thought. F rom the perspective of a storyteller:

The secret of the gift lies in the sixth sense of the true storyteller. Here is an indefinable something that acts as does the nose for the winetaster, as fingertips for the textile expert, as absolute pitch for the musician. 1 think one may be born with this; but it is far more likely to become ingrained after years of experience. (Ruth Sawyer, 1967)

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