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8/9/2019 Teaching and Learning for the World of Work: New Ideas for the Education of VET and HRD Professionals- Graham
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Teaching and Learning for the World of Work: New Ideas for the Education ofVET and HRD Professionals
Graham Attwell, Institut Technik und Bildung, Bremen University
Abstract
The paper discusses the initial outcomes of research being undertaken for a European
Community funded research project, EUROPROF, which is examining the education
of professionals in vocational education and training. The paper examines changes in
technology and in work organisation and considers the implications for teaching and
learning. Of particular interest for the idea of life long learning is the development of
professional competence and expertise in an occupational setting. The need to embed
the development of learning strategies, key competences and cognitive learning in an
occupational context has led to the development of theories based on work process
knowledge. The paper examines two aspects of the changing role of teachers and
trainers: the instructional activities required to promote the attainment of vocational
learning and expertise and the role of organisational learning in the continuing
development of competence. Finally, there is a brief examination of existing
provision for the education of VET professionals leading to a call for the
development of a new expanded vocational pedagogy which includes both general
pedagogy and education and also the competences linked to work related process
knowledge.
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Introduction
The new emphasis being placed on lifelong learning has important implications for
almost every aspect of education and training including organisation, curriculum,
pedagogy and skills development. Notably it has led to increasing research in the
vocational sector, formerly the Cinderella of education and training. Whilst the
traditional role of vocational education and training (VET) has been training for
initial skills and managing or mediating the school to work transition, the new
expanded role includes retraining to counter unemployment and social exclusion. It
also encompasses the facilitating of work place learning and continuing training to
ensure the workforce have the skills required for new production processes and new
technologies. This new role has in turn led to a resurgence of interest in learning
theory and how effective learning take place in the workplace. At the same time there
has been a growing political and social dimension focusing on how different countries
are managing and developing programmes for skills acquisition and enhancement and
thus there has been a corresponding growth in comparative VET research. This has
been encouraged by the European Union which has recently launched two separate
transnational research programmes including vocational education and training.
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This paper is based on the initial research undertaken for one of the new European
research projects - New Forms of Education of Professionals for Vocational
Education and Training (EUROPROF), funded through the Leonardo programme
Surveys and Analyses strand. The project, which includes partners from thirteen
different European countries, aims to identify new occupational profiles for teachers
and trainers involved in both initial and continuing vocational education and training
in vocational schools and in the workplace. These profiles will then be used to
generate a new programme framework leading to a Masters qualification to be piloted
in a number of universities in the different member states. Although the European
Commission has funded a number of previous training the trainer` projects, it is the
view of the project co-ordinators, the Institut Technik und Bildung at Bremen
University, that these have often floundered because of the lack of basic research into
the new roles of trainers and an understandable desire to try to draw up demonstrable
outcomes quickly. Secondly, many of these projects have focused on pedagogical
skills for trainers whilst failing to consider adequately the centrality of work based
learning or work process learning in the acquisition of vocational skills and expertise.
This is seen as particularly important given the current emphasis being placed on
social innovation in furthering competitiveness and countering unemployment in the
countries of the European Union. Therefore, an early focus for the project has been to
look at the meaning and nature of work based expertise and skills, at how effective
learning can be encouraged and developing a shared understanding and definition for
what constitutes expertise for vocational teachers and trainers themselves. This paper
addresses some of these questions through a consideration of the changing economic
and social contexts of the European member states and a review of different concepts
of professional and occupational competence and expertise. The paper examines the
idea of work process knowledge and goes on to consider the implications of these
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ideas for the future role of teachers and trainers. It also looks at two aspects of this
changing role: the instructional activities required to promote the attainment of
vocational learning and expertise and the role of organisational learning in the
continuing development of competence. Finally, there is a brief examination of
existing provision for the education of VET professionals leading to a call for the
development of a new expanded vocational pedagogy which includes both general
pedagogy and education and also the competences linked to work related process
knowledge.
The Economic and Social Context
The last two decades have seen heightened competition between the economies of
western Europe and the far east, especially with the new growing economies of the
countries of the Pacific Rim. At the same time Europe has gone through a series of
cyclical economic recessions leading to a review of economic and industrial
manufacturing organisation and strategies. The initial response to this new situation
was, commonly, rationalisation and downsizing which attempted to achieve higher
levels of efficiency and cost savings within a Tayloristic production framework. More
recently a trend has emerged, which has been described as a new production
paradigm, encompassing the following features:
The creation of flexible production systems which can meet short deadlines and
solve problems as they arise;
The implementation of new quality management systems;
Shorter product life cycles;
The introduction of new forms of work organisations.
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The new methods of industrial manufacturing and work organisation are having a
dramatic effect on skills demand and occupational profiles and thus on the demands
placed on vocational education and training.
Pressure towards better quality and shorter life-cycles of products increases the
need to develop more integrated strategies for new technology, work organisation
and skill formation. This is leading to a focus on key competences or core skills
such as teamwork, information technology, communications, decision making and
on shaping skills1;
The rapid evolution of technologies is bringing about a fundamental change in the
role and structure of manufacturing companies leading to demand for new skills;
There are fewer and fewer routine and low skilled or unskilled jobs left and
existing and newly created jobs tend to demand higher levels of skill. In this
respect, there are strong arguements in favour of multi-skilling and customer
orientated skills.
Professional and Occupational Competence and Expertise
1 The somewhat unusual term shaping means something like self determined, independent designof work , technology, even life style (Heidegger, 1995, 3). It will be explained more fully later inthe text.
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As economists have emphasised the increasing importance of human capital as the
unique factor in economic development and competition (Brown and Lauder, 1995,
21), so has the debate over the nature of professional competence and effective
learning of skills come to the fore. Traditional definitions and explanations of
professional competence or expertise have been based on theories of technical
rationality - on the assumption that learning can be applied in predictable and
repeated ways. Limitations in the epistemology of technical rationality and the
response to changing forms of work organisation have led to new definitions and
explanations of professional expertise which emphasise the importance of reflection-
in practice (Edwards, 1993, 49). Alan Brown (1994, 11) cites Mansfield and
Mathews (1985) who describe occupational competence as comprising three
interrelated components - tasks, task management and role or job environment whilst
Leat (1993, 507) defines competence as the state whereby behaviour, cognition and
thinking are in sympathy. New definitions have stressed the importance of
capability - of the ability of employees to learn new skills as the basis for future
performance (Eraut, 1993, 10). Alan Brown (1994, 12) goes on to look at the
requirements of major industrial companies in terms of the competence of their
workforce. British Telecom emphasise the value capability as the outlook,
understanding and way of working that promotes innovation. The German car
manufacturers, Volkswagen, have a similar forward looking definition of skill:
competence which is primarily concerned with current job demand does not cover
the whole field. It fails to respond to our view of long term company needs and of our
image of future employees.
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New forms of work organisation have challenged the traditional Tayloristic
separation of conception from execution and has led to a questioning of the divisions
between theoretical knowledge and practical skills. It has also led to an attack on
traditional behaviourist learning principles: on the narrow technicist approach which
defines useful knowledge in the light of bureaucratic and corporate needs (Collins,
1991) cited in Hyland, 1993, 93). It has also led to an increased stress on the need for
broad based learning and skills and for the development of core skills or key
competences - team working, being able to communicate effectively, problem solving
and being willing to learn (City and Guilds, 1993, 4). Core skills and key
competences facilitate transferability of occupational competence and work related
skills to shape new work organisations and new technology. The technocratic
argument which occurs in most countries is that learning to learn is fundamental if
workers are to be able to adjust to changing organisational structures, technological
innovation and almost constant change in work processes (Brown, 1994, 13).
Work Process Knowledge
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The need to embed the development of learning strategies, key competences and
cognitive learning in an occupational context has led to the development of theories
based on work process knowledge. Traditional pedagogical practices have rendered
key aspects of expertise and real professionalism invisible to students (Enkenberg,
1994, 204). The curriculum has been based on a knowledge hierarchy of basic
science, followed by applied science and then the technical skills of day to day
practice (Ibid., 204). Enkenburg stresses the importance of learning being situated -
knowledge cannot be separated from its source and context or its environment.
Knowledge is relative and learning occurs through a process of culturalisation as
concepts are understood through use. Knowledge is most powerfully adapted in
authentic activities, that is, if it is coherent, meaningful and purposeful within the
social framework (Ibid., 206). Workers today have the need to plan, explore, reflect
and evaluate their own activities and practice. Expertise is based on conceptual,
procedural and situational (practical) knowledge. Work process knowledge
emphasises the importance of critical points which require actions based on holistic
expertise rather than simply academic knowledge. The development of expertise in
work process knowledge is dependent on three dimensions: on implicit knowledge,
tacit knowledge and on environment. The task for vocational education and training is
to integrate critical points into an experience-based learning strategy. Expertise is
domain specific and builds up through the refinement of preconceived notions and
theory during practical experience (Brown, 1994, 15).
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Whilst reflection and pro-activity are two facets of developing expertise, there is a
developing consensus on the value of teaching thinking skills to aid problem solving
performance in an occupational context (Ibid., 20). Deep seated competence is
dependent on a balance between learning for work and learning at work and learners
need to gain the mastery of a substantive knowledge base as an important component
of the intellectual development associated with the development of expertise (Ibid.,
34). Such a knowledge base not only accentuates experts problem solving ability but
is central to the practice of shaping competences - that is, the ability to shape working
organisation and technology and skills in order to develop social innovation.
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The development of cognitive learning skills and work based process knowledge pose
new questions and challenges for the organisation and practice of vocational
education and training. How can people be educated so that both domain specific and
more general wide area wide characteristics of expertise can be acquired within
learning settings? How can learning be designed in order that individuals may transfer
skills? Mjelde (1994, 198) says that learning becomes real through a process of
interpersonal activities between persons and materials. Individuals use their
experiences as a foundation for the personal construction of knowledge from internal
representations. Learners gain knowledge through a process of personal and co-
operative experimentation, questioning and problem solving through which meaning
can be constructed. Learning is the articulation of schemata which incorporate
cognition, perception and action. Schemata are made meaningful by jointly carrying
out activities with an expert in such a way that the learner gradually masters
successively more difficult parts of the task through successively more complex
stages (Ibid., 198). The central aspect of vocational education and training is learning
by doing, gaining professional skills while interacting with materials, teachers and
fellow workers. The authenticity and transfer of knowledge and skills may depend on
the refinement of intelligent instructional systems and on the design of learning
environments in which students are helped to construct knowledge themselves
(Enkenberg, 1994, 277). Within these learning strategies there is emphasis on the
development of inferential and metacognitive skills. Nieuwenhuis (1991, 8) proposes
the development of cognitive apprenticeships as a strategy for the development of
higher order skills encompassing key / core competences. Cognitive indicates that
the apprenticeship methods are not only focussing on the acquirement of traditional
apprenticeship skills, but also on acquissition of knowledge based skills usually more
associated with conventional education. Apprenticeship indicates that the central
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activity is learning and acquiring knowledge and skills and that learning is situated
and context dependent (Mulder, 1995, 3). Teaching and learning strategies include
modelling, coaching, scaffolding and fading, articulation, reflection and exploration
(Enkenberg, 1994, 212).
New Roles for VET and HRD Professionals
The demand for broader based learning, for the development of cognitive and
thinking skills and the acquisition of work based process knowledge is leading to a re-
examination of the role and competences of VET and HRD professionals. This paper
will look at two aspects of this changing role; the instructional activities required to
promote the attainment of vocational learning and expertise and the role of
organisational learning in the continuing development of competence. Whilst the first
may be associated primarily with initial vocational education and training (and thus
with vocational teachers) and the second with ongoing work place learning (and thus
with the role of HRD professionals), it is argued that there is a process of
convergence in the roles, competences and occupational profiles of both VET and
HRD professionals. Activities associated with human resource development may be
most effective when associated with mediated learning involving the intervention of a
teacher. Papadopoulos (1994, 175) asserts the need for teachers to become the
spearhead of change and progress in teaching and learning processes and sees a
crucial role for the training of teachers and trainers:
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In the case of teachers, a greater opening up to the world of work is
necessary. They must change their approach to teaching by placing a
greater emphasis on empirical learning - learning by doing - drawing on
lessons learned from the workplace. Trainers need to develop a capacity
for introducing abstract concepts into vocationally based learning, a
change necessitated by the growing information and knowledge
components of all jobs.
Engestrm (1994) points out that whilst there are many examples of productive
learning in everyday situations investigative deep-level learning is relatively rare
without instruction or intentional self instruction. For that very reason, instruction is
necessary. Its task is to enhance the quality of learning, to make it purposeful:
Teaching involves:
organisingthe contexts and communities of learning;
formulatingorganisational objectives
structuringinstructional contents
guiding and monitoringthe students advancement through the integral cycle of
investigative learning;
interacting and conductingconversation with the students
planning and assessingthe overall instructional process
(ibid., original emphasis)
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Some new and emergent forms of workplace organisation and production systems
have been labelled as learning organisations. Within the learning organisation,
Human Resource Development is integrated in the organisational functioning and, in
turn, the organisation influences the content and form of the HRD activities
(Tjepkema and Wognum, 1994, 3). The ongoing development of individuals and the
organisation as a whole, form the central point of attention for HRD and VET. HRD
managers fulfil the role of learning facilitators and consultants, provide tools for on
and off the job learning and act as change agents to support and guide the
implementation of learning tools. Tjephema and Wognum identify a focussed
approach to HRD activities:
Shift in area of attention from training to learning;
Change in outlook - learning is the starting point, not training, with HRD
practitioners supporting and facilitating rather than selling courses;
Position of HRD - no longer a separate department but embedded in the
organisation.
(Ibid., 3, original emphasis)
HRD plays the role of promoting not only single loop learning through fostering
positive learning attitudes and creating conditions in the workplace which facilitate
learning, but also double loop learning through guiding the implementation of change
and fostering innovation. The tasks for HRD practitioners are (Ibid., 5):
the development and execution of training;
the facilitating of learning in the workplace;
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the provision of advice to management on learning strategies in the workplace.
Both VET and HRD professionals may be seen as playing common roles in creating
learning conditions, in structuring learning, in providing guidance and monitoring for
learners and in planning learning objectives and activities. In both there is an
emphasis on the provision of situational learning, encouraging learning through doing
and on guiding and facilitating the process of reflection (Ibid, 13).
The Reflective Practitioner
Many of the current debates in the training of teachers and trainers have been
generated by Donald Schns theory of the reflective practitioner. Building on the
earlier work of Kolb and Fry on their experiential learning cycle he outlined a model
for learning which would bridge the gap between academic theory and professional
practice by integrating the two into a cycle of learning (Johnston, 1995, 75). This
model brings together theory - defined as the sphere of abstract knowledge or
speculative thought and practice defined as the action or execution as opposed to
theory (Ibid., 75). Schn held that traditional schools of professional education had
concentrated on teaching the tenets of knowledge and practices of a particular
profession (Ibid., 75). In practice, these constituted the rules and models of that
profession. However, problems are more complex, frequently with a values
dimension and unyielding to professional formulae. New professional images are
required to deal with these complex dimensions (Elliott, 1991, cited in Leat, 1993,
501):
1. Collaboration with clients (individuals, groups and communities);
2. The importance of communication and empathy with clients as a means of
understanding;
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3. New emphasis on holistic understanding of situations as a basis for professional
practice rather than a set of specialist categories;
4. Self reflection as a means of overcoming stereotypical judgements and responses.
Leat (1993, 504) quotes Corno (1989) who held that effective teachers are those who
employ metacognitive approaches to model expert processes for pupils and Blagg
(1981) who recognised that high level control processes are responsible for the
selection and sequencing of many lower order skills in order to create purposeful,
cognitive strategies. Griffey and Hughes (1996, 8) consider that learning will be most
effective where facilitators of learning such as tutor or coach, themselves engage in
learning to learn, facing problems, adapting to these in the practical context and
reflecting on problem formulation and problem solving strategies.
Thus teachers need to be able to reflect on their own professional activities and
experience in order to create learning strategies and model expert processes for
students. For vocational education and training practitioners, such reflection has a
multi faceted direction; reflection on action as professional teachers, on didactic and
pedagogic processes, on actions as vocational experts and on the application of bodies
of vocational knowledge which finds representation as work process knowledge. This
demand has consequences not only for the competences required of VET and HRD
professionals but also for their education and training. The ability to apply work
process knowledge must be combined with pedagogic practice or teaching skills in a
holistic way. Education and training programmes for HRD and VET professionals
must take account of the development needs of both aspects of professional identity
and competence.
New Profiles for VET Professionals
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New forms of basic and further education for VET professionals have to refer to this
new perspective. This is true for the trainers and teachers who actually carry out the
initial and further vocational education and training of young people in classrooms
and in enterprises and for the consultants, managers and planners responsible for the
design and support of the VET process. A new professional profile for VET
professionals based on new perspectives, roles, responsibilities and competencies will
necessarily be multi dimensional and will entail the integration of different expertise
and skills. The new expertise of VET professionals should encompass VET itself, in
so far as it relates to specific occupational skills and experience, and more general
aspects of Human Resource Development but should also include work related
knowledge and practice.
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It is recognised that such an agenda stands in contrast to the practice prevalent in
many European countries. Two particular models may be noted: The English
speaking countries assume that vocational teachers have already acquired
occupational competence and provide a context free pedagogic training programme,
usually through part-time provision whereas Germanys full time university based
education programme concentrates on subject based learning in addition to social
pedagogics. Neither model, it can be argued, provides VET professionals with
expertise in the critical area of work process learning. Of course this is not to deny
that there exist many attempts at developing new and radical programmes and
practices in the education of VET professionals, and it will be these innovative
examples that the Leonardo project will seek to identify and build upon.
Nethertheless it remains our contention that there are serious problems and
deficiencies in the way European countries are currently approaching the education of
VET professionals and that this may have a considerable detrimental effect on the
ability of the workforce to initiate and sustain the level of social innovation necessary
for future economic success.
An Innovative VET Research Culture
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A main aim of the project is to foster, by mutual learning in a Pan-European context,
an innovative research culture in vocational education and training. The project
requires an interdisciplinary approach which can bring together the different
traditions of vocational pedagogy, educational sociology, human resource
development, educational technology and education theory2and in a new integrated
methodology for research and development. Such an approach must also take
account of the different national research traditions and different traditions of VET in
Europe. The aim is to develop a new expanded vocational pedagogy which includes
both general pedagogy and education and the competences linked to work related
process knowledge. The intention of the project is to establish the basis for post
graduate programmes in universities in Europe based on this expanded vocational
pedagogy as a step towards the professionalisation of professionals and to support a
new VET culture of research and teaching.
2Further related disciplines include: technology, economics, psychology of work, psychology oflearning, personality research
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Biographical Note
Graham Attwell is a researcher at the Institut Technik und Bildung, Bremen
University. He is currently director of the Leonardo EUROPROF project
investigating New Forms of Education for Professionals in Vocational Education and
Training. Prior to moving to Germany at the end of 1995 he had gained wide
experience of training and research at all levels and sectors of education and training
in his home country, Wales.