Talking the WalkTalking the Walk: language as the : language as the missing ingredient of biodiversity missing ingredient of biodiversity

conservation?conservation?

An investigation of plant knowledge in An investigation of plant knowledge in the Western Usambara Mountains, Tanzaniathe Western Usambara Mountains, Tanzania

Samantha RossSamantha RossUniversity of East AngliaUniversity of East Anglia

The affliction of linguistic diversity.......?The affliction of linguistic diversity.......?

Biocultural Diversity (BCD)Biocultural Diversity (BCD)

““BCD encompasses BCD encompasses the total variety exhibited by the the total variety exhibited by the world’s natural and cultural systems and refers to the world’s natural and cultural systems and refers to the fundamental linkages and interdependence between fundamental linkages and interdependence between the various manifestations of the diversity of life: the various manifestations of the diversity of life: biodiversity, cultural and linguistic diversity” biodiversity, cultural and linguistic diversity” (Terralingua, 2006)(Terralingua, 2006)

BCD

Linguistic Diversity

Cultural Diversity

Biological Diversity

Linguistic Diversity

MT

Cultural Diversity

BiologicalDiversity

Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous Knowledge

Socially Embedded Socially

Constructed

Co-Evolution

Global linguistic diversity Global linguistic diversity Ethnologue (2006)

Global 25 biodiversity hotspots Global 25 biodiversity hotspots Myers (1998)

GreenGreen are countries in top 25 for endemic languages are countries in top 25 for endemic languages

YellowYellow top 25 for endemic vertebrates top 25 for endemic vertebrates

RedRed are countries in top 25 for both are countries in top 25 for bothSource: Harmon 1996aSource: Harmon 1996a

Overlap of biological and cultural diversityOverlap of biological and cultural diversity

A critique of BCDA critique of BCD• Little empirical evidence exists for BCD claimsLittle empirical evidence exists for BCD claims

• Theoretical gaps exist within the relativist BCD Theoretical gaps exist within the relativist BCD paradigmparadigm

• Multilingualism or hybrid languages might be as Multilingualism or hybrid languages might be as equally able to transfer knowledge as mother tonguesequally able to transfer knowledge as mother tongues

• Evidence of indigenous communities retaining Evidence of indigenous communities retaining sustainable livelihoods despite entry of foreign sustainable livelihoods despite entry of foreign languagelanguage

• ““Ecological noble savage” – the romantic versus realityEcological noble savage” – the romantic versus reality

• Preservationist or conservationist - Where to place Preservationist or conservationist - Where to place dynamism and adaptability?dynamism and adaptability?

Primary research questionsPrimary research questions

• How do changes in language affect people’s How do changes in language affect people’s knowledge and practice around plants? knowledge and practice around plants?

• What are the implications for biodiversity What are the implications for biodiversity conservation of maintaining cultural and conservation of maintaining cultural and linguistic diversity?linguistic diversity?

A comparative framework A comparative framework related to language and related to language and biodiversity classificationbiodiversity classification

Folk Classification

ROMANTIC UNIVERSALIST

-Traditional-Relativist-Essentialist-Inductive-Embedded-Participatory-Preservationist

-Modern-Universal-Reductionist-Deductive-Dis-embodied-Individual-Conservationist

Linguistic Relativity

Cosmology

BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY

Linguistic Universals

Indigenous KnowledgeBerkes Lévi-Strauss

CognitionBoas Bloch

LanguageSapir, Whorf Chomsky

BiodiversityPosey Terborgh

Linnaean Hierarchy

Folk classification after Berlin

Language & CognitionLanguage & Cognition

• Linguistic Universals

Innate grammar, words and knowledge

Tree

Yellow Flower

Giraffe

Language is instinct

Classification & NomenclatureClassification & Nomenclature

Linnaean Hierarchy•Kingdom•Phylum•Class•Order•Family•Genus•Species

•Western based science, morphological features

•Universal / objective

•Disembodied from social relations

Folk Classification•Unique Beginner - plant / animal•Life form – tree, vine, mammal•Generic – oak, dog•Specific – white oak•Varietal - slippery white oak

•Cultural, morphological and behavioural features•Subjective based on cultural importance, essentialist, socially embedded

Berlin at al (1972): Six shallow universals, iconic and arbitrary

Lévi-Strauss (1962): structural universal myths

Indigenous Knowledge only?Indigenous Knowledge only?

• is “a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs handed down through generations by cultural transmission about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment” (Gadgil, Berkes and Folke (1999:8).

IK

•Contextual – place specific

•Culturally relevant

•Innovative & flexible

•Situated Learning and practices

SK

•De-contextualised

•Theory based

•Global Universals

•Top-down learning

How might language be relevant to How might language be relevant to biodiversity conservation?biodiversity conservation?

A direct role as the carrier of knowledge:

•Ecological

•Cultural

•Experience of practices

An indirect role where language operates as a form of social capital within institutions

Are hybrid languages and multilingual states equally able to transfer any knowledge?

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

• What factors affect the transference of What factors affect the transference of indigenous knowledge?indigenous knowledge?

• Are changes in mother tongue use linked to a Are changes in mother tongue use linked to a loss in biodiversity related conservation? loss in biodiversity related conservation?

• How do changes in biodiversity related How do changes in biodiversity related indigenous knowledge affect changes in indigenous knowledge affect changes in biodiversity management or use?biodiversity management or use?

TanzaniaTanzania• 127 languages• Kiswahili - lingua franca• Formal education use Swahili

and English• Vernaculars no official place

in society• But used in rural areas, by

the elderly, at home, as a unifier and identifier of tribe

• Kisambaa a live language – but for how long?

West Usambara MountainsWest Usambara Mountains

• High endemic species – 25%• 1 of 17 most threatened

tropical forest ecosystems• High population• Land use fragmented• Poor agricultural land

increases forest dependence• Forest access controlled

‘Yamba’Rural; isolated;unacculturated

Research ApproachResearch Approach

• EthnographicEthnographic• 2 comparable 2 comparable

communities:communities:

LushotoLushoto – ethnically diverse; 2 – ethnically diverse; 2 hospitals; 2 secondary and 4 hospitals; 2 secondary and 4 primary schools; good road primary schools; good road access; 1 central market; access; 1 central market; multilingualmultilingual

YambaYamba – 100% Sambaa;1 – 100% Sambaa;1 health clinic; 1 primary school; health clinic; 1 primary school; no road access; no market; no road access; no market; monolingualmonolingual

SimilaritiesSame MTSame socioeconomic baseSame cultural historyParticipants: Grandparents, Parents, Adolescents, ChildrenKey Informants: Healers, Community Leaders, Market Traders, Teachers

‘Lushoto’Wide soc/eco

base; acculturated

The Research DesignThe Research Design

• Exploratory• Reflexive • An attempt to find key links • Offers opportunities to pose questions• Offers opportunities for more exploration• A comparative study will hopefully shed light

on the concepts involved

Methodology flowchartMethodology flowchart

Methods

Ethnobotanical Survey

Structured Interviews

Semi-structured Interviews

Participant Observation

Focus Group Discussions

PRA

Statistical Analysis

Participants

Key Informants: Plant users; healers; teachers

Cross section of communities: gender; age; occupation; education level; linguistic ability

Outcomes

•K levels – transference techniques

•Language use – ability, choice, frequency of use

•Plant uses and practices

•Map of plant locations – past and present

•Conservation practices

•Local perceptions of BD/L/C change and possible reasons

•Ideas for social-cultural affects on BD K transference

Research deliverablesResearch deliverables• Add to BCD knowledge and fill some theoretical gaps – add to Add to BCD knowledge and fill some theoretical gaps – add to

Terralingua’s ‘Global Source Book’Terralingua’s ‘Global Source Book’

• Document ‘best practices’ for biodiversity conservation in Document ‘best practices’ for biodiversity conservation in Lushoto region and highlight future policy implicationsLushoto region and highlight future policy implications

• Explore the relevance of indigenous languages for the Explore the relevance of indigenous languages for the retention and transference of ethnobotanical knowledge for retention and transference of ethnobotanical knowledge for biodiversity conservationbiodiversity conservation

• Offer locally based suggestions on how to sustain IKOffer locally based suggestions on how to sustain IK

• Add knowledge to language of instruction in education debateAdd knowledge to language of instruction in education debate

• Develop plant species inventories for educational purposes in Develop plant species inventories for educational purposes in ‘all’ relevant languages‘all’ relevant languages

Research PlanResearch PlanDate Location Objective

Oct 2004 - Oct 2005

UK Literature review; refinement of research skills – presentations, essays, field methodologies, computer skills (NVivo, Access, SPSS); specialist courses in linguistics and environmental measuring and mapping; language training

Nov 2005 - Mar 2006

Tanzania language training; meet with university and NGO collaborators; locate plant baseline data at National Herbarium; plant identification training; field site identification

Mar 2006 – May 2006

UK Progress meeting with supervisors; presentation of procedural paper

May 2006 - Jun 2006

Tanzania Set-up fieldwork logistics; revisit collaborators

Aug 2006 – Jan 2007

Tanzania Indigenous language training; participant observations; scoping study; focus group discussions to establish species to be examined; initial data collection

Feb 2007 – Jul 2007

Tanzania Structured and semi-structured interviews to establish social groupings and plant knowledge; primary data collection

Aug 2007 - Jul 2008

UK Analysis and write up of thesis

EthicsEthics

• Only use previously documented plant species Only use previously documented plant species – avoid intellectual property rights / bio-– avoid intellectual property rights / bio-prospectingprospecting

• Consent and confidentialityConsent and confidentiality

• Guidance from respected knowledgeable Guidance from respected knowledgeable person from area – able to speak Kiswahili person from area – able to speak Kiswahili and Kisambaa – to guide cultural aspectsand Kisambaa – to guide cultural aspects

The affliction ……The affliction ……

…………or the blessing of linguistic diversity?or the blessing of linguistic diversity?

How is knowledge carried & transferred?How is knowledge carried & transferred?Linguistic Relativists

Language and Knowledge from direct experience

Local language to name, classify and practice

Knowledge based in locality therefore use local language

Direct use value of biodiversity – livelihoods

Indirect use – ecological services

Non-use value - ‘noble savage’, intruding wastrel or fallen angel?

Linguistic Universals

Folk Classification – universals

Language – innate and instinctive

Continued presence of ‘colonised’ indigenous communities using L2

Dynamism and adaptation

Therefore, how central is language to biodiversity conservation?

Cultural diversity Biological diversity

Endemic languages Flowering plant species Endemic higher vertebrate species

Papua New Guinea (847) Brazil (55,000) Australia (1,346)

Indonesia (655) Colombia (35,000) Mexico (761)

Nigeria (376) China (30,000) Brazil (725)

India (309) Mexico (20,000-30,000) Indonesia (673)

Australia (261) Venezuela (15,000-25,000) Madagascar (537)

Mexico (230) USSR (former) (22,000) Philippines (437)

Cameroon (201) Indonesia (20,000) India (373)

Brazil (185) Ecuador (16,500-20,000) Peru (332)

Zaire (158) USA (18,956) Colombia (330)

Philippines (153) Bolivia (15,000-18,000) Ecuador (294)

USA (143) Australia (15,000) USA (284)

Vanuatu (105) India (15,000) China (256)

Tanzania (101) Peru (13,000) Papua New Guinea (203)

Sudan (97) Malaysia (12,000) Venezuela (186)

Malaysia (92) Thailand (12,000) Argentina (168)

Ethiopia (90) Costa Rica (10,000-12,000) Cuba (152)

China (77) Zaire (11,000) South Africa (146)

Peru (75) Papua New Guinea (10,000) Zaire (134)

Chad (74) Tanzania (10,000) Sri Lanka (126)

USSR (former) (71) Argentina (9,000) New Zealand (120)

Solomon Islands (69) Madagascar (8,000-10,000) Tanzania (113)

Approach Definition Location Participants Info Gathered Outcomes Caveats

Ethnobotanical surveyZent (2001)Gavin & Anderson (2005)Leesberg & Chavez (1994)

Botanical and cultural inventory of names, uses of local plant sps (MT and L2) via free walking and individual sorting of sps.Participatory

In situVillage environs: agri spaces, used pathways, homestead gardens

Targeted, gender equal, specific plant users

Free lists: culturally imp sps.Index of relative saliency: ranking most to least imp categories.Pile Sorts: hierarchical clustering and final use categories.Voucher species: name, when collect, location, use, quantity, opportunistically used or sold

Voucher species (VS) identified as most common, or frequently named demonstrating cultural import and salience of sps. Culturally sensitive perceptions of sps use.IK levels of participants.

Account for seasonality.Account for social preferences of participant.Account for endemic / exotic plants.

Structured InterviewsMartin (2004)Hunn (2001)Berlin (1992)Nazarea (1999)Cunningham (2002)

Set, structured questions.Conducted in L2Encourage MT for plant K questions.NVivo to analyse

Individual interviews in neutral places.Edu setting – formal and situated.

Social cross-section.EldersKey InformantsTeachers

General social info: age; birth place (in-migration); edu level (boarding); bilingual ability; plant K in MT.Lang use MT / L2 plotted against social variables to assess frequency, competency

Assess bilingual ability and frequency of MT / L2 use.Specific lexes used.Assess when, where, who uses which lang.IK levels of participants.

Gender issuesEducation level

Semi-struc interviewsZent (2001)

Leading questions.NVivo to analyse

Casual conversation

Cross-sectionEldersKey Informants

Plant distribution, frequency.Mkt value > / <Life histories

Cultural memory of BD use past and present. IK level of participants.

Availability of archival data.Memory reliance

PRAMartin (2004)Nazarea (1999)

Community mapping. Map useful plant loc now and in past. Preferential Ranking: rank VS in order of scarcity, eco & use value, explain choices.Paired comps: elicit, compare suggestions for BD loss.

Neutral location.

Social cross-section divided into gender and age groups.

Location and temporal change of VS now, 5, 10, 20 years previously.Adaptations to changes in BD with varying plant sps grown in gardens. Plant preference change: affect of external pressures such as health clinics, bio-prospecting, market orientation, agri sps.Frequency of MT / L2 use.Rank importance of pressures on BD. Level of IK.

BD change and local explanations for this. External influences / pressures on change.Cultural preferences and perceptions.Language choice.Local perceptions of external and internal pressures. IK levels of participants.

Some information based on memory but enough participants will generate a consensus.External aid / development may shadow natural processes.

Participant Observation

Observation of plant acquirement, prep meths and uses.Mkt presence of plants.Presence of plants in gardens.Lang use in informal / formal edu settings.NVivo to analyse

In situ: village fields, gardens, schools, informal edu settings

Whole community

Frequency of use of MT / L2 in discussing plants and IK. Specific lexes used when and by whom.Frequency use of MT / L2 in learning environments.Bilingual ability.

Examination of lang choice.Exploration of functionality of lang.Effect of social variables on lang use.Indication of social status of lang.Assess intergenerational lang transference. Indication of need of MT for IK transference.

Informal Consensus AnalysisRomney, Weller and Batchelder (1997)Zent (2001)Lizarralde (2004)

Multivariate analysis of patterns of agreement.Validity / acceptability of a response assessed through model of consensus.

Desk based – using ‘Anthropac’ statistical analysis programme.

Previous data

K level of an informant expressed as competency score based on consensus of entire group.

Distribution of plant K within community.IK as known in MT / L2.Division of K between social variables.

Not appropriate for specialist K group as skew results

Linear Regression AnalysisZent (2001)

Assess relationship of plant-naming abilities, preparation and use against social variables – age, education, bilingual ability

Desk based – using ‘Anthropac’ statistical analysis programme.

Previous data Age - Temporal change in community’s culture.Edu – exposure to indoctrination to non-native K that competes with IKBilingual Ability – L2 level demonstrates contact with non-MT speakers.

Influence of social factors on IK plant K.Historical change.

K always > with age.

Focus Group Discussion

Groups of 6-8 of same gender and social status. Divided by age.

Open questions to guide discussion in neutral loc.

Identified from previous participants.

Plant use and practices.Important sps lists.Sps distribution > or <.Frequency of MT or LT use.Time line of village history.

Outside influences on community.BD change.IK levels of participants.

Be aware of anthropogenic factors

Psychological – Prevents feelings of inferiority and alienation which may arise when learning in a colonial tongue so personal and conceptual foundation for learning is not undermined by an L2.· Educational - Grasps new concepts more easily and encourages freedom of expression. Deeper understanding of language and how to use it effectively.· Cultural Identity - Language is inextricably bound with cultural identity – instils respect for own culture and language.· Linguistic – easier to learn an L2 as languages are able to nurture each other.· Socio-economic – An L2 or L3 offers more promise of economic advancement and a higher status associated with knowledge of these languages. The mother tongue promotes faster learning of an L2 or 3, better adjustment and therefore less alienation from society.· Financial – A colonial language assures a country international access but investment in a mother tongue will eventually prove more productive in terms of access to information and knowledge for the general population.

Advantages of the Mother Tongue in relation to educationAdvantages of the Mother Tongue in relation to education (adapted from Moyo 2002, Cummins 2000)(adapted from Moyo 2002, Cummins 2000)

The Construction of Language

Experience Lexis / Speech

Cognition “Tree”

(Phenomenology) (Social Construction)

Use Value(Cultural Relativism)

Biodiversity

Linguistic Diversity

Cognition IK Ethnobotany

Co-Evolution

- CULTURE -

socially embedded socially constructed

The Functionality of the mother tongue: Its role in conserving biodiversity