TABLE OF CONTENTS - gandhi Luthuli Documentation...
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Transcript of TABLE OF CONTENTS - gandhi Luthuli Documentation...
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHAPTER 1: I n t r o d u c t i o n : A b o u t t h e S t u d y
CHAPTEq 2 : N a t a l ' s I m m i g r a n t s U n d e r t h e
I n d e n t u r e d S y s t e m
CHAPTER 3: P l a c e s o f O r i g i n : Z i l l a h s , T a h s i l s /
T a l u k s , a n d Towns 4 3
CHAPTER 4: The S o c i o - E c o n o m i c B a c k g r o u n d o f t h e
I m m i g r a n t s : C a s t e a n d R e l i g i o n 6 8
CHAPTER 5 : The P l a c e o f Work : E m p l o y e r s ,
W o r k e r s a n d C o n d i t i o n s o f Work
CHAPTER 6 : C o n c l u s i o n
BIBLIOGRAPHY
( T h e r e a r e 23 T a b l e s a n d 11 G r a p h s )
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s
Many p e o p l e h a v e a s s i s t e d i n t h e f o u r - a n d - o n e - h a l f y e a r s
t h a t t h e p r o j e c t h a s r u n f r o m O c t o b e r 1 9 8 1 t o M a r c h 1 9 8 6 .
My c o l l e a g u e P r o f e s s o r J B B r a i n r a n k s h i g h among t h e
p e o p l e t o b e t h a n k e d b e c a u s e i t was s h e who i n s p i r e d t h e
i d e a o f a n a l y s i n g t h e s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r s , a n d who a s s i s t e d
i n t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f t h e p r o j e c t ' s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
P r o f e s s o r M G G L a i d l a w o f t h e C o m p u t e r S c i e n c e D e p a r t m e n t
was o f e n o r m o u s h e l p . He t o o k o u r i d e a s a n d d e v i s e d a
p rog ramme a r o u n d t h e m , a n d s u p e r v i s e d t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f
t h e w o r k a l m o s t a s i f i t was h i s own. The R e c t o r , P r o f e s s o r
J J C G r e y l i n g was m o s t s u p p o r t i v e i n o u r e n d e a v o u r s . So
t o o was D r R de W e t , who made a v a i l a b l e t h e u s e o f m i c r o f i l m
r e a d e r s , s t o r a g e s p a c e , a n d s o o n .
No r e s e a r c h i s p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t f i n a n c i a l b a c k i n g . The
U n i v e r s i t y o f D u r b a n - W e s t v i l l e made a v a i l a b l e a n o p e n i n g
g r a n t t h r o u g h i t s r e s e a r c h c o m m i t t e e ; i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n
was m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l i n t h e f o r m o f i n f r a - s t r u c t u r a l
s u p p o r t . L a r g e a n d s m a l l d o n o r s came f o r w a r d w i t h f u n d s
when t h e y w e r e m o s t n e e d e d . M r G R H K i n g o f De B e e r s
C o n s o l i d a t e d g e n e r o u s l y made a g r a n t f r o m t h e C h a i r m a n ' s
F u n d E d u c a t i o n a l T r u s t ; a n d s m a l l e r a m o u n t s w e r e r e c e i v e d
f r o m i n d i v i d u a l s a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n s who a l s o r e c o g n i s e d t h e
h i s t o r i c a l w o r t h o f t h e p r o j e c t . T h e s e w e r e : M r V G o s a i ,
P r o f e s s o r P M K r i s h n a , M r K T M a n j e e , D r Y u s u f M i n t y , M r
R K M i s t r i , P r o f e s s o r G C O o s t h u i z e n , a n d M e s s r s A S Vahed
a n d I K a t h r a d a o f t h e A M M o o l l a C h a r i t y T r u s t . By f a r
t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s p o n s o r , h o w e v e r , was t h e Human S c i e n c e s
R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , w i t h o u t whose f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t i t w o u l d
h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o c e e d t o t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e p r o j e c t
r e a c h e d .
The a s s i s t a n c e o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e r s a n d a s s i s t a n t s was
i n v a l u a b l e . M a u r i c e P r e s s l e y w r o t e a d e t a i l e d p r o g r a m m e
when t h e i n f o r m a t i o n was t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e H e w l e t t -
P a c k a r d t o t h e I C L s y s t e m . The p e o p l e m a n n i n g C o m p u t e r
S e r v i c e s w e r e u e r y g e n e r o u s w i t h t h e i r t i m e a n d t h e i r >:-J e x p e r t a d v i E e , among whom v e r e : P r o f e s s o r K N G r e g g o r ,
M r P 3 Rodman, M r R K S k i n n e r , a n d Ms V a l A N a i d o o .
T h r e e i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e c r u c i a l l y
i m p o r t a n t d a y - t o - d a y r u n n i n g o f t h e p r o j e c t , a n d t h e y a r e :
N i r u p p a Beesham i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s , a n d G e e t h a ' ~ o v e n d e r a n d
V a s i e N a y a g e r who w e r e t h e r e r i g h t u n t i l t h e p r o j e c t was
e n d e d . T h e i r e n t h u s i a s m , d e d i c a t i o n , a n d s e n s e o f h u m o u r
when t h e m a c h i n e r y v e r e n o t w o r k i n g , w e r e q u i t e a d m i r a b l e .
F i n a l l y , Ms R i t a C h e t t y was , a s u s u a l , m a r v e l l o u s i n
p r e p a r i n g t h e t a b l e s , t y p i n g t h e t e x t , a n d h e l p i n g w i t h
t h e p r o o f - r e a d i n g .
CHAPTER I
I n t r o d u c t i o n : A b o u t t h e S t u d y
The D u r b a n o f f i c e o f w h a t was f o r m e r l y p a r t o f t h e D e p a r t -
m e n t o f I n d i a n A f f a i r s , h a s i n i t s p o s s e s s i o n 9 1 v o l u m e s
o f s h i p ' s l i s t s f o r t h e t o t a l o f 1 5 2 1 8 4 i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s
who came t o N a t a l b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 1 1 . E a c h o f t h e 3 8 4
s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r s h a s a g a i n s t i n d i v i d u a l e n t r i e s i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e p e r s o n ' s names, c a s t e o r r e l i g i o n , a g e , p h y s i c a l
m a r k i n g s i f a n y , a n d p l a c e s o f o r i g i n i n t h e f o r m o f v i l l a g e ,
t h a n n a ( p o l i c e c i r c l e ) , a n d z i l l a h ( d i s t r i c t ) . The e n t i r e
s e t o f d o c u m e n t s was m i c r o f i l m e d w i t h t h e a i d o f a g r a n t
f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f D u r b a n - W e s t v i l l e (UDW). W
Once t h e i n i t i a l g r a n t h a d b e e n s e c u r e d f r o m t h e u n i v e r s i t y ,
a c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d p r o g r a m m e was d e v i s e d t o r e t r i e v e t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n . The 3 8 4 s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r s w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o 2 6
c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y a r r a n g e d g r o u p s a l p h a b e t i c a l l y o r d e r e d f r o m
A t o Z . E a c h g r o u p was a s s i g n e d a t w o - l e t t e r s y m b o l . F o r
e x a m p l e , i n t h e A g r o u p c o n s i s t i n g o f 6 4 4 5 p e r s o n s who
a r r i v e d b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 8 6 6 i n 20 s h i p s , t h e f i r s t s h i p ,
t h e T r u r o , was l a b e l l e d A A ; t h e s e c o n d s h i p , t h e B e l v e d e r e ,
was l a b e l l e d AB; t h e t h i r d s h i p was a s s i g n e d A C , a n d s o o n
down t h e l i s t u n t i l t h e t w e n t i e t h s h i p , t h e I s a b e l l a H e r c u s ,
was g i v e n t h e s y m b o l A T . And t h u s a l l t h e s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r s
w e r e g r o u p e d , a n d e a c h o n e a s s i g n e d a t w o - l e t t e r s y m b o l .
The A g r o u p c o n v e n i e n t l y e n d e d a t 1 8 6 6 , when a s e v e r e
d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e c o l o n y made f u r t h e r i m p o r t a t i o n o f i n -
d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s i m p o s s i b l e . I t was r e s u m e d i n 1 8 7 4 , a n d
d i d n o t s t o p u n t i l J u l y 1 9 1 1 . The l a t e r b a t c h e s o f a r r i v a l s
w e r e g r o u p e d i n t o p e r i o d s o f 2 t o 3 y e a r s , a n d , i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s
a n d 1 9 0 0 s when i m p o r t a t i o n was h e a v y , i n t o s i n g l e y e a r s .
The m i c r o f i l m s a r e i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e l i b r a r y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f D u r b a n - W e s t v i l l e .
I n d e e d , t h e h e a v y i m m i g r a t i o n i n 1 9 0 6 made i t n e c e s s a r y t o
d i v i d e t h a t y e a r i n t o t w o g r o u p s . C a r e w a s t a k e n i n e a c h
i n s t a n c e n o t t o a l l o c a t e t o o many i n d i v i d u a l s p e r g r o u p s o
a s t o make a n a l y s i s m a n a g e a b l e . On t h e a v e r a g e t h e r e a r e
6 0 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r g r o u p . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , s m a l l e r a n d
l a r g e r g r o u p s r a n g i n g f r o m 2 4 8 7 t o 8 2 0 6 . S i n c e c h r o n o l o g y
w a s t h e m a i n b a s i s o f g r o u p i n g , M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a s h i p s
w e r e n o t s e p a r a t e d .
C o l o n i a l n u m b e r s a p p e a r o n t h e s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r f o r e a c h a n d
e v e r y i n d e n t u r e d p e r s o n i n c l u d i n g a c c o m p a n y i n g c h i l d r e n .
The c o l o n i a l n u m b e r s f o r w i v e s a n d c h i l d r e n f o l l o w e d i m m e d i a -
t e l y t h o s e o f t h e h u s b a n d s . T h e s e n u m b e r s a r e e x t r e m e l y
h e l p f u l i n l o c a t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e s h i p ' s r e g i s t e r s
a n d t h e c h r o n o l o g y . T h e f i r s t p e r s o n o n t h e T r u r o w a s a s s i g n e d
t h e c o l o n i a l n u m b e r 1, a n d t h e l a s t i n d i v i d u a l o n t h e s h i p
w a s g i v e n n u m b e r 3 4 2 . T h e f i r s t p e r s o n o n t h e r e g i s t e r o f
t h e n e x t s h i p , t h e B e l v e d e r e , w a s a s s i g n e d 3 4 3 . And s o
c o l o n i a l n u m b e r s w e r e a s s i g n e d c u m u l a t i v e l y o n e r e g i s t e r
a f t e r t h e n e x t . T h e v e r y l a s t n u m b e r f o r t h e f i n a l s h i p ' s
r e g i s t e r i n J u l y 1 9 1 1 w a s 1 5 2 1 8 4 . M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a
s h i p s w e r e n o t s e p a r a t e d f o r n u m b e r - a s s i g n m e n t .
The d e t a i l s f o r a l l t h e g r o u p s a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e 1 b e l o w :
T A B L E I - G r o u p s a n d S y m b o l s f o r I n d e n t u r e d S h i p ' s R e g i s t e r s , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 1 1
G r o u p s S y m b o l s No. o f S h i p s P e r i o d T o t a l
A A A - A T 2 0 Not . . 1 8 6 0 - J u l y 1 8 6 6 6 4 4 5
B B A - B Q 1 7 J u n - 1 8 7 4 - O c t , 1 8 7 7 8 2 0 6
C C A - C Q 1 7 . O c t . 1 8 7 7 - N O V . 1 8 7 8 6 4 7 7
D D A - D T 2 0 J a n . 1 8 7 9 - D e c . 1 8 8 2 7 0 0 3
E E A - E T 2 0 A p r . 1 8 8 3 - A p r . 1 8 8 5 6 6 0 1
F FA-FT 2 0 Mar . 1 8 8 6 - Nov. 1 8 8 9 5 4 8 0
G GA-GS 1 9 F e b . 1 8 9 0 - D e c . 1 8 9 1 7 5 0 2
G r o u p s S y m b o l s
HA-HQ
I A - I R
J A - J J
KA-KN
LA-LO
MA-MP
NA-NQ
OA-OP
PA-PN
Q A - 4 R
R A - R K
SA-SG
T A - T M
UA-UL
VA-VP
No. o f S h i p s
F e b .
Jan .
J a n .
J a n .
J a n .
F e b .
J a n .
J a n .
J a n .
J a n .
J a n .
J u l y
J a n .
J u l y
J a n .
P e r i o d
1 8 9 2 - Dec . 1 8 9 3
1 8 9 4 - Dec. 1 8 9 5
1 8 9 6 - Dec . 1 8 9 6
1 8 9 7 - Dec . 1 8 9 7
1 8 9 8 - Dec . 1 8 9 8
1 8 9 9 - Dec . 1 9 0 0
1 9 0 1 - Dec . 1 9 0 1
1 9 0 2 - Dec . 1 9 0 2
1 9 0 3 - Dec . 1 9 0 3
1 9 0 4 Dec . 1 9 0 4
1 9 0 5 - J u n e 1 9 0 5
1 9 0 5 - Dec . 1 9 0 5
1 9 0 6 - J u n e 1 9 0 6
1 9 0 6 - Dec . 1 9 0 6
1 9 0 7 - Dec . 1 9 0 7
T o t a l
W W A - W G 7 J a n . 1 9 0 8 - Dec . 1 9 0 8 3 1 7 3
X X A - X G 7 J a n . 1 9 0 9 - Nov . 1 9 0 9 2 487
Y YA-YL 1 2 J a n . 1 9 1 0 - Nov . 1 9 0 9 5 8 6 0
Z Z A - Z K ' 11 J a n . 1 9 1 1 - J u l y 1 9 1 1 5 0 6 5
- - 26 A A - Z K 3 8 4 - -
The g r o u p i n g p r o c e s s h a v i n g b e e n c o m p l e t e d , t h e n e x t s t e p
was t o t r a n s f e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e m i c r o f i l m o n t o
s p e c i a l l y p r e p a r e d f o r m s , a c o p y o f w h i c h a p p e a r s o n t h e
n e x t p a g e . One f o r m was u s e d p e r p a s s e n g e r .
The s h i p U m z i n t o L I I I i s t h i s g r o u p c a l l e d b o t h a t t h e C a l c u t t a a n d M a d r a s p o r t s o f e m b a r k a t i o n .
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07 098~ poraad a04 PT~~A Aaqq OP suaaqqed 40 pury 7eq~
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aae 0 07 v woaj sdnoa6 TT~ ~paanqdea-eqep se uorqewaojur
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jo sueaw Aq pasA~eue aq p~noa qarqm pasr~ap sem awweafioad
*umouy sem eqep snouywn~on 6uy.[pueq aoj Aqraedea asoqm
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sem 71 *a~qrssod qou sem poraad 6uo~ e fiur~~o~ur uorqewaojur
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'UJJOJ aqq uo paJaqua sem aaqunu uorqeaqs~6aa ao TeTuoToa aq1
T h e s e q u e s t i o n s h a v e r e l e v a n c e f o r b o t h I n d i a a n d f o r
c o l o n i a l N a t a l . Many q u e s t i o n s a r e r a i s e d , a n d t h e s t u d y
d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a n s w e r s t o a l l o f t h e m . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d a n a l y s e s t h a t f o l l o w t h r o w much l i g h t
o n t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m a s i t m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n N a t a l
b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 0 2 . I t b r i d g e s s o m e w h a t t h e g a p i n
h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l k n o w l e d g e , a l t h o u g h much r e m a i n s t o b e
d o n e .
C h a p t e r 2 d e a l s w i t h t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m a s a w h o l e , a n d
t h e s p e c i f i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t b r o u g h t i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a n t s
t o N a t a l . T h e g l o b a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e o u t w a r d m i g r a t i o n s
o f I n d i a n s c a n n o t b e i g n o r e d . C h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 c l e a r l y p o i n t
t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n b a c k g r o u n d s o f t h e i m m i g r a n t s .
I n c h a p t e r 3 , t h e p l a c e s o f o r i g i n , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e who came
t o N a t a l , a r e e x a m i n e d ; a n d i n c h a p t e r 4 c a s t e a n d r e l i g i o n
a r e v i t a l c o m p o n e n t s i n t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s o f
t h e e m i g r a t i n g I n d i a n s . T h o s e f a c t o r s a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e
d i s c u s s i o n o f e m p l o y e r s a n d e m p l o y m e n t i n N a t a l i n c h a p t e r 5 .
C h a p t e r 6 c o n c l u d e s w i t h c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e o v e r a l l s i g n i f i -
c a n c e o f t h e s t u d y .
A w o r d o f c a u t i o n m u s t b e s o u n d e d a b o u t t h e c o m p u t e r - r e l a t e d
a n a l y s i s . A h i s t o r i a n u n f a m i l i a r w i t h " c o m p u t e r - o l o g y " i s
o f t e n a t t h e m e r c y o f t h o s e who d r a w up p r o g r a m m e s . He c a n
o u t l i n e i n b r o a d t e r m s h i s o b j e c t i v e s , a n d h e c a n e x p l a i n
t h e k i n d o f a n a l y s i s h e w a n t s . He i s t o l d w h a t i s p o s s i b l e
a n d w h a t i s n o t p o s s i b l e . He i s n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o q u e s t i o n
t h e e x p e r t s . T h i s r e s e a r c h e r w a s t o l d t h a t w i t h s u c h a
m a s s i v e b o d y o f i n f o r m a t i o n , c e r t a i n k i n d o f a n a l y s e s w e r e
n o t p o s s i b l e . T h e c o m p u t e r t o o k a b o u t o n e - h a l f d a y t o p r o d u c e
f r e q u e n c y c o u n t s o f q u a n t i f i a b l e d a t a l i k e n u m b e r s o f m a l e s
a n d f e m a l e s , a g e a n d h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n s , c a s t e a n d r e l i g i o n
d i s t r i b u t i o n s , a n d s o o n . B u t t h e p r o g r a m m e w a s n o t d e s i g n e d
( a n d c o u l d n o t b e d e s i g n e d g i v e n t h e v o l u m e ) t o c o r r e l a t e
a n d c r o s s - c o r r e l a t e c a t e g o r i e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . S o , f o r e x a m p l e ,
s e x d i s t r i b u t i o n c o u l d n o t b e c o r r e l a t e d t o c a s t e , p l a c e s o f
*asrm-~aqndwoa
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CtiAPTER 2
N a t a l ' s I m m i q r a n t s U n d e r t h e I n d e n t u r e d S y s t e m
N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a n t s f r o m 1 8 6 0 t o 1 9 1 1 w e r e p a r t
o f t h e n e a r l y 11/4 m i l l i o n I n d i a n s who m i g r a t e d a b r o a d a s
l a b o u r e r s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s .
T h i s movement o f i n d i v i d u a l s was n o t a s m a s s i v e i n . p r o p o r t i o n
t o t h a t o f t h e e m i g r a n t s f r o m E u r o p e who w e n t i n t h e i r
m i l l i o n s t o t h e New W o r l d i n t h e same p e r i o d . R a t h e r i t s
s i g n i f i c a n c e l i e s i n t h e u n i q u e s e t o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t
saw t h e m i g r a t i o n o f l a b o u r e r s t o m a i n l y B r i t i s h p a r t s o f
t h e w o r l d . I t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e g r o w t h a n d e x p a n s i o n o f
c a p i t a l i s m ; a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , t o t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y
i n t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e . T h i s c h a p t e r i s c o n c e r n e d l a r g e l y w i t h
t h e way i n w h i c h t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m was e s t a b l i s h e d , a n d
t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t s u r r o u n d t h e c o m i n g o f i n d e n t u r e d
I n d i a n s t o N a t a l . The n a t u r e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d
I n d i a n s t o N a t a l w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a t some l e n g t h .
A b a n was i m p o s e d i n 1 8 0 7 o n s l a v e t r a d e i n t h e B r i t i s h
e m p i r e . M a u r i t i u s , w h i c h was a c q u i r e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n
1 8 1 0 , was r e q u i r e d t o o b s e r v e t h e b a n i n 1 8 1 1 . The i l l e g a l
i m p o r t a t i o n o f s l a v e s i n M a u r i t i u s a n d o t h e r B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s
c o n t i n u e d , h o w e v e r . I n 1 8 3 4 , a y e a r a f t e r t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n
o f a l l s l a v e s i n B r i t i s h p o s s e s s i o n s , t h e s l a v e p o p u l a t i o n
was a s f o l l o w s : 3 1 1 0 7 0 i n J a m a i c a , 82 8 2 4 i n D e m a r a r a ,
20 657 i n T r i n i d a d , a n d 67 6 1 9 i n M a u r i t i u s . The West I n d i a n
p l a n t e r s r e c e i v e d £ 2 0 m i l l i o n i n c o m p e n s a t i o n , w h i l e t h e i r
M a u r i t i a n c o u n t e r p a r t r e c e i v e d £ 2 m i l l i o n .
The B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t c r e a t e d s a f e q u a r d s a g a i n s t new f o r m s
o f s l a v e r y . S t i p e n d i a r y j u d g e s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o e n s u r e
f a i r p l a y i n t h e e m p l o y e r s ' t r e a t m e n t o f e x - s l a v e l a b o u r e r s .
H o w e v e r , t h e s e " b u s h a " m a g i s t r a t e s w e r e f a r t o o much u n d e r
t h e sway o f f o r m e r m a s t e r s a n d o v e r s e e r s t o b e o f g r e a t h e l p .
L o c a l l e g i s l a t u r e s p a s s e d l a w s t o p r e v e n t a b u s e s . B u t t h e
CHAPTER 2
N a t a l ' s I m m i q r a n t s U n d e r t h e I n d e n t u r e d S y s t e m
N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a n t s f r o m 1 8 6 0 t o 1 9 1 1 were p a r t
o f t h e n e a r l y 11/4 m i l l i o n I n d i a n s who m i g r a t e d a b r o a d a s
l a b o u r e r s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s .
T h i s m o v e m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l s was n o t a s m a s s i v e i n . p r o p o r t i o n
t o t h a t o f t h e e m i g r a n t s f r o m E u r o p e who w e n t i n t h e i r
m i l l i o n s t o t h e New W o r l d i n t h e same p e r i o d . R a t h e r i t s
s i g n i f i c a n c e l i e s i n t h e u n i q u e s e t o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t
s a w t h e m i g r a t i o n o f l a b o u r e r s t o m a i n l y B r i t i s h p a r t s o f
t h e w o r l d . I t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e g r o w t h a n d e x p a n s i o n o f
c a p i t a l i s m ; a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , t o t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y
i n t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e . T h i s c h a p t e r i s c o n c e r n e d l a r g e l y w i t h
t h e way i n w h i c h t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m was e s t a b l i s h e d , a n d
t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t s u r r o u n d t h e c o m i n g o f i n d e n t u r e d
I n d i a n s t o N a t a l . T h e n a t u r e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d
I n d i a n s t o N a t a l w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a t s o m e l e n g t h .
A b a n w a s i m p o s e d i n 1 8 0 7 o n s l a v e t r a d e i n t h e B r i t i s h
e m p i r e . M a u r i t i u s , w h i c h w a s a c q u i r e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n
1 8 1 0 , w a s r e q u i r e d t o o b s e r v e t h e b a n i n 1 8 1 1 . T h e i l l e g a l
i m p o r t a t i o n o f s l a v e s i n M a u r i t i u s a n d o t h e r B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s
c o n t i n u e d , h o w e v e r . I n 1 8 3 4 , a y e a r a f t e r t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n
o f a l l s l a v e s i n B r i t i s h p o s s e s s i o n s , t h e s l a v e p o p u l a t i o n
w a s a s f o l l o w s : 3 1 1 0 7 0 i n J a m a i c a , 8 2 8 2 4 i n D e m a r a r a ,
2 0 6 5 7 i n T r i n i d a d , a n d 6 7 6 1 9 i n M a u r i t i u s . T h e West I n d i a n
p l a n t e r s r e c e i v e d £ 2 0 m i l l i o n i n c o m p e n s a t i o n , w h i l e t h e i r
M a u r i t i a n c ' o u n t e r p a r t r e c e i v e d £ 2 m i l l i o n .
T h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t c r e a t e d s a f e q u a r d s a g a i n s t new f o r m s
o f s l a v e r y . S t i p e n d i a r y j u d g e s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o e n s u r e
f a i r p l a y i n t h e e m p l o y e r s 1 t r e a t m e n t o f e x - s l a v e l a b o u r e r s .
H o w e v e r , t h e s e " b u s h a 1 ' m a g i s t r a t e s were f a r t o o much u n d e r
t h e s w a y o f f o r m e r m a s t e r s a n d o v e r s e e r s t o b e o f g r e a t h e l p .
L o c a l l e g i s l a t u r e s p a s s e d l a w s t o p r e v e n t a b u s e s . B u t t h e
awos -6~81 UT eqqnale3 pue seapew jo sq~od aqq ur paqrn~aa~
aaam saayaom qaeaquoa Vans qsa~j aql *e~pu~ woaj s~a~noqel
qaeaquoa 6u~arq qnoqe qq6noqq Aaqq 'do~a queqaodw~ qsow
-al6urs s,puelsr aqq aq 07 6~~06 sen ae6ns qeqq pas~lea~
Aaqq uaqm qnq 'LE~T pue 5~81 uaamqaq erpu~ woaj sqay~uoa
pue sa~els qq~rn paquawraadxa peq sn~q~ane~ uy s~aqueld aql
*saaqueld aqq passaadwr sn~qr~new u? saaanoqel
paanquapur ue~pu~ qq~rn quaw~aadxa aq1 *eTpu~ oq uorquaqqe
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pue 'le6nqaod 'puelaa~ 'puel6u3 woaj saaanoqe~ aqrqm paanp
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qaqoas Alu~ew 'sque~6rwwy aqrqm OOE A~aeau paqaodwr earewer
*anoqel jo saaanos afi~qeuaaqle ~oj paqaaeas saaqueld paraaom
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sen aaaoj ~noqel deaqa jo A~ddns Apeaa v -suorqaodoad
srsraa paqaeaa qr pue 's~aque~d ae6ns 6uowe Alleraadsa a6e
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C h i n e s e r e c r u i t s f r o m S i n g a p o r e t o o a r r i v e d . T h e C o l o n i a l
O f f i c e a g r e e d t o M a u r i t i u s ' s i m p o r t a t i o n o f D h a n g a r s o r " H i l l
C o o l i e s " f r o m C h o t a N a g p u r . T h e D h a n g a r s h a d w o r k e d i n
p r o d u c i n g i n d i g o , a n d w e r e t h o u g h t t o b e s u i t a b l e f o r s u g a r
p l a n t a t i o n l a b o u r . The f i r s t b a t c h o f D h a n g a r s a r r i v e d i n
1 8 3 4 o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e i r r e t u r n p a s s a g e s t o I n d i a w e r e
e n s u r e d . H o w e v e r , a b u s e s o c c u r r e d i n r e c r u i t m e n t , i n t r a n s -
p o r t a t i o n , a n d o n t h e p l a n t a t i o n s , w h i c h l e d t h e G , o v e r n m e n t
o f I n d i a t o s t o p t h e s c h e m e i n 1 8 3 9 . By t h a t d a t e , o v e r
2 6 0 0 0 l a b o u r e r s h a d b e e n i n t r o d u c e d i n M a u r i t i u s , o f whom
o n l y a b o u t 1 0 0 0 w e r e women. 3
T h e M a u r i t i a n e x p e r i m e n t l e d u l t i m a t e l y t o t h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e
o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r by o t h e r s u g a r - p r o d u c i n g a r e a s . S i n c e i t
w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a b u s e s r e s u l t e d m a i n l y t h r o u g h i n s u f f i c i e n t
c o n t r o l s , s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n s w e r e e n a c t e d b e f o r e t h e l a b o u r
t r a f f i c w a s a l l o w e d t o r e s u m e . A c t 1 5 o f 1 8 4 2 r e p e a l e d t h e
1 8 3 9 A c t , a n d p r o v i d e d , among o t h e r s , f o r t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f
a n E m i g r a t i o n A g e n t t o h a n d l e c o n s i g n m e n t a n d o t h e r m a t t e r s
a t t h e p o r t s o f e m b a r k a t i o n , a n d a P r o t e c t o r o f E m i g r a n t s t o
s a f e g u a r d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e r e c r u i t s . A c t 2 1 o f 1 8 4 4
l i f t e d t h e p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t e m i g r a t i o n t o B r i t i s h G u i a n a ,
T r i n i d a d , a n d J a m a i c a . The p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t e m i g r a t i o n
h a v i n g b e e n l i f t e d , 1 2 t e r r i t o r i e s r e c e i v e d i n d e n t u r e d
l a b o u r e r s by 1 8 6 5 . 4
The c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h e m i g r a t i o n t o o k p l a c e f r o m 1 8 4 4
t o i t s t e r m i n a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r y , w e r e r e v i s e d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e a s a n d when a b u s e s
o c c u r r e d . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a q u i c k l y l e a r n e d t h a t a
way t o s t o p t h e a b u s e s w a s t o s u s p e n d e m i g r a t i o n t o t h e
o f f e n d i n g c o l o n y . I n 1 8 5 6 , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e M a u r i t i a n
g o v e r n m e n t n e g l e c t e d s h i p - l o a d s o f I n d i a n s b e f o r e t h e y d i s -
e m b a r k e d , a n d a s a r e s u l t many o f t h e m d i e d . A s u s p e n s i o n
o f a l l e m i g r a t i o n w a s i m p o s e d , a n d w a s o n l y l i f t e d when t h e
M a u r i t i a n a p p o i n t e d a P r o t e c t o r o f I m m i g r a n t s t o e n s u r e t h a t
s u c h n e g l e c t w o u l d n o t h a p p e n a g a i n . T h i s a c t i o n a g a i n s t
M a u r i t i u s s o o n became a g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e , e n s h r i n e d i n
A c t 1 9 o f 1 8 5 6 , a n d i t s u s e o r t h e t h r e a t o f i t s u s e was
a n e f f e c t i v e weapon w i e l d e d b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a t o
e n s u r e c o m p l i a n c e . I n t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s , a n t i - s l a v e r y
g r o u p s , a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e A b o r i g i n e s P r o t e c t i o n
S o c i e t y ( f o u n d e d i n 1 8 3 7 ) , k e p t a w a t c h o v e r t h e i n d e n t u r e d
l a b o u r t r a f f i c t o r e p o r t o n a b u s e s . T h e i r a c t i v i t i e s made
t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a v i g i l a n t a b o u t a b u s e s , i n t h e s y s t e m .
How d i d t h e s y s t e m o p e r a t e ? C a l c u t t a , M a d r a s , a n d Bombay
w e r e d e s i g n a t e d a s p o r t s o f e m b a r k a t i o n f o r a l l i n d e n t u r e d
e m i g r a n t s . Bombay was d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 6 5 , a n d t h e r e a f t e r
o n l y C a l c u t t a a n d M a d r a s w e r e u s e d . K a r i k a l a n d P o n d i c h e r y
s e r v e d a s p o r t s o f e m b a r k a t i o n f o r I n d i a n e m i g r a n t s t o t h e
F r e n c h c o l o n i e s , t h e B r i t i s h c o n s u l a c t i n g a s P r o t e c t o r a s
f r o m 1 8 7 0 . The F r e n c h I n d i a n p o r t s c l e a r e d some 4 9 890
e m i g r a n t s b e t w e e n 1 8 4 2 a n d 1 9 1 6 , o f f i c i a l l y a t a n y r a t e . 5
E x c e p t f o r N a t a l w h i c h r e c e i v e d t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e e m i g r a n t s
f r o m S o u t h I n d i a , C a l c u t t a r e m a i n e d t h e m a j o r p o r t o f
e m b a r k a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d . As m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r ,
t h e l a w r e q u i r e d t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f E m i g r a t i o n A g e n t s b y t h e
i m p o r t i n g c o l o n y . M a u r i t i u s a p p o i n t e d a n a g e n t who s e r v e d
m i n o r C a r i b b e a n i s l a n d s a s w e l l . B r i t i s h G u i a n a a n d J a m a i c a
h a d t h e i r own a g e n t s a t C a l c u t t a o n l y . When N a t a l became
a n i m p o r t e r i n 1 8 6 0 , i t s e n t i t s P o s t m a s t e r G e n e r a l W M
C o l l i n s a s a n E m i g r a t i o n A g e n t . L a t e r t h e a g e n t s e r v i n g
B r i t i s h G u i a n a a l s o s e r v e d N a t a l .
The l e n g t h o f t h e c o n t r a c t was a p r o t r a c t e d p o i n t o f d i s p u t e .
The C o l o n i a l O f f i c e was i n f a v o u r o f 3 y e a r s , b u t t h e
p l a n t e r s w a n t e d a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f s e r v i c e . I n 1 8 6 2 , f i v e -
y e a r p e r i o d s w e r e s a n c t i o n e d w i t h t h e o p t i o n o f a s e c o n d
t e r m o f i n d e n t u r e . E m p l o y e r s c l e v e r l y l i n k e d t h e p e r i o d o f
" i n d u s t r i a l r e s i d e n c e " w i t h t h e i s s u e o f s p o n s o r i n g r e t u r n
p a s s a g e s . S h o u l d t h e i n d e n t u r e d p e r s o n b e e n t i t l e d t o a
r e t u r n p a s s a g e a f t e r 5 o r 1 0 y e a r s o f s e r v i c e ? The C o l o n i a l
A
O f f i c e f a v o u r e d 5 , b u t t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a a r g u e d f o r
1 0 . I n t h e e n d , i t was a g r e e d t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l was
e n t i t l e d t o a r e t u r n p a s s a g e a f t e r h e h a d s e r v e d t h e
o p t i o n a l s e c o n d f i v e - y e a r o f " i n d u s t r i a l r e s i d e n c e . " B u t
c o l o n i a l l e g i s l a t u r e s o f t e n a t t a c h e d c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e " f i n e -
p r i n t " v a r i e t y t o e s c a p e t h e o b l i g a t i o n . T r i n i d a d , f o r
e x a m p l e , g a v e f r e e r e t u r n p a s s a g e s t o t h o s e e l i g i b l e o n l y i f
t h e y w e r e c l a i m e d w i t h i n 1 8 m o n t h s o f t h e i r b e c o m i n g a v a i l a b l e .
M a u r i t i u s a b o l i s h e d t h e r e t u r n p a s s a g e s a s e a r l y a s 1 8 5 3 .
I n N a t a l , i n d e n t u r e d i n d i v i d u a l s c o u l d commute t h e i r r e t u r n
p a s s a g e s f o r c r o w n l a n d . A b o u t 5 2 t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s
p r o v i s i o n b e f o r e i t was a b o l i s h e d i n 1 8 7 4 . 6
The r a t i o o f f e m a l e t o m a l e was a s e r i o u s i s s u e f r o m t h e v e r y
b e g i n n i n g . E m p l o y e r s g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d s i n g l e m a l e s who
w o u l d s e r v e o u t t h e i r i n d e n t u r e s a n d r e t u r n . R e c r u i t m e n t o f
w h o l e f a m i l i e s t o o was f r o w n e d u p o n . W h a t e v e r o t h e r r e a s o n s
t h e y may h a v e h a d a g a i n s t f e m a l e i n d e n t u r e d p e r s o n s , e m p l o y e r s
w o r r i e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a b o u t how u s e f u l women w e r e a s
l a b o u r e r s . A t t i t u d e s c e r t a i n l y c h a n g e d among N a t a l ' s e m p l o y e r s
i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s when i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f
women c o u l d b e u s e d t o t h e p l a n t e r s 1 a d ~ a n t a g e . ~ B e s i d e s ,
women w o r k e d e x t r e m e l y w e l l i n some s e c t o r s . The G o v e r n m e n t
o f I n d i a r e c o g n i s e d t h e e v i l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w o m e n l e s s
c o m m u n i t i e s o f s i n g l e m a l e s , a n d a t t e m p t e d t o c o r r e c t i t .
I n t h e 1 8 5 0 s , l e g i s l a t i o n p r o v i d e d f o r 25% f e m a l e c o m p o n e n t .
F o r M a u r i t i u s , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f women was f i x e d a t 4 0 i n
1 8 6 0 , w h i c h t h e p l a n t e r s c o n s i d e r e d a s t o o h i g h e s p e c i a l l y
s i n c e i t was d i f f i c u l t t o r e c r u i t s i n g l e women i n N o r t h I n d i a ,
A c t 1 3 o f 1 8 6 4 s t i p u l a t e d a r a t i o n o f 75 men t o 25 women, b u t
t h e r a t i o o f 60 t o 4 0 s t i p u l a t e d b y S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e S i r
S t r a f f o r d N o r t h c o t e i n J u l y 1 8 6 8 r e m a i n e d t h e s t a n d a r d p r o -
p o r t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e i n d e n t u r e d p e r i o d . T h e r e i s much
c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t t h e d e c e i t f u l ways i n w h i c h t h e r e q u i r e d
40% o f women was made up . S t o r i e s a b o u n d a b o u t s i n g l e women
b e i n g l u r e d t o e m i g r a t i o n d e p o t s . I n some i n s t a n c e s , " d e p o t
m a r r i a g e s " t o o k p l a c e t o a v o i d s u s p i c i o n s a b o u t s i n g l e , y o u n g
g i r l s . 8
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r e c r u i t e r s i n t h e U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s . B u t p r o b a b l y a l l c a s t e s
a n d c l a s s e s were i n v o l v e d . lo A s i l l e g a l o p e r a t o r s , t h e y h a d
t h e a d v a n t a g e o f b e i n g a n s w e r a b l e t o n o b o d y . T h e y h a d c o n s i d -
e r a b l e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t , a n a p r e f e r r e d
t o o p e r a t e w i t h i n i t s r a d i u s . T h e " a r k a t i s " k e p t a s h a r p
l o o k o u t f o r p e o p l e w h o were i n f i n a n c i a l d i s t r e s s o r i n o t h e r
w a y s d o w n o n t h e i r l u c k . T h e y f r e q u e n t e d m a r k e t s , c a r a v a n -
s e r a i s , r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s , b a z a a r s a n d t e m p l e s - . o r a n y
o t h e r s u c h p l a c e s were p e o p l e m i g h t g a t h e r a n d c a s u a l l y
r e v e a l t h e i r p l i g h t s i n i d l e c h a t t e r .
I t w o u l d b e d i f f i c u l t t o s a y a t w h a t l e v e l o f r e c r u i t m e n t
a b u s e s o c c u r r e d m o s t f r e q u e n t l y . B u t i n t h e v a s t r e c r u i t m e n t
m a c h i n e r y , t h e a r k a t i s were p i v o t a l l y i m p o r t a n t . T h e w h o l e
o p e r a t i o n h a d t o s u c c e e d o r f a i l w i t h t h e m , a n d t h e y were
n o t a b o v e r e s o r t i n g t o u n d e r h a n d e d m e t h o d s . C h a r g e s a g a i n s t
t h e m h a v e r a n g e d f r o m k i d n a p p i n g t o m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
f a c t s . W h i l e k i d n a p p i n g o c c u r r e d i n r a r e i n s t a n c e s , misre-
p r e s e n t a t i o n p r o b a b l y h a p p e n e d f a i r l y r o u t i n e l y . R e c r u i t s
were u n f a m i l i a r a b o u t t h e s y s t e m o r t h e p h y s i c a l w h e r e a b o u t s .
o f t h e p l a c e s t o w h i c h t h e y h a d a g r e e d t o go . " A r k a t i s " may
j u s t f a i l t o m e n t i o n t h a t a s e a j o u r n e y w a s i n v o l v e d . Un-
s u s p e c t i n g r e c r u i t s may d i s c o v e r t h i s a t t h e p o r t d e p o t ; a t
t h a t p o i n t t h e y may f i n d i t i m p o s s i b l e t o o p t o u t b e c a u s e
t h e r e c r u i t e r s w e r e d e m a n d i n g p a y m e n t s f o r e x p e n s e s i n c u r r e d .
C r e d u l i t y a m o n g t h e r e c r u i t s a l s o p l a y e d a r o l e i n t h e i r own
d e c e p t i o n . R e c r u i t e r s c a r e f u l l y i n s t r u c t e d t h e r e c r u i t s t o
a n s w e r t h e m a g i s t r a t e i n a p a r t i c u l a r w a y . T h e r e c r u i t s w e n t
a l o n g w i t h t h e i d e a w i t h o u t f u l l y r e a l i s i n g t h a t t h e y were
s u b v e r t i n g t h e v e r y p r o c e s s t h a t w a s i n t e n d e d t o p r o t e c t t h e m . l l
F r a u d a n d d e c e p t i o n w a s p r e v a l e n t . T h e r e was d i s c r e p a n c y
b e t w e e n t h e n u m b e r s o b t a i n e d b y c o l o n i a l r e c r u i t e r s , h i g h l y
o r g a n i s e d , a n d t h o s e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h a n a m o r p h o u s a n d i n -
f o r m a l n e t w o r k o f m i d d l e m e n i n t h e i n t e r i o r . I n s p i t e o f t h e
p e r v a s i v e n e s s o f d e c e p t i o n , i n d e n t u r e d e m i g r a t i o n c a n n o t b e
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l o c a t e d a t B h o w n i p u r f o r M a u r i t i a n p a s s e n g e r s , G a r d e n Reach
f o r B r i t i s h G u i a n a , B a l l y g u n j a n d C h i t p u r f o r o t h e r s .
U s u a l l y , t h e f a c i l i t i e s w e r e s h a r e d b y t h e v a r i o u s a g e n c i e s
a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s i n t h e y e a r . The E m i g r a t i o n A g e n t a n d
t h e m a n a g e r w e r e w h i t e . The r e s t o f t h e s t a f f w e r e I n d i a n s .
The d e p o r t s h a d a h i g h w a l l . S t a f f w e r e h o u s e d i n a b u n g a l o w ;
a n d b a r r a c k f a c i l i t i e s e x i s t e d f o r a t l e a s t t w o s h i p - l o a d o f
p a s s e n g e r s . The b a r r a c k s v a r i e d i n s i z e a n d l a y o u t , b u t
m i n i m u m b a s i c f a c i l i t i e s w e r e r e q u i r e d b y l a w , a n d t h e s e w e r e
u s u a l l y m e t . M a l e s , f e m a l e s , a n d m a r r i e d c o u p l e s w e r e s e p a r a t e l y
h o u s e d . L a t r i n e s a n d h o s p i t a l s h e d s t o o w e r e s e p a r a t e d b y s e x .
C o o k i n g s h e d s w e r e p r o v i d e d . B e f o r e 1 8 5 9 , t h e r e w e r e n o
d e p o t s i n IYadras C i t y . A f t e r t h a t d a t e , M a u r i t i a n p a s s e n g e r s
w e r e l o c a t e d a t V e p e r e y . T h i s d e p o t was i n a d e q u a t e , a n d s o
a n o t h e r was s i t e d a t R o y a p u r u m i n 1 8 6 7 . F o r M a u r i t i u s ,
V i z a g a p a t a m was s u c h a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f l a b o u r r e c r u i t -
m e n t t h a t a s u b a g e n c y was o p e n e d i n 1 8 7 1 . F o r s o u t h e r n
d i s t r i c t s l i k e T a n j o r e a n d T r i c h i n o p o l y , s u b d e p o t s w e r e
e s t a b l i s h e d a t R a j a m u n d r y , some 3 0 0 m i l e s f r o m M a d r a s C i t y .
N a t a l , M a l a y a , a n d F i j i a l s o h a d d e p o t f a c i l i t i e s . N a t a l
a n d F i j i s h a r e d t h e f a c i l i t i e s ; a n d C e y l o n ( S r i L a n k a ) a n d
M a l a y a s h a r e d a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f d e p o t f a c i l i t i e s . 1 3
The n e w l y a r r i v e d i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o b a t h e s o o n
u p o n a r r i v a l , a n d w e r e g i v e n a new s e t o f c l o t h i n g . T h e i r
o l d c l o t h e s w e r e washed a n d r e t u r n e d t o them. An I n d i a n
d o c t o r i n s p e c t e d t h e m a l e s , a n d a n I n d i a n n u r s e d i d t h e same
f o r t h e f e m a l e r e c r u i t s . S i g h t a n d h e a r i n g w e r e c h e c k e d ;
b u t t h e r e c r u i t s w e r e m o s t c l o s e l y c h e c k e d f o r s i g n s o f
v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e s . I n t h e e a r l y d a y s o f t h e s y s t e m women
w e r e g i v e n a s u p e r f i c i a l m e d i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s o a s n o t t o
s c a r e t h e m o f f , b u t b y t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
t h e y t o o w e r e g i v e n a t h o r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n . A f t e r t h i s
i n i t i a l r o u n d o f i n s p e c t i o n , m e d i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n was p e r f o r m e d
b y t h e d e p o t s u r g e o n a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t d o c t o r a p p o i n t e d b y
t h e P r o t e c t o r o f E m i g r a n t s . These m e d i c a l o f f i c e r s w e r e
f i n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c l e a r i n g t h e r e c r u i t s w i t h c e r t i f i -
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*aaqqaq pue (so881 aqq uoaj suoq 000 91 aa~o) aa66rq aweaaq
sdyqs 'awrq UI -aArsuaqaadwoa Aqqaad aaam saanseaw Aqajes
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a1doad 66E VJTqm ur 6581 UT UJn11V VeqS 40 JaqseSTP
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jo qaaj arqna ZL 'so581 aqq Ag .squea6rua aqq 6urqaodsueaq
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aqq spaem01 *aeaA aqq qnoq6noaqq quaudrqs sem aaaqq 'A~eaq
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s h i p ' s s u r g e o n . P r e c i s e r u l e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d r e g a r d i n g
v a c c i n a t i o n , s i c k b a y s , r a t i o n i n g s c a l e s , d a i l y b a t h i n g i n
warm l a t t i t u d e s , a n d s o o n . T h e d o c t o r o n t h e s h i p s b o u n d
f o r M a u r i t i u s a n d M a l a y a w a s o f t e n a n I n d i a n o r a E u r o a s i a n .
B u t a f t e r e a r l y t r a g e d i e s , d o c t o r s were a p p o i n t e d f r o m
B r i t a i n . T h e y were p a i d 8 s h i l l i n g s f o r e a c h p e r s o n l a n d e d
a l i v e i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s ; a f t e r 1 8 5 7 , t h e f e e was i n c r e a s e d
t o 1 0 s h i l l i n g s f o r t h e f i r s t v o y a g e , 11 s h i l l i n g s f o r t h e
s e c o n d , a n d 1 2 s h i l l i n g s f o r t h e t h i r d a n d s u b s e q u e n t v o y a g e s .
T h e y were a s s i s t e d b y t w o companders. S i n g l e women were
p l a c e d i n t h e r e a r o f t h e s h i p , m a r r i e d c o u p l e w i t h c h i l d r e n
a m i d s h i p , a n d s i n g l e m a l e s i n t h e f r o n t . A t f i r s t , t h e
e m i g r a n t s s l e p t o n p l a t f o r m s , l a t e r i n t w o - t i e r b u n k s .
D e s p i t e a l l t h e p r e c a u t i o n s , t h i n g s c o u l d a n d d i d g o w r o n g .
B e f o r e t h e s t e a m s h i p s m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e a v o y a g e t o o k
f r o m 9 0 t o 1 2 0 d a y s ; s a i l b o a t s f r o m C a l c u t t a t o J a m a i c a t o o k
1 8 0 d a y s , b u t o n l y 8 4 d a y s t o N a t a l , a n d 7 0 d a y s t o M a u r i t i u s
a n d R e u n i o n . T h i s w a s a l o n g t i m e f o r a n a v e r a g e o f b e t w e e n
3 0 0 t o 550 p a s s e n g e r s t o s p e n d i n c o n f i n e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
I l l n e s s e s a n d d i s e a s e s w e r e b o u n d t o o c c u r . M o r t a l i t y w a s
h i g h i n t h e e a r l y d a y s . Of t h e 4 0 318 p e r s o n s who w e n t t o
M a u r i t i u s b e t w e e n 1 8 4 2 t o 1 8 4 3 , 1 2 5 1 d i e d d u r i n g t h e m i d d l e
p a s s a g e , 2 9 3 s o o n a f t e r l a n d i n g , a n d 6 1 0 7 u p o n e n t e r i n g
s e r v i c e . l 6 T h e m o r t a l i t y r a t e s d e c r e a s e d q u i t e d r a m a t i c a l l y
a f t e r s t e a m s h i p v o y a g e s c a m e i n t o b e i n g , w h i c h r e d u c e d t h e
t i m e t a k e n f o r j o u r n e y s b y 5 0 % .
O n e o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e l o n g v o y a g e s w a s t o c r e a t e a
b o n d o f f r i e n d s h i p a m o n g p e o p l e who were s t r a n g e r s t o o n e
a n o t h e r b e f o r e t h e y e m b a r k e d . A s " j e h a j i b h a i s " ( s h i p m a t e s ) ,
t h e y d e v e l o p e d a s o l i d a r i t y k n o w n a s " b h a i a c h a r a y a " ( b r o t h e r -
h o o d ) , w h i c h l e s s e n e d t h e f e a r o f t h e u n k n o w n , a n d s t r e n g t h -
e n e d t i e s t h a t c o u l d h e l p t h e m i n t h e f u t u r e . S u c h b o n d s
c u t a c r o s s c a s t e a n d r e l i g i o u s b a r r i e r s . A new i d e n t i t y w a s
a l r e a d y i n t h e m a k i n g . A s a P a r i a h t o l d a B r a h m i n , " I h a v e
t a k e n o f f my c a s t e a n d l e f t i t w i t h t h e P o r t O f f i c e r . I
se pey wayq jo awos uryqrm sa3ueqswn3~~3 1e3oy qqnop ou pue
'Xuo1oa oq Xuo~oa wo~j X~en Xew uorqeurw~aq jo sa3~nos ayl
6 1 '5061 Pue 8681
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uor~~rw z /1Z '~£61 Pue Z581 uaamqa€I .eTPuI 4qnoS 07 X1aJrqua
paurjuoa sem waqsXs ,,Xuefiuey,, aql *qqnos aqq u~ aqsea qer~ed
aqq 6uowe L~ureur paqrn~aa~ oqm ,,'e~e~~s,, se umouy squa6eqns
paJry ,,~ueyuey,, aql *suorqeque1d ~aqqn~ pue 'aajjo3 'eaq Xq
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JOJ se ,,L~7srew,, aqq JO (ueurpeaq 1~wel e) ,,~ueyuey,, aql *q~
JaAo ~o~quoa jo aJnseaur e 6u~sra~axa Xqa~aqq 'X1a~rqe1sr6a1
qr paqkpourwoaae erpu~ jo quauru~ano3 aqq aJojaq s~eaX
09 qnoqe JOJ paqe~ado 71 *uraqsXs ,lXue6uey,, aqq se umouy
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aqq qnoqe qe ue6aq sJnoAeapua vans -X~aqeAr~d pasyue6~0
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much t o d o w i t h t h e t e r m i n a t i o n a s t h e o p p o s i t i o n i n I n d i a .
I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s were p e r s i s t e n t l y c r i t i c a l o f t h e
i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m i n t h e f i r s t d e c a d e s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r y . T h e i r c r i t i c i s m l e d t o t w o m a j o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s o f e a c h o t h e r . T h e S a n d e r s o n c o m m i t t e e
o f 1 9 1 0 m i s r e a d t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n a n d a r g u e d
f o r t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m ; t h e McNeill-La1 c o m m i t t e e
o f 1 9 1 3 w a s c r i t i c a l o f t h e s y s t e m . T h e r e was m o u n t i n g
e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e s y s t e m w a s i n h e r e n t l y b a d ; a n d e v e n b e f o r e
i t w a s o f f i c i a l l y t e r m i n a t e d i n 1 9 1 7 , r e c r u i t m e n t h a d g r o u n d 2 0 t o a h a l t .
r\
By 1 9 1 7 , a b o u t l1I4 m i l l i o n I n d i a n s h a d g o n e t o v a r i o u s * p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d a s i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s . T h e n u m b e r t o
t h e West I n d i e s t o t a l l e d 5 3 4 1 0 9 , d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
w a y : B r i t i s h G u i a n a 2 3 8 9 0 9 ; T r i n i d a d 1 4 3 9 3 9 ; J a m a i c a 3 6 4 1 2 ;
S u r i n a m 3 4 3 0 4 ; W i n d w a r d I s l a n d s ( G r e n a d a , S t . V i n c e n t , a n d
S t . L u c i a ) 1 0 0 2 6 ; M a r t i n i q u e 2 5 5 1 9 ; a n d G o u d e l o u p e 4 5 0 0 .
Of t h e t o t a l o f 5 3 4 1 0 9 a b o u t 1 4 9 0 5 4 r e t u r n e d t o I n d i a . 2 1
M a u r i t i u s , t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y " s u g a r b o w l " i n t h e I n d i a n
O c e a n r e c e i v e d t h e l a r g e s t n u m b e r o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s .
T h e G e o g h e g a n R e p o r t c a l c u l a t e d t h a t I Y a u r i t i u s h a d r e c e i v e d
3 5 1 4 0 1 b e t w e e n 1 8 4 2 a n d 1 8 7 0 . I f o n e a d d s a b o u t 3 0 0 0 0
I n d i a n s who w e n t t o M a u r i t i u s b e f o r e 1 8 4 2 , t h e n u m b e r u p t o
1 8 7 0 w o u l d t h e n b e o v e r 3 8 0 0 0 0 . ~ ~ T h i s f i g u r e c o r r e s p o n d s
w i t h 3 8 7 1 2 1 c o m p u t e d b y a M a u r i t i a n s c h 0 l a r . ~ 3 A f u r t h e r
7 8 8 9 7 I n d i a n s w e n t t o M a u r i t i u s a s i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s f r o m
1 8 7 1 f o r w a r d . T h e t o t a l , t h e n , s t a n d s a t 4 6 6 0 1 8 . ~ ~ F r o m
t h e s t a t i s t i c s a v a i l a b l e , 1 6 8 7 4 7 o r 3 6 % r e t u r n e d t o ~ n d i a . ~ ~
T h e F r e n c h i s l a n d i n t h e I n d i a n O c e a n , R e u n i o n , r e c e i v e d
1 1 8 0 0 0 i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s , b u t a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r , 8 8 0 0 0 ,
r e t u r n e d b e t w e e n 1 8 3 5 a n d 1 9 0 0 . 2 6
I n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s were i n t r o d u c e d l a t e i n F i j i . I t was
s t a r t e d i n 1 8 7 9 , a n d b y t h e t ime i m p o r t a t i o n w a s s t o p p e d
i n 1 9 1 6 , 8 7 v o y a g e s h a d b r o u g h t 6 0 5 3 3 I n d i a n s t o t h i s
S o u t h P a c i f i c i s l a n d . A l l c o n t r a c t s w e r e e n d e d i n 1 9 2 0 . ~ ~
F i n a l l y , N a t a l r e c e i v e d 1 5 2 1 8 4 i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a n t s
b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 1 1 . O f t h e s e , j u s t o v e r 2 3 % r e t u r n e d
t o I n d i a b y t h e t i m e i m p o r t a t i o n was s t o p p e d . H o w e v e r , i f
one i n c l u d e s t h o s e o f t h e o r i g i n a l i m m i g r a n t s who l e f t
b e t w e e n 1 9 1 1 a n d 1 9 2 9 , t h e f i g u r e a l m o s t d o u b l e s t o 42%.
I n N a t a l ' s c a s e , a b o u t 9% o f t h o s e t e r m i n a t i n g . t h e i r c o n t r a c t s
w e n t t o o t h e r p a r t s o f s o u t h e r n A f r i c a . The r e s t o f t h i s
c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0
a n d 1 9 0 2 .
N a t a l
N a t a l d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e 1 8 5 0 s t h a t t h e s o i l a n d c l i m a t e w e r e
i d e a l f o r g r o w i n g s u g a r . By t h e m i d d l e o f t h e d e c a d e , w h i t e
f a r m e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t s u g a r c o u l d become t h e m a i n s t a y o f t h e
c o l o n i a l economy . And n o d o u b t i t was b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e
r e s i d e n t b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n , t h e Z u l u s , w o u l d w i l l i n g l y become
wage l a b o u r e r s . The Z u l u s w e r e p a s t o r a l i s t s a n d f a r m e r s who
showed l i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n b e c o m i n g wage e a r n e r s . I n a n y
e v e n t , a s a p r e - i n d u s t r i a l g r o u p o f i n d i v i d u a l s t h e y w o u l d
r e q u i r e t i m e t o a d j u s t a s l a b o u r e r s w i t h i n a c a p i t a l i s t mode
o f p r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h i s w h a t t h e s u g a r p l a n t a t i o n s y s t e m was.
The p r o b l e m was t o s e c u r e p l a n t a t i o n l a b o u r i m m e d i a t e l y . I f
N a t a l ' s s u g a r f a r m e r s d e c i d e d i n t h e e n d t o u s e i n d e n t u r e d
f o r m o f l a b o u r , t h e y saw d e c i d e d a d v a n t a g e s i n i t . S u c h a
s y s t e m made f o r e a s i e r c o n t r o l , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e l a b o u r e r s
w e r e f r o m a f o r e i g n l a n d . N a t a l ' s p l a n t e r s knew t h a t t h e
i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m w o r k e d w e l l i n M a u r i t i u s , a n d t h e r e was
r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e i t w o u l d w o r k i n N a t a l a s w e l l .
The N a t a l g o v e r n m e n t p r e v a i l e d u p o n S i r G e o r g e G r e y , t h e
Cape g o v e r n o r v i s i t i n g N a t a l i n 1 8 5 5 , t o t a k e up t h e m a t t e r
w i t h t h e B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e r e was a l i t t l e
d e l a y i n f i n a l i s i n g m a t t e r s , b u t i n t h e e n d t h e N a t a l
L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l e n a c t e d Laws 1 3 , 1 4 a n d 1 5 t o e s t a b l i s h
t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s t o s a t i s f y t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a .
A c t 33 o f 1 8 6 0 b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a c l e a r e d t h e way
f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s . As m e n t i o n e d
e a r l i e r , P o s t m a s t e r G e n e r a l W M C o l l i n s was s e n t t o I n d i a
i n 1 8 6 0 t o a c t a s E m i g r a t i o n A c t . 2 8 The f i r s t t w o s h i p -
l o a d s o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s a r r i v e d i n Novernber 1 8 6 0 , one
e a c h f r o m M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a .
The f i r s t g r o u p o f i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a n t s a r r i v e d b e t w e e n
1 8 6 0 a n d 1 8 6 6 , a s s t a t e d i n c h a p t e r 1. A d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e
c o l o n y t e m p o r a r i l y h a l t e d t h e i m p o r t a t i o n . When c o n d i t i o n s
i m p r o v e d , t h e i m p o r t a t i o n was r e s u m e d i n 1 8 7 4 . The N a t a l
g o v e r n m e n t c o m p l i e d w i t h t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a ' s d i r e c t i v e
f o r t i g h t e r c o n t r o l s , o n e o f w h i c h was t o a p p o i n t a s a l a r i e d
o f f i c i a l t o l o o k a f t e r t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i m m i g r a n t s , who,
a f t e r t h e M a u r i t i a n f a s h i o n was d e s i g n a t e d t h e P r o t e c t o r o f
I n d i a n I m m i g r a n t s . The i m p o r t a t i o n c o n t i n u e d f r o m t h e n u n t i l
i t was f i n a l l y s t o p p e d i n J u l y 1 9 1 1 . The l a s t 1 0 y e a r s
b r o u g h t n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d o f t h e t o t a l o f 1 5 2 1 8 4 .
The s a m p l e d i s c u s s e d h e r e c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d 1 8 6 0 t o 1 9 0 2 .
D u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , 1 6 8 s h i p ' s v o y a g e s b r o u g h t 59 6 6 2
p a s s e n g e r s f r o m t h e M a d r a s C i t y p o r t ; a n d 88 s h i p ' s v o y a g e s
f r o m t h e p o r t o f C a l c u t t a l a n d e d 3 5 7 2 0 i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a n t s .
( S e e T a b l e 2 ) The c o m b i n e d t o t a l o f p a s s e n g e r s b e t w e e n
1 8 7 6 a n d 1 9 0 2 was 9 1 7 9 8 . 477 d i e d o n t h e v o y a g e s i n 26
y e a r s ( S e e T a b l e 3 ) . The a v e r a g e m o r t a l i t y r a t e f o r 2 6
y e a r s was 0 ,5%. The h i g h e s t d e a t h r a t e was i n 1 8 8 1 when t h e
r a t e s t o o d a t 1 , 5 % . M o r t a l i t y r a t e was h i g h e r i n t h e e a r l y
y e a r s : b e t w e e n 1 8 7 6 a n d 1 8 8 4 , t h e r a t e e x c e e d e d 1% o n f i v e
o c c a s i o n s . As c o n d i t i o n s i m p r o v e d o n t h e v o y a g e s , s o t o o
d i d t h e s u r v i v a l r a t e . A f t e r 1 8 8 5 , a s T a b l e 3 shows , t h e
r a t e o f m o r t a l i t y d i d n o t e x c e e d 1%.
The t a b l e s o n s e x d i s t r i b u t i o n show t h a t m a l e s p r e d o m i n a t e d
i n b o t h t h e M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a b a t c h e s . T a b l e 4 f o r M a d r a s
p a s s e n g e r s shows t h a t f o r e v e r y 6 5 % o f m a l e s , t h e r e w e r e 2896
f e m a l e s . The r a t i o f o r 1 8 8 3 - 8 5 , 7276 m a l e t o 24% f e m a l e ,
was p a r t i c u l a r l y u n e v e n . Low m a l e p e r c e n t a g e s a r e r e c o r d e d
f o r 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 0 0 a n d 1 9 0 2 o n l y b e c a u s e t h e u n k n o w n c o m p o n e n t i s
u n u s u a l l y h i g h f o r t h e s e y e a r s . The a v e r a g e m a l e t o f e m a l e
r a t i o f o r C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s , a s T a b l e 5 s h o w s , was 625'6 t o
2776, w i t h t h e 1 8 9 0 s s h o w i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y f a v o u r a b l e r a t i o s .
H o w e v e r , when one c o m b i n e s M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s , t h e
f l u c t u a t i o n s t e n d t o e v e n o u t . The r a t i o a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 6
i s 6376 m a l e t o 2776 f e m a l e . G r a p h s 1, 2 , a n d 3 i l l u s t r a t e w e l l
t h e p r o p o r t i o n s . The s t a t i s t i c s show t h a t t h e 6 0 t o 40 r a t i o
t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a h o p e d t o m a i n t a i n d i d n o t m a t e r i a l i s e
i n N a t a l ' s c a s e . The i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s e x p e r i e n c e d a s h o r t a g e
o f women t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d .
F a m i l y r e c r u i t m e n t , a s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , was i n c r e a s i n g l y
d i s c o u r a g e d f r o m t h e 1 8 9 0 s . An e x a m i n a t i o n o f T a b l e 7 f o r
M a d r a s s h o w s t h a t 17,676 o f a l l t h e p a s s e n g e r s w e r e b e t w e e n
t h e a g e s o f 1 t o 9 . Those b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f 1 0 a n d 1 4
w o u l d a l s o h a v e b e e n a c c o m p a n y i n g c h i l d r e n , s o t h a t t o t a l l y ,
19,676 came a s p a r t o f a f a m i l y . Some came w i t h b o t h p a r e n t s ,
a n d o t h e r s w i t h s i n g l e p a r e n t s . The p e r c e n t a g e o f a c c o m p a n y -
i n g c h i l d r e n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h d u r i n g 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 0 0 . ( S e e
T a b l e 7 ) . S i m i l a r l y , f o r C . a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s 14,776 w e r e
b e t w e e n t h e a g e s 1 t o 9 , a n d 2,376 b e t w e e n t h e a g e s 1 0 t o 1 4
( S e e T a b l e 8 ) , a n d t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f a c c o m p a n y i n g c h i l d r e n
was v e r y h i g h i n 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 0 0 . F o r b o t h M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a ,
t h e n , 18,376 w e r e a c c o m p a n y i n g c h i l d r e n . I f o n e a d d s t h e
number o f m a r r i e d c o u p l e s i n t h e s a m p l e w i t h o u t c h i l d r e n
( t h e c o m p u t e r r e t r i e v a l o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n was n o t p o s s i b l e ) ,
t h e n t h e f a m i l y c o m p o n e n t o f t h e t o t a l o f 9 5 382 b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0
a n d 1 9 0 2 , i s a b o u t 2076. M i g r a t i o n i n f a m i l y g r o u p s was
r e a s o n a b l y h i g h , d e s p i t e o f f i c i a l d i s c o u r a g e m e n t .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , r e c r u i t m e n t e f f o r t s w e n t t o w a r d s f i n d i n g
y o u n g m a l e s b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f 1 8 a n d 30 . T a b l e 7 f o r
M a d r a s shows t h a t t h i s c a t e g o r y made u p 6476 o f t h e t o t a l ;
a n d f o r C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s , i t made u p o v e r 7276 ( S e e T a b l e
8 ) .
The p e r c e n t a g e s a r o u n d t h e a g e s 20 , 2 5 a n d 3 0 t e n d t o c l u s t e r .
One s u s p e c t s t h a t b o t h r e c r u i t s a n d r e c r u i t e r s r o u n d e d o f f
t h e a g e s , e s p e c i a l l y i f s u c h r o u n d e d f i g u r e s w e r e l i k e l y t o
i n c r e a s e t h e r e c r u i t s 1 c h a n c e s o f b e i n g a c c e p t e d a s e m i g r a n t s .
The a g e c a t e g o r y 3 1 t o 3 5 made u p 7,476 f o r M a d r a s a n d 2,776
f o r C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s . T h o s e b e y o n d 36 , a v e r a g e d 2,676 f o r
M a d r a s a n d 1,276 f o r C a l c u t t a . T h e r e a r e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n a g e
c a t e g o r i e s o u t s i d e o f t h e 1 5 t o 3 0 r a n g e , a n d t h e s e a r e n o
d o u b t r e l a t e d t o v a r y i n g r e c r u i t m e n t p a t t e r n s f r o m y e a r t o
y e a r . M o r e w o u l d o b v i o u s l y h a v e t o b e k n o w n a b o u t s o u r c e s
o f r e c r u i t m e n t t o e x p l a i n t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s . ( S e e G r a p h 4 ) .
Two o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s o f p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e h e i g h t
a n d m a r k i n g s . The m a j o r i t y o f r e c o r d e d h e i g h t s f a l l b e t w e e n
1 5 6 a n d 1 7 0 cms. F o r M a d r a s p a s s e n g e r s , t h e f i g u r e i s 5 4 , 5 %
( ( s e e T a b l e 9 ) , a n d f o r C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s i t i s 44,67; ( s e e
T a b l e 1 0 ) . G r a p h 5 p r e s e n t s t h e h e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n b y
g r a p h i c i l l u s t r a t i o n . No i n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e a b o u t
h e i g h t s a n d s t a t u r e s f o r n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y I n d i a n s ,
n a t i o n a l l y o r r e g i o n a l l y ; b u t t h e f i g u r e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e
l i k e l y t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h t h e g e n e r a l s t a t i s t i c s i n I n d i a .
The s h i p ' s l i s t s c a r e f u l l y n o t e d i n , many i n s t a n c e s t h e
p h y s i c a l m a r k i n g s o f t h e N a t a l i m m i g r a n t s . I t was n o t
p o s s i b l e t o t a b u l a t e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n b e c a u s e i t i s u n e v e n
a n d u n k n o w n f o r m o s t y e a r s . The p h y s i c a l m a r k i n g s a r e r e l a t e d
t o d i s e a s e , r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , h e a l i n g o r p e r s o n a l a d o r n m e n t .
By f a r t h e l a r g e s t a r e r e l a t e d t o i n j u r i e s . I n t h e d i s e a s e -
r e l a t e d c a t e g o r y , t h e s t a t i s t i c s f o r p e o p l e w i t h p o c k - m a r k e d
f a c e s a p p e a r f o r e v e r y y e a r b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 0 2 . They a r e
p a r t i c u l a r l y n u m e r o u s f o r t h e e a r l y y e a r s . N e a r l y 1 3 % o f
t h e 65% r e c o r d e d w i t h p h y s i c a l m a r k i n g s among t h e M a d r a s
g r o u p ( 1 8 6 0 - 1 8 6 6 ) h a d p o c k m a r k s ; a n d f o r t h e C a l c u t t a g r o u p
i n t h e same p e r i o d , n e a r l y 11% o f t h e 7 8 % r e c o r d e d w i t h
p h y s i c a l m a r k i n g s h a d f a c e s s c a r r e d b y s m a l l p o x . S m a l l p o x
e p i d e m i c s w e r e w i d e s p r e a d i n I n d i a , a n d t h e a r e a s f r o m w h i c h
t h e i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s w e r e d r a w n w e r e n o t f r e e f r o m them.
T h e i n c i d e n c e o f s m a l l p o x e p i d e m i c s i n I n d i a was h i g h e r i n
t h e e a r l y p e r i o d ( 1 8 7 0 - 9 0 ) , t h a n i n t h e p e r i o d a f t e r 1 8 9 0 . 2 9
T h e r e a r e f e w e r p e o p l e w i t h p o c k - m a r k e d f a c e s i n t h e l a t e r
y e a r s o f t h e s a m p l e .
Among t h e M a d r a s p a s s e n g e r s b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 8 6 6 , t h e r e
w a s a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e w i t h " g o d n a " m a r k s , i n d i c a t i n g r e l i g i o u s
o r c a s t e s i g n i f i c a n c e . C i c a t r i x m a r k s were s o m e t i m e s t h e
r e s u l t o f h e a l i n g p r o c e d u r e s , a n d t h e s a m p l e h a d many o f t h e s e .
T a t o o m a r k s o n a l l p a r t s o f t h e b o d y w e r e n u m e r o u s f o r b o t h
t h e M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s . B u t b y f a r t h e l a r g e s t
c a t e g o r y o f p h y s i c a l m a r k i n g s was t h a t o f s c a r s . S c a r s o n
a b d o m e n , arms, b a c k s , b e l l i e s , c h e e k s , c h e s t s , c h i n s , c o l l a r -
b o n e s , e l b o w s , e y e b r o w s , f o r e h e a d , k n e e s , l e g s , n e c k , n o s e ,
s h o u l d e r s , s p i n e , t e m p l e s , t h i g h s , a n d t h r o a t a p p e a r w i t h
r e g u l a r f r e q u e n c y . D o u b t l e s s m o s t o f t h e m were l e f t b y
i n j u r i e s , b u t t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h t h e y o c c u r r e d o n t h e
l e f t o r r i g h t s i d e o f t h e b o d y s u g g e s t s t h a t i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s
a t l e a s t , t h e s c a r s may h a v e r e l i g i o u s o r c a s t e s i g n i f i c a n c e .
T h r e e o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n - n a m e l y , d i s t r i c t s
o f o r i g i n , c a s t e a n d r e l i g i o n , a n d e m p l o y e r s - a r e
i m p o r t a n t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r s p c i o - e c o n o m i c c o n t e x t s . T h e y
r e q u i r e f u l l d i s c u s s i o n s , a n d w i l l b e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y i n
t h e n e x t t h r e e c h a p t e r s .
TABLE 2
VOYAGES AND PASSENGERS FROM MADRAS AND CALCUTTA, 1860-1902
MADRAS CALCUTTA 7 -- I I
SYMBOL -- DATE SHIPS PASSENGERS SHIPS PASSENGERS
NOV. 1860 - July 1866
June 1874 - Oct. 1877
Jan. 1879 - Dec. 1882
E April 1883 - 13 3 515 7 3 179 Apri l 1885
F Flar. 1886 - Nov. 1889
18 4 782 2 699
G Feb. 1890 - 11 4 482 8 Dec. 1891
3 020
H Feb. 1892 - 12 4 527 5 1 620 Dec. 1893
I Jan. 1894 - 11 3 529 7 2 786 Dec. 1895
J Jan. 1896 - Dec. 1896
5 1 977 5
K Jan. 1897 - Dec. 1897
7 3 130 7
Jan. 1898 - Dec. 1898
M Feb. 1899 - 12 5 169 4 1 570 Dec. 1900
N Jan. 19Ul - 15 6 199 2 816 Dec. 1901
Jan. 1902 - Dec. 1902
- --
T O T A L S 168 59 662 8 8 35 720
27
TABLE 3
BIRTHS AND DEATHS ON EMIGRANT SHIPS TO NATAL 1876-1902
YEAR NU OF SHIPS EMBARKED BIRTHS DEATHS LANDED
Source: Reports o f P r o t e c t o r o f I n d i a n Immigrants, 1876-1902
2 8
TABLE 4
SEX DISTRIBUTION
MADRAS PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
NUMBERS PERCENTAGES
DATE TOTAL IJNKNOWN MALE FEMALE UNKNOWN MALE FEMALE
TOTAL 5 9 6 6 2 4 2 2 3 38 5 9 9 1 6 8 4 0 6,577;
29
TABLE 5
SEX DISTRIBUTION - CALCUTTA PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
NUMBERS
.DATE .TOTAL .UNKNOWN MALE FEMALE UNKhlOWN ' MALE FEMALE
TOTAL 35 720 2 882 22 874 9 964 10,3476 62,0976 27,5776
TABLE 6
SEX DISTRIBUTION
MADRAS AND CALCUTTA PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
NUMBERS PERCENTAGES - - -
DATE TOTAL UNKNOWN MALE FEMALE UNKNOWN MALE FEMALE
- -
TOTAL 95 382 7 105 6 1 473 26 804 8,3% 63,73% 27,9%%
No
, of People
9
31
d0
3d
30
'ON
No
. o
f P
eo
ple
TABLE 7
AGE DISTRIBUTION FOR MADRAS PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
'(PERCENTAGE)
Q W ' N Ln m 1
Q w w w 4 N b W ' I ' I I I 0 0 AGE 2 2
4 O a w w w m w w w w w 4 4 4 1 4 4 I-
4 - 4 - 4 4 4 4 4 4 - 4
Unknowri
1 - 9
10 - 14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21'
22
23
2 4
25
2 6
27
28
2 9
30
3 1
32
3 3
34
35
36
3 7
38
34
40
4 1
42
4 3
44
4 5
46 +
TABLE 8
AGE DISTRIBUTION FOR CALCUTTA PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
(PERCENTAGES
Unknown 3 ,9 0 ,7 2 ,6 6,7 1 , 5 0,2 0 , l 0 ,8 1 , O 14 ,11 - - - - - 31,2
1 - 9 14,7 9 , l 14,O 14,7 8 , 4 13,9 16 ,3 14,6 14 ,3 1 3 , l 8 , 7 7 ,8 19 ,5 29,8 27,6 897
1 0 - 1 4 290 591 197 2,9 2,2 3 ,3 2,8 198 1 , 5 198 1 , 2 098 190 0 ,7 2,2 194
15 095 2 ,7 0 , 4 097 0 , 3 094 0 , 3 0 , 2 0 , l 0 , l - 092 0,4 O,? 0 ,9 091
16 1,l 4 ,5 0,9 0 ,8 0 ,2 0 ,6 0 ,7 0,7 1 , o 0 ,7 1,l 0 , l 0 ,7 0 , 9 2 ,7 1 , 3
17 195 397 OB8 095 093 0 , 3 197 190 197 098 098 094 095 197 3,7 399
18 3,9 6 , l 3 ,5 2,9 1 , 7 1 , 7 3 , l 3 , 3 4 , l 3,4 4 , 4 2 ,5 4 ,2 5 ,5 5 ,9 5 ,8
19 2,8 3,9 3,8 1 , 7 2 , l 2 ,5 1 , 4 2 ,3 2,2 l , 8 2 ,5 3,O 2,O 3 ,8 5 ,3 397
2 0 13,9 6 ,3 10,O 9 ,9 18,2 13,8 15,2 18,O 16,4 14,O 15,9 18,2 1 6 , 3 14 ,6 10,7 11.1
21 3 , 5 4,O 4 , 5 2 ,3 3,8 4 ,3 3 ,3 2 ,9 3,8 3 , l 2,9 4 ,4 2 , 3 3,2 4 ,3 2,9
2 2 10,7 5 ,6 7 , 8 8 , 3 14,4 11,7 10,O 13,O 11,l 10 ,3 13,O 16,5 16,O 8 , 2 8 , 5 6 ,6
2 3 3,6 2 ,8 4,4 4 ,4 3 , 4 2,8 5,2 3 ,6 3,O 3 , l 3,O 5 , 9 4,O 3 ,2 2,9 2 ,3
24 7 , l 3 , l 6 ,8 7 , l 7 , 4 5 ,5 5 ,4 6 ,7 6 ,8 7,9 1 1 , O 11,7 9 , 6 7 ,8 5 ,5 3 ,5
25 i0 ,98 4 ,3 8 , 6 1 1 , O 15,4 14 ,3 11 ,4 14 ,2 11,0 1 2 , l 15,2 13 ,2 9 ,9 8 , 4 8 , 0 7 ,7
2 6 4,6 4,7 6 , 4 4,6 4 ,4 3 , 8 3 ,3 3 ,4 4 ,6 4 ,2 7 ,8 6 , l 5 ,7 3 ,4 3,8 3,O
2 7 2,2 4 , 8 4,O 1 , 3 2 ,3 2 , l 1,l 1 ,7 2,8 1 , 8 2 , 5 1 , 8 1 ,7 2,O 1 , 5 1 , 7
2 8 3,9 5 ,5 4,O 6,O 3,8 4 ,5 5 ,2 3 ,9 4,3 3 ,4 5,O 3 , 5 2 ,8 2 ,7 2,6 1 , 7
2 9 0,97 2 ,6 2,4 1 , 7 0 , 4 0 , 5 0 ,6 0 ,7 1 , 5 0 ,4 0 , 8 0 , 8 0 , 4 0 ,8 0 , 6 0 , 3
30 4 , l 4 ,6 6,O 5 ,6 6 , 3 5,8 7 , 6 4,2 5 ,5 2 ,4 3 , 3 2,2 1 , 9 1 ,7 2 , 3 1 , 9
31 0 ,2 1 , 2 0 , l 0 , 3 0 , l 0 ,2 0 , l - 0 , 3 0 , l 0 , l 0 , 2 0 , l 0 , l - - 3 2 0 ,9 2,7 1 , 9 0 ,9 0 ,9 1 , 5 2 ,6 0 , 8 1 , O 0 , 5 0 ,4 0 ,2 0 , l 0 , l 0 , l 0 , l
3 3 0 ,2 0 ,7 0 , 9 0 , 3 0 , 3 0 , 3 - 0 , l 0 , l 0 , l - 0 , l - 093 - -
34 0 ,4 1,l 1 , 4 0 ,5 0 ,4 0 , 6 0,6 0 , 3 0 , l 0 , l O,2 032 O,2 0 , l - 091
35 0 , 9 6 1 , 7 0 ,7 2 ,7 1,l 1 , 8 1 , 3 1 , 2 039 0 , 5 - 0,2 034 0 ,5 099 0 ,5
36 0 , 3 1 , 4 0,6 0 ,5 0 ,2 0 , 4 - 091 091 - 072 091 0 , l - - 0,2
37 091 097 094 0 ,2 - 092 091 - - - - - - 0 , l - -
3 8 093 199 093 097 092 093 - 091 0 , l 091 - - - 0 , l 0 , l - 39 0,Ol 098 091 094 - 091 - - 0 , l - - - - - - - 40 0 ,2 1 , 2 0 ,2 0 , l 0 ,4 0 ,9 - 0 , 3 0 , l - - - - - 0 , l 0 , l
4 1 0,02 0 ,2 - 0 , l - - - - - - - - - - - - 42 0,05 0 ,4 0 , l - 0 , l 0 , 2 - - - - - - - - - -
43 0904 0,2 - 091 0 , l 091 - - - - - - - 0 , 1 - -
44 0,02 0 , l - 0 , l - 0 , l - - - - - - - - - - 45 0 , 0 9 0 , 2 - 0 , l - 0,7 - 091 - - - - 0 ,2 - - - 4 6 + 0 , l 0 , 3 - 0 , l 0 , l 0 , 3 0 , 4 0 , l 0 ,2 0 , l - - 0 , 2 0 , l - -
37
TABLE 9
DISTRIBUTION OF HEIGHT AMONG MADRAS PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
(PERCENTAGES)
HEIGHT T o t a l 1860- 1874- 1877- 1879- 1883- 1886- 1890- 1892- 1894- 1896 1897 1898 1899- 1901 1902 (cm) Ave 66 7 7 7 8 82 85 89 9 1 9 3 95 1900
Unknown 25,9 5 0 , l -
30 - 130 O,5 0,5 - 1 3 1 - 135 O,5 095 - 136 - 140 0,95 O,3 - 1 4 1 - 145 3,6 0,5 -
146 - 150 4,9 1,l - 151 - 155 6,7 4,O - 156 - 160 17,6 11,l - 161 - 165 21,8 15,O - 166 - 170 1 5 , l 10,O - 171 - 175 3,5 4,2 - 176 - 180 O,6 1,l - 181 - 185 0,07 0,4 - 1.86 - 190 0,03 O,3 - 191 and over 0,2 0,5 -
38
TABLE 10
DISTRIBUTION OF HEIGHT AMONG CALCUTTA PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
(PERCENTAGES) - -- - -- - -- - - - --
HEIGHT T o t a l 1860- 1874- 1877- 1879- 1883- 1886- 1890- 1892- 1894- 1896 1897 1898 1899- 1901 1902
(cm 1 Ave 6 6 77 78 8 2 8 5 89 9 1 9 3 9 5 1900
Unknown
30 - 130
131 - 135
136 - 140
141 - 145
146 - 150
151 - 155
156 - 160
161 - 165
166 - 170
171 - 175
176 - 180
181 - 185
186 - 190
191 and over
M & C: HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
U 130 131 136 141 146 151 156 161 166 171 176 181 186 191 IiEIGIiT DISTRIBUTION ( c m )
MADRAS
NOTES
Hugh T i n k e r : A New S y s t e m o f S l a v e r y : The E x p o r t o f
I n d i a n L a b o u r O v e r s e a s , 1 8 3 0 - 1 9 2 0 , O x f o r d U n i v e r -
s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 4 , p p . 1 6 - 1 7 .
P Saha : E m i g r a t i o n o f I n d i a n L a b o u r , 1 8 3 4 - 1 9 0 0 , D e l h i :
P e o p l e ' s P u b l i s h i n g House , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 6 -7 .
H L y - T i o - F a n e P i n e o : L u r e d Away: The L i f e H i s t o r y o f
I n d i a n Cane W o r k e r s i n M a u r i t i u s , Moka : Mahatma
G a n d h i I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 8 4 , p p . 1 -38 .
I M C u m p s t o n : I n d i a n s O v e r s e a s i n B r i t i s h T e r r i t o r i e s ,
1 8 3 4 - 1 8 5 4 , L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , p p . 9 0 - 9 6 .
B r i j V L a l : G i r m i t i y a s : The O r i q i n s o f t h e F i j i I n d i a n s ,
C a n b e r r a : J o u r n a l o f P a c i f i c H i s t o r y , 1 9 8 3 , p p . 1 8 - 1 9 .
S B h a n a a n d J B B r a i n : "Movemen ts o f I n d i a n s i n S o u t h
A f r i c a , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 1 1 , " P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t S o u t h A f r i c a n
H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y C o n f e r e n c e , Cape Town, J a n u a r y
1 9 8 5 ; K 0 L a u r e n c e : I m m i g r a t i o n I n t o West I n d i e s - i n
1 9 t h c e n t u r y , Mona: C a r i b b e a n U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 , p . 57
J D B e a l l : "Women U n d e r I n d e n t u r e i n N a t a l , " P a p e r ,
C o n f e r e n c e o n I n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s , U n i v e r s i t y o f
D u r b a n - W e s t v i l l e , O c t . 1 9 8 5 .
T i n k e r , o p . c i t . , p p . 8 9 , 1 0 5 .
L a l , o p . c i t . , p . 2 3 .
I b i d . , p . 23 . -
Saha, op . c i t . , p . 8 0 f ; T i n k e r , op . c i t . , p p . 1 2 2 - 1 3 0 .
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2 2 Geoghegan R e p o r t , op . c i t . , p . 66 .
23 J M a n r a k h a n : " E x a m i n a t i o n o f C e r t a i n A s p e c t s o f t h e
S l a v e r y - I n d e n t u r e C o n t i n u u m o f M a u r i t i u s I n c l u d i n g a
S c e n a r i o T h a t N e v e r Was," i n U B i s s o o n d o y a l a n d
S B C S e r v a n s i n g ( e d s . ) : I n d i a n L a b o u r I m m i g r a t i o n ,
Moka: Mahatma G a n d h i I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 8 6 , p . 40.
2 4 I b i d . . S e e a l s o T i n k e r o p , c i t . , p . 3 7 1 , a n d B u r t o n
B e n e d i c t : I n d i a n s i n a P l u r a l S o c i e t y : A R e p o r t
o n M a u r i t i u s i n s e r i e s C o l o n i a l R e s e a r c h S t u d i e s
No. 3 4 , L o n d o n , 1 9 6 1 .
25 M a n r a k h a n , op . c i t . , p . 40.
2 6 The f i g u r e s a r e f r o m t t S i n g a r a v e l o u : " I n d i a n s i n t h e
F r e n c h O v e r s e a s D e p a r t m e n t s ( G u a d e l o u p e , M a r t i n i q u e ,
R e u n i o n , " P a p e r , C o n f e r e n c e o n S o u t h A s i a n C o m m u n i t i e s
A b r o a d , M a r c h 1 9 8 7 , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y . See a l s o J e a n
B e n o i t ' s a r t i c l e i n B i s s o o n d o y a l a n d S e r v a n s i n g ( e d s . ) :
op . c i t . , p . 255 .
27 K L G i l l i o n : F i j i ' s I n d i a n M i g r a n t s : A H i s t o r y t o
t h e E n d o f I n d e n t u r e i n 1 9 2 0 , M e l b o u r n e : O x f o r d U n i v .
P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 , p . 59 . See a l s o L a l , op . c i t . , p a s s i m .
28 See J o y B r a i n : " I n d e n t u r e d a n d f r e e I n d i a n s i n t h e
Economy o f C o l o n i a l N a t a l , " i n B i l l G u e s t a n d J o h n
M S e l l e r s ( e d s . ) : E n t e r p r i s e a n d E x p l o i t a t i o n i n a
V i c t o r i a n C o l o n y : A s p e c t s o f t h e S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f
C o l o n i a l N a t a l , P i e t e r m a r i t z b u r g : U n i v . o f N a t a l P r e s s ,
1 9 8 5 , p p . 1 9 9 - 2 3 3 , a n d Y S Meer e t a 1 ( e d s . ) : D o c u m e n t s
o f I n d e n t u r e d L a b o u r , 1 8 5 1 - 1 9 1 7 , D u r b a n , 1 9 8 0 .
29 The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e o f I n d i a : The I n d i a n F m p i r e ,
v o l . 1, p . 525 ,
CHAPTER 3
P l a c e s o f O r i g i n : Z i l l a h s , T a h s i l s / T a l u k s , a n d T o w n s .
B r i t i s h I n d i a w a s o v e r o n e m i l l i o n s q u a r e m i l e s i n e x t e n t
a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , a n d c o n s i s t e d o f e i g h t l a r g e
p r o v i n c e s a n d f i v e s m a l l e r a r e a s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e
p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 w a s j u s t u n d e r 2 3 2 m i l l i o n , . m o r e o r l e s s
e v e n l y d i v i d e d b e t w e e n m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s . T h o s e a r e a s n o t
d i r e c t l y c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e B r i t i s h , w e r e i n t h e h a n d s o f
t h e I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e r e were 7 0 0 I n d i a n S t a t e s o f
v a r y i n g s i z e s c o v e r i n g 7 7 0 0 0 0 s q u a r e m i l e s , a n d t h e y w e r e
i n h a b i t e d i n 1 9 0 1 b y a p o p u l a t i o n o f o v e r 6 2 m i 1 l i o n . l
T h i s c h a p t e r i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s . T h e f i r s t p a r t
d e s c r i b e s t h e m a j o r a r e a s f r o m w h i c h N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d
i m m i g r a n t s were d r a w n ; t h e s e c o n d p a r t d e a l s w i t h t h e z i l l a h s
( d i s t r i c t s ) , t a h s i l s / t a l u k s , a n d t o w n s f r o m w h i c h t h e e m i g r a n t s
c a m e ; a n d t h e t h i r d p a r t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a c t u a l d a t a
o n g e o g r a p h i c a l s o u r c e s i n o u r s a m p l e .
T h e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l a r e a s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e s o u r c e s o f
i n d e n t u r e d m i g r a t i o n were t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y , t h e U n i t e d
P r o v i n c e s o f A g r a a n d O u g h , a n d t h e B e n g a l P r e s i d e n c y i n
w h i c h o n l y B i h a r f e a t u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y . ( S e e Map 1 )
E v e n t h o u g h t h e s e a r e a s i n d i v i d u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d m a s s i v e
e x p a n s e s o f l a n d o f g r e a t d i v e r s i t y , t h e r e a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t t h e s e p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l s t h a t w i l l s h e d
much l i g h t o n t h e l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s p e r t i n e n t t o o u r s t u d y .
T h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c v
T h e M a d r a s P r e ~ i d e n c y , ~ f r o m w h i c h t w o - t h i r d s o f N a t a l ' s
i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s c a m e , i s a v a s t a r e a c o v e r i n g 1 4 1 7 0 5
s q u a r e m i l e s . On t h e west i t i s b o u n d e d b y t h e I n d i a n O c e a n ,
a n d o n t h e e a s t b y t h e B a y o f B e n g a l ; a n d i t s n o r t h e r n
b o u n d a r y r u n s f r o m H y d e r a b a d o n t h e west t o t h e C e n t r a l
P r o v i n c e s a n d O r i s s a o n t h e e a s t , t o u c h i n g b r i e f l y t h e
s o u t h e r n m o s t b o u n d a r y o f t h e B o m b a y P r e s i d e n c y . I t h a s
t h r e e g r e a t r i v e r s , n a m e l y t h e G o d a v a r i , K i s t n a , a n d
C a u v e r y , r u n n i n g t h r o u g h i t . T h e f i r s t t w o r i s e 5 0 m i l e s
i n t h e Bombay P r e s i d e n c y a n d f l o w f o r 8 0 0 m i l e s a c r o s s t h e
p e n i n s u l a . C a u v e r y r i s e s i n t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s i n t h e C o o r g ,
a n d p a s s e s e a s t w a r d s i n t o t h e B a y o f B e n g a l . T h e p r e s i d e n c y
h a s n o g r e a t l a k e s ; a n d w h i l e i t h a s 1 7 0 0 m i l e s o , f s e a
c o a s t , t h e r e a r e n o g r e a t h a r b o u r s e x c e p t M a d r a s C i t y ,
w h i c h i s a l s o t h e c a p i t a l .
T h e p r e s i d e n c y w a s d i v i d e d i n 1 9 0 1 i n t o 2 2 d i s t r i c t s w h i c h
were f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o 8 4 s u b d i v i s i o n s , 2 3 1 t a l u k s , 6 5 7
f i r k a s , a n d 5 5 0 0 0 v i l l a g e s . T h e l a r g e s t d i s t r i c t w a s
V i z a g a p a t a m , c o v e r i n g 1 7 2 0 0 s q u a r e m i l e s a n d c o n s i s t i n g o f
2 9 0 0 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n 1 9 0 1 . T h e a v e r a g e s i z e o f t h e d i s t r i c t s
w a s 7 0 3 6 s q u a r e m i l e s , a n d t h e a v e r a g e p o p u l a t i o n w a s j u s t
o v e r 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 . T h e d i s t r i c t s o n t h e w e s t c o a s t h a d h i g h
d e n s i t y o f p o p u l a t i o n , T a n j o r e b e i n g t h e m o s t t h i c k l y p o p u -
l a t e d w i t h 6 0 5 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e m i l e .
I n 1 9 0 1 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y ' s p o p u l a t i o n w a s 3 8 2 0 9 4 3 6 o f whom
8 9 % l i v e d i n v i l l a g e s , w h o s e a v e r a g e s i z e w a s a b o u t 6 0 0
p e r s o n s . M a d r a s , M a d u r a , a n d T r i c h i n o p o l y were t h e o n l y 3
c i t i e s w i t h p o p u l a t i o n s o v e r 1 0 0 0 0 0 ; 8 t o w n s h a d p o p u l a t i o n s
i n e x c e s s o f 5 0 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s . T a m i l a n d T e l u g u w e r e t h e
p r e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e s i n t h e p r e s i d e n c y , w i t h 15 m i l l i o n a n d
1 4 m i l l i o n s p e a k e r s r e s p e c t i v e l y . M a l a y a l a m w a s c o n f i n e d t o
t h e west c o a s t o f M a l a b a r d i s t r i c t ; K a n a r e s e s p e a k e r s w e r e
t o b e f o u n d i n t h e u p l a n d r e g i o n s b o r d e r i n g M y s o r e , a n d
O r i y a w a s s p o k e n m a i n l y i n t h e d i s t r i c t s o f G a n j a m a n d
V i z a g a p a t a m . H i n d u s t a n i s p e a k e r s m a d e u p a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e
( 2 ! % ) a n d a v a r i e t y o f s m a l l e r l a n g u a g e s a n d d i a l e c t s w e r e
s p o k e n b y t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
H i n d u s p r e d o m i n a t e d i n t h e p r e s i d e n c y w i t h 8 9 % , t r a i l e d b y
M u s l i m s a n d C h r i s t i a n s who m a d e u p 6 % a n d 3 % r e s p e c t i v e l y
*wa7sAs r~em7oA~ aq7 ~apun 7;~t, pue 'ua7sAs y~epuywez
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sen uo~qe~ndod s,Aauaprsa~d aq7 40 a6e7uaa~ad q6ry e 4317s 41
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se~~yddew ayy~ A3uaprsa~d aq7 ur s7~a~uoa anr7eu 07 ~oy~adns se
sa~~aswaq~ pap~e6a~ sueq~ed ay7 pue 'sp~Ayes aq7 'sqyreqs
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'wefueg 'e~eue] q7nos uy sno~awnu ?sow aJam 'syuuns ~'1e
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'sqsrqppng 6uowe wo~j dn apew sen 762 40 a3ue~eq aql "106'1 U?
St,
The p r e s i d e n c y ' s s t a p l e f o o d c r o p s w e r e r i c e , c h o l a m , cambu,
a n d r a q i . O v e r 1 5 % o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s a l s o p r o d u c e d
c o m m e r c i a l c r o p s l i k e c o t t o n , o i l s e e d s , g i n g e l l y , c a s t o r ,
g r o u n d n u t s , i n d i g o , s u g a r c a n e , t o b a c c o , s p i c e s , t e a a n d
c o f f e e . Some 7 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was e n g a g e d i n t h e
p r e p a r a t i o n o f f o o d , d r i n k s , a n d d r e s s . T e x t i l e w o r k e r s
a m o u n t e d t o 4%. Those e n g a g e d i n m i n i n g m i n e r a l s , commerce ,
a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n s made u p a v e r y s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e .
The G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a r e c o r d e d t h a t f a m i n e s a n d o t h e r n a t u r a l
d i s a s t e r s o c c u r r e d n i n e t i m e s i n t h e p o s t - 1 8 5 0 p e r i o d i n S o u t h
I n d i a . The m o s t s e v e r e was t h e G r e a t F a m i n e o f 1 8 7 6 - 8 .
D i s t r i c t s i n t h e D e c c a n a s w e l l a s t h o s e i n t h e p r e s i d e n c y
w e r e a f f e c t e d . N e l l o r e , C h i n g l e p u t , Sa lem, a n d C o i m b a t t o r e
w e r e a f f e c t e d i n t h e f a m i n e t h a t l a s t e d 2 2 m o n t h s . Some 3 3 / 4
m i l l i o n p e o p l e p e r i s h e d . T h e r e w e r e t h r e e m a j o r f a m i n e s i n
t h e 1 8 9 0 s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t a s s e r i o u s a s t h e 1 8 7 6 - 8 G r e a t
F a m i n e . By t h e n , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r a i l w a y s h a d made
r e l i e f w o r k e a s i e r .
U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s o f A g r a a n d Oudh
The P r o v i n c e o f A g r a , f o u n d e d i n 1 8 3 4 , was 83 1 9 8 s q u a r e
m i l e s i n e x t e n t , w h i l e t h a t o f Oudh, f o u n d e d i n 1 8 5 6 , c o v e r e d
2 3 9 6 6 s q u a r e m i l e s . ( T h e y w i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o a s U n i t e d
P r o v i n c e s h e r e i n a f t e r ) . I n t h e n o r t h , t h e y w e r e b o u n d e d b y
T i b e t . N e p a l b o r d e r e d o n t h e n o r t h - e a s t , w h i l e i n t h e e a s t
a n d s o u t h - e a s t t h e r e g i o n was b o u n d e d b y f o u r B e n g a l d i s t r i c t s .
To t h e s o u t h l a y t w o o f t h e C h o t a N a g p u r s t a t e s i n t h e C e n t r a l
P r o v i n c e s ; a n d t o t h e w e s t w e r e t h e P u n j a b a n d t h e R a j p u t a n a
A g e n c y .
The U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s (UP) h a d f o u r d i s t i n c t t r a c t s , n a m e l y ,
t h e H i m a l a y a n , t h e s u b - H i m a l a y a n , t h e I n d o - G a n g e t i c P l a i n ,
a n d t h e C e n t r a l I n d i a n h i l l t r a c t . By f a r t h e l a r g e s t was
t h e I n d o - G a n g e t i c P l a i n , w h i c h made u p o v e r o n e - h a l f o f t h e
U P . To t h e w e s t o f t h e g r e a t p l a i n w e r e 1 3 d i s t r i c t s i n t h e
'snoJawnu aJam
'ur6r~o npur~ jo osle 's~yyej aqq pue seqeln~ aql *rz~ea pue
'?la1 re^ 'euqag 'sqndre~ aJam saueu aqsea npur~ qq~m sur~snw
'(7;~'o) s~eqhnw pue '(7~5'0) sp?Ares '(769'1) suewed '(%L'Z)
sqyreqs aqq a~am sdno~6 ayyl-aqsea sno~awnu qsow aqq 'swylsn~
aq7 6uowW '(5'6Z) SeqPol Pue ' (765'2) SJeqeI ' (5'65'2) s?sed
'(76L) sqndrekl '(%6'L) sJ?qW '(760'6) su?uqeJ€l '(7621) sJeueq3
:a~am saqsea sno~aunu qsou qq6ra aqq 'dn aqq UI 'paqsrxa
aJnqanJqs aqsea learqa~e~arq e 'Aauapysa~d se~pew aqq ur sw
'SclyrS Pue
'seA~w 'suye~ osle aJam aJaql 'suerqsr~q3 769'0 pue 'wylsnid
yhf7~ 'snpur~ aJam 7658 'lo61 UT -qsrl6u] pue rleda~ 'r~e6uag
se vans 'dn aqq oq u6ya~o4 aJam qeqq sa6en6uel aJam aJaqq qnq
'uayods sem r~eqed ~e~qua3 'sll?~ aqq u1 *dn aqq JO sa6en6uel
urew aa~qq aqq aJam rJeqrg pue rpur~ u~aqse3 'rpur~ uJaqsaM
"106T u? OL 07 Paqunowe (000 OZ Pue 000 Oluaamqaq) sumo7
llews alrqm '0~ paJaqwnu (000 00l Japun) sumoq pazrs-un~paw
*qn~aa~ pue 'AllraJag 'peqeqe~~w 'e~6~ '(~ndue]) a~odume3
'sa~euag Aq pamo~~oj sem 71 '690 1792 jo uo~qelndod e peq
1061 uy qa~qm 'mouyanl sem qarqm jo qsab~el aqq '000 001 JaAo
uorqelndod e peq sarq~a JO sumoq ~orew uaAaS Oaldoad 000 z pue
005 uaamqaq sazrs ur 6urA~e~ sa6ellr~ ur paqeaol aJam woqm jo
jleq-auo J~AO 'sea~e le~n~ u~ pa~rl aldoad aqq jo 7668 *uTeld
a~qa6ue9 aqq jo q~ed uJaqsea aqq u? oq qae~q ueAelew7~
aqq u~ al~w a~enbs aqq oq suos~ad 56 wo~j 6ur6ue~ Aq~suap qq~m
'uor~~~w 8f7 Al~eau sem 1061 UT dn aqq JO uo~qelndod leqoq aql
*seueb~ed se umouy suorsr~rp ~allews sno~awnu
Pue slrsqeq LTZ oqu? PaP?A?Pqns aJam s7aTJqsTP a47 'l06l UI
*uo~ll~w auo jo uorqelndod a6e~a~e ue qqrm auo qaea 'sqar~qs~p
of7 aJam aJaq1 *uorllrw 9 oq 5 uaamqaq jo uorqelndod e qq~m
qaea 'l06l u? suo?s?A?P 6 Peq dn a41 's73TJqSrp 5 pun04
aq oq aJam qsea aqq u~ pue !sqa~~qs?p ZT Ael aJquaa aqq ur
!(s~anru eunwer aqq pue sa6ue3 aqq uaamqaq eaJe aqq) qeoa
J u s t o v e r 3 1 m i l l i o n p e o p l e ( o r 6 6 % ) d e p e n d e d o n a g r i c u l t u r e
i n t h e UP, o f whom 7 5 % w e r e t e n a n t s , 1 4 % f i e l d l a b o u r e r s , a n d
11% l a n d l o r d s . The l a n d t e n u r e was z a m i n d a r i g e n e r a l l y ,
a l t h o u g h i n t h e e a s t e r n p a r t s t h e l a n d t e n u r e r e s e m b l e d t h e
r y o t w a r i s y s t e m . I n n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l o c c u p a t i o n s , 1 4 % w e r e
e n g a g e d i n f a c t o r y w o r k , a n d 3 ,7% w e r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f t e x t i l e f a b r i c s a n d d r e s s .
Whea t ( 1 8 X ) , r i c e ( 1 4 % ) , g r a m ( 1 3 % ) , a n d b a r l e y ( 1 0 % ) made
u p t h e s t a p l e c r o p s ; a n d c o m m e r c i a l l y v i a b l e c r o p s w e r e :
sesame, m u s t a r d , c a s t o r , c o t t o n , hemp a n d o p i u m . Cane s u g a r
was g r o w n i n p l a c e s l i k e B a r e i l l y , G o r a k h p o r e ( G o r a k p u r ) ,
a n d B e n a r e s , b u t made u p o n l y 3 % o f t h e c o m m e r c i a l c r o p .
W e a v i n g a n d d y e i n g w e r e i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r i e s , w i t h c a s t e s
l i k e K o i r i s ( H i n d u s ) a n d J u l a h a s ( M u s l i m s ) b e i n g t h e c h i e f
w e a v e r s . B r a s s - a n d c o p p e r - m a k i n g a n d p o t t e r y t o o w e r e
i m p o r t a n t i n t h e UP.
The UP was p e r i o d i c a l l y a f f e c t e d b y n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s .
S c a r c i t i e s a n d f a m i n e s o c c u r r e d . T h e s e n a t u r a l e v e n t s w e r e
p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m a s s i v e i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l
movemen ts o f t h e UP p e o p l e . I n t h e 1 8 9 0 s , 8 0 0 0 0 0 p e o p l e
a r e s a i d t o h a v e moved t o o t h e r p a r t s o f I n d i a , a n d o v e r
1 0 0 0 0 0 a b r o a d a s i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s .
B i h a r
B i h a r was one o f t h e f o u r s u b d i v i s i o n s i n t h e l a r g e s t a n d
m o s t p o p u l o u s r e g i o n i n B r i t i s h I n d i a i n 1 9 0 1 , n a m e l y t h e
B e n g a l P r e s i d e n c y . The o t h e r t h r e e w e r e B e n g a l p r o p e r ,
C h o t a N a g p u r , a n d O r i s s a . I t s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was n e a r l y
m i l l i o n , w i t h 9 5 % b e i n g r u r a l l y b a s e d . B i h a r , f r o m
w h i c h N a t a l ' s i m m i g r a n t s came, o c c u p i e d t h e n o r t h - w e s t e r n
q u a r t e r o f t h e p r e s i d e n c y , a n d was o r g a n i s e d i n t o t w o d i v i s i o n s .
B i h a r ' s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was ~ 4 ~ ' ~ m i l l i o n . P a t n a D i v i s i o n
c o n s i s t e d o f 1 5 1 j 2 m i l l i o n p e o p l e w i t h 35 t o w n s a n d 34 1 6 9
v i l l a g e s , w h i l e t h e B h a g a l p u r D i v i s i o n h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f
e 3 / 4 m i l l i o n w i t h 1 5 t o w n s a n d 2 1 656 v i l l a g e s . W h i l e t h e r e
w e r e 63% H i n d u s a n d 33% M u s l i m s f o r t h e p r e s i d e n c y a s a w h o l e ,
H i n d u s w e r e n u m e r o u s i n B i h a r . The t w o m a j o r l a n g u a g e s i n
t h e p r e s i d e n c y w e r e B e n g a l i s p o k e n b y 53% o f t h e p e o p l e , a n d
H i n d i ( i n c l u d i n g B i h a r i ) s p o k e n b y 34% o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s .
As f o r t h e H i n d u c a s t e s y s t e m , t h e A h i r s , B r a h m i n s , Chamars ,
K a y a s t h s , a n d T e l i s w e r e t o b e f o u n d a l m o s t e v e r y w h e r e i n
t h e p r e s i d e n c y . The A h i r s w e r e t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s w i t h a
p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 0 1 . H o w e v e r , c a s t e s l i k e
R a j p u t s , K u r m i s , K o i r i s , D o s a d h s , and Babhans w e r e t o b e
f o u n d . i n B i h a r o n l y .
R i c e was t h e s i n g l e - m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o o d c r o p i n a p r e s i d e n c y
i n w h i c h 71:; o f t h e p e o p l e d e p e n d e d o n a g r i c u l t u r e . J u t e
was a n i m p o r t a n t c o m m e r c i a l c r o p ; a n d t h e B e n g a l c o a l m i n e s
p r o d u c e d 83% o f t h e t o t a l c o a l o u t p u t i n I n d i a . C o t t o n a n d
s i l k goods w e r e p r o d u c e d , b u t mach ine -made g o o d s f r o m E u r o p e
h a d a s e r i o u s i m p a c t u p o n I n d i a ' s e x p o r t t r a d e . As The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a r e c o r d e d , "The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
m a c h i n e r y i n E u r o p e h a s n o t o n l y k i l l e d t h e e x p o r t t r a d e , b u t
h a s f l o o d e d t h e c o u n t r y w i t h c h e a p p i e c e g o o d s a n d s e r i o u s l y
c r i p p l e d t h e w e a v i n g i n d u s t r y . ' 1 5
F i n a l l y , o v e r o n e - h a l f o f B i h a r was l i a b l e t o f a m i n e . These
were s e r i o u s c r o p f a i l u r e s i n 1 8 7 4 a n d i n 1 8 9 6 - 9 7 , and t h e
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e s e n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s w e r e w i d e l y f e l t .
G e o q r a p h i c a l S o u r c e s f o r N a t a l ' s I n d i a n s
Those among N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s who w e r e r e c r u i t e d
f r o m d i s t r i c t s i n t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y e m b a r k e d a t M a d r a s
C i t y p o r t h a v e b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a s M a d r a s P a s s e n g e r s i n T a b l e
11. Those r e c r u i t e d i n t h e UP a n d B i h a r , a n d who e m b a r k e d
a t t h e p o r t o f C a l c u t t a h a v e f o r c o n v e n i e n c e b e e n c a l l e d
C a l c u t t a P a s s e n g e r s . ( S e e T a b l e 1 3 ) The p l a c e s o f o r i g i n
i n c o r p o r a t e names o f z i l l a h s ( d i s t r i c t s ) , t a l u k s / t a h s i l ,
t o w n s , a n d t h a n n a s . O f t e n t h e name o f t h e t o w n was t h e
same a s t h a t o f z i l l a h a n d t h a n n a . A t a l u k , a s f o r e x a m p l e
i n A r c o t , b o r e t h e same name a s t h e z i l l a h . Names o f p l a c e s
w e r e e n t e r e d i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r a s t h e y a p p e a r e d i n t h e
s h i p ' s l i s t s . D i s t r i c t s w e r e n o t s e p a r a t e d f r o m t a l u k s f o r
f e a r o f m i s i d e n t i f y i n g p l a c e s . Hence , t h e r e a r e some a n o m a l i e s
i n t h e t a b l e s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n T a b l e 11 f o r M a d r a s P a s s e n g e r ,
N o r t h a n d S o u t h A r c o t a r e c o m b i n e d , b u t n i n e t a l u k s w i t h i n
t h e s e t w o d i s t r i c t s a r e e n t e r e d s e p a r a t e l y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a
p a t t e r n o f g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n d o e s a p p e a r . I t s h o u l d
a l s o b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e v i l l a g e s a r e t o o n u m e r o u s a n d
d i v e r s e t o a d d u p t o s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e s i n t h e f r e q u e n c y
c o u n t s . Hence v i l l a g e names do n o t a p p e a r i n t h e t a b l e s .
I t s h o u l d a l s o b e n o t e d , f u r t h e r , t h a t t h e p l a c e names a s
t h e y a p p e a r i n t h e t a b l e s h a v e b e e n t a k e n v e r b a t i m f r o m t h e
s h i p ' s l i s t s . No a t t e m p t h a s b e e n made t o s t a n d a r d i s e t h e
names o f p l a c e s . The m o d e r n v e r s i o n o f t h e s p e l l i n g i s
p l a c e d i n b r a c k e t s a f t e r t h e o r i g i n a l p l a c e names.
( a ) M a d r a s P a s s e n g e r s
The p l a c e s i n N o r t h a n d S o u t h A r c o t s u p p l i e d 24% o f t h e
t o t a l o f 5 9 662 i n T a b l e 11. The N o r t h A r c o t t a l u k s t h a t
a p p e a r i n t h e t a b l e a r e A r n e e , C h i t t o o r , G u d i y a t a m , P o l o o r ,
T i r u t a n i , V e l l o r e , W a l l a j a h a n d Wandewash. On t h e a v e r a g e
t h e t a l u k p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was 1 8 0 000 . The d i s t r i c t i t -
s e l f h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f n e a r l y 21/4 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 0 1 . Some
o f t h e m a j o r t o w n s w e r e : C h i t t o o r , V e l l o r e , G u d i y a t a m ,
T i r u p a t i , W a l a j a p e t , a n d A r c o t . C h i t t o o r , t h e d i s t r i c t h e a d -
q u a r t e r s , h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 0 8 9 3 i n 1 9 0 1 . H i n d u s made
u p 9 4 % o f t h e d i s t r i c t ' s p o p u l a t i o n , w h i l e M u s l i m a n d
C h r i s t i a n made u p 5 % a n d 1% r e s p e c t i v e l y i n 1 9 0 1 . T a m i l
was s p o k e n b y 56% a n d T e l u g u b y 39% o f t h e r e s i d e n t s . The
m o s t n u m e r o u s T a m i l c a s t e s i n 1 9 0 1 w e r e : P a l l i , P a r i a h , a n d
8 *suorqe~6yw TeuJaqxa pue yeu~aqur
paqe~nwrqs a~eq am Leu 8~-9~8t u~ auruej 6urqeqsenap
-6uruueq-~aqqea~ pue Suyneam-y~rs 'uoqqoa puno~e apeJq
awos '~a~amoq 'sen aJaql *Aeqsuyeu arwouoaa s,qar~qsyp aqq
sen 'uaqsAs r~enqoK~ aqq ~apun A~ja~ya 'a~nqTn3r~6~ .A~uyeu
\ s~a~noqe~ ~e~nq~nar~6e aJam '(:;oz) s~~~ed pue '(76~~) syerJed
'saqsea ~rwel qsa6~e~ omq aq1 *n6n~al ayods ~aq~enb-auo 6ur
-urewa~ aqq pue '~~uel ayods uorqe~ndod aqq 40 s~aq~enb-aa~q1
-4aea 7;z qnoqe paqnqrqsuoa suerqsr~q3 pue swr~snw a~rqm
'~06~ ur uorqeTndod aqq 40 7696 dn apew snpur~ -(qadepres)
qndepAs pue '(i ~n~~e~n~rl) aJoTTaAyJ1 '(~JaUUOd) Jauuod
'ueyequeJnpeW 'ue~eAarCuo3 'qnda~6uyq3 :TT a~qel ur ~eadde
syn~eq xrs sqr TTV *a~yu aJenbs ad suos~ad L~L 40 a6e~a~e
ue 47Fm T06T ur ZTZ ZTE T 40 uor7eTndod e Peq 7seo3 qsea
aqq uo qar~qsrp paqe~ndod A~asuap srq1 *~eqe~ 07 s~a6uassed
se~pew aqq 40 :;OT A~~eau pay~ddns qnda~6urq3 40 qar~qsrp aq1
L *qar~qs~p TeJnqTnarJ6e A~queuruopa~d syqq ur aqse3
6urpe~q jar43 aqq aJam srqqaq3 aq1 *(Ja~qqoa) ueAr~ryyeq3 pue
'(~ay~om-qq~ea) appo '(JapeJq) rqewon 'eCrTeg 'ewwey 'nden
ayy~ saqsea n6n~al 40 s~aqwnu ~~ews os~e aJam aJaql *ueArep~
pue 'eTeyTaA 'qeyJed 'r~Ted :a~am saqsea ~ruel uyeu aqq
'qar~qsrp 6uryeads-~rwel A~queurwopa~d v *:;q 40 aaue~eq aqq
paqnqrqsuoa suerqsrJq3 pue 'surer 'swrTsnw a~rqrn 'snpur~ 40 dn
apew sen uo~qe~ndod aqq 40 7;~6 *(qarJqsrp aqq ur umoq ~oCeu
e os~e sr aJ.oTeppn3) *000 OOE J~AO sen '106'1 ur uorqe~ndod
a6e~a~e asoqm 'weandr~Tr~ pue weuen~url 'a~0Teppn-J aJe asaq1
*ff a~qel u~ paqaa~ja~ aJe syn~eq aaJqq 'uo~~~rw Q z Jano /'I
sen ~06~ ur uoTqe~ndod asoqm 'qoa~v qqnos qar~qsrp aqq ~oj
9 'SeTqqel
I pue sqyreqs aJam swr~snw aqq 6uouv *ewwey pue 'err~eg
'e~ew *ride] :a~am saqsea n6n~al 6urpea~ aq1 *eye~~aA
TABLE 11
PLACES OF ORIGIN FOR MADRAS PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
(PERCENTAGES)
0 I 4
I 0
PLACES c & cr. i g > 4 4 4 4 4 4 - I I 1 - 1 I
Unknown 15,2 8,6 - 72,3 32,8 5,4 0,4 7,9 12,2 7,5 0,7 , 7 ,7 ' 12 ,3 19,4 12,2 2 3 , l Arcot ,Nor th
4,6 3,O - 1,8 0,6 1,4 1,2 3 , O r 9 , 5 6,8 9,4 2 , l 5,4 5,5 9,4 5,4 & South
Arnee A t h u r Uangalor e ~ J e l l a r y D o b b i l l i Cassirnode Chingleput C h i t t o o r Coinbatore Con j ievararn Cuddalore Cuddapah Erode Gan jam Gods very Gonda Gudiyatarn K i s t n a Madras Madura - : :adurantakam : .ysore : iagery ellore ore . Palakonda, Pedapore Polo o r Ponneri Ra jarnund r y Salem Sydaput Ta(i j o r e -(indivanam r i n n e v e l l y T i r u t a n i T r i ch i nopo l y T r i v e l l o r e Ve l l o re Vi l lupurarn Vizagapatarn Wal la j a h Wandew:.vh Tr inamala i
* N
C
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I-
OW
W
I I
I
I "
I "
"
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N
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0
0
0
bl
I-
OI
-0
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I -
I"
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"
"
4
bl
V)
m4
wm
ON
I-
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-
I I
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WC
ha
3C
N
OO
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a3
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ov
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w
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KEY - ARCOT
c I~ INGLEPUT
CHITTOOR
CONJIEVARAM
MADRAS
MADURANTAXA??
POLOUR
WALLAJAH
WANDEWASH
M: LEADING PLACES
- A C D E ' F G H I
LEAD 1 NG PLACES
MADRAS
m i l l i o n p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 , made up o f 81% H i n d u s , 11%
M u s l i m s , a n d 8% C h r i s t i a n s . T a m i l was t h e l a n g u a g e o f 75%
o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s , w h i l e T e l u g u t h a t o f t h e r e m a i n i n g 25%.
P a r i a h s , V e l l a l a s , a n d P a l l i s w o r k e d a s l a b o u r e r s i n t h e
f i f t h - m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o r t o f I n d i a . The T e l u g u B a l i j a c a s t e
made u p a n i m p o r t a n t m e r c h a n t c l a s s i n t h e c i t y . The V a n i -
y a n s ( o i l p r e s s e r s ) w e r e s u b s t a n t i a l i n n u m b e r s , a s w e r e
t h e B r a h m i n s . 9
The d i s t r i c t o f V i z a g a p a t a m , f r o m w h i c h 2 ,7% o f a l l M a d r a s
p a s s e n g e r s t o N a t a l came b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 0 2 , i s o n e o f
t h e l a r g e s t i n I n d i a . S p r e a d o v e r 1 7 222 s q u a r e m i l e s , i t s
p o p u l a t i o n o f 2 9 3 3 6 5 0 i n 1 9 0 1 , l i v e d i n 1 2 t o w n s a n d 1 2 032
v i l l a g e s . The t o w n o f V i z a g a p a t a m was o n e among t h e d o z e n
t o w n s , a d i s t r i c t h e a d q u a r t e r s , w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 0 892
i n 1 9 0 1 . T h r e e o f t h e 23 t a l u k s i n t h e d i s t r i c t a r e r e f l e c t e d
i n T a b l e 11. These a r e B o b b i l i , P a l a k o n d a , a n d V i z a g a p a t a r n .
T e l u g u i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e i n t h e d i s t r i c t w h i c h
c o n s i s t e d o f 99% H i n d u s i n 1 9 0 1 . The m a i n T e l u g u c a s t e s w e r e :
K a p u s , V e l a m a s , a n d T e l a g a s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f whom w e r e a g r i -
c u l t u r a l i s t s . M a l a s a n d G o l l a s , a l s o n u m e r o u s , w e r e f i e l d
l a b o u r e r s a n d s h e p h e r d s . R i c e was t h e s t a p l e c r o p i n t h i s
d i s t r i c t , m a k i n g up 32% o f t h e f o o d c r o p . Some s u g a r c a n e
was a l s o g r o w n . 1 0
The n o r t h - e a s t e r n c o a s t a l T e l u g u - s p e a k i n g d i s t r i c t o f G o d a v a r i
c o n s i s t e d o f 1 2 t a l u k s , t w o o f w h i c h , P e d d a p o r e ( P e d d a p o r u r n )
a n d R a j a m u n d r y , a p p e a r i n T a b l e 11. F r o m G o d a v a r i i t s e l f ,
1,276 o f N a t a l ' s i m m i g r a n t s came. The d i s t r i c t ' s p o p u l a t i o n
was o v e r 21/4 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 0 1 , 9 7 % o f t h e p e o p l e b e i n g H i n d u s .
7 3 % o f t h e d i s t r i c t ' s r e s i d e n t s d e p e n d e d o n a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d
t h e c u l t i v a t i n g c a s t e s among t h e T e l u g u s w e r e : K a p u , M a l a ,
I n d i g a ( a t o d d y - d r a w i n g c a s t e ) , a n d Kamma. R i c e was t h e
c h i e f c r o p , a l t h o u g h some s u g a r c a n e was g r o w n c o m m e r c i a l l y . 11
N e l l o r e i s a n o t h e r c o a s t a l d i s t r i c t , whose p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1
was n e a r l y 11j2 m i l l i o n . N e l l o r e was a l s o a t o w n a n d a
t a l u k . I n 1 9 0 1 , 9 0 % o f t h e d i s t r i c t ' s p e o p l e were H i n d u s ,
6 % M u s l i m s , a n d 4 % C h r i s t i a n s . T e l u g u was t h e l a n g u a g e o f
9 3 % o f t h e p e o p l e . And t h e l e a d i n g T e l u g u c a s t e s i n t h e
d i s t r i c t w e r e : K a p u , Kamma, M a l a , znd G o l l a . N e l l o r e ' s
e c o n o m y w a s s o m e w h a t m o r e d i v e r s i f i e d , a l t h o u g h t h e d e p e n d e n c e
o n a g r i c u l t u r e was a p p a r e n t . L e a t h e r - w o r k , w e a v l ~ i g , b a n g l e -
m a k i n g , a n d c a t t l e - b r e e d i n g were a m o n g t h e o t h e r f o r m s o f
e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y . 1 2
S a l e m a n d A t h u r ( A t u r ) a r e t w o t a l u k s t h a t a p p e a r i n T a b l e
11. T h e y f a l l w i t h i n t h e S a l e m d i s t r i c t w h o s e p o p u l a t i o n
i n 1 9 0 1 w a s a b o u t z 1 l 4 m i l l i o n . S a l e m was a l s o o n e o f t h e
11 t o w n s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . I n 1 9 0 1 , T a m i l w a s s p o k e n b y 7 1 %
o f t h e p e o p l e , a n d T e l u g u b y 1 9 % o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . 9 6 % o f
t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 w a s m a d e u p o f H i n d u s , M u s l i m s a n d
C h r i s t i a n s c o n s t i t u t i n g 3 % a n d 0,976 r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e m a j o r
c a s t e s w e r e : P a l l i , V e l l a l a n , P a r i a h , a n d K u r u m b a n ( s h e p h e r d s ) .
An a g r i c u l t u r a l d i s t r i c t l i k e s o many o t h e r d i s t r i c t s i n t h e
p r e s i d e n c y , i t was a l s o a c h i e f e x p o r t e r o f c a t t l e . 1 3
T h e d i s t r i c t s o f C o i m b a t o r e , G a n j a m , K i s t n a , T a n j o r e , T i n n e -
v e l l y , a n d T r i c h i n o p o l y a r e m i n o r s o u r c e s o f N a t a l ' s i n d e n t u r e d
i m m i g r a n t s . H i n d u s m a d e u p t h e p r e d o m i n a n t r e l i g i o u s g r o u p i n
t h e s e d i s t r i c t s . I n T i n n e v e l l y , C h r i s t i a n s m a d e u p 8% o f t h e
p o p u l a t i o n . And i n t h e t o w n o f C u d d a p a h i n t h e C o i m b a t o r e
d i s t r i c t , 507; o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s M u s l i m . I n a l l t h e d i s -
t r i c t s a g r i c u l t u r e w a s t h e b a s i s o f t h e e c o n o m y , a n d t h e p o p u -
l a t i o n was p r e d o m i n a n t l y r u r a l , e x c e p t i n T i n n e v e l l y , w h e r e
2 3 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u r b a n . C o i m b a t o r e a n d G a n j a m w e r e
T e l u g u - s p e a k i n g w i t h t h e u s u a l T e l u g u c a s t e s , w h i l e T a n j o r e ,
T i n n e v e l l y , a n d T r i c h i n o p o l y w e r e T a m i l - s p e a k i n g w i t h T a m i l
c a s t e s . I n C o i m b a t o r e , t h e V e l l a l a c a s t e c o n s t i t u t e d 3 1 % o f
t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I n a l l t h e T a m i l d i s t r i c t s , t h e p e r c e n t a g e
o f t h e P a r i a h c a s t e w a s v e r y h i g h , a s i t was t h e c a s e f o r
o t h e r c a s t e s l i k e P a l l a n a n d P a l l i . T h e d o m i n a n t T e l u g u
c a s t e s were K a p p u o r R e d d i , B a l i j a , C h a k k i l i y a n a n d O d d e .
Among t h e M u s l i m s , t h e r e w a s t h e same c a s t e - l i k e s t r u c t u r e
a s i n o t h e r d i s t r i c t s . S h a i k h s , S a i y i d s a n d P a t h a n s
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e m s e l v e s f r o m L a b b a i s a n d o t h e r s . 1 4
B a n g l o r e a n d M y s o r e r e f l e c t e d i n T a b l e 11, were n o t p a r t
o f t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y . S i n c e m i g r a n t s u s u a l l y were
r e q u i r e d t o g i v e h o m e d i s t r i c t s , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t r e c r u i t s
w e r e e n l i s t e d f a r a w a y f r o m h o m e . G o n d a , h o w e v e r , w a s
l o c a t e d i n t h e UP f a r i n t h e n o r t h , a n d i t s p r e s e n c e i n
T a b l e 11 seems d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n .
T a b l e 11 s h o w s t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f i m m i g r a n t s f r o m
p l a c e s l i k e C h i n g l e p u t , C h i t t o o r , M a d r a s , M y s o r e a n d S a l e m
w e r e h i g h i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s . A s t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m
b e c a m e e s t a b l i s h e d , r e c r u i t m e n t n o d o u b t b e c a m e m o r e s y s t e m a t i c .
H e n c e , t h e p a t t e r n o f r e c r u i t m e n t b e c a m e m o r e e v e n l y b a l a n c e d .
Of c o u r s e , t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s a r e r e l a t e d t o c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e
d i f f e r e n t a r e a s , a n d t h e r e a r e u n f o r t u n a t e l y n o s t a t i s t i c s
t o c o r r e l a t e t h e v a r i a t i o n s t o t h e s p e c i f i c p l a c e s i n t h e
s a m p l e .
( b ) C a l c u t t a P a s s e n q e r s
I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e p l a c e s o f o r i g i n o f t h e C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s ,
i t w o u l d b e c o n v e n i e n t t o s e p a r a t e t h e UP a n d B i h a r . P a t t e r n s
o f g e o g r a p h i c a n d c a s t e d i s t r i b u t i o n w o u l d b e i l l u s t r a t e d
m o r e c l e a r l y i n t h a t w a y .
( i ) U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s o f A g r a a n d Oudh
O f t h e 44 p l a c e n a m e s t h a t a p p e a r i n T a b l e 1 3 , n e a r l y t w o -
t h i r d s a r e f r o m t h e UP. T h e f o u r l e a d i n g d i s t r i c t s w e r e
A z i m g h u r ( A z a m g a r h ) , B u s t e e ( B a s t i ) , G h a z e e p o r e ( G h a z i p u r )
a n d G o n d a . ' T o t a l l y , t h e y s u p p l i e d o v e r 2 7 % o f t h e C a l c u t t a
H F o r t h e s a k e o f c o n s i s t e n c y t h e s p e l l i n g s o f p l a c e s a s t h e y a p p e a r e d o n t h e s h i p ' s l i s t s , a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y , a r e u s e d . T h e m o d e r n s p e l l i n g s o f t h e n a m e s a r e g i v e n i n b r a c k e t .
p a s s e n g e r s b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 0 2 . These d i s t r i c t s r u n i n
a l i n e f r o m t h e e a s t t o t h e n o r t h - e a s t . ( S e e Map 4 )
A z i m g h u r ' s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was o v e r l1I2 m i l l i o n ,
r e s i d i n g i n 1 2 t o w n s a n d 4 6 5 8 v i l l a g e s . H i n d u s made up
8 6 5 o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a n d M u s l i m a m o u n t e d t o 1 4 % i n 1 9 0 1 .
B i h a r i was s p o k e n b y 9476 o f t h e p e o p l e . The c a s t e p a t t e r n
was d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t i n t h e I'ladras P r e s i d e n c y . .Chamars
w e r e m o s t n u m e r o u s (16,876), f o l l o w e d b y A h i r s ( 1 4 k ) ,
B r a h m i n s (776), R a j p u t s o r C h h a t r i s ( 6 % ) . B h a r s ( l a b o u r e r s ) ,
K o i r i s , B h u i n a r s ( a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s ) , L u n i a s ( s a l t p e t r e
w o r k e r s ) , a n d B a n i a s w e r e a l s o numerous . J u l a h a s a n d S h a i k h s
among t h e M u s l i m s w e r e more o r l e s s e v e n l y d i v i d e d w i t h 3,576
e a c h . P a t h a n s n u m b e r e d 1,776. A g r i c u l t u r e s u p p o r t e d 60%.
The l a r g e s t l a n d h o l d e r s i n t h e d i s t r i c t w e r e R a j p u t s (33?6 ) ,
B h u i n a r s (1776), a n d B r a h m i n s ( 1 0 % ) .15
B u s t e e ( B a s t i ) d i s t r i c t ' s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 0 1 was 1 846 1 5 3 .
One o f t h e t a h s i l s b o r e t h e same name a s t h e d i s t r i c t .
H i n d u s made up 8476 o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n d t h e M u s l i m s 1 4 %
i n t h i s d i s t r i c t w h i c h was a l m o s t e n t i r e l y B i h a r i - s p e a k i n g .
The f i v e l e a d i n g c a s t e s w e r e Chamars ( 1 5 X ) , B r a h m i n s ( l o % ) ,
A h i r s ( l o % ) , a n d K u r m i ( 8 % ) . N o t q u i t e a s numerous w e r e :
B a n i a s , R a j p u t s , K a h a r s , K e w a t s , a n d B h a r s . Among t h e
M u s l i m s , t h e c a s t e - l i k e s t r u c t u r e s w e r e : S h a i k h s , J u l a h a r s ,
P a t h a n s a n d M u s l i m R a j p u t s . 6 6 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n l i v e d o f f
a g r i c u l t u r e . A h i r s , K u r m i s , a n d Chamars were l a r g e c u l t i -
v a t o r s , b u t t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e l a n d was owned b y B r a h m i n s a n d
R a j p u t s . The c a s t e K o i r i was n o t e d f o r i t s s k i l l i n w e a v i n g . 1 6
H i n d u s made up 9076 o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n f r o m among t h e p o p u l a t i o n
o f 913 818 i n 1 9 0 1 i n G h a z e e p o r e ( G h a z i p u r ) . The b a l a n c e
were M u s l i m s . And B h o j p u r i , a d i a l e c t o f B i h a r i , was t h e
t o n g u e o f 97% o f t h e d i s t r i c t ' s i n h a b i t a n t s . A h i r s , Chamars ,
R a j p u t s o r C h h a t r i s , K o i r i s , B r a h m i n s , B h a r s , B h u i n h a r s ,
a n d B i n d s w e r e t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s c a s t e s . B r a h m i n s , R a j p u t s
a n d B h u i n h a r s owned t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e l a n d i n a d i s t r i c t i n
*saap~oqpue~ a6ae~ aaam erueg pue 'syreqs 'spyA~e5 'aaoduney
UI ~seqe~nc pue sueqqed 'sy~eqs 'sprAre5 aaam 'sw-r~snw aqq
6uowv *saoqenrqTna poo6 se papae6aa aaam soeanw pue 'srwann
'seqpol Lsqr-,Jisu Oqae6qeqaad Due Laaodueq~oos ur 7~06 pue
'peqezrej u~ pue~ aqq 40 :;o< paumo sqndre~ aql *saaumopue~ aqq
A~~euorqrpeaq aaam sqndreu pue saeurnqg 'surwqeag .srqq3en
pue 's~a~oy 'serueg 'saeqg 's~sed 'soean~ 'sqemay 'sqnd
-Ceu 'sywann 'sarqv 'suruqeag 'saeueqg :aaam asaqq pue 'waqq
40 TT~ ur pun04 aq 07 aaam saqsea 6u~pea~ aqq qng .snoaawnu
qsow aqq aae surwqeag waqq 40 omq u? !aqsea 6urpea~ aqq aJe
saeweqg sq3~aqs~p 8 aqq 40 9 UI '~06~ u? npu~~ sem uorqe~ndod
aqq 40 7~06 07 asoy3 puv .uayods sr rqpemv 'a6en6ue.r urew
aqq sr raeqrg qa~qm ur 'saaeuag pue aaodyeaog qdaaxa TT~ UI
.peqeqel~v pue '(r~aaeg aeu) A~~yaaag aeu 'qaefiqeqaad 'saaeuag
'(anduney) aaoduney '(andueq~ns) aaodueqloo~ '(peqezAj)
peqezrej '(andyeaog) aaodqyeaog :papnlau~ qarqm sq3raqs~p 40
dnoa6 srqq woaj awe3 saa6uassed eqqn3Te3 a47 40 768'~ a6eaane
a47 UO '47nos a47 07 PeqeqeTTW Pue 47Jou a47 07 (~ndye~o3)
aaodqyeaog qq~m 'dn aqq ur s~xe qqnos-qqaou e u~ AeT awe3
squea6ywu~ s,~eqe~ 43~qm wo~j sq3raqsrp 40 dnoa6 qxau aq1
8~'TeqeN pue 'T~TJ 'sa~~u~ 7saM aqq
a04 squea6~wa paanquapu~ 40 saaqwnu a6aey parrddns q3raqsTp
s~ql *pue~ aqq 40 76~~ paqe~rq~na oqm squeuaq poo6 A~paqndaa
aaam s~qq3ey pue 'soeanw 'sirwan] aq1 *seqeTnc pue 'sueqqed
'sqy~eq~ :aaam asaqq pue 'saaqwnu ur aa~~ews A~qeaaprsuo3
aaam sdnoa6 wrysnb( aaqqo -pueT aqq 40 KZT paumo oqm 'sqnd
-Ceu wr~snw os~e aaam aaaq1 *serueg pue '(saauapae6-qayaew)
soeanw 'saeqen 'sqndre~ 's~wann 'STJTO~ 'sa~qv :aaam saqse3
snoaawnu aaqqo *'uorqeyndod s,q3~aqsjp aqq 40 y68~ dn apeiu 'puey
aqq 40 7661 paumo oqm 'surwqeag *a6en6ue~ queurwop aqq sem
Tqpemv '~06~ ur su~~snw pue snpur~ aaam 7658 *sa6el~~n
09~ z pue sumo7 8 punoae pasrue6ao sem ~06~ ur 561 £09 T
40 uorqe~ndod sq~ *epuo3 sem ~eda~ 40 qqnos aqq 07 qsnc
L T 'PooqTTaATT
e a04 aanqTna~a6e uodn paryaa aTdoad aqq 40 K~L 43~qm
60
TABLE 13
PLACES OF ORIGIN FOR CALCUTTA PASSENGERS, 1860-1902 -- (PERCENTAGES)
Unknown Agra A l i g u r h A l lahabad Ar rah Azimghur Badaon Bahra ich B a l l i a Bancoorah Banda Barabunk i Benares Bhara tpo re Bustee Cawnpore Chupra Dahabad E tah Etawah Fa izabad F u t t e h p o r e Gan jam Ghazeepore Gonda Go ruckpore G Y ~ Hazareebag Jaunpore Lucknow Mi rzapore Monghy r Mozaf f e r p o r e Muthra Nepal Patna Per tabgurh Poorooleoan Rae B e r e i l l y Sarun Sahabati 5001 tanpore T i r h o o t Unao Vizagapa tam
T O T A L
6 1
TABLE 14
LEADING PLACES OF ORIGIN FOR CALCUTTA PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
PLACES T o t a l 1860- 1874- 1877- 1879- 1883- 1886- 1890- 1892- 1894- 1896 1897 1898 1899- 1901 1902 Ave 6 6 7 7 7 8 82 8 5 89 9 1 93 9 5 1900
Al lahabad
Azimguhr
Benares
Bustee
Faizabad
Ghazeepore
Gonda
Goruckpore
Jaunpore
Pa tna
Per tabgurh
Rae B e r e i l l y
Sahabad
Sool tanpore
C : LEADING PLACES
KEY - A ALLAHBAD
B AZIMGUHR
C BENARES
E BUSTEE
E FAIZF.BAD
F GHAZEEPORE
h GONDA
ti GORUCKPORE
I JAUNPORE
J F4TNA
K PEriT~.BCUitH
L RAE BEREILLY
M SAHABAE
N SOOLTANPORE
A 0 C D E F G CI I J K L M N LEAD I NG PLACES
CALCUTTA
G u j a r s i n Rae B e r e i l l y a n d B e h n a s ( c o t t o n - c a r d e r s ) i n G o r a k h -
p o r e w e r e a l s o among t h e M u s l i m g r o u p s . 1 9
The UP d i s t r i c t s f r o m w h i c h o v e r 7 , 7 k o f t h e N a t a l i m m i -
g r a n t s came w e r e B a l l i r , i l i r z a p o r e ( M i r z a p u r ) , F a t t e h p o r e
( F a t e h p u r ) , Cawnpore ( K a n p u r ) , Unao, a n d L u c k n o w . These
d i s t r i c t s s u r r o u n d e d t h e e i g h t d i s t r i c t s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e .
The r e c r u i t m e n t o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s was much l e s s
i n t e n s e i n t h e s e d i s t r i c t s . The l a r g e s t was Cawnpore a n d
t h e s m a l l e s t was F a t t e h p o r e . H i n d u s p r e d o m i n a t e d i n a l l ,
e x c e p t i n Lucknow where t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n was 20%.
B i h a r i was t h e m a i n l a n g u a g e i n M i r z a p o r e , b u t i n a l l t h e
o t h e r s A w a d h i was t h e m a j o r l a n g u a g e o f t h e p e o p l e . The
c a s t e s t r u c t u r e among t h e H i n d u s was t h e same a s i n o t h e r
UP d i s t r i c t s . I n m o s t o f t h e p r o v i n c e s , a g r i c u l t u r e was
t h e m a i n s t a y o f t h e economy, w i t h o v e r 7 0 % b e i n g s u p p o r t e d
b y i t . H o w e v e r , i n Lucknow, o n l y 52% d e p e n d e d o n a g r i c u l t u r e
f o r t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d . 2 0
A g r a , B a r a b a n k i ( B a r a B a n k i ) , B a h r a i c h , Banda , M u t h r a ( ~ a t h u r a ) ,
A l i g u r h ( A l i g a r h ) , E t a h ( E t a w a h ) , a n d B u d a u n a r e a l s o r e -
f l e c t e d i n T a b l e 1 3 . The p e r c e n t a g e o f e m i g r a n t s d r a w n f r o m
t h e s e a r e a s w e r e s m a l l i n o u r s a m p l e , b u t t h e y do i n d i c a t e
how w i d e t h e r e c r u i t m e n t c i r c l e was.
( i i ) B i h a r
N e a r l y 11% o f t h e C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s came f r o m t h e B i h a r
r e g i o n . The d i s t r i c t s m o s t p r o m i n e n t w e r e Sahabad ( S h a h a -
b a d ) , P a t n a , Gya ( G a y a ) , S a r u n ( S a r a n ) , M o z a f f e r p o r e
( M u z a f f a r p u r ) , M o n g h y r , a n d H a z a r e e b a g ( H a z a r i b a g h ) . ( S e e
Plap 5 ) A r r a h a n d C h u p r a w e r e p a r t s o f Sahabad a n d S a r u n
r e s p e c t i v e l y . The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e s e s e v e n d i s t r i c t s i n
1 9 0 1 was o v e r 1 4 m i l l i o n . T h e r e w e r e 36 t o w n s and 39 677
v i l l a g e s . 6 3 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was H i n d u a n d 33% M u s l i m
f o r t h e w h o l e o f t h e B e n y a l P r e s i d e n c y i n 1 9 0 1 . H o w e v e r ,
f o r B i h a r i t s e l f , t h e r e l i g i o u s b r e a k d o w n was 82% H i n d u s and
1 8 % M u s l i m s . T h e M a g a h i d i a l e c t o f B i h a r i w a s s p o k e n a m o n g
H i n d u s a n d A w a d h i w a s s p o k e n a m o n g t h e M u s l i m s b y a n d l a r g e . 2 1
T h e a v e r a g e p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h e s e v e n d i s t r i c t 6 m e n t i o n e d
a b o v e w a s a b o u t 2 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 0 1 . T h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y
w a s i n c r e d i b l y h i g h i n S a r u n : 8 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e m i l e .
T h e d i a l e c t s o f B i h a r i - B h o j p u r i , M a i t h l i , o r M a g a h i - were i n u s e a m o n g H i n d u s , a l t h o u g h A w a d h i was c o m m . o n d l y
u s e d b y t h e M u s l i m s . On t h e a v e r a g e 8 9 % were H i n d u s a n d 11%
M u s l i m s i n t h e s e v e n d i s t r i c t s . I n a l l t h e d i s t r i c t s , t h e
A h i r s o r G o a l a s ( o r G o l l a s a s i n t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y ) w e r e
t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s . T h e s e t w o c a s t e s o f c o w h e r d s were f o l l o w e d
i n n u m e r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e b y o t h e r c a s t e s common t o t h e w h o l e
r e g i o n , a n d t h e s e w e r e : B r a h m i n s , R a j p u t s , K o i r i s , C h a m a r s ,
D o s a d h s , B a b h a n s , K a h a r s , K u r m i s , K a n d u s , a n d T e l i s .
D h a n u k h s , M u s a h a r s , B a r h a i s , a n d D o s a d h s a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n
l a r g e l y c o n f i n e d t o B i h a r . Among t h e M u s l i m s , t h e J o l a h a s
were common t o a l l s e v e n d i s t r i c t s . T h e r e w e r e o t h e r M u s l i m
g r o u p s t o o , l i k e D h u n i a s a n d K u n j r a s . T h e i r e c o n o m i e s w e r e
s u b s t a n t i a l l y a g r i c u l t u r e - b a s e d . Some o f t h e d i s t r i c t s w e r e
p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o n e t o f a m i n e . S a h a b a d a p p e a r e d t o b e t h e
m o s t v u l n e r a b l e . I n t h e 1 8 7 3 d i s a s t e r , 7 5 % o f t h e r i c e c r o p
w a s d e s t r o y e d i n S a h a b a d . 2 2
T a b l e 13 s h o w s O a h a b a d a n d P o o r o o l e a n , w h i c h were n o t l o c a t e d .
R e f e r e n c e t o V i z a g a p a t a m , o n e o f t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y , may
b e e x p l a i n e d b y i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n , a l t h o u g h i t c e r t a i n l y
w a s f a r f r o m t h e n o r m a l r e c r u i t i n g g r o u n d s o f C a l c u t t a
p a s s e n g e r s .
I n c o n c l u d i n g t h i s c h a p t e r , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e a r e a s
d i s c u s s e d w e r e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y d o m i n a t e d b y a n a g r a r i a n
e c o n o m y , w i t h t h e b u l k o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n r u r a l l y b a s e d .
T h i s w a s m o r e s o i n t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y t h a n i n t h e UP
o r B i h a r w h e r e c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r y were much m o r e s u b -
s t a n t i a l . I n t h e UP, t h e u p p e r c a s t e s l i k e B r a h m i n s , R a j p u t s ,
a n d B h u i n h a r s w e r e l a r g e l a n d o w n e r s . I n a l m o s t e v e r y r e g i o n
*moqs ~~rm ~aqdeqa qxau ayq se aTdwes no JO quaur6as
qsa6~e~ aqq aqnqyqsuoa os~e qeqq sdno~6 asaqq sy qr puv
*snoJawnu qsou aqq aJam AauapTsaJd seJpeW aqq ur sue~e~~a~
pue sqe~md ayq pue '~eq~g UT eTeo3 JO s~~qv aqq 'dn
ayq uy s~eueqa aq1 *sno~atunu aJam Aqa~e~arq aqsea aqq JO
s6un~ JamoT aqq uo a~doad aqq '~aqdeqa s~qq ur passnasrp
N o t e s
1 The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a : The I n d i a n E m p i r e ,
p . 4 8 .
2 A l l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y comes f rom
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a , v o l . 1 6 , p p . 2 3 4 - 3 6 3 ,
3 A l l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s i s drawn f rom
The I m p e r i a l G a z a t t e e r o f I n d i a , v o l . 2 4 , p p . 1 3 2 - 2 7 6 .
4 I n f o r m a t i o n on B i h a r i s drawn f rom The I m p e r i a l
G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a , v o l . 7 , p p . 1 9 0 - 3 6 0 , v o l . 8 ,
p p . 1 7 1 - 7 3 .
5 I b i d . , v o l . 7 , p p . 266-271 .
6 I b i d . , v o l . 5 , p p . 4 0 3 - 4 2 0 .
7 I b i d . , v o l . 5 , p p . 420-437 .
8 - I b i d . , v o l . 1 6 , p p . 3 6 4 - 3 8 6 .
9 I b i d .
1 0 I b i d . , v o l . 2 4 , p p . 3 2 2 - 3 4 2 .
11 I b i d . , v o l . 1 2 , p p . 281-297 .
1 2 I b i d . , v o l . 1 9 , p p . 6 - 2 4 .
1 3 I b i d . , v o l . 2 1 , p p . 395-409 .
1 4 I b i d . , v o l . 1 0 , p p . 3 5 6 - 3 7 3 , v o l . 11, p p . 5 7 - 7 5 , v o l . 1 2 ,
p p . 3 1 9 - 3 3 4 , V O ~ . 2 3 , p p . 2 2 5 - 2 4 4 , 3 6 1 - 3 8 0 .
'COV-68C *dd 'LT 'TOA !~0~-<6 'dd '8~ *TOA
!<6-~8 'dd '11 'TOA !ZOZ-V6T 'dd 'IT 'TOA !oL-V~ 'dd
'01 'TOA !96-[-98T 'dd 'ZZ *TOA !< *d '9 'TOA '.pJqI
'(Je4J0 Jo4) ELT-TLT 'dd
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tc6T-6~~ 'dd 'L *TOA !v8-<L 'dd 'QT 'TOA !8<T-O<T 'dd - 'EZ 'ToA !8TT-60T 'zVE-TEE 'dd 'ZT *ToA "PT~I
'6TE-TTE 'dd 'L *ToA ''K
'ZEZ-ZZZ 'dd 'L *Ton ''M
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L?
CHAPTER 4
T h e S o c i o - E c o n o m i c B a c k g r o u n d o f t h e I m m i g r a n t s :
C a s t e a n d R e l i g i o n
I t h a s o f t e n b e e n s t a t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s t h a t t h e
p e o p l e who m i g r a t e d w e r e u s u a l l y o f l o w c a s t e . A s l o w
c a s t e o r o u t c a s t e i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e y were v e r y much o n t h e
p e r i p h e r y o f s o c i e t y , a n d h a d n o t h i n g b u t t h i e r d e g r a d a t i o n
t o l o s e b y m i g r a t i n g . I t i s t r u e t h a t a m o n g t h o s e who
m i g r a t e d were p e o p l e o f l o w c a s t e a n d o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s who
w e r e c o n s i d e r e d s o d e g r a d e d a s n o t t o e v e n f i t i n t o t h e
c a s t e h i e r a r c h y . H o w e v e r , s u c h p e r c e p t i o n s p l a c e f a r t o o
much e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e c a s t e s t r u c t u r e a s s u c h , a n d f a r t o o
l i t t l e o n t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h t h e c a s t e
s y s t e m o p e r a t e d . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d why p e o p l e o f e v e n
l o w c a s t e b a c k g r o u n d s m i g r a t e d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m i n e
t h e s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
I n d i a t h a t d i s l o d g e d p e o p l e f r o m t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l m o o r i n g s .
T h o s e d e v e l o p m e n t s a f f e c t e d t h e p o o r e s t s e c t i o n s o f t h e
p e o p l e , t o b e s u r e , b u t o f t e n a m o n g t h e m w e r e i n d i v i d u a l s o f
h i g h a n d m e d i u m s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s .
T h i s c h a p t e r b r i e f l y e x a m i n e s B r i t i s h e c o n o m i c p o l i c i e s i n
t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e s e may
b e r e l a t e d t o t h e c a s t e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e N a t a l i m m i g r a n t s
b e t w e e n 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 0 2 .
I n d i a n e c o n o m i c l i f e w a s s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d b y f o r m a l B r i t i s h
i m p e r i a l r u l e , a l t h o u g h t h e i m p a c t v a r i e d f r o m r e g i o n t o
r e g i o n . T h e i n d i g e n o u s h a n d i c r a f t i n d u s t r y w a s a t h r i v i n g
s e c t o r i n e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y I n d i a n e c o n o m y . I n d i a ' s i n t e r n a l
m a r k e t s w e r e s m a l l , y e t I n d i a n t e x t i l e s were w i d e l y s o l d
a b r o a d . S o u t h - e a s t A s i a , t h e A r a b c o u n t r i e s , a n d E a s t - A f r i c a
i m p o r t e d t e x t i l e g o o d s f r o m 1 n d i a . l T h e q u e s t i o n i s why
\ t h i s i n c i p i e n t i n d u s t r y d e c l i n e d i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
W h i l e t h e i m p a c t o f B r i t i s h r u l e , a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h
i t u n d e r m i n e d I n d i a ' s i n d i g e n o u s i n d u s t r i e s , a r e c o n t r o -
v e r s i a l s u b j e c t s a m o n g s c h o l a r s , t h e r e i s n o d o u b t t h a t
i m p e r i a l p o l i c i e s h a d a m a r k e d i n f l u e c e . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
o f B r i t i s h g o o d s , e s p e c i a l l y t e x t i l e s , r o s e s u b s t a n t i a l l y
f r o m £ 1 0 0 0 0 0 i n 1 8 1 3 t o £ 1 8 , 4 m i l l i o n i n 1 8 9 6 . E x c e p t i n
B e n g a l , t h e home m a r k e t s f o r o t h e r p a r t s o f I n d i a w e r e
d o m i n a n t ; a n d , s i n c e t h e r e w a s n o t a r i f f p r o t e c t i o n , t h e
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f B r i t i s h g o o d s o n I n d i a n m a r k e t s h a d s e r i o u s
r e p e r c u s s i o n s . T h e f r e e a c c e s s o f B r i t i s h g o o d s i n t o t h e
s u b c o n t i n e n t d e v a s t a t e d t h e I n d i a n h a n d i c r a f t c o t t o n i n d u s t r y .
T h e s p i n n i n g s e c t o r a l s o e x p e r i e n c e d a s e r i o u s s e t b a c k ,
a l t h o u g h t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h e a p e r y a r n i m p o r t s h e l p e d s o m e
o f t h e l o c a l w e a v e r s . N e a r l y o n e - t h i r d o f t h e i m p o r t s o f
t h e UP w a s made u p o f c o t t o n g o o d s . T h e e f f e c t g e n e r a l l y w a s
t o d e - i n d u s t r i a l i s e t h e i n d i g e n o u s e c o n o m y . T h e B e n g a l
P r e s i d e n c y , i n c l u d i n g B i h a r w h i c h w a s p a r t o f i t , w a s
e s p e c i a l l y h a r d h i t b y w e s t e r n c o m m e r c i a l i s m . H e r e , t h e
p r e s i d e n c y ' s r i v e r s y s t e m f a c i l i t a t e d t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f
E u r o p e a n m a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s , e s p e c i a l l y L a n c a s h i r e c o t t o n
g o o d s , e v e n i n t h e d a y s b e f o r e r a i l r o a d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e c a m e
e f f i c i e n t . I n a d d i t i o n , a s E n g l i s h m i l l s o p e n e d i n I n d i a ,
t h e d e m a n d f o r I n d i a n c o t t o n f e l l a w a y . By t h e e n d o f t h e
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e B e n g a l P r e s i -
d e n c y , f o r e x a m p l e w a s l o c a t e d i n f o r e i g n - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . 2
I n s o m e a r e a s l i k e t h e Bombay P r e s i d e n c y , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
h a n d i c r a f t i n d u s t r y w a s d e c e n t r a l i s e d , a n d t h e l o c a l m a r k e t
s t r o n g e r . I n d i a n o w n e r s h i p w a s g r e a t e r , a n d c o t t o n i n d u s t r y
c e n t r e s l i k e A h m e d a b a d a n d S h o l a p u r b e c a m e m o r e d i v e r s i f i e d .
E v e n t h e s e a r e a s s u f f e r e d f r o m t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f f o r e i g n -
made g o o d s o r g o o d s made by f o r e i g n - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s i n I n d i a .
T h e r a p i d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r a i l r o a d o f I n d i a - i n 1 9 1 3 ,
I n d i a ' s 3 4 0 0 0 m i l e s o f r a i l r o a d c o n s t i t u t e d o n e - h a l f o f a l l
r a i l w a y s i n A s i a - l i n k e d u p m a j o r p o r t s l i k e C a l c u t t a ,
Bombay a n d M a d r a s , a n d E u r o p e a n g o o d s g r a d u a l l y i n f i l t r a t e d
i n t e r n a l m a r k e t s . A s C h a r l e s w o r t h h a s p o i n t e d o u t , B r i t i s h
p o l i c i e s r e f l e c t e d t h e " s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f I n d i a n t o w i d e r
i m p e r i a l n e e d s , p r o v i d i n g t o o a s h a r p c o n t r a s t w i t h g o v e r n -
m e n t p o l i c y i n c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e , w h e r e t a r i f f b a r r i e r s
w e r e s t e a d i l y e r e c t e d . 11 3
W h i l e t h e i m p a c t was u n e v e n l y f e l t , t h e r e w e r e many p a r t s
t h a t s u f f e r e d c r i p p l i n g e f f e c t s . T h o u s a n d s o f w e a v e r s a n d
t a n n e r s became u n e m p l o y e d a s i n d i g e n o u s i n d u s t r i e s c o l l a p s e d .
Many c o u n t r y s i d e a r e a s t o o w e r e a f f e c t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , R a j a h -
m u n d r y i n t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e d a g r a d u a l d e c l i n e
i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f t h e " p a n j am" c l o t h . W e a v e r s , s p i n n e r s ,
t a n n e r s , s m e l t e r s , a n d o t h e r s w e r e f o r c e d i n t o a g r i c u l t u r e
w h i c h was a l r e a d y c r ~ w d e d . ~
M o d e s t p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e e n t e r p i s e s c r e a t e d some e m p l o y m e n t
o p p o r t u n i t i e s . The t e a p l a n t a t i o n s i n Assam, t h e j u t e m i l l s
a n d c o a l m i n e s i n B e n g a l a t t r a c t e d w o r k e r s f r o m n e i g h b o u r i n g
r e g i o n s o f I n d i a . B h a t i a n o t e s t h a t a f t e r 1 9 0 1 , t h e r e was a
m a r k e d i n c r e a s e i n m o b i l i t y f r o m B i h a r , O r i s s a , t h e UP,
C e n t r a l P r o v i n c e s a n d t h e M a d r a s P r e s i d e n c y t o Assam, Burma,
B e n g a l , Bombay, a n d t h e P u n j a b . Assam p l a n t a t i o n s h a d 3/,3
m i l l i o n w o r k e r s i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e j u t e m i l l s ' e m p l o y m e n t s t o o d
a t 1 1 0 0 0 0 l a b o u r e r s i n 1 9 0 6 ; a n d t h e w o r k f o r c e o n t h e
c o l l i e r i e s was 1 0 0 329 p e r s o n s i n 1 9 0 1 . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e
r a i l w a y s p r o v i d e d w o r k f o r 3 5 7 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n 1 9 0 1 . B u t
s u c h i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s w e r e s h o r t - l i v e d , a n d came t o o
l a t e t o a b s o r b d i s p l a c e d h a n d i c r a f t s m e n . Saha m a i n t a i n s t h a t
o n l y m a s s i v e i n j e c t i o n o f c a p i t a l i n t o i n t e r n a l c o l o n i s a t i o n
a n d i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n w o u l d h a v e h e l p e d p e o p l e who w e r e d i s -
l o c a t e d , a n d w o u l d h a v e made u n n e c e s s a r y o v e r s e a s e m i g r a t i o n .
T h e r e w e r e n o s u c h p r o g r a m m e s , h o w e v e r . On t h e c o n t r a r y ,
B r i t i s h e c o n o m i c p o l i c i e s h a d t h e e f f e c t o f r e t a r d i n g
i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n . 6
W h i l e I n d i a ' s s t u n t e d c o m m e r c i a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l g r o w t h
c a u s e d many t o m i g r a t e o v e r s e a s , t h e m a j o r c a u s e f o r t h e
e m i g r a t i o n m u s t b e s o u g h t i n a g r i c u l t u r e . The 1 8 9 1 c e n s u s
aauys 'puv *uoyqe~naads JOJ s~apua~-Aauow Aq pazy~d 'Aqyp
-owwoa a~qeaajsueJq e pue~ apew waqsAs anuanaJ yaepuywez aq1
6Dew~ng pue
wessv 'se~pew 'Aeqwog ayy~ sea~e uy eypu~ ~jsyqy~g jo 76~9 uy
pa~yena~d 's6uyp~oq aqq jo squednaao ~enqae uodn pasodwy sen
xeq aqq qa~qm uy 'waqsAs y~emqoh~ aq1 *eypu~ ~e~quaa pue
u~aqq~ou qnoqfino~qq pa~yena~d q1 .waqsAs y~epuywez aqq ~apun
pasyue6ao sen anuanaJ pue~ s,eypu~ qsyqy~g jd '006~ punoav
*swaqsAs y~emqoA~ pue i~e~uywez aqq aJam '~aqdeqa snoynaad aqq
uy oq pa~~aja~ Apeaa~e 'aJnuaq pue~ jo adAq ;rorew omq aql
8 *aJnq~nay~6e fiuyqeufieqs uy paq~osqe,, aq oq saay~om jjo 6uyAe~
sen A~qsnpuy fiuy~nqaejnuew eypu~ uy 'say~qsnpuy 6uypuedxa
aqq Aq paq~osqe aJam s~aanoqe~ w~ej paae~dsyp aclq 'ado~ng uy
seaJaqly ,,-qy 40 asn ~~nj apew Aaqq pue sdo~a pue spueT TeJnq
-~nay~6e uo p~oq 6uy~ynbae Aq san~aswaqq qar~ua oq Aqyunqaoddo
ue qqym sasse~a 6uypua~-Aauow aqq papynoad,, 'eyqeqg
sAes 's~awaej 6uowe spaau qypa~3 *s~apua~-Aauow ~e~nq~na
-y~6e-uou oq sasse~a ~eanq~nay~6e wo~j ssed eTpu1 qsy2~~g
uy pue~ mes A~nquaa qquaaqauru aqq jo s~eaA 0~ qse~ aqq
'se~pel~ JOJ qdaaxl *dyqs~aumo ur sa6ueqa JOJ a~q.ysuodsaa
A~aqewyq~n aJam qayqm sqsa~aqur 6uynyaaa~-qua~ paqeaaa
,,sqae~quoa jo Aqrqaues aqq,, pue ,,'sqq6y~ Aq~ado~d,, jo seapy
alll *d?qs~aumo A~eqay~do~d jo syseq aqq uo waqsAs anuanaJ
pue~ e paanpo~quy qsyqy~g aqq 'A~nquaa qquaaqauru aqq UI
*qoo~ qsnw Apnqs aqq qeqq 'uaqq suoyqeaoTsyp
ac1707sT71 L '~06~ ~aqje s~eaA 0~ aqq uy pasea~auy oqm
a~doad ssaTpueT aqq 6uowe aJam sJaJn0qe.I aqq jo Auew 'qqnop
ON *pa~qnop s~a~noqe~ ~e~nq~nay~6e jo ~aqwnu aqq '~06~
pue ~68~ 'snsuaa omq aqq uaamqaq 'paapu~ '~aq6yq A~qe~apys
-uoa sem a~nq~nay~6e Aq paq~oddns A~qaa~ypuy pue A~qaa~yp
aJam oqm a6equaa~ad aqq qeqq os 'sea~e T~J~J uy pany~
a~doad aqq JO 7606 'T06~ uy 7699 oq paseaJauy aauapuadap
aq1 *aJnqTna?~6e uo quapuadap aq oq suos~ad 7619 papJoaaa
TL
t h e l a n d r e v e n u e was t h e s i n g l e , m a j o r s o u r c e o f f u n d s f o r
t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y - i n
t h e 1 8 9 0 s i t was 25% o f t h e t o t a l r e v e n u e s a n d r e c e i p t s - t h e z a m i n d a r i s y s t e m c r e a t e d eno rmous p r e s s u r e s o n t h e s m a l l
f a r m e r s a l r e a d y o p e r a t i n g o n b o r r o w e d c a p i t a l . L o ~ f > a t was
t h e e x t e n t o f t h e d i s l o c a t i o n c a u s e d b y t h e r e v e n u e s y s t e m ?
C h a r l e s w o r t h t h i n k s i t was l i m i t e d . He q u o t e s a s t u d y o n
B e n a r e s i n w h i c h 6776 o f t h e l a n d was r e t a i n e d b y t r a d i t i o n a l l y
d o m i n a n t a g r i c u l t u r a l c a s t e s l i k e R a j p u t s , B r a h m i n s , a n d
B h u i n a r s . Y e t i n B e n g a l , o n e - t h i r d o f t h e t i t l e s c h a n g e d
h a n d s i n o n l y 22 y e a r s . 11
As Saha p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e w e r e many h i g h c a s t e s among t h e
e m i g r a n t s . The l a n d l o r d s , o f t e n a s a b s e n t e e p r o p r i e t o r s ,
r a c k r e n t e d t h e p e a s a n t s . The m i d d l e m e n c o l l e c t i n g t h e t a x e s
o f t e n s u b l e t t h e l a n d t o o t h e r s . E x o r b i t a n t r e n t s l e f t t h e
p e a s a n t s l i t t l e r e s e r v e t o f i g h t o f f s e a s o n a l v a g a r i e s . I n
t h e UP t h e r e v e n u e amoun ted t o 80% o f t h e n e t a s s e t s o f t h e
l a n d . The e f f e c t o f t h i s was t o d i s p l a c e p e o p l e . 1 2 U n d e r
t h e r y o t w a r i r e v e n u e s y s t e m , no m i d d l e m e n e x i s t e d . B u t a s
Saha m a i n t a i n s , t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s i n t e n t i o n was t o c o l l e c t
more r e v e n u e f r o m t h e p e a s a n t s t h a n u n d e r t h e z a m i n d a r i
s y s t e m . Many p e a s a n t s l i v e d b e l o w s u b s i s t e n c e l e v e l . T h e i r
f i v e - a c r e h o l d i n g s o n t h e a v e r a g e were u n e c o n o m i c , a n d t h e i r
r e n t s e x c e s s i v e . T h i s was t h e c a s e i n t h e Bombay a n d M a d r a s
p r e s i d e n c i e s . The 1 8 8 0 F a m i n e C o o m i s s i o n r e p o r t e d t h a t one-
t h i r d o f t l ~ e l a n d h o l d i n y c l a s s e s were h o p e l e s s l y i n d e b t s .
The o t h e r t i l i r d were i n d e b t w i t h o u t t h e p r o s p e c t o f e v e r
r e c o v e r i n g . As f o r t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o u r e r s , t h e y c o u l d
s a v e n o t h i n g s i n c e t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t was s e a s o n a l . Saha
c o n c l u d e s , "As a r e s u l t , a g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e r y o t s i n t h e
r e c r u i t i n g c i reas w e r e , t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , i n d e b t e d e i t h e r
t o t h e m o n e y l e n d e r s o r l a n d l o r d s t o mee t r a c k r e n t and o t h e r
c e s s e s o r f o r s e e d t o meet t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f n a t u r e . " 1 3
I t i s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e h e i g h t e n e d v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f -
t h e p e a s a n t s a n d f a r m e r s t h a t t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f f a m i n e s i n
9 1 *sqar~qsrp awoq ~raqq jo aprsqno pa~aqsr6a~ IJ~A~
-moq 'sq~n~aa~ aqq jo Auel,~ .uorqe~S~wa pa~nquapu~ aJou~ sem
a~aqq 'uo~qe~6~w yeu~aqur ssar sen a~aqq a~aqn qeqq punoj ~ei
'q6noua Ay6u?qsa~aqu1 '006~ puno~e sen uorqe.16~~ yeu~oqur
qsaqea~6 aql .erpu~ 40 sq~ed ~aqqo uy ~y6y ur pa~aqs?6a~
alam dn aqq IWOJJ S~U~J~TW uoyy~w Z,y~ Ay~eau 'qno sql~~od
ye1 sv .sque~6?wa pa~nquapu? se sayuoyoa ~e6ns seas~a~o
uy Aem ~yaqq purj 07 a~am asaqq jo Auekj .sa~a~yod qsrqr~g
Aq paqeq~aaexa A~qea~6 sen qarqm Aq?y?qow yeu~aqu? 6~~06
-uo ue 'su?equ~ew ye7 se 'sem a~aql .ssaypue~ aqq Aysnoy~as
qsotu paqaajje sa-rq?a;reas pue saurwej p~re !spuesnoqq jo suaq
6u~aeydsrp jo qurod aqq oq sd?qsuoyqeya~ yeyaos paqaajje
waqsAs anua~aa puey aqq !sara~yod qs~q~~g jo q~nsa~ e se
say~qsnpu~ snoua6~puy u~ paa~naao auyyaap e 'uaqq dn u~ns 01
I; T aspua~q asaq ~OJJ amqry paqr4
-auaq sseya aamoy aqq qnq 'papuedxa apeJq u6~a~oj '5681 Pue
088~ uaamqaq pa~oadwy Awouoaa ue~pu~ aql .uo 0s pue 'sqq6no~p
'sa?q?a~eas 'sau?wej 6u~~np sabeqaoqs pooj aqq 07 ayqeJauynA aJoul
sassem aqq apew q? qnq 'sqs:yeq?dea ye~nJ pue s~ape~q paseq
-ueqan ma4 e paq~jauaq Aa~yod s~ql *sdo~a pooJ jo aaeyd u!
sdo~a ye?a~awwoa 40 qqmo~6 aqq pabeanoaua qsT7TJg aqq 'Jan0
-aaow Oayqey~e~e qou aaam Aaqq 'sayq~aaeas pue sauywej 6uy~np
pa~~nba~ aaam sdoaa pooj eaqxa uaqm 'aaua~ .pamoyyoj sem sdo~o
pooj snyd~ns bu~qaodxa jo Aa~yod aqq 'qqap aryqnd s,e?pu~ Led
01 spaqaajje A~sno~aas qsow aqq osye a~am Aq~unwruoa ear^^
aqq u~ a~qeaau~nn qsow asoqq qeqq queaw 'saya~yod anuanaJ
pue~ qs~q~ag aqq jo q~nsaa e se a6ueqa 40 aaed paaJoj aql
.saoqe~~q~na queuaq pue 'saa~eam 'saaanoqey reanq~na?a6e aJam
woqm 6uowe 'paqaajje ATsno?Jas qsow aqq aaam sasseya ssa~pue~
aqq 'umoqs seq e:qeqg se 'qng *Tnjssaaans aaam ja~~a~ qaynb
6u~aq 0q pue sqqeap jo aaqwnu uo umop qna oq sq~ojja qs~q~ag
+,T'Pa?P a~doad 40 suo:TTTw pue 'e~pu~ jo sq~ed a6ae~ paqeqse~ap
'aaqdeqa sno~~aad aqq u? qno paqu~od sen q? se '8~-9~8~ JO
au~uej 7~3~3 aql *s~eaA 69 aqq 40 01 u~ paaanaao sa~q~aaeas
ao saurwej 'a~n~ qsrqrJg qaaJTp jo saeaA aqq '806~ pue 8581
uaamqag *aauea?j?ub?s pappe ue uo aqeq A~nquaa qquaaqau?~
C a s t e a n d R e l i g i o n s : N a t a l I m m i q r a n t s
N i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y I n d i a w a s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y o r g a n i s e d a r o u n d
c a s t e s . T h e o r i g i n s o f t h i s f o r m o f s e g m e n t a t i o n g o b a c k
t o a n c i e n t t i m e s . I t w a s a n d s t i l l i s a m o s t c o m p l e x s y s t e m
o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s d e f y i n g e a s y d e f i n i t i o n s . l7 W h i l e
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c a s t e d i v i s i o n o f B r a h m i n , K s a t t r i y a , V a i s y a ,
a n d S u d r a i s i n t h e o r y t h e b a s i s o f t h e c a s t e s y s t e m , t h i s
d i v i s i o n h a s n o " d i s t i n c t a n d d e t e r m i n a t e e x i s t e n c e . " R a t h e r ,
t h e c a s t e s e g m e n t a t i o n h a s d e v e l o p e d h i s t o r i c a l l y a r o u n d t h e
b a s i c d i v i s i o n i n t o a h i e r a r c h i c a l n e t w o r k o f c a s t e s a n d s u b -
c a s t e s . I n d i a n s o c i e t y , s a y s T h e I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r , h a d
a l w a y s b e e n c o m p o s e d o f " d i v e r s e a n d h e t e r o g e n e o u s g r o u p s "
w i t h d e g r e e s o f e n d o g a m o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s , o u t o f w h i c h t h e
m o d e r n s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d " b y n a t u r a l a n d i n s e n s i b l e s t a g e s . 1118
F r e s h c a s t e s c o n t i n u a l l y m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e . T h e i r e v o l u -
t i o n f o l l o w e d a t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n : a new c a s t e a p p e a r e d ,
a n d a f t e r i t a c c u m u l a t e d a s i z a b l e n u m b e r o f women , a c l o s i n g
o f r a n k o c c u r r e d b y m e a n s o f e n d o g a m y . T h e n e w c a s t e t h e n
b r o k e o f f a l l c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p a r e n t s t o c k .
R a c e a n d c l a s s a r o u n d t h e a l i e n a n d t h e i n d i g e n o u s h i s t o r i e s
b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e f a c t a n d f i c t i o n o f d i v e r s e g r o u p s ' p e r -
c e p t i o n s . I n I n d i a , s u c h h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e g a v e r i s e
t o t h e c a s t e s y s t e m . T h e I n d o - A r y a n s , o s t e n s i b l y a homo-
g e n e o u s g r o u p i n v a d e d I n d i a i n t h e d i s t a n t p a s t . T h e
c o n q u e r o r s h a v i n g f e w w o m e n , c a p t u r e d t h e women o f t h e
c o n q u e r e d p e o p l e . T h e y i n t e r b r e d , m a i n t a i n i n g , h o w e v e r , a
b l o o d p r i d e . When t h e g r o u p h a d s u f f i c i e n t n u m b e r o f w o m e n ,
i t s m e m b e r s d e v e l o p e d c a s t e - l i k e e n d o g a m y . T h e g r o u p g r e w
w i t h t i m e , a n d t h e n e w n u m b e r s m i g h t s a l l y f o r t h a s c o n q u e r o r s ,
a n d t h u s r e p e a t t h e w h o l e p r o c e s s . I n e a c h i n s t a n c e , a com-
p l e t e a m a l g a m a t i o n w a s a v e r t e d b e c a u s e , w h i l e t h e c o n q u e r o r s
t o o k t h e women o f o t h e r s , t h e y d i d n o t g i v e t h e i r own women
t o o u t s i d e g r o u p s .
O n c e t h i s p r o c e d u r e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d , f i c t i o n w a s i n t r o d u c e d
. t o s t r e n g t h e n a n d p e r p e t u a t e t h r o u g h l a n g u a g e , r e l i g i o n ,
r a c i a l p r i d e , s o c i a l a n d d i e t a r y c u s t o m s , o c c u p a t i o n a n d
s o o n . G r o u p s a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d i n a l l s o c i e t i e s e x p e r i e n c e
s i m i l a r p r o c e s s e s . I n I n d i a , i t d e v e l o p e d i n a u n i q u e way
b e c a u s e o f t h e way i n w h i c h t h e I n d i a n m i n d r e s p o n d e d t o t h e
h i s t o r i c a l p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f t h e s u b c o n t i n e n t . The c a s t e
s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d , a n d s o o n became i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
B r a h m i n i c a l t r a d i t i o n , a n d i n t o t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e t r a n s -
m i g r a t i o n o f ka rma . 1 9
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a d i v i d e d t h e v a r i o u s c a s t e s
i n t o s e v e n m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s . 2 0 The f i r s t c o n s i s t e d o f t r i b e s
t h a t h a d become H i n d u i s e d , a n d i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c a s t e
s t r u c t u r e . E x a m p l e s w e r e :
UP a n d B i h a r : B h u m i j , A h i r , Dom, Dosadh
R a j p u t a n a a n d t h e P u n j a b : G u j a r , J a t , Meo, R a j p u t
Bombay: K o l i , Mahar
B e n g a l : B a g d i , B a u r i , C h a n d a l , K a i b a r t t a , Pod,
R a j b a n s i - K o c h
M a d r a s : M a l , N a y a r , V e l l a l a , P a r i a h
The s e c o n d was t h e f u n c t i o n a l o r o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y . The
c a s t e was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t r a d i t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n , b u t o f
c o u r s e , a s i t o f t e n h a p p e n e d , new o c c u p a t i o n s h a d n o b e a r i n g
t o t h e o r i g i n a l c a s t e - r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . I n 1 9 0 1 , f o r
i n s t a n c e , o n l y 8 % o f t h e Chamars i n B i h a r we re e n g a g e d i n
l e a t h e r w o r k ; a n d i n B e n g a l , t a o - t h i r d s o f t h e K a y a s t h s ,
t r a d i t i o n a l l y w r i t e r s , w e r e a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s . The e x a m p l e s
i n t h i s c a t e g o r y w e r e : A h i r s ( h e r d s m e n ) , B r a h m i n s ( p r i e s t s ) ,
Chamars and M u c h i s ( l e a t h e r w o r k e r s ) , C h u h r a s , B h a n g i s a n d
Ooms ( s c a v e n g e r s ) , U o s a d h s ( v i l l a g e w a t c h m e n ) , G o a l a s / G o l l a s
( m i l k m e n ) , K a i b a r t t a s a n d K e w a t s ( f i s h e r m e n a n d c u l t i v a t o r s ) ,
K a y a s t h s ( w r i t e r s ) , K o i r i a n d K a c h h i ( m a r k e t g a r d e n e r s ) ,
Kumhars ( p o t t e r s ) , Pods ( f i s h e r m e n ) , a n d T e l i ( o i l p r e s s e r s ) .
The s e c t a r i a n t y p e made up t h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y . The L i n g a y a t s ,
i r o n i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y
t o e l i m i n a t e c a s t e d i s t i n c t i o n s , were n u m e r o u s i n B o m b a y
a n d s o u t h e r n I n d i a . T h e f o u r t h c a t e g o r y d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h
i n t e r - t r i b a l m a r r i a g e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e S h a g i r d p e s h a s o f
B e n g a l . T h e f i f t h c a t e g o r y w a s m a d e u p o f n a t i o n a l t y p e s ,
f o r e x a m p l e , N e w a r s o f N e p a l , a n d t h e M a r a t h a s m a i n l y i n
B o m b a y , a n d n u m b e r i n g 5 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 0 1 . T h e s i x t h c a t e g o r y
b o r e t h e n a m e o f i t s o r i g i n a l t e r r i t o r i a l h o m e , e v e n t h o u g h
i t s m e m b e r s h a d r e l o c a t e d t h e m s e l v e s . E x a m p l e s o f t h i s w e r e :
J a u n p u r i a , T i r h u t i a , a n d B a r e n d r a . T h e s e v e n t h c a t e g o r y w a s
f o r m e d a s a r e s u l t o f n e w c e r e m o n i a l p r a c t i c e s a n d / o r o c c u p a -
t i o n s . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e A y o d h i a K u r m i s s e t t h e m s e l v e s
a p a r t f r o m o t h e r K u r m i s , a n d c l a i m e d K s a t t r i y a o r i g i n s .
W h i l e I s l a m a c c e p t e d n o c a s t e d i s t i n c t i o n s , a s w a s p o i n t e d
o u t e a r l i e r , M u s l i m s i n I n d i a n e v e r t h e l e s s t e n d e d t o s e g m e n t
t h e m s e l v e s i n c a s t e - l i k e g r o u p s . M u s l i m s d i d a c c e p t c a s t e
p r i n c i p l e s g e n e r a l l y a n d r e g i o n a l l y . T h e M u s l i m s o f A r a b ,
P e r s i a n , A f g h a n o r M o g h a l o r i g i n s e t t h e m s e l v e s a p a r t f r o m
o t h e r M u s l i m s o f l o c a l o r i g i n . A S a i y i d o r a S i d d i q u i o r a
S h a i k c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f " a s h r a f " ( n o b l e c l a s s ) , a n d d i f f e r e n t
f r o m t h e " a j l a f " ( l o w p e o p l e ) , a s c o n v e r t s i n B e n g a l w e r e
c a l l e d . A J o l a h a ( w e a v e r ) d i d n o t h a v e t h e s a m e s t a t u r e a s a
S a i y i d o r a S h a i k . B u t d i s t i n c t i o n s w e r e f l u i d i n I s l a m . A
w e l l k n o w n N o r t h I n d i a n p r o v e r b c a p t u r e s t h e f l u i d i t y , b u t
a l s o r e f l e c t s t h e c a s t e - l i k e d i s t i n c t i o n s : " L a s t y e a r I w a s
a J o l a h a , now I am a S h e i k h ; n e x t y e a r i f p r i c e s r i s e , I
s h a l l b e a S a i y i d . ~ ' ~ ~ M u s l i m R a j p u t s w e r e f o r m e r l y h i g h -
c a s t e H i n d u s . B u t t h e o t h e r s w e r e c o n v e r t e d g e n e r a l l y f r o m
l o w e r c a s t e H i n d u s , a n d t h e s e w e r e : J o l a h a , D a r z i ( t a i l o r ) ,
Q a s s a b ( b u t c h e r ) , N a i ( b a r b e r ) , K a b a r i a ( g r e e n g r o c e r ) , K u m h a r
( p o t t e r ) , M a n i h a r ( b r a c l e t m a k e r ) , D h u n i y a ( c o t t o n c a r d e r ) ,
F a k i r ( b e g g a r ) , T e l i ( o i l p r e s s e r ) , D h o b i ( w a s h e r m a n ) , G a d d i
( m i l k m a n ) , D a m - M i r z a i ( m u s i c i a n ) . Many o f t h e s e w e r e a l s o
H i n d u c a s t e s . 2 2
W h i l e t h e c a s t e s y s t e m was a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y p r e s e n t i n
I n d i a , i n B a l u c h i s t a n a n d Burma i t was " n e i t h e r r e c o g n i s e d
n o r known. " 2 3 E l s e w h e r e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e w e r e i n 1 9 0 1 ,
2 400 c a s t e s a n d t r i b e s i n I n d i a . The l e a d i n g 3 6 c a s t e s
s e l e c t i v e l y , a n d t h e i r l o c a t i o n s w e r e : 2 4
M o s t P r o v i n c e s : B r a h m i n , D h o b i , F a k i r , K a c h h i ,
K a h a r , Kumhar , L o h a r , M a l i , M u c h i ,
N a p i t o r H a j j a m , S a i y i d , S h a i k , T e l i .
N o r t h e r n I n d i a : A h i r , Chamar, G u j a r , J a t , K u r m i , P a s i ,
P a t h a n , R a j p u t .
N o r t h - e a s t e r n I n d i a : K a y a s t h
W e s t e r n I n d i a : K o 1 . i
C e n t r a l I n d i a : G a d a r i a , K o r i , L o d h a
S o u t h e r n I n d i a : Kapu, N a y a r , P a l l i , P a r i a h , V e k k a l i g a ,
V e l l a l a .
C e n t r a l P r o v i n c e s : B a l i j a , G a d a r i a , Gond, K e w a t , K o r i ,
L o d h a , M a l .
U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s : Dosadh , G a d a r i a , J o l a h a , K e w a t ,
K o i r i , K o r i , L o d h a .
B e n g a l : Dosadh , G a d a r i a , G o l a , J o l a h a , K e w a t , K o i r i ,
M a l , R a j b a n s i
Assam: Dosadh , K e w a t , K o i r i , R a j b a n s i
F a d r a s : B a l i j a , G o l a , M a d i g a , M a l .
H y d e r a b a d : G o l a , J o l a h a , M a d i g a , M a l .
P l yso re : G o l a , M a d i g a .
P u n j a b : J o l a h a .
K a j p u t a n a : L o d h a .
Some c a s t e s w e r e w i d e l y d i f f u s e d . B r a h m i n s , f o r e x a m p l e ,
r a n g e f r o m 1 0 % i n t h e U P , C e n t r a l I n d i a , a n d R a j p u t a n a t o
3 % i n M a d r a s , t h e C e n t r a l P r o v i n c e s , a n d B e n g a l . They w e r e
w e a k e s t i n t h e n o n - A r y a n a r e a s . Chamars a n d M u c h i i n
n o r t h e r n I n d i a h a v e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c a s t e s i n s o u t h e r n I n d i a ,
n a m e l y C h a k k i y a m a n d M a d i g a . A l a r g e number o f l o c a l i s e d
g r o u p s e x i s t l i k e B h i l s a n d Gonds; a n d many l i k e Doms,
D o s a d h s , J a t s , K a i b a r t t a s , P o d s , N a y a r s , P a l l i s , P a r i a h s , a n d
TABLE 17
DISTRIBUTION OF CASTES/RELIGIONS AMONG CALCUTTA PASSENI2ERSp 1860-1902
(PERCENTAGES)
CASTES/ RELIGIONS
1
4 ma, -@> cu +
Unknown 7,O 0 , l 4,4 1,5 2,3, 1,5 0 , l 0,6 1,0 14,9 0,3 4,2 2 0 , l 26,2 1 8 , l 35,O
A h i r 12,2 3,9 7,7 9,6 6,5 6,4 7,9 15,7 15,8 11,4 14,8 22,O 19,9 15,5 15,O 10,7
Bagdee 0,2 293 1 9 1 - Bania 0,2 1,0 1,0 - Bhooyear 0,2 - 0,7 - Bhur 1,6 1 , O 1,4 4,2
Brahmin 1,2 4,9 4,O 1,3
Chamar 15,8 9,5 12,6 25,5
Chutree 2,8 2,5 5,8 3,5
Dhobi 0,4 1,0 0,6 1,2
Dosadh 1,5 2,9 2,9 3,O
Gararee 198 - 192 0,8
Gowala 1,4 3,2 1,9 1,2
J a t 077 - 092 - Kachhi 074 - 094 - Kahar 4,O 2,9 3,3 2,4
Kandoo 0,2 190 096 - Kawote 097 - 192 096
Ko i ree 596 2,6 5,3 - Kurnhar 094 193 079 - Koonbi (Kunbi ) C,9 - 0,3 - Kormee 5,9 5,6 5 , l 3,6
Lodhe 198 - 172 2 , l
Lohar 096 190 095 -
Moosohur Cl,3 - 2,8 098 - 099 - - 096 - - - - - - - n
:lusl im 5 , 5 1 2 , 7 1 2 , 9 7 ,018 ,812 ,O 2,6 2 , l 1,9 1,7 1,0 0,8 2,7 3,2 2 , 1 L 1 , 5 ) .-
Murao 096 - - - - - - - 0,9 0,5 1,5 1,3 2,2 1,2 2,O - Noonia 1,4 4,5 3,1 3,1 1,3 1,7 1,3 096 2,2 - 098 098 - - 1,3 0,5
Par iah 9 , l - - - - 1,7 - - - - - - - - - - Pause ( P a s i ) pa see) 197 - 196 394 0,6 1 4 298 2,2 199 297 2,7 1,l 1,3 294 - 193
Rajput 2,7 4,O 1,l - 3,8 1 , G 3 , l 096 2,5 392 2,9 0,5 - 4,2 498 7,4
Te l lee 0,4 - 0,8 0,6 0,4 O , i 2,4 - - O,6 - - - - - - Thakoor 3,4 - 0,2 - 1,5 4,9 7,O 4,9 4,3 5,6 6,2 0,4 - 197 9,9 496
TOTAL NO. 35720 990 8206 1723 3077 3179 699 3020 1620 2786 1785 2922 1201 1570 816 2126
86 TABLE 18
LEADING CASTES/RELIGIONS AMONG CALCUTTA PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
CASTES/ T o t a l 1860- 1874- 1877- 1879- 1083- 1886- 1890- 1892- 1894- 1896 1897 - 1898 1899- 1901 1902 RELIGIONS Ave 66 77 78 82 85 89 91 93 95 1900
A h i r
Bhur
Chamar
Chutree
Gararee
Kahar
Ko i ree
Koormee
Lodhe
Muslim
Pausee
Ra jpu t
Thakoor
KEY -
A A t i I R
I3 BHUR
C CHAMAR
D CHUTREE
E GARAREE
F KC.HAR
G KOIREE
H KOORMEE
I LOGHE
J MUSLIM
K PAUSEE
L RAJPUT
1" THAKOOR
C: LEADING CASTES/RELIGIONS
D E F G H I J LEADING CASTES/RELIGIONS
CALCUTTA
NOTES
1 N e i l C h a r l e s w o r t h : B r i t i s h R u l e a n d t h e I n d i a n Economy,
1 8 0 0 - 1 9 1 4 i n S t u d i e s i n E c o n o m i c a n d S o c i a l H i s t o r y s e r i e s ,
M a c m i l l a n , 1 9 8 2 , p . 3 3 ; s e e a l s o B M B h a t i a : F a m i n e s i n
I n d i a : A S t u d y i n Some A s p e c t s o f t h e E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y
o f I n d i a 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 6 5 , Bombay: A s i a P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1 9 6 3 ,
p p . 1 4 - 1 5 .
2 The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a , v o l . 3 , p p . 2 7 9 , 306 ;
C h a r l e s w o r t h , op . c i t . , p p . 3 4 - 3 8 .
3 C h a r l e s w o r t h , o p . c i t . , p p . 4 5 , 6 3 .
4 Saha, op . c i t . , p p . 5 9 - 6 0 .
5 B M B h a t i a : - F a m i n e s i n I n d i a : A S t u d y i n Some A s p e c t s
o f t h e E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y o f I n d i a , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 6 5 , Bombay:
A s i a P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1 9 6 3 , p . 2 3 2 .
6 The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a : The I n d i a n E m p i r e ,
1 9 0 8 , v o l . 3 , p . 2 5 0 ; Saha, op . c i t . , p p . 63 -68 .
7 The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a : The I n d i a n E m p i r e :
E c o n o m i c , v o l . 3 , 1 9 0 8 , p p . 1 - 2 , 2 4 8 .
8 B h a t i a , op . c i t . , p p . 2 0 - 2 1 , 1 2 .
9 The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a : The I n d i a n E m p i r e ,
v o l . 4 , p p . 2 0 7 , 214 , 2 3 6 , 2 3 9 .
1 0 I b i d . , v o l . 3 , p p . 8 9 , 9 0 - 9 1 . See a l s o C h a r l e s w o r t h ,
op . c i t . , p . 24 .
11 C h a r l e s w o r t h , op . c i t . , p . 1 9 .
12 Saha, op . c i t . , p p . 4 8 - 4 9 .
I b i d . , p p . 51 -52 , 53.
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a , v o l . 3 , pp . 476 -492 .
A l l m a j o r f a m i n e s a r e r e p o r t e d , w i t h d e t a i l s a b o u t
t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s .
B h a t i a , op . c i t . , p p . 1 5 , 23 , 1 3 4 - 1 6 0 .
L a l , op . c i t . , p p . 63 -64 .
The d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f
I n d i a : The I n d i a n E m p i r e , v o l . I, p . 3 1 1 , i s : " A
c a s t e may b e d e f i n e d a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f f a m i l i e s o r
g r o u p s o f f a m i l i e s , b e a r i n g a cornrrlon narne w h i c h
u s u a l l y d e n o t e s o r i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s p e c i f i c
o c c u p a t i o n ; c l a i m i n g common d e s c e n t f r o m a m y t h i c a l
a n c e s t o r , human o r d i v i n e ; p r o f e s s i n g t o f o l l o w t h e
same c a l l i n g ; a n d r e g a r d e d b y t h o s e who a r e c o m p e t e n t
t o g i v e a n o p i n i o n a s f o r m i n g a s i n g l e homogeneous
c o m m u n i t y . "
I b i d . , p . 334 . See a l s o N K D u t t : O r i g i n a n d G r o w t h
o f C a s t e i n I n d i a , Longman: K e g a l P a u l , 1 9 3 1 .
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a , v o l . 1, p . 347.
I b i d . , p p . 3 1 4 - 3 2 0 . See a l s o J N B h a t t a c h a r y a : H i n d u
C a s t e s a n d S e c t s : An E x p o s i t i o n o f t h e O r i g i n s o f t h e
H i n d u C a s t e S y s t e m a n d t h e B e a r i n q o f t h e S e c t s T o w a r d s
E a c h O t h e r a n d T o w a r d s O t h e r R e l i q i o u s S y s t e m s , C a l c u t t a ,
1 8 9 6 ; G S G h u r y e : C a s t e a n d Race i n I n d i a , Bornbay:
P o p u l a r P r a k a s h a n , 1 9 6 9 .
2 1 The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a , v o l . 1, p . 329. See
a l s o I m t i a z Ahmad ( e d ) : C a s t e a n d S t r a t i f i c a t i o n Amonq
t h e M u s l i m s , New D e l h i : Manohar Book C e n t r e , 1 9 7 3 .
22 G A n s a r i : " M u s l i m C a s t e i n I n d i a , " E a s t e r n A n t h r o -
p o l o g i s t 9 ( 1 9 5 5 - 5 6 ) : 1 0 4 - 1 1 . See a l s o L o u i s Dumont :
Homo H i e r a r c h i c u s : The C a s t e S y s t e m a n d I t s I m p l i c a t i o n s ,
L o n d o n : W e i d e n f e l d a n d N i c h o l s o n , 1 9 6 6 , pp. 206 -207 .
23 The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a : The I n d i a n E m p i r e ,
v o l . 1, p p . 329 -30 .
2 4 I b i d . , p . 498 .
I b i d . , p p . 331 -32 . 25 -
26 B u r t o n B e n e d i c t : I n d i a n s i n a P l u r a l S o c i e t y : A R e p o r t
on M a u r i t i u s i n C o l o n i a l R e s e a r c h S t u d i e s no . 3 4 ,
L o n d o n , 1 9 6 1 , p . 20 ; G Subba Rao: I n d i a n Words i n E n g l i s h :
A S t u d y o f I n d o - B r i t i s h C u l t u r a l a n d L i n q u i s t i c R e l a t i o n s ,
O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 .
27 J B B r a i n : C h r i s t i a n I n d i a n s i n N a t a l , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 1 1 : - An
H i s t o r i c a l a n d S t a t i s t i c a l S t u d y , O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s ,
1 9 8 3 , pp . 2 4 3 - 2 4 8 .
28 L a l , op . c i t . , p p . 6 9 - 7 0
pasoddo oqn asoqq 6uoue sen pooma~o~ 'anss~ aqq ssnasrp
07 1-581 u~ 6u~qaau ar~qnd qs~rj aqq qy *~nonej snourue
-un purj qou prp Jnoqe~ ,,a~~ooa,, q~odur 07 eapr aqq qng
l-*~a~~ej ~e6ns ~eruo~oa
leqe~ aqq JO puru aqq uodn j~asqr passa~dur peq sque~6ruur
pa~nquapu~ uerpu1 qqrm quau~~~adxa s,sn~qr~new *suorqeque~d
aqq uo y~om 07 6uro6 sen oqn :~noqe~ jo qeqq sen A~qsnpur
6ur~a6pal-j aqq paaej qeqq suorqsanb q1-1eqJodulr aJoul aqq
fiuouy ,;~eqe~ jo a~a~q~e aldeqs e aq l~rn ~e6ns qeqq yurqq
11~7s I,, '81781 se A1~ea se ~aqqo~q srq 07 aqo~n pooma~o~ sy
*Aeqsureiu aruouoaa s,~eqe~ 6urluoaaq jo qaadso~d aqq 71-10 p~aq
71 *~e~a~auluoa aujeaaq do~a aqq 'pauorqane sen ~e6ns qs~rj
aqq uaqm '17581 UI -Auouoaa s,Auo~oa aqq ur lerquaqod s,do~a
aqq Aq pa6e~noaua aJam suos~ad ~aqqo '~aqe~ s~eaA anrj awos
paanpo~d sen ~e6ns jo Aq~quenb qs~rj a41 -sn~qr~ne~ uo~j
sque~d auea paanpo~qur pooma~ow punu~p-j qsruo~oa ~eqe~ '~1781- 1-11
*s~aAo~dua 6u-rpea~ 07 apeu aq ~~rm saaua~aja~ jar~g =y~on jo
suorqrpuoa pue 'srsA1eue ~aqnduoa aqq ur paqaaIjas se quau
-Ao~dua jo sul~oj aqq qqrm s~eap ~aqdeqa srql *s6urqq Jaqqo
6uoue 'saarA~as ~edrarunu pue 6urp~rnq-Aem1re~ ayr~ sp~arj
~e~nq~nar~6e-uou pa~aqua s~ay~om paJnquapur aqq '~eqe~ UI
-6urmo~6 pue 6urqe~rq~na 07 paqe~aJ y~om JOJ a~qeqrns A1~e~na
-rq~ed uaqq ape11 sque~6~uur aqq jo spuno~byaeq uer~eJ6e A~que
-uruopa~d aq1 ~quauAo~dua TeJnq~nar~6e jo su~oj ~aqqo oqur
qno paqaueJq s~ay~om jo spa~apunq Aueu qna =~eqe~ pue 'rr~j 'uoruna~ 'sarpu~ qsa~ a47 'snrqr~new ayr~ saae~d ur por~ad
paJnquapur aqq qnoq6no~qq quaurAo~dua. jo ~JOJ queq~odur qsou
aqq paureia~ yJom 6ur11-~u pue uorqeque1-d .do~a Ieardo~q
srqq 6uranpo~d saruoIoa aqq 07 sque~6ruur paJnquapur
aqq qq6no~q qeqq '~ar~~ea ?no paquyod se '~e6ns sem 71
y~o~ jo suorqrpuo3
pue s~ay~o~ 's~aAo.ydu3 :y~o~ jo aael-d a41
w e r e m i x e d f a r m e r s , who c o m b i n e d s u g a r w i t h o t h e r c r o p s
l i k e r i c e , c o t t o n , c o f f e e , a n d c i t r u s f r u i t . They w e r e n o t
l a r g e e m p l o y e r s o n t h e w h o l e . > By t h e t i m e i m p o r t a t i o n
was s t o p p e d i n J u l y 1 8 6 6 , 1 9 s h i p l o a d s h a d b r o u g h t 6 445
l a b o u r e r s . T h e i r r o l e was c r u c i a l i n s t a b i l i s i n g t h e i n i t i a l
p e r i o d o f g r o w t h o f t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y .
The g r o w t h o f t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y o c c u r r e d i n t h e p e r i o d a f t e r
1 8 7 4 . The c o m p l a i n t s b y t h e f i r s t g r o u p o f r e t u r n i n g i m m i -
g r a n t s , a n d t h e t e m p o r a r y s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e scheme b y t h e
G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a , l e d N a t a l t o i m p r o v e a n d c o n s o l i d a t e t h e
s y s t e m . N a t a l a p p o i n t e d , i n p l a c e o f t h e C o o l i e A g e n t , a
P r o t e c t o r o f I n d i a n I m m i g r a n t s , whose o v e r a l l p u r p o s e was t o
s a f e q u a r d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s . He was
g i v e n m a g i s t e r i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n t o i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e
i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e e m p l o y e r s t o c h e c k a b u s e s , a n d t o m e d i a t e
i n d i s p u t e s among t h e i m m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s . The P r o t e c t o r
was r e q u i r e d t o make t w o v i s i t s a n n u a l l y t o t h e p l a n t a t i o n s .
He c o u l d r e g i s t e r I n d i a n m a r r i a g e s , a n d a f t e r Law 25 o f 1 8 9 1
was p a s s e d , h e c o u l d a l s o a d m i n i s t e r t h e e s t a t e s o f d e c e a s e d
I n d i a n s . The p o s i t i o n o f a D e p u t y P r o t e c t o r was c r e a t e d i n
1 8 8 2 , who t o o k o v e r t h e f u n c t i o n o f e s t a t e - v i s i t i n g f r o m t h e
P r o t e c t o r t o r e l i e v e h i m f r o m t h e p r e s s u r e o f w o r k . I n 1 8 9 1 ,
a n A s s i s t a n t P r o t e c t o r was a p p o i n t e d who c o u l d a c t i n t h e
P r o t e c t o r ' s a b s e n c e .
A n o t h e r i n n o v a t i o n i n 1 8 7 4 was t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n
I m m i g r a t i o n T r u s t B o a r d t o h a n d l e t h e f i n a n c i a l a s p e c t o f
i n d e n t u r e d i m p o r t a t i o n . The P r o t e c t o r a n d t h e C o l o n i a l
T r e a s u r e r s e r v e d o n t h e B o a r d . The B o a r d ' s c o m p o s i t i o n was
e n l a r g e d i n 1 8 8 0 t o 5 , o f whom n o more t h a n t w o c o u l d b e
g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c e r s . M e m b e r s h i p became e l e c t i v e i n 1 8 9 5 .
R e g i s t e r e d e m p l o y e r s o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s e l e c t e d 5 p e r s o n s
t o s e r v e f o r a t e r m o f f i v e y e a r s . M e m b e r s h i p was i n c r e a s e d
t o 7 i n 1 9 0 2 . The B o a r d c o n t i n u e d t o e x e r c i s e e n o r m o u s
i n f l u e n c e o n a l l m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g t h e I n d i a n l a b o u r e r s .
The b o d y was d i s s o l v e d i n 1 9 2 0 .
The s y s t e m h a v i n g b e e n r e f i n e d a n d c o n s o l i d a t e d i n 1 8 7 0 s
a n d t h e l 8 8 0 s , ~ t h e v a r i o u s s e c t o r s o f N a t a l ' s economy s e t
a b o u t t o u t i l i s e i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r . S u g a r g r o w e r s r e m a i n e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t u s e r s o f i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s .
The e m p l o y e r s w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g t h e c o a s t a l
b e l t , a f e r t i l e s u g a r g r o w i n g a r e a w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e L o w e r
T u g e l a , I n a n d a , U m l a z i , A l e x a n d r a , a n d L o w e r U m z i m k u l u . T h e r e
was r a p i d g r o w t h b e t w e e n 1 8 5 4 a n d 1 8 6 6 , t h a n k s t o g o o d p r i c e s ,
l o w wages , a n d p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s . The c o l o n i a l s t a t e c o n t i n -
u e d t o p r o t e c t t h e i n d u s t r y t h r o u g h f r e e i m p o r t schedule^.^
I n t h e 1 8 6 0 s t h r o u g h t o t h e 1 8 8 0 s , t h e p l a n t a t i o n mode o f
p r o d u c t i o n p r e v a i l e d . The a g r i c u l t u r a l p a r t i n v o l v e d t h e
c u l t i v a t i n g a n d h a r v e s t i n g o f s u g a r c a n e ; a n d t h e i n d u s t r i a l
p a r t i n v o l v e d t h e c r u s h i n g o f t h e c a n e , t h e b o i l i n g a n d t r e a t -
m e n t o f j u i c e s i n t h e m i l l , a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f the f i n a l
p r o d u c t . The e a r l y m i l l s h a d s m a l l c a p a c i t i e s r a n g i n g f r o m
6 t o 1 5 h o r s e p o w e r , a l t h o u g h some l i k e t h e R e u n i o n E s t a t e
c o u l d g e n e r a t e u p t o 2 5 h o r s e p o w e r . I n 1 8 6 4 , t h e r e w e r e 60
m i l l s , o f w h i c h 5 6 w e r e s - t e a m - d r i v e n . W h i l e t h e m a j o r i t y o f
t h e i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s a n d n o n - i d e n t u r e d A f r i c a n l a b o u r e r s
d i d u n s k i l l e d w o r k , some I n d i a n s w e r e h i r e d t o do s k i l l e d
w o r k . The s k i l l e d w o r k was done a l m o s t e n t i r e l y b y w h i t e s ,
many o f whom came f r o m M a u r i t i u s w i t h sorne e x p e r i e n c e . The
w o r k a s s i g n m e n t o n t h e p l a n t a t i o n , a s R i c h a r d s o n h a s p o i n t e d
o u t was " a r a c i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d h i e r a r c h y o f s k i l l a n d
c o n t r o l . . . " 9 N a t a l ' s s u g a r h a d t h r e e m a i n o u t l e t s : t h e
Cape, w h i c h b e t w e e n 1 8 5 2 a n d 1 9 0 0 t o o k 5 0 % o f t h e s u g a r ; t h e
W i t w a t e r s r a n d i n t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n R e p u b l i c a f t e r t h e 1 8 8 0 s ;
a n d t h e d o m e s t i c m a r k e t . The p e r c e n t a g e o f s u g a r e x p o r t e d
r a n g e d f r o m 3 2 % t o 6 5 % u p t o 1 9 0 0 .
T h e r e was a d e c l i n e i n p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e l a t e r d e c a d e s o f
t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s was d u e t o i n t e n s i v e mono-
c u l t u r e a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t s a p p i n g o f t h e c o a s t a l s o i l ' s
n a t u r a l f e r t i l i t y , t h e l a c k o f c a p i t a l , a n d n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s
w h i c h s t r u c k t h e i n d u s t r y f r o m t i m e t o t i m e . The i n d u s t r y ' s
r e s p o n s e w a s t h r e e f o l d : l a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n , c e n t r a l i s e d
m i l l i n g , a n d i n j e c t i o n o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l . T h e e s t a t e s
b e c a m e l a r g e r ; a n d l a r g e i n d u s t r i a l c o n c e r n s w i t h c o r p o r a t e
s t r u c t u r e s b e g a n o p e r a t i n g c e n t r a l i s e d m i l l i n g f a c i l i t i e s .
( T h e c e n t r a l m i l l i n g s y s t e m , i t s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t , h a d
b e e n u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t r i e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 5 0 s a n d l a t e r t o o . )
W i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f m a i n l y B r i t i s h c a p i t a l , t h e m i l l e r -
c u m - p l a n t e r made h i s a p p e a r a n c e . E x a m p l e s o f s u c h l a r g e
b u s i n e s s e s were R e y n o l d s B r o s , L t d . , f o u n d e d i n 1 8 9 2 , t h e
N a t a l E s t a t e s L t d . , a n d T o n g a a t L t d . By t h e 1 8 9 0 s , C G S m i t h
a n d C o . , o n t h e s o u t h c o a s t b e c a m e o n e o f t h e t h r e e m a j o r
s u g a r - b r o k i n g c o m p a n i e s w i t h s u p e r i o r m i l l i n g f a c i l i t i e s .
T h e n u m b e r o f mills a c t u a l l y d e c r e a s e d b e t w e e n f r o m 7 5 i n 1 8 7 7
t o 3 7 i n 1 8 9 5 , b u t t h e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e s m a l l e r
n u m b e r i n c r e a s e d a s t h e y b e c a m e l a r g e r a n d m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d . 1 0
I n t h e 1 8 9 0 s , t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y mono-
p o l i s t i c i n n a t u r e . T h e f i r s t r e f i n e r y a t S o u t h C o a s t J u n c t i o n
w a s f l o a t e d i n 1 8 9 8 , a n e n t e r p r i s e t h a t h a d t h e b a c k i n g o f
s u b s c r i b e r s a n d s h a r e h o l d e r s l i k e N a t . a l E s t a t e s L t d . , T o n g a a t
L t d . , a n d t h e S m i t h g r o u p . T h e s m a l l p l a n t e r s d i d n o t d i s -
a p p e a r , b u t t h e y o p e r a t e d v e r y much i n t h e s h a d o w o f g i a n t
c o m p a n i e s . A n d , w h i l e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b l e g o v e r n -
m e n t p l a c e d l imits o n t h e e x t e n t o f t h e h e l p f r o m t h e c o l o n i a l
s t a t e , s o m e a s s i s t a n c e c o n t i n u e d t o b e g i v e n i n d i r e c t a n d
i n d i r e c t w a y s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e c o l o n i a l s t a t e s u p p o r t e d
N a t a l ' s a c c e s s i o n t o t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n C u s t o m s U n i o n i n 1 8 9 8 ;
i t c o n s i d e r e d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y i n i t s
d e c i s i o n t o p r o m o t e r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d , i n d e e d , g a v e
t h e i n d u s t r y p r e f e r e n t i a l t a r i f f r a t e s i n t r a n s p o r t i n g s u g a r
t o t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n R e p u b l i c . 11
T h e s t a t e a s s i s t e d t h e i n d u s t r y i n t w o o t h e r w a y s . I n 1 8 9 5 ,
t h e N a t a l l e g i s l a t u r e ' s d e c i s i o n t o p a s s t h e £ 3 p o l l t a x ,
w a s a i m e d a t s l o w i n g down t h e r a t e o f t e r m i n a t i o n a n d i n
t h a t way e n s u r i n g t h e c o n t i n u e d s u p p l y o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r .
A n d , i n o p e n i n g u p Z u l u l a n d t o w h i t e s e t t l e m e n t i n 1 9 0 5 , i t
h o p e d t o e x p a n d t h e i n d u s t r y i n t o a t e r r i t o r y t h a t h a d
h i t h e r t o b e e n c l o s e d t o i t .
S u g a r , t h e n , m a d e u p t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e 6 5 t o 7 0 % o f
t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r t h a t e m p l o y e d i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r .
T h e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r t h a t l u r e d t h e c o n -
t r a c t w o r k e r s was t h e t e a i n d u s t r y . T e a p l a n t s b e f o r e 1 8 7 5
f a i l e d t o y i e l d g o o d c r o p s . I n 1 8 7 5 , J L i e g e H u l e t t , a m o n g
o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s , i m p o r t e d s e e d s f r o m A s s a m . By 1 8 9 1 ,
t h e r e w e r e 2 5 t e a e s t a t e s i n t h e T u g e l a D i v i s i o n . H u l e t t ' s
K e a r s n e y E s t a t e w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l . I n 1 8 9 0 - 9 1 ,
h i s e s t a t e p r o d u c e d o v e r 3 0 0 0 0 0 l b . o f t e a w i t h a n e s t i m a t e d
v a l u e o f £ 1 5 0 0 0 . I n 1 9 0 3 , H u l e t t e m p l o y e d 4 5 0 0 i n d e n t u r e d
w o r k e r s , m a i n l y o n t h e t e a e s t a t e s b u t a l s o o n t h e s u g a r
e s t a t e s h e h a d s t a r t e d i n 1 9 0 3 . K e a r s n e y E s t a t e g r e w o n e
m i l l i o n l b . o f t e a o n 1 6 0 0 a c r e s o f l a n d ( o u t o f a t o t a l
a c r e a g e o f 13 5 0 0 ) w i t h t h e h e l p o f 1 0 0 0 I n d i a n l a b o u r e r s .
T h e K i r k l y V a l e Tea E s t a t e , j o i n t l y o w n e d b y A r t h u r T R e y n o l d s
a n d W B L y l e , w a s s e c o n d o n l y t o t h e K e a r s n e y E s t a t e . T h e r e
were a l s o o t h e r l a r g e p r o d u c e r s o f t e a u s i n g i n d e n t u r e d
l a b o u r e r s , a m o n g whom were H i n d s o n o f C l i f t o n E s t a t e a n d
B a z l e y E s t a t e a t I f a f a . 1 2 T e a p i c k i n g r e q u i r e d c a r e a n d
q u i c k m a n i p u l a t i o n w i t h t h e h a n d s , a n d s o m e o f t h e r e c r u i t s
h a d e x p e r i e n c e i n t e a p i c k i n g i n D a r j e e l i n g a n d A s s a m i n
I n d i a . l 3 Women were t h o u g h t t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e
f r o m t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w . P e r h a p s e v e n a m o r e i m p o r t a n t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n w a s t h a t women i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r w a s c h e a p e r
a n d e a s i e r t o c o n t r o l , a n d t h e t e a e s t a t e o w n e r s w e r e n o t
a b o v e e x p l o i t i n g t h e i r v u l n e r a b i l i t y . 1 4
O u t s i d e o f s u g a r a n d t e a , f a r m e r s i n t h e i n t e r i o r g r o w i n g
a v a r i e t y o f f o o d a n d c o m m e r c i a l c r o p s made i n c r e a s i n g u s e
o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r d e s p i t e t h e i r e a r l i e r o p p o s i t i o n t o i t .
M a i z e , t o b a c c o , a n d b e a n s w e r e a m o n g s o m e o f t h e c r o p s .
O t h e r s w e r e i n v o l v e d i n a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y a s s t o c k m e n ,
s h e p h e r d s , a n d d a i r y m e n . 1 5
I n i n d u s t r y t h e t w o s e c t o r s t h a t e m p l o y e d t h e i n d e n t u r e d
I n d i a n s i n l a r g e n u m b e r s w e r e t h e N a t a l G o v e r n m e n t R a i l w a y s
(NGR), a n d t h e c o a l m i n e s . I n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s w e r e
a t t r a c t e d t o t h e NGR b e c a u s e wages a n d w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s
w e r e b e t t e r t h a n i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r . An i n d e n t u r e d
m a l e c o u l d command a wage o f 20 s h i l l i n g s a m o n t h , a n d r e c e i v e
r a t i o n s a t l e a s t o n e - t h i r d more t h a n t h e s t i p u l a t e d a m o u n t s .
And, a s M a u r e e n Swan h a s p o i n t e d o u t , b o t h t h e . i m p o r t a n c e o f
t h e r a i l w a y w o r k a n d t h e s t a t e ' s s t a k e i n t h e p r o j e c t , made
t h e g o v e r n m e n t more a l i v e t o e n s u r i n g b e t t e r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s
f o r t h e i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s . 1 6 The r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n , b e g u n
i n 1 8 6 0 b y a p r i v a t e company, was t a k e n o v e r b y t h e N a t a l
g o v e r n m e n t i n 1 8 7 4 . As f r o m 1 8 7 6 , i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r was
e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d b y t h e NGR. By 1 8 9 5 , 3 0 9 m i l e s o f t r a c k h a d
b e e n l a i d t o r e a c h t h e T r a n s v a a l b o r d e r . The w o r k t h a t t h e
i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s d i d was b o t h s k i l l e d a n d u n s k i l l e d .
P l a t e l a y e r s , c a r r i a g e a n d wagon b u i l d e r s , p o r t e r s , s i g n a l m e n ,
b r e a k s m e n , l a m p a t t e n d a n t s w e r e some among t h e s k i l l e d c a t e -
g o r i e s o f w o r k e r s . Many came w i t h t h e s e s k i l l s u p o n t h e
s p e c i a l r e q u e s t o f t h e NGR. I n 1 8 9 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o D H
H e y d e n r y c h , t h e r e w e r e 665 i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s , i n c o n t r a s t t o
1 1 9 5 f r e e I n d i a n s , 200 c o n t r a c t o r ' s I n d i a n s w i t h s p e c i a l
s k i l l s , a n d 1 077 A f r i c a n s . I n 1 8 9 6 t h e f i g u r e s w e r e a s
f o l l o w s : 1 215 i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s , 813 f r e e I n d i a n s , a n d
963 A f r i c a n s . 1 7
C o a l m i n i n g i n N a t a l w e n t b a c k t o t h e 1 8 4 0 s . H o w e v e r , i t
was o n l y i n t h e l a t e 1 8 8 0 s t h a t t h e i n d u s t r y l a i d t h e p r o p e r
f o u n d a t i o n w h i c h was t o s e e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f o v e r 60 m i n e s
b y 1 9 0 9 . The i n d u s t r y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t was c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o
t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r a i l r o a d b y t h e NGR; and , a s i n
s u g a r , B r i t i s h c a p i t a l a s s i s t e d i n i t s e x p a n s i o n . The N a t a l
g o v e r n m e n t t o o h e l p e d i n d i r e c t a n d i n d i r e c t ways. As f o r
t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s , a number o f r e q u e s t s
f o r t h e m was made i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s . As i n s u g a r , t h e r e was a
d e b a t e a b o u t t h e m e r i t s a n d d e m e r i t s o f h a v i n g I n d i a n s o v e r
A f r i c a n s . V a r i o u s k i n d s o f a r g u m e n t s w e r e made f o r I n d i a n s
r a t h e r t h a n A f r i c a n s , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y w e r e " i n d e n -
t u r e d " s u r e l y m u s t h a v e w e i g h e d h e a v i l y i n t h e m i n d s o f
t h o s e who c o n s i d e r e d f o r m s o f c o n t r o l s o v e r l a b o u r t o b e
i m p o r t a n t . T h e r e was a s t e a d y i n c r e a s e o f i n d e n t u r e d em-
p l o y m e n t . T w e l v e s h i l l i n g s w e r e p a i d f o r s u r f a c e w o r k a n d
f i f t e e n s h i l l i n g s f o r u n d e r g r o u n d w o r k . No I n d i a n was a s k e d
t o w o r k u n d e r g r o u n d w i t h o u t h i s e x p r e s s p e r m i s s i o n . F r o m
1 8 8 9 t o 1 9 0 1 , a s R u t h Edgecombe p o i n t s o u t , t h e p r o p o r t i o n
o f I n d i a n s , i n c l u d i n g f r e e I n d i a n l a b o u r e r s , i n c r e a s e d f r o m
9,3X t o 35,476. I n 1 9 0 9 , t h e y c o n s t i t u t e d 40,8376 o f t h e
l a b o u r e r s e n g a g e d i n " p r o d u c t i v e w o r k " a n d 24,6376 o f t h o s e
i n v o l v e d i n " u n p r o d u c t i v e w o r k . " By 1 9 0 9 , some c o l l i e r i e s
l i k e Dundee a n d West L e n n o x t o n h a d more I n d i a n t h a n A f r i c a n
w o r k e r s . I n d i a n women u s e d f o r p i c k i n g b e l t s c o n s t i t u t e d
o v e r 3% i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 s , b u t d e c l i n e d s t e a d i l y a f t e r 1906 .
When t h e f u t u r e o f i n d e n t u r e d i m m i g r a t i o n was i n t h e b a l a n c e
i n t h e 1 9 0 0 s , i t was c l e a r t h a t I n d i a n s w o u l d be g r a d u a l l y
r e p l a c e d b y A f r i c a n s . The A f r i c a n c o m p o n e n t r o s e i n 1 9 0 9 t o
54,6476 a n d 61,5876 i n " p r o d u ~ t i v e ~ ~ a n d " u n p r o d u c t i v e f 1 w o r k
c a t e g o r i e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . 1 8
M u n i c i p a l i t i e s i n N a t a l , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e o f D u r b a n a n d
P i e t e r m a r i t z b u r g , h i r e d s i z a b l e n u m b e r s o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s
i n t h e i r h e a l t h a n d s a n i t a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s . E x c e p t f o r t h o s e
who w e r e p a r t o f t h e c i t y c o n s t a b u l a r y f o r c e - a n d p e r h a p s
o t h e r s , t o o - m o s t o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d m u n i c i p a l w o r k e r s
w e r e g e n e r a l l a b o u r e r s . I n d i a n s w i t h s p e c i a l s k i l l s w e r e
b r o u g h t t o N a t a l , a s we saw i n r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t e a
p i c k i n g . S i m i l a r l y , t h e N a t a l p o r t a u t h o r i t i e s r e c r u i t e d
I n d i a n b o a t m e n e x p e r i e n c e d i n h a n d l i n g M a s u l a h b o a t s a n d
c a t a m a r a n s . Among t h e more n o t a b l e o f s p e c i a l i s e d c a t e g o r y
o f w o r k w e r e t h e S p e c i a l S e r v a n t s . When i t became known i n
N a t a l t h a t p e o p l e w i t h s p e c i a l s k i l l s c o u l d be h i r e d f a i r l y
c h e a p l y i n I n d i a , a v a r i e t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n s
r e q u e s t e d f o r t h e i r s e r v i c e s . Some o f t h e s e w e r e h o s p i t a l s ,
h o t e l s , r e s t a u r a n t s , p r i v a t e c l u b s , d o c k y a r d s a n d m u n i c i p a l -
t i e s . The S p e c i a l S e r v a n t s w o r k e d a s h o s p i t a l o r d e r l i e s
o r c o r r l p o u n d e r s , c o o k s o r w a i t e r s , p o l i c e m e n , c l e r k s a n d
i n ' t e r p r e t e r s . T h e y c a m e l a r g e l y f r o m I n d i a ' s u r b a n a r e a s ,
a n d were o f t e n e d u c a t e d a n d l i t e r a t e i n E n g l i s h . T h e i r
m o n t h l y s a l a r i e s were c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e o f
w o r k e r s i n a g r i c u l t u r e . o r i n d u s t r y , v a r y i n g f r o m 3 0 t o 1 0 0
s h i l l i n g s . S p e c i a l S e r v a n t s were c o n s c i o u s o f t h e i r s t a t u s ,
a n d were n o t h e s i t a n t a b o u t l o d g i n g c o m p l a i n t s w i t h t h e
P r o t e c t o r f o r e v e n s l i g l ~ t a b u s e s . 1 9
T h e r e c o r d e d n u m b e r o f e m p l o y e r s o f i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s i n
S e p t e m b e r 1 9 0 4 w a s 1 3 0 0 . ~ ~ And t h e l a r g e s t e i g h t e m p l o y e r s
f o r 1 8 9 5 were: N G R ( 9 1 ZOO), N a t a l C e n t r a l S u g a r C o l ( 1 0 1 4 ) ,
R e y n o l d s B r o s . ( 7 5 2 ) , G S S m i t h ( 5 6 6 ) , R e u n i o n E s t a t e ( 3 2 0 ) ,
E S a u n d e r s ( 2 5 7 ) , A M i c h e l ( 2 0 4 ) , a n d F A d d i s o n ( 1 9 2 ) .
E x c e p t f o r t h e f i r s t e m p l o y e r , t h e o t h e r s were i n s u g a r .
I n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s were u s e d v e r y w i d e l y a l l o v e r N a t a l . A s
e a r l y a s 1 8 9 2 , t h e P r o t e c t o r w r o t e i n h i s a n n u a l r e p o r t t h a t
t h e I n d i a n s were " e m p l o y e d a l m o s t t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e n g t h a n d
b r e a d t h o f t h e c o l o n y a n d v e r y l i t t l e i s s a i d a g a i n s t t h e
i m p o r t a t i o n o f A s i a t i c s . " 2 1
U n d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s d i d t h e i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s w o r k i n
N a t a l ? T h e w o r k e r o n t h e p l a n t a t i o n s w a s e x p e c t e d t o b e
p a i d 1 0 s h i l l i n g s p e r m o n t h i n h i s f i r s t y e a r o f i n d e n t u r e ,
a n d a n e x t r a o n e s h i l l i n g w a s a d d e d f o r e v e r y a d d i t i o n a l
y e a r o f s e r v i c e . / I n a d d i t i o n , t h e e m p l o y e r b o r e t h e e x p e n d i -
t u r e f o r a s e t o f new c l o t h i n g u p o n cornmencernen t o f s e r v i c e ,
a n d f o o d r a t i o n s . R a t i o n s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t e d o f 11/2 l b . o f
r i c e d a i l y o r 2 l b . m a i z e m e a l t h r e e t i m e s a w e e k a n d r i c e o n
t h e r e m a i n i n g d a y s ; a n d , o n a m o n t h l y b a s i s , 2 l b . d h a l l ,
1 l b . s a l t , 2 l b . s a l t f i s h a n d l l b . g h e e o r o i l . M a l e s u n d e r
1 2 a n d women r e c e i v e d o n e - h a l f t h e r a t i o n s f o r a d u l t m a l e s .
T h e l a b o u r e r s were r e q u i r e d t o w o r k f o r 6 d a y s i n a w e e k ,
e x c e p t o n S u n d a y s a n d h o l i d a y s , n i n e h o u r s p e r d a y . T h e
e m p l o y e r w a s r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e a c c o m m o d a t i o n a n d m e d i c a l
s e r v i c e when n e e d e d .
These w e r e t h e s t i p u l a t e d c o n d i t i o n s . The a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s
w e r e d i f f i c u l t , a l t h o u g h n o d o u b t t h e y v a r i e d f r o m s e c t o r
t o s e c t o r . G e n e r a l l y , i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r , c o e r c i o n
was b u i l t i n t o t h e l a b o u r s y s t e m b y means o f f o r m a l a n d i n -
f o r m a l c o n t r o l s . F r e q u e n t l y , t h e h o u r s o f s e r v i c e s f a r
e x c e e d e d t h e 9 h o u r s s t i p u l a t e d . The s i r d a r c o n s t i t u t e d a
k e y f i g u r e i n f o r m a l c o n t r o l t o e n s u r e c o m p l i a n c e . He h a d a
n o t i c e a b l y e l e v a t e d s t a t u s ( p e r h a p s a p e r s o n o f a h i g h e r
c a s t e , o r o f n o n - i n d e n t u r e d o r i g i n ) , a n d i n N a t a l , h i s a u t h o r i t y
was s y m b o l i s e d b y t h e d r e a d e d s j a m b o k . A t t h e f o r m a l l e v e l ,
t h e p u n i s t - ~ m e n t f o r n o n - c o m p l i a n c e t o o k v a r i o u s fo rms : f l o g g -
i n g f o r t r u c u l e n c e , d e m o t i o n t o women 's g a n g f o r s l o w w o r k ,
o r c u t i n wages o r r a t i o n s , a n d n o n - p a y m e n t f o r a b s e n c e
t h r o u g h i l l n e s s . I n f o r m a l c s n t r o l was u s u a l l y i n d i r e c t , w i t h
a s y s t e m o f r e w a r d a n d p u n i s h m e n t b u i l t i n t o i t . P a l l i a t i v e s
w e r e u s e d . A l c o h o l a n d n a r c o t i c s w e r e s u p p l i e d t o k e e p w o r k e r s
h a p p y ; a n d a r e b e l l i o u s s p i r i t c o u l d mean s e p a r a t i o n f r o m w i f e
o r f e m a l e c o m p a n i o n s f o r a p e r i o d o f t i m e , o r r e l o c a t i o n w i t h -
i n t h e e s t a t e , o r r e a l l o c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r e m p l o y e r . 2 2 Women
i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s , r e s e n t e d b y e m p l o y e r s i n t h e b e g i n n i n g ,
w e r e o p e n t o g r e a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n when t h e i r w o r t h was
b e l a t e d l y r e c o g n i s e d . B e a l l a r g u e s t h a t " d o m e s t i c r e l a t i o n -
s h i p " a n d t h e " s o c i a l r e l t i o n s g e n d e r " w e r e f a c t o r s t h a t made
women i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s p a r t i c u l a r l y v u l n e r a b l e i n t h e s y s t e m .
The w e r e g r a d u a l l y p h a s e d o u t a f t e r 1 9 0 0 , a n d s a d l y h a d few
s k i l l s w i t h w h i c h t o e n t e r t h e l a b o u r
I n i n d u s t r i e s g e n e r a l l y , t h e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e somewhat b e t t e r .
T h e r e w e r e f e w e r c o l l a b o r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s t o m a n i p u l a t e
w o r k e r s , a n d much l e s s c o e r c i o n t h a n u n d e r t h e s i r d a r i s y s t e m
i n a g r i c u l t u r e . The NGR a n d t h e c o a l m i n e s r e l i e d u p o n i n -
c e n t i v e s r a t h e r t h a n h e a v y - h a n d e d a u t h o r i t y . 2 4 0
W h i l e t h e l a w made p r o v i s i o n f o r h e a l t h c a r e , t h e f a c i l i t i e s
i n m o s t i n s t a n c e s w e r e h o p e l e s s l y i n a d e q u a t e . The h i g h
i n c i d e n c e o f d i s e a s e s a n d i l l n e s s e s was a t t r i b u t a b l e t o p o o r
a n d i m p r o p e r s a n i t a t i o n . O f t h e 1 300 e m p l o y e r s o f i n d e n t u r e d
l a b o u r e r s i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 0 4 , t h e r e was a h i g h d e a t h r a t e
among t h e w o r k e r s o f 1 0 6 o f thern. A t t h e U m h l o t i V a l l e y
Co., t h e r a t e o f d e a t h was 2 0 0 p e r 1 0 0 0 d u r i n g t h e d y s e n t e r y
e p i d e m i c e a r l y i n 1 9 0 4 . E v e n when t h e e p i d e m i c e n d e d , t h e
d e a t h r a t e was 9 1 p e r 1 0 0 0 i n A u g u s t 1 9 0 4 . The s t a t i s t i c s
f o r T o n g a a t S u g a r Co. a n d R e y n o l d s B r o s . f o r A u g u s t 1 9 0 4 was
3 6 a n d 3 5 r e s p e c t i v e l y p e r 1 0 0 0 . ~ ~ C h e s t d i s e a s e s among
t h e c o a l m i n i n g I n d i a n s w e r e common. C o n d i t i o n s o n t h e
e s t a t e s - among t h e m t h e s h o r t a g e o f women - w e r e n o t
c o n d u c i v e t o a h a p p y , s t a b l e l i f e . Men d r a n k , q u a r r e l l e d ,
a n d g a m b l e d . The a v e n u e s f o r r e l i e f f r o m t h e d r u d g e r y o f w o r k
w e r e f ew . A l i e n a t i o n was h i g h . T h i s was d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o
t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f s u i c i d e among i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s - i t
was t h e h i g h e s t f o r a n y g r o u p i n t h e c o l o n y , a n d s e c o n d o n l y
t o F i j i among t h e s u g a r c o l o n i e s u s i n g i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r . The
s u i c i d e r a t e s among N a t a l ' s l e a d i n g e m p l o y e r s b e t w e e n 1 8 7 5 t o
1 9 1 1 w e r e : R e y n o l d s B r o s . , 32,776; T o n g a a t S u g a r Co. , 15,376;
NGR, 11,276; D u r b a n C o r p o r a t i o n 9,276; L a M e r c y E s t a t e s , 9,276;
G S S m i t h ( B l a c k b u r n E s t a t e ) , 6,176; C o r n u b i a / N a t a l E s t a t e ,
6,176; H a w k e s w o r t h ( B e n e v a E s t a t e ) , 5,176 a n d M t . Edgecombe ,
5,176. 2 6
H a v i n g b r i e f l y e x a m i n e d t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f e m p l o y m e n t f o r
i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s , a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e y
w o r k e d , t h e c h a p t e r now p r o c e e d s t o a n a l y s e t h e e m p l o y e r
s t a t i s t i c s p r o v i d e d b y t h e c o m p t e r . T a b l e 1 9 g i v e s a d e t a i l e d
b r e a k d o w n o f e ' m p l o y e r s f o r M a d r a s p a s s e n g e r s , a n d T a b l e 2 0
a n d G r a p h 1 0 r e f l e c t t h e l e a d i n g e m p l o y e r s . S i m i l a r l y , T a b l e s
2 1 a n d 2 2 , a n d G r a p h 11 show t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e m p l o y e r s
f o r C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s .
I t s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d a t t h e o u t s e t t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f
u n k n o w n i s v e r y h i g h f o r b o t h M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a g r o u p s .
F r o M a d r a s i t i s 48,976 ( s e e T a b l e 1 9 ) a n d f o r C a l c u t t a i t
i s 45,576 ( s e e T a b l e 2 0 ) . F o r t h e l a t e r y e a r s e s p e c i a l l y ,
t h e p e r c e n t a g e u n k n o w n i s e x t r e m e l y h i g h . The i n f o r m a t i o n
o n e m p l o y e r s was e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e 1 2 v o l u m e s o f t h e R e g i s t e r s
TABLE 19
DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYERS FOR MADRAS PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
m . ~ y\ ' c n 4 . m I 0 0
I I . O D m O D c n c n c n
J ; I I cn I I
I I I I \D O D 4 4 ' N a w o c n m ~ ) ~ ~ c n c n c n l o o EMPLOYER ~ > ~ ) ~ ~ m c n c n c n ~ ~ m m c n c n c n o a a m m ~ ~ m m ~ ~ m o o 4 4 4 m - 1 4
I - - 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 m
Unknown 48,9 87,2 Acu t t , C & Co 0,5 - Addison, 0,7 -
F r i e n d A f r i c a n Boat-
i n g Co 093 - Arbuckle, W 0 , l - Barrow Green
E s t a t e 0,3 - Bazley, John 0,4 - Beneva E s t a t e s 0,3 - (EW Hawkesworth) B inn, Henry 0 , l - B lackbu rn
C e n t r a l Sugar 1,5 - Co (C Vause)
Cato Manor E s t a t e s 0 , l - (G C Cato)
C l a r e E s t a t e 0 , l - ( B C larence)
C o l l i e r s E L L t d
Cornubia E s t 0,2 - Dhotman, A & Co 0 , l - Dubo iss ie H & 096 -
Co (Maur ica E s t ) , Oundee Coal Co 0.3 -
7 -
Effingham E s t 1,0 - (S Crookes)
Equeeza E s t (Hawkesworth B) Ha r r i son , H P H i l l , S & Co H i l l Head E s t
(E M o l l i e r e s ) Hindson, W R H i tchens, C H i t chens &
May don H u l e t t E s t
( J L H u l e t t ) Kearsney E s t
(JL H u l e t t ) La L u c i a &
Muckle Neuk E s t (A M i c h e l )
La Mercy E s t CB de Gersigny L a n g l o i s J u l e s Mayer, G C Mi lkwood K r a a l
E s t (H S h i r e ) M o n t i l l e de R
Employer cont inued/ ...
LOT
8'0 - 11'0 8'0 - L'T - - - - - - --- 03 <'O ~e6ns nTnqoyztun
- - - - - - 6'Z Z'L 8'Z 9'5 - ezue~ads3
1 - "O - - ' ' *7s3 i(y‘,,,JzWn - - - - - - - - - 5'0 - 11'9 - - - 03 ~e6ns
9'0 narra~ e6uerqwn
'11 - '1 11' 5 6'0 - 9'0 11'0 - - - --- (SJapunes 80 6'0 saqeqs3 qee6uol
(SJaPuneS 3) - - - - - - - - - - - 6'11 - O'Z - 5'0 03 ~e6ns
Tequa3 qee6uol - - - - --- L'O a6~oa3 'q~ernaqs - 9'0 - Z'Z 11'0 11'0 L'O - - - - - - - - - - 9 'z z' - - - 11'0 03 '8 3 TTauS - - - - - - - - - 11' L' - 0 - - L'O s3 '1~7r.s - - - - - - - - - - - L'Z 8'1 - - L'O 3r 'a~rvs - - - - - - - - Z'O - T 0'1 L'O - - Z'O rw 'UTJJ~VS
- - - - 9'0 - - 0'1 z 9'0 - (Apauua)l aw) - - - 8'0 L'0 qs3 aqei no3 eas
- - - - - - - - - - ' 5'0 z'O - - T'O 13 '~aues - - - - - - - - - - - 9'0 6'1 - - 1'0 03 '8 1 s~TouAalJ
1'5 8'11 8'Z 9'Z 6'1 O'Z T'T - - 6'Z 1'11 - - - - 56'1 'SOJa sp~ouAau
11'0 L'O 1'0 6'0 5'0 - 5'Z T'Z 9'T L'L 5'T L'T 11'1 - - (ssed ap *a) aqeqsj uoyunau
- - - - - - - ( JauTrN 3 1) - 11'0 11' L'O 1'5 6'0 - L'T L'O 7s3 ,,TT3pau
- - - T'T 9‘0 L'O Z'T T'T - Z'T T'T 0'1 - - - 9'0 ( UoSuT'lTTM W)
7s3 erne770 - - - - L'O - - 9'0 11'0 8'~ T'z f'L 5'T - - 8'07~3~Te~ 73adsoJd - - - - L'O - 6'0 L'o 8'0 5'0 9'0 8'0 ~'0 - - 9'0 WC au~oq6urq~od - - 1'0 - - 11' 5'0 11'1 - - - - - - - 5z40 uer~~r~ 'as~ead - - - - - - - - 1'0 - z L'T 5' - - 9'0 a6~oa3 'qq~o~
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KEY -.-
BLACKBURN CENTRAL
EFFINGHAM
KEARSNEY
LA LUCIA & MUCKLE
NEUK
LA MERCY
NATAL CENTRAL
NATAL ESTATE
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NATAL PLANTATION
REUNION
REYNOLDS BROS.
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A 6 C D E F G li 1 J K L M LEADING EMPLOYERS
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o f E m p l o y e r s f o r I n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s i n t h e N a t a l A r c h i v e s .
No o t h e r , s i n g l e d e t a i l e d s o u r c e w a s f o u n d t h a t l i s t s b y
n a m e s a n d n u m b e r s e m p l o y e r s a g a i n s t i n d i v i d u a l e m p l o y e r s .
O b v i o u s l y , a m o r e d e t e r m i n e d s e a r c h t h r o u g h a r c h i v a l s o u r c e s
i s g o i n g t o b e n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d o u t f u l l y e m p l o y e r s f o r a l l
t h e i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s .
T h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h e i n c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e s t a t i s t i c s m a k e s
i t d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r t h e p a t t e r n s o f e m p l o y m e n t . F o r
e x a m p l e , C A c u t t a n d C o . , h i r e d i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s f o r
1 8 7 7 - 7 8 , 1 8 7 9 - 8 2 , 1 8 8 3 - 8 5 , a n d 1 8 8 6 - 8 9 , a n d t h e f o u r s e t s o f
s t a t i s t i c s g i v e a n a v e r a g e o f 0,576 h i r e d b y t h i s c o m p a n y .
H o w e v e r , n o s t a t i s t i c s a p p e a r f o r t h e e l e v e n o t h e r p e r i o d s
i n T a b l e 1 9 . T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e c o m p a n y h i r e d i n -
d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s o n l y i n t h e f o u r p e r i o d s m e n t i o n e d . R a t h e r ,
n o i n f o r m a t i o n w a s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e o t h e r p e r i o d s t o f e e d
i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r . And s o i t i s w i t h v i r t u a l l y e v e r y o t h e r
e m p l o y e r i n T a b l e s 1 9 a n d 2 1 , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e e m p l o y e r s who
r e m a i n u n k n o w n .
The t a b l e s a r e i n c o m p l e t e i n o t h e r w a y s t o o . T h e m a s s i v e n e s s
o f t h e d a t a , a n d t h e l i m i t e d s p a c e a v a i l a b l e o n c o m p u t e r d i s c s
made i t i m p o s s i b l e t o a r r i v e a t c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i v e a n a l y s e s
c o m b i n i n g v a r i a b l e s l i k e e m p l o y e r , s e x , a g e , c a s t e , a n d p l a c e s
o f o r i g i n . A l t e r n a t i v e p r o g r a m m i n g p r o c e d u r e s w i l l h a v e t o
b e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e f u t u r e t o a r r i v e a t m o r e r e f i n e d a n a l y s i s .
T h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r i s m o s t h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e
t a b l e s o n e m p l o y e r s . I n t h e i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r , t h e s i n g l e
l a r g e s t e m p l o y e r w a s t h e N G R . T a b l e 1 9 s h o w s t h a t 11 e m p l o y e r s
h i r i n g i n e x c e s s o f 1 7 6 , e m p l o y e d 2 0 % o f t h e w o r k e r s ; 1 4 e m p l o y -
e r s h i r e d n e a r l y 107:; a n d t h e b a l a n c e o f 34 e n i p l o y e r s h i r e d
7076 o f t h e w o r k e r s . T a b l e 2 1 f o r C a l c u t t a p a s s e n g e r s s h o w s
t h a t 8 l a r g e e m p l o y e r s were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i r i n g n e a r l y 1 9 %
o f t h e l a b o u r e r s ; 1 3 m e d i u m - s i z e d e m p l o y e r s h i r e d 1 5 % o f a l l
t h e w o r k e r s ; a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g 2 5 e m p l o y e r s h i r e d o v e r 7 1 % o f
t h e w o r k e r s . B o t h s e t s o f s t a t i s t i c s ( f o r M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a
p a s s e n g e r s ) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s m a l l e r e m p l o y e r s p r e d o m i n a t e d .
D o e s t h i s m e a n t h a t t h e s m a l l e r e m p l o y e r s c o l l e c t i v e l y ern-
p l o y e a m o r e i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s t h a n t h e l a r g e e m p l o y e r s ?
T h e a v e r a g e s f o r 4 2 y e a r s seem t o s u g g e s t s o . I t may b e
d i f f e r e n t , h o w e v e r , i f e m p l o y m e n t p a t t e r n s a r e e x a m i n e d
s e p a r a t e l y f o r e a c h o f t h e 1 5 p e r i o d d i v i s i o n s i n t h e t a b l e s .
T h e n , l a r g e c o m p a n i e s seem t o p r e d o m i n a t e .
S i n c e i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o g i v e a d e t a i l e d b r e a k d o w n o f t h e
e m p l o y e r s t h a t a p p e a r i n t h e t a b l e s , a f e w o f t h e l a r g e r
c o n c e r n s h a v e b e e n s e l e c t e d b e l o w f o r b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n s .
S t a t i s t i c s o n t h e s i z e o f t h e l a b o u r f o r c e a r e u s u a l l y m i s s i n g
i n t h e h i s t o r i e s o f t h e c o m p a n i e s . T h e y c e r t a i n l y u s e d
i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r i n a b i g w a y , a n d o n e g e t s a n a p p r o x i m a t e
i d e a o f t h e s i z e f r o m t h e c o m p a n i e s ' o p e r a t i o n s . D i s c u s s -
i o n o f t h e l a r g e r c o m p a n i e s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p r o c e s s o f
c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s t o w h i c h r e f e r e n c e was m a d e e a r l i e r .
O n e a l r e a d y h a s s o m e i d e a o f t h e r o l e o f t h e N G R a n d K e a r s n e y
E s t a t e i n i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r f r o m o u r d i s c u s s i o n e a r l i e r .
T h e B l a c k b u r n C e n t r a l S u g a r m i l l h a d i t s o r i g i n s w h e n J o s e p h
B l a c k b u r n b o u g h t a s i t e i n 1 8 6 4 a l o n g t h e U m h l a n g a R i v e r .
T h e l a n d w a s d i v i d e d i n t o l o t s i n t e n d e d f o r c o f f e e p l a n t a t i o n .
C o f f e e f a i l e d , h o w e v e r , a n d t h e c o m p a n y t u r n e d t o s u g a r . A
m i l l was b u i l t i n 1 8 7 7 o n a n e s t a t e w i t h 2 2 1 0 a c r e s r e s e r v e d
f o r c a n e - g r o w i n g . I n 1 8 9 6 , B l a c k b u r n was p u r c h a s e d b y t h e
N a t a l E s t a t e s L t d . 2 7 M e s s r s W h e e l e r a n d H a d d o n was f o u n d e d
i n 1 8 7 6 o n E f f i n g h a m E s t a t e n e a r A v o c a . I t was f l o a t e d i n
L o n d o n w i t h a c a p i t a l o f £ 2 5 0 0 0 . T h e c o m p a n y t r i e d c o f f e e
b e f o r e t u r n i n g t o s u g a r . T h e cor r lpany w a s e v e n t u a l l y a b s o r b e d
b y t h e N a t a l E s t a t e s L t d . 2 8 W i l l i a m J C a m p b e l l h a d h o p e d t o
g r o w a r r o w r o o t w h e n h e f i r s t a r r i v e d i n N a t a l , b u t h e e v e n t u a l l y
t u r n e d t o c a n e - p l a n t i n g a n d m i l l i n g . T h e e s t a t e , s t a r t e d i n
1 8 5 9 , w a s na rned " M u c k l e N e u k " i n 1 8 6 1 a f t e r t h e p l a c e C a m p b e l l
r e m e m b e r e d i n h i s h o m e t o w n o f G l a s g o w . S u g a r m a c h i n e r y w a s
i m p o r t e d i n 1 8 6 0 , a n d b y 1 8 7 2 , a m o d e r n m i l l w a s b u i l t b y
W i l l i a m J n r . , who h a d b e c o m e t h e m a n a g e r u p o n h i s f a t h e r ' s
TABLE 21
DISTRIBUTIOIV OF EPIPLOYERS FClR CALCUTTA PASSENGERS, 1860-1902
1 I 1 ' 0
V) b O D I N 1 --
Q W I
EMPLOYER 0 0
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 C3 4
Unknown 45,5 67,6 39,2 '20,3 20,6 2 1 , l 24,2 23,2 28,6 52,9 59,6 54,6 69,2 65,4 '79,9 76,2 Acu t t , C & CO 0,7 - 1,5 1,9 1,4 4,7 - - - - 0,5 - - - - - Addison, F r i e n d 0,4 - - - - - 2,O 1,l 1,7 - - 1 , O - - - - Baz ley , John 0,16 - - - - 1,l - - - - - 1,3 - - - - Beneva E s t a t e s 0 , l - IEW Hawkesworth)
- - - - - - - \
a inn , Henry 0,2 - 3,3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Blackburn C e n t r a l Sugar 2,4 - - - 0,4 9,O 8,2 2,2 10,3 592 1,2 - - - - - Ca (C Vause) C l a r e E s t a t e 0,26 - - 3,9 - - - - - - - - - - - - (B Clarence) C o l l i e r s EL L t d 0,4 - - - - - - - - - - - 5,8 - - 0,7 Cornubia E s t 0,28 - 0,3 3,9 - - - - - , - - - - - - - Dhotman A & Co 0 , l - - 2 , l - - - - - - - - - - - - Dubo iss ie H & (Maur ica E s t ) 0,8 - - 7 , l 2,9 2 , l - - - - - - - - - - Dundee Coal Co 1,3 - - - - - - 0,6 - - 3,4 5,6 5 , l - - 5,2 DurbanCorp. 0,4 - 1,7 - 2,8 - - - - - - - - - - 1,2 Ef f ingham E s t 0,2 - - - - - - 0,7 - 1,9 - - 1 , O - - - (S Crookes) Equeefa E s t 095 - 098 098 295 2 , l - - 1,l - - - - - - - i Hawkesworth Bros) Glasgow Sugar 098 - 993 393 - - - - - - - - - - - - C 0
H a r r i s o n HP 0,7 - 0,8 2,O 0,6 0,5 - 2,3 190 099 - ' - - - 2,8 - H i l l S & Co 0,3 - 0,4 2,O - 197 - - - - - - - - - -
0,15 - 1,3 0,9 - - - - - - - - - - - - (E M o l l i e r e s ) Hindson, W R 0,3 - - - - - - - - 1,4 0,9 1,l - 1,4 - - I i u l e t t E s t 0,2 - - - - - 3,O - - - - - - - - - ( J I B H u l e t t ) Kearsney E s t 1 ,4 - 099 - - 0,7 - 097 - 493 - 1,7 298 798 - 194 (JL H u l e t t ) La L u c i a & Muckle Neuk 0,4 - - - - 0,5 - 197 1 , O 0,9 - 1,6 - - - - E s t (A M i c h e l ) La IPIercy E s t (('13 n i l ' C ~ I s igny ) 0,6 - - - 2,2 0,7 - 0,9 2,5 6 , - 0,6 - - - - Lang lo i s , J u l e s 0,25 - - 3,7 - - - - - - - - - - - - :.layer G C 0,3 - - 5,O - - - - - - - - - - - - Ni lkwood K r a a l 0,5 1,5 - - - 094 398 1,l - - - - - - - - E s t a t e ( H S h i r e ) N a t a l C e n t r a l 2,7 - - - - 2,8 14,3 9,O 3,8 8,3 290 - - 3,4 - - Sugar Co N a t a l E s t a t e s 173 - - - - - - - - - L t d
- , 5,7 3,Ol - 9,8 196
Employer cont inued/ ...
u) : P - m ! N a m c l in a ' -I ul b m m 7 ( 0 : i q \
m a w I I I I I
EMPLOYCR o 3 m n ' N 3 m m 0 0 oa g P - b m g ' E , m m m m m m + m a 0 m m 00 3 3 m 3 3
c l 3 3 4 3 c l 3 m 3
N a t a l Govt. Rai lways N a t a l Land & C o l o n i s a t i o n Co (C Behrens) N a t a l P lan ta - t i o n Co Nor th , George Prospect H a l l
E s t a t e Ottawa E s t a t e s (A Wi l k inson) R e d c l i f f E s t (TC M i l n e r ) Reunion E s t a t e ( D de Pass) Reynolds Bros Reynolds T & Co Sea Cow Lake E s t a t e (AB Kennedy) S h i r e J E Smith G S S n e l l E & Co S p r i n g f i e l d Es ta tes (HJ M i l n e r ) Tongaat C e n t r a l Sugar Co (E Saunders) Tongaat E s t a t e s (JR Saunders) Umhlanga V a l l e y Sugar Co !lw/ i r ~ t o E s t a t e s IF:q)rr;~oza
Ilmii~nkuiu Suqur C n
V i r y i r ~ : : i Sibgar Est- (PI Chc: on) W:itt.rl on € s t (T Gror~m & G ,lot ~ n s tone) Wilson, W
TOTAL 35720 8 3 1 990 82061723 3077 3177699 3022 1620 i2786 1785 2922 12011570 816 2126 - ---
PE
RC
EN
TAG
ES
d e a t h i n 1 8 6 5 . M u c k l e Neuk c h a n g e d h a n d s s e v e r a l t i m e s :
i n 1 8 7 7 , i t was s o l d t o M i c h e l a n d P e r r o n ; i n 1 8 9 3 , M i c h e l
b o u g h t i t ; a n d p a s s e d i t t o t h e U r r ~ h l o t i C e n t r a l S u g a r M i l l
a n d E s t a t e s Co. L t d . i n 1 8 9 7 ; a n d f i n a l l y , was b o u g h t b y
t h e T o n g a a t S u g a r Co., i n 1 9 2 1 . 2 9
T u r n i n g t o t h e b i g g e r f i r m s , t h e N a t a l C e n t r a l S u g a r Co.,
L t d . , was f o r m e d i n 1 8 7 9 . I t p u r c h a s e d f r o m J u l e s L a n g l o i s
a m i l l w i t h t h e l a t e s t m a c h i n e r y , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a d j o i n -
i n g e s t a t e o f M t . Edgecombe, f o u n d e d i n 1 9 5 9 o r 1 8 6 1 , f o r
£ 1 0 0 000. I n A u g u s t 1 8 8 2 , s u g a r c a n e was g r o w n o n 3 500
a c r e s , p r o d u c i n g 25 t o n s o f s u g a r a d a y . I t s m i l l i n g -
f a c i l i t i e s w e r e l o c a t e d o n 800 a c r e s o f l a n d , a n d e n j o y e d
s u c h a r e p u t a t i o n a s t o a t t r a c t l a r g e c l i e n t s . The company
a c q u i r e d C o r n u b i a S u g a r E s t a t e i n 1 8 8 2 , whose m a n a g e r ,
M a r s h a l l C a m p b e l l , s o o n became t h e d i r e c t o r . C a r r ~ p b e l l a n d
h i s s o n f l o a t e d i n L o n d o n t h e N a t a l E s t a t e s L t d . , i n 1 8 9 5 ,
a n d b e g a n b u y i n g up n e i g h b o u r i n g e s t a t e s s o o n t h e r e a f t e r .
B l a c k b u r n E s t a t e , S a c c h a r i n e H i l l E s t a t e , M i l k w o o d K r a a l ,
E f f i n g h a m a n d U m t a t a E s t a t e s w e r e a c q u i r e d . O t h e r e s t a t e s
i n c o r p o r a t e d w e r e : Sea Cow L a k e E s t a t e , W a t e r l o o , P h o e n i x ,
S u n a e r l a n d , A u c h e n g l a s , F o u n t a i n s , H i l l Head, O t t a w a , Red-
c l i f f e , Meadowbank, Jarlies W a t s o n ' s E s t a t e , a n d N e w l a n d s .
The N a t a l E s t a t e s L t d . , f o u n d e d t h e f i r s t s u g a r r e f i n e r y i n
S o u t h A f r i c a a t S o u t h C o a s t J u n c t i o n ( l a t e r known a s R o s s b u r g h )
i n 1 8 9 7 f o r £ 5 0 0 0 0 . 30
R e y n o l d s B r o s . , l i k e t h e N a t a l E s t a t e s L t d . , e x p a n d e d r a p i d l y
b y a b s o r b i n g s m a l l e r e s t a t e s . I n t h e e a r l y d a y s , t h e R e y n o l d s
b r o t h e r s , Thomas a n d L e w i s w o r k e d s e p a r a t e l y . L R e y n o l d s
b o u g h t U m z i n t o S u g a r Co. ; a f t e r L e w i s ' s d e a t h i n 1 8 7 5 , t h e
corrlpany was re -named , T R e y n o l d s a n d Sons. E v e n b e f o r e Thomas
R e y n o l d s ' d i e d i n J u n e 1 8 8 5 , his two s o n s , F r a n k 2nd C h a r l e s
t : e y n u l d s h a d become a c t i v e i n t h e b u s i n e s s . They moved t o
U m z i n t o , a n d i n 1 8 8 9 b o u g h t t h e E q u e e f a S u g a r E s t a t e . When
t h e m i l l f a c i l i t i e s w e r e d e s t r o y e d b y a n e x p l o s i o n , t h e
o p e r a t i o n was moved t o E s p e r a n z a . A new company was f l o a t e d
i n 1 9 0 7 , w i t h a c a p i t a l o f £ 1 5 0 0 0 0 . I n 1 9 1 5 , a n u p - t o -
d a t e m i l l w a s o p e n e d a t S e z e l a . 3 1
T h e T o n g a a t E s t a t e s h a d i t s b e g i n n i n g s i n 1 8 4 8 . When t h e
o r i g i n a l c o m p a n y w a s d i v i d e d i n 1 8 6 0 , J a m e s R S a u n d e r s ,
who h a d w o r k e d a s a m a n a g e r , a c q u i r e d a s h a r e i n t h e c o m p a n y ' s
h o l d i n g s . J a m e s R S a u n d e r s ' s o n E d w a r d t o o k o v e r f r o m h i s
f a t h e r when h e d i e d i n 1 8 9 2 . I n 1 8 9 5 , h e f o r m e d t h e T o n g a a t
S u g a r C o . , L t d . , w i t h t h e h e l p o f B r i t i s h c a p i t a l o f £ 1 5 0 0 0 .
T h e N a t a l C e n t r a l S u g a r c o . , a s s i s t e d f i n a n c i a l l y i n b u i l d -
i n g a m i l l . I n 1 8 9 9 , E d w a r d S a u n d e r s f l o a t e d t h e c o m p a n y i n
L i v e r p o o l . I n 1 9 2 2 , t h e T o n g a a t S u g a r c o . , L t d . , b o u g h t
t h e U m h l o t i V a l l e y a n d E s t a t e C o . , L t d . , f o r £ 1 0 0 0 0 0 . 3 2
L a r g e a n d s m a l l b u s i n e s s f i r m s , m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , h e a l t h
i n s t i t u t i o n s , s e r v i c e - r e l a t e d c o n c e r n s , a n d s o o n m a d e w i d e
u s e o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n i n e c o n o m i c
terms w a s s u b s t a n t i a l , a n d t h e s t o r y o f t h a t c o n t r i b u t i o n
r e m a i n s t o b e t o l d . H o w e v e r , g i v e n a c h o i c e , i n d e n t u r e d
l a b o u r e r s p r e f e r r e d f r e e l a b o u r f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s ,
a n d i n g o o d e c o n o m i c t i m e s i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s t e r m i n a t e d
t h e i r s e r v i c e s a f t e r o n l y o n e term i n t h e i r h u n d r e d s . T h i s
w a s t h e p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e £ 3 t a x
r e f e r r e d t o e a r l i e r . T a b l e 2 3 s h o w s t h a t t h e r a t e o f r e -
i n d e n t u r e w a s u n u s u a l l y h i g h a f t e r 1 9 0 6 , a n d t h i s i s r e l a t e d
t o t h e d e p r e s s e d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s i n N a t a l d u r i n g t h e
p e r i o d . T h e r a t e o f r e - i n d e n t u r e w a s 5 8 % i n 1 9 1 0 ; a n d 7 0 %
i n 1 9 1 2 , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e A n n u a l R e p o r t o f t h e P r o t e c t o r o f
I n d i a n I m m i g r a n t s . I t c o n t i n u e d t o b e h i g h u n t i l t h e e a r l y
1 9 2 0 s . By t h e n , o f c o u r s e , t h e s y s t e m w a s w o r k i n g i t s e l f
o u t . T h e l a s t c o n t r a c t s e x p i r e d i n 1 9 3 3 . I n t h e p o s t - 1 9 1 1
p e r i o d , t e a , s u g a r , u p - c o u n t r y f a r m i n g , a n d c o a l c o n t i n u e d
t o m a k e u s e o f i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r . 3 3
W h i l e t h e s y s t e m w a s n o t l i k e d b y t h e w o r k e r s t h e m s e l v e s ,
i t s w i d e u s a g e s u g g e s t s t h a t e m p l o y e r s f o u n d i n i t a t r o u b l e -
f r e e mode o f l a b o u r . T h e r e w e r e i n s t a n c e s o f s t r i k e s a n d
11 4
TABLE 23
Year - Indentured Re-indentured . Free -
Source: Annual Reports of the Protector of Indian Immigrants.
p r o t e s t s , t o b e s u r e , b u t t h e y w e r e o f m i n o r p r o p o r t i o n s
t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d u n t i l 1 9 1 3 . 34 T h e r e w e r e s u f f i c i e n t
f o r m s o f c o n t r o l s t o e n s u r e c o m p l i a n c e . The e m p l o y e r s
f a c e d n o t h i n g a s d r a m a t i c a n d m a s s i v e a s t h e 1 9 1 3 - 1 4 s t r i k e
when t h o u s a n d s o f i n d e n t u r e d a n d f r e e I n d i a n s showed w o r k e r
m i l i t a n c y . T h i s m i l i t a n c y h a s b e e n e x p l a i n e d i n a v a r i e t y
o f ways i n r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e , a b o u t w h i c h m o r e w i l l b e s a i d
i n t h e c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r . M o r e p e r t i n e n t h e r e a r e t h e
r e a s o n s why t h e i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r f o r c e was e s s e n t i a l l y d o c i l e
d e s p i t e t h e h a r s h c o n d i t i o n s . And t h e s e a r e t o b e f o u n d i n
t h e c o n t r o l s t h e m s e l v e s , t h e t r a n s i e n t n a t u r e o f t h e l a b o u r ,
t h e v i r t u a l a b s e n c e o f w o r k e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s among i n d i v i d u a l s
who came f r o m a p r e - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y a n d f i n a l l y p o l i t i c a l
n o n - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . T h i s i s t h e c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h
i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r i n c o l o n i a l N a t a l m u s t be v i e w e d . And t h e
r e a s o n f o r t h e p r e f e r e n c e f o r i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s becomes
o b v i o u s .
NOTES
1 R o b e r t F O s b o r n e : V a l i a n t H a r v e s t : The F o u n d i n q o f
t h e S u q a r I n d u s t r y , 1 8 4 8 - 1 9 2 6 , D u r b a n , 1 9 6 4 , p . 2 .
S e e a l s o pp . 1 - 4 1 f o r e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t i n N a t a l ' s
s u g a r i n d u s t r y .
2 P e t e r R i c h a r d s o n : "The N a t a l S u g a r I n d u s t r y , 1 8 4 9 - 1 9 0 5 :
An I n t e r p r e t i v e E s s a y , I t i n B i l l G u e s t a n d J o h n M S e l l e r s
( e d s . ) : E n t e r p r i s e a n d E x p l o i t a t i o n i n a V i c t o r i a n
C o l o n y : A s p e c t s o f Economic a n d S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f
C o l o n i a l N a t a l , P i e t e r m a r i t z b u r g : U n i v . o f N a t a l P r e s s ,
1 9 8 5 , pp . 1 8 1 - 1 9 7 .
3 G H , SC8/1857 a n d S C 4 / 1 8 5 9 , N a t a l A r c h i v e s (NA). S e e
a l s o PCa'ial Govern~ i~e i - l t G a z e t t e (,NGG), 1 7 May 1 8 5 9 ; no .
5 4 8 , v o l . 11, f o r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f I n d i a n s .
4 L M Thompson: - I n d i a n I r n m i q r a t i o n I n t o N a t a l , 1 8 6 0 - 1 8 7 2
i n A r c h i v e s Year Book f o r S o u t h A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , v o l . 11,
P r e t o r i a , 1 9 5 2 , p. 7 0 .
5 R e p o r t o f t h e C o o l i e C o m m i s s i o n , CSO, 1 0 9 0 6 / 1 8 6 2 , N A .
6 S e e R e p o r t o f t h e C o o l i e C o m m i s s i o n , N G G , v o l . 2 4 , 1 8 7 2 .
7 R e p o r t o f t h e I n d i a n I m m i g r a t i o n C o m m i s s i o n , 1 8 8 5 - 1 8 8 7
(Wragg C o m m i s s i o n ) . P i e t e r m a r i t z b u r g , 1 8 7 7 , p p . 6 4 5 .
( S e e a l s o N G G , 20 S e p t . , 1 8 8 7 , S u p p l e m e n t ) .
8 R i c h a r d s o n , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 8 1 - 1 9 7 . S e e a l s o A G Choonoo:
" I n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n I m m i g r a t i o n i n t o N a t a l , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 1 1 , "
(M.A. T h e s i s , U n i v . o f N a t a l , 1 9 6 7 ) .
9 R i c h a r d s o n , o p . c i t . , p . 1 8 8 .
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t h e i s s u e w h e t h e r t h e e m i g r a n t s c o u l d b e s a i d t o h a v e
e x e r c i s e d " f r e e c h o i c e t t i n m a k i n g t h e d e c i s i o n i n t h e f u l l
s e n s e o f t h e p h r a s e . The p o i n t i s w e l l t a k e n , y e t when one
c o n s i d e r s t h e e n o r m o u s s c a l e o f t h e m i g r a t i o n s , t h e e m i g r a n t s
d i d make t h e d e c i s i o n t o t r a v e l a b r o a d e v e n i f t h e y w e r e
d e c e i v e d a b o u t t h e i r e v e n t u a l d e s t i n a t i o n s . I t i s much more
f r u i t f u l f o r t h e . h i s t o r i a n t o u n d e r s t a n d why p e o p l e c h o s e t o
e m i g r a t e a t a l l , b e c a u s e t h e n i t s h i f t s t h e f o c u s 0. f t h e
d e b a t e o n t h e f o r c e s t h a t d i s l o c a t e d t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e .
A s t u d y o f t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d s o f t h e e m i g r a n t s
r e v e a l s much.
A c a s t e d i d n o t a l w a y s r e f l e c t t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d
o f t h e e m i g r a n t . B r a h m i n s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y p r i e s t s , w e r e o f t e n
l a n d - o w n i n g f a r m e r s . The r a n g e o f c a s t e s s u g g e s t s a w i d e
v a r i e t y o f s k i l l s i f one a c c e p t s t h a t c a s t e a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l
c a t e g o r i e s c o i n c i d e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e l e a d i n g c a s t e s
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m o s t numerous c l a s s e s w e r e t h e l a n d l e s s
p e a s a n t s , a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s , a n d v i l l a g e s e r v i c e - l a b o u r e r s
l i k e Odda ( e a r t h w o r k e r s ) , Chamars ( l e a t h e r t a n n e r s ) , a n d
D o s a d h s ( w a t c h m e n ) . A g r e a t d e a l i s o f t e n s a i d a b o u t t h e p r e -
d o m i n a n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l s o f l o w c a s t e s . To b e s u r e , P a r i a h s
i n t h e M a d r a s g r o u p , a n d Chamars and A h i r s i n t h e C a l c u t t a
g r o u p w e r e i n t h e m a j o r i t y . B u t when o n e e x a m i n e s t h e w h o l e
r a n g e o f c a s t e d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l p e r c e n t a g e
o f u p p e r t o m i d d l i n g l e v e l s o f c a s t e i n t h e s a m p l e i n b o t h
t h e M a d r a s a n d C a l c u t t a g r o u p s . R e s p e c t a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d
n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l c a s t e s a r e t o b e f o u n d among b o t h g r o u p s o f
i m m i g r a n t s . The p r e d o m i n a n c e o f t h e l o w s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c l a s s e s
s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n was m o s t s e v e r e l y
a f f e c t e d b y t h e u p h e a v a l s i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y I n d i a .
F i n a l l y , w h i l e H i n d u s w e r e i n t h e m a j o r i t y , C h r i s t i a n s a n d
M u s l i m s w e r e a l s o among t h e i m m i g r a n t s . I n t h e M a d r a s g r o u p ,
1 , 3 % w e r e C h r i s t i a n s , and 3 % w e r e M u s l i m s . I n t h e C a l c u t t a I g r o u p , n o C h r i s t i a n s showed up i n t h e c o m p u t e r a n a l y s i s ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e w e r e d o u b t l e s s a f ew ; a n d M u s l i m s made up
5 , 5 X .
A s f o r e m p l o y m e n t p a t t e r n s i n N a t a l , t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y
p r o v i d e d t h e h i g h e s t number o f j o b s , O t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l
s e c t o r s , m o s t n o t a b l y t e a , a l s o p r o v i d e d e m p l o y m e n t , I n
t h e i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r , t h e two l e a d i n g f o r m s o f e m p l o y m e n t
w e r e i n r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d c o a l m i n i n g , W o r k i n g
c o n d i t i o n s were g e n e r a l l y p o o r i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r
i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r , A q u e s t i o n o f g r e a t
i m p o r t a n c e i s why i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r w a s p r e f e r r e d o v e r f r e e
l a b o u r . The a s s u r a n c e o f a r e g u l a r s u p p l y o f l a b o u r f o r a
f i x e d p e r i o d w a s i m p o r t a n t f o r e m p l o y e r s who were y e t u n s u r e
o f l a b o u r s o u r c e s f r o m among t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n , many
o f whom were l u r e d away by t h e g o l d a n d d i a m o n d m i n i n g
i n d u s t r i e s . B u t , t h e g r e a t e r m a c h i n i s m o f w o r k e r c o n t r o l s
a f f o r d e d by t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m , m u s t s u r e l y h a v e w e i g h e d
i n t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h i s f r o m o f l a b o u r . A t i g h t l y
c o n t r o l l e d s y s t e m p r o v i d e d e m p l o y e r s w i t h a d o c i l e l a b o u r
f o r c e o n t h e w h o l e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e were i n s t a n c e s o f p r o t e s t
a n d s t r i k e s among g r o u p s o f w o r k e r s ,
The i n d e n t u r e d l a b o u r e r s came f r o m a p r e - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y ,
a n d t h e l e v e l o f w o r k e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s was i n c i p i e n t . And,
s i n c e m o s t o f t h e m w o r k e d o n l y f o r o n e t e r m , t h e i r t r a n -
s i e n c e made o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d l e a d e r s h i p d i f f i c u l t . The f o r e -
m o s t p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e t i m e , t h e N a t a l I n d i a n
C o n g r e s s , was p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t r a d e r s .
S o , p o l i t i c a l l y t o o , t h e g r o w t h o f t h e i n d e n t u r e d w o r k e r s was
s t u n t e d . And y e t , i t i s t h e y who p r o v i d e d i n d u s t r i a l a n d
p o l i t i c a l m i l i t a n c y i n 1 9 1 3 - 1 9 1 4 .
What was t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s m i l i t a n c y ? G i n w a l a s e e s i t i n
t e r m s o f t h e s l o w l y d e v e l o p i n g w o r k e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s among t h e
i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s w h i c h c u l m i n a t e d a r o u n d a s e t o f h i s t o r i c a l
c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n 1 9 1 3 . Swan d o e s n o t b e l i e v e t h a t s u c h w o r k e r
c o n s c i o u s n e s s was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a c t i o n . R a t h e r , t h e
a c t i o n m u s t b e s e e n i n terms o f a s e m i - p o l i t i c i s e d , p r e -
i n d u s t r i a l g r o u p r e a c t i n g t o t h e c a l l o f a p e r s o n f r o m a
h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s , n a m e l y M K G a n d h i . J D B e a l l a n d M D
N o r t h - C o o m b e s p l a c e t h e i n d e n t u r e d m i l i t a n c y w i t h i n t h e
" s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c m a t r i x o f t h e s y s t e m . 2
A s s e m i n a l l y i m p o r t a n t a s t h e s e e x p l a n t a t i o n s a r e , t h e y
n e v e r t h e l e s s p o i n t t o t h e n e e d f o r b a s i c r e s e a r c h o n t h e
i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m i n i t s many f a c e t s . F o r t h e s e r i o u s s c h b l a r
i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i n d e n t u r e d I n d i a n s , t h e r e a r e 75 l i n e a r
m e t r e s o f a r c h i v a l m a t e r i a l s i n t h e N a t a l A r c h i v e s , t h a t a w a i t
h i s a t t e n t i o n . I t i s h o p e d t h a t t h i s s t u d y h a s p r o v i d e d a
s u f f i c i e n t b a s i s t o i n s p i r e s c h o l a r s i n t h e f u t u r e t o u n d e r -
t a k e r e s e a r c h o n t h e i n d e n t u r e d s y s t e m .
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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H i s t o r y o f t h e P e o p l e , 1 8 3 7 - 1 9 0 0 ,
L o n d o n , 1 9 0 4 .
E a s t I n d i a n s i n t h e C a r i b b e a n : C o l o n i a l i s m a n d t h e S t r u g g l e
f o r I d e n t i t y , New Y o r k : K r a u s T n t , e r n a t i o n a l P u b l i c a t i o n s ,
1 9 8 2 .
E r i c k s o n , E : " T h e I n t r o d u c t i o n o f E a s t I n d i a n C o o l i e s i n t o t h e B r i t i s h West I n d i e s , " J o u r n a l o f M o d e r n H i s t o r y , 6 ( 1 9 3 4 ) : 1 2 7 - 1 4 6 .
F e r g u s o n - D a v i e , C J : The E a r l y H i s t o r y o f I n d i a n s i n N a t a l , J o h a n n e s b u r g : I n s t i t u t e o f R a c e R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 5 2 .
F r a s e r , P e t e r D : " T h e I m m i g r a t i o n I s s u e i n B r i t i s h G u i a n a , 1 9 0 3 - 1 9 1 3 : The E c o n o m i c a n d C o n s t i t u t i o n a l O r i g i n s o f R a c i s t P o l i t i c s i'n G u y a n a , " J o u r n a l o f C a r i b b e a n H i s t o r y , 1 4 ( 1 9 8 1 ? ) : 1 8 - 4 5 .
G a n g u l e e , N I n d i a n s i n t h e E m p i r e O v e r s e a s , L o n d o n : I n d i a P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1 9 4 7 .
G a n g u l i , B N ( e d ) : R e a d i n q s i n I n d i a n E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y : P r o c e e d i n q s o f t h e F i r s t A l l I n d i a S e m i n a r o f I n d i a n E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , 1 9 6 1 , Bombay: A s i a P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1 9 6 4 .
G e o g h e g a n , J : R e p o r t o n C o o l i e E m i q r a t i o n f r o m I n d i a , PP 1 8 7 4 ( 3 1 4 ) , v o l . 4 7 .
G i l l i o n , K e n n e t h : F i j i ' s I n d i a n M i q r a n t s : A H i s t o r y t o t h e End o f I n d e n t u r e i n 1 9 2 0 , M e l b o u r n e : O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 .
T h e F i j i I n d i a n s : C h a l l e n g e t o
E u r o p e a n D o m i n a n c e , 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 4 6 , C a n b e r r a : A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 .
: " S o u r c e s o f I n d i a n E m i g r a t i o n t o F i j i , " P o p u l a t i o n S t u d i e s 1 0 ( 1 9 5 6 ) :
1 3 9 - 1 5 7 .
G h u r y e , G S : C a s t e a n d R a c e i n I n d i a , Bombay:
P o p u l a r P r a k a s h a n , 1 9 6 9 .
G u e s t , W R a n d J M E n t e r p r i s e a n d E x p l o i t a t i o n i n a S e l l a r s ( e d s ) : V i c t o r i a n C o l o n y : A s p e c t s o f t h e
E c o n o m i c a n d S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f C o l o n i a l N a t a l , P i e t e r m a r i t z b u r g , U n i v . o f N a t a l P r e s s , 1 9 8 5 .
w / G u p t a , A n i r u d h a ( e d ) : I n d i a n s A b r o a d : A s i a a n d A f r i c a ,
N e w D e l h i : O r i e n t L o n g m a n s , 1 9 7 1 .
H a l s t e a d , J P T h e S e c o n d B r i t i s h E m p i r e : T r a d e ,
P h i l a n t h r o p y , a n d G o l d G o v e r n m e n t , 1 8 2 0 - 1 8 9 0 , W e s t p o r t , C o n n : G r e e n w o o d P r e s s , 1 9 8 3 .
H a r a k s i n g h , K : " C o n t r o l a n d R e s i s t a n c e Among O v e r s e a s I n d i a n W o r k e r s : A S t u d y o f L a b o u r o n t h e S u g a r P l a n t a t i o n s o f T r i n i d a d , " J o u r n a l o f C a r i b b e a n H i s t o r y , 1 4 ( 1 9 8 1 ? ) : 1 - 7 .
: " I n d i a n L e a d e r s h i p i n t h e I n d e n t u r e d P e r i o d , " C a r i b b e a n I s s u e s , 2 ( 3 : 1 9 7 6 ) : 1 7 - 3 8 .
H a z a r e e s i n g h , L : " T h e R e l i g i o n a n d C u l t u r e o f I n d i a n I m m i g r a n t s i n M a u r i t i u s a n d t h e E f f e c t s o f S o c i a l C h a n g e , " S t u d i e s i n S o c i e t y a n d H i s t o r
V
H u t t e n b a c k , R A : " T h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e a s a ' W h i t e M a n ' s C o u n t r y ' - R a c i a l A t t i t u d e s a n d I m m i g r a t i o n L e g i s l a t i o n i n t h e C o l o n i e s o f W h i t e S e t t l e m e n t , " J o u r n a l o f B r i t i s h S t u d i e s , 1 3 : l ( N o v . 1 9 7 3 ) : 1 0 8 : 3 7 .
: G a n d h i i n S o u t h A f r i c a : B r i t i s h I m p e r i a l i s m a n d t h e I n d i a q u e s t i o n ,
1 8 6 0 - 1 9 1 4 : I t h a c a : C o r n e l l U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 7 1 .
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L a G u e r r e , J o h n G : " A f r o - I n d i a n r e l a t i o n s i n T r i n i d a d a n d Tobago: An Assessment , " S o c i a l and E c o n o m i c S t u d i e s , 2 5 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 291-306.
( e d ) : C a l c u t t a t o C a r o n i : The E a s t I n d i a n s o f T r i n i d a d , London : Longman C a r r i b b e a n ,
1974 .
L a l , B r i j V
L a w r e n c e , K 0
: G i r m i t i y a s : The O r i q i n s o f t h e F i j i
I n d i a n s , C a n b e r r a : J o u r n a l o f P a c i f i c H i s t o r y , 1983 .
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: " I m m i g r a t i o n i n t o T r i n i d a d a n d B r i t i s h G u i a n a , 1834-1871 , " (Ph.D. D i s s . U n i v . o f C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 5 8 ) .
: I m m i g r a t i o n i n t o t h e West I n d i e s i n
N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , B a r b a d o s , C a r i b b e a n U n i v . P r e s s , 1971 .
Lemon, A n t h o n y a n d : S t u d i e s i n O v e r s e a s S e t t l e m e n t and
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L o w i n t h a l , D a v i d : " E m i g r a t i o n a n d D e p o p u l a t i o n , " and Lambros C o m i t a s G e o q r a p h i c a l R e v i e w , 52 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 1 9 5 - 2 1 0
M c A r t h u r , N : " F i j i a n s a n d I n d i a n s i n F i j i , " P o p u l a t i o n S t u d i e s , 1 2 ( 1 9 5 9 ) : 202-213.
M a r k s , S h u l a and : I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o u r M i q r a t i o n :
P e t e r R i c h a r d s o n ( e d s ) H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s , London :
I n s t i t u t e o f Commonweal th S t u d i e s / M a u r i c e Temple S m i t h , 1984 .
Mayer , A C : " A s s o c i a t i o n i n F i j i I n d i a n R u r a l S o c i e t y , " A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o q i s t
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: C a s t e a n d K i n s h i p i n C e n t r a l I n d i a B e r k e l e y , 1960.
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P a c h a i , B
P a l m e r , M a b e l
: " E c o n o m i c C h a n g e a n d A g r i c u l t u r e i n N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y I n d i a , " I n d i a n E c o n o m i c a n d S o c i a l H i s t o r y R e v i e w . ,
3 ( 1 9 6 6 ) : 1 8 5 - 2 0 9 .
: " T o w a r d s a R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f N i n e - t e e n t h C e n t u r y I n d i a n E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , " J o u r n a l o f E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , 2 3 ( 1 9 6 3 ) : 6 0 6 - 6 1 8 .
: " T r e n d s a n d T e n d e n c i e s i n E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , " I n d i a n E c o n o m i c a n d S o c i a l H i s t o r y R e v i e w , 5 ( 1 9 6 8 ) : 3 1 9 - 3 8 8 .
: " V a l u e s a s a n O b s t a c l e t o E c o n o m i c G r o w t h i n S o u t h A s i a : An H i s t o r i c a l S u r v e y , " J o u r n a l o f E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , 2 7 ( 1 9 6 7 ) : 5 8 8 : 6 0 7 .
T h e R y o t w a r i S y s t e m i n M a d r a s ,
C a l c u t t a .
: A H i s t o r y o f I n d i a n s i n B r i t i s h
G u i a n a , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 0 .
: " L a b o u r M i g r a t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l P h a s e : An E s s a y i n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , " J o u r n a l o f I m p e r i a l a n d C o m m o n w e a l t h H i s t o r y , 3 ( 1 9 7 5 ) : 2 3 4 - 2 5 6 .
: T h e T r i n i d a d C a l l a l o o : L i f e i n T r i n i d a d f r o m 1 8 5 1 - 1 9 0 0 , D i e g o M a r t i n , T r i n i d a d , 1 9 7 8 .
T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s p e c t s o f t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n I n d i a n Q u e s t i o n , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 7 1 , C a p e Town, S t r u i k , 1 9 7 1 .
( e d ) : S o u t h A f r i c a ' s I n d i a n s : T h e E v o l u t i o n o f a M i n o r i t y , W a s h i n g t o n : U n i v . P r e s s o f A m e r i c a , 1 9 7 9 .
: H i s t o r y o f I n d i a n s i n N a t a l , C a p e Town: O x f o r d U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 5 7 .
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