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Chapter 12

Motivation and Emotion

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Defining Motivation, and a Model

Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain, direct, and terminate actions

Model of how motivated activities work Need: Internal deficiency; causes drive Drive: Energized motivational state (e.g., hunger,

thirst; activates a response) Response: Action or series of actions designed to

attain a goal Goal: Target of motivated behavior

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Types of Motives

Incentive Value: Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a needPrimary Motive: Innate (inborn) motives based on biological needs that must be met to surviveStimulus Motive: Needs for stimulation and information; appear to be innate, but not necessary for survivalSecondary Motive: Based on learned needs, drives, and goals

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Hunger

Homeostasis: Body equilibrium; balanceHypoglycemia: Low blood sugarHypothalamus: Brain structure; regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behaviorFeeding System: Area in the hypothalamus that, when stimulated, initiates eating Satiety System: Area in the hypothalamus that terminates eating

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Fig. 12.1 Needs and incentives interact to determine drive strength (above). (a) Moderate need combined with a high-incentive goal produces a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong need exists, drive strength may be moderate if a goal’s incentive value is low. It is important to remember, however, that incentive value lies “in the eye of the beholder.”

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Fig. 12.2 In Cannon’s early study of hunger, a simple apparatus was used to simultaneously record hunger pangs and stomach contractions. (After Cannon, 1934.)

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Fig. 12.3 Location of the hypothalamus in the human brain.

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More on Eating Behavior (Hungry Yet?)

Neuropeptide Y (NPY): Substance in the brain that initiates eating

Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1): Substance in brain that terminates eating

Set Point: Proportion of body fat that is maintained by changes in hunger and eating; point where weight stays the same when you make no effort to gain or lose weight

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Fig. 12.4 This is a cross section through the middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the brain). Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are associated with hunger and the regulation of body weight.

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The Final Word on Eating Behavior

Leptin: Substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating; presently being studied for possible importance in controlling and losing weight

External Eating Cues: External stimuli that tend to encourage hunger or elicit eating; these cues may cause you to eat even if you are stuffed (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!)

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Behavioral Dieting

Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary self-starvation

Some keysStart with a complete physicalExerciseBe committed to weight loss

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Behavioral Dieting (cont.)

Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep a chart of daily progress

Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned habits that tell you to always clean your plate

Avoid snacks

Learn to weaken personal eating cues

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Taste

Taste Aversion: Active dislike for a particular food VERY difficult to overcome

Bait Shyness: Unwillingness or hesitation by animals to eat a particular food

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Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa

Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological originsControl issues seem to be involvedVery difficult to effectively treatAffects adolescent females overwhelmingly

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Fig. 12.6 Women with abnormal eating habits were asked to rate their body shape on a scale similar to the one you see here. As a group, they chose ideal figures much thinner than what they thought their current weights were. (Most women say they want to be thinner than they currently are, but to a lesser degree than women with eating problems.) Notice that the women with eating problems chose an ideal weight that was even thinner than what they thought men prefer. This is not typical of most women. In this study, only women with eating problems wanted to be thinner than what they thought men find attractive (Zellner, Harner, & Adler, 1989).

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Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa (Binge-Purge Syndrome)

Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxativesDifficult to treatProzac approved by FDA to treat bulimia

nervosa

Affects females overwhelmingly

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Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa

Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true!Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect controlAnorectics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight

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CNN – Enjoying Anorexia

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Thirst and Pain

Extracellular Thirst: When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body

Intracellular Thirst: When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell Best satisfied by drinking water

Pain Avoidance: An episodic drive Occurs in distinct episodes when bodily damage

takes place or is about to occur

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Sex Drive

Estrus: Changes in animals that create a desire for sex; females in heat

Estrogen: A female sex hormone

Androgens: Male hormones

Non-homeostatic: Independent of bodily need states

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Stimulus Drives

Reflect needs for information, exploration, manipulation, and sensory inputYerkes-Dodson Law: If a task is simple, it is best for arousal to be high; if it is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for the best performance Arousal Theory: Ideal levels of activation occur for various

activities

Arousal: Activation of the body and nervous systemSensation Seeking: Trait of people who prefer high levels of stimulation (e.g., the contestants on “Eco-Challenge” and “Fear Factor”)

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Fig. 12.7 Monkeys happily open locks that are placed in their cage. Since no reward is given for this activity, it provides evidence for the existence of stimulus needs. (Photo courtesy of Harry F. Harlow.)

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Fig. 12.8 (a) The general relationship between arousal and efficiency can be described by an inverted U curve. The optimal level of arousal or motivation is higher for a simple task (b) than for a complex task (c).

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How to Cope With Test Anxiety

Preparation

Relaxation

Rehearsal

Restructuring thoughts

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Circadian RhythmsCyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a 24 hour schedulePreadaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule before an anticipated circadian rhythm change E.g. trying to adjust to new time zone to avoid jet

lag

Melatonin: Hormone produced by pineal gland in response to light (production suppressed) and dark (production increased)

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Fig. 12.9 Core body temperature is a good indicator of a person’s circadian rhythm. Most people reach a low point 2 to 3 hours before their normal waking time. It’s no wonder that both the Chernobyl and three-Mile Island nuclear power plant accidents occurred around 4 am. Rapid travel to a different time zone, shift work, depression, and illness can throw sleep and waking patterns out of synchronization with the body’s core rhythm. Mismatches of this kind are very disruptive (Hauri & Linde, 1990).

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Jet Lag

Disturbed body rhythms caused by rapid travel east or west

Major time shifts (5 hours or more) can cause very slow adaptation

Direction of travel affects adaptation, and thus, severity of jet lag MUCH easier to go east to west than west to east Preadaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking

cycles to a new time schedule

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Fig. 12.10 Time required to adjust to air travel across six time zones. The average time to resynchronize was shorter for westbound travel than for eastbound flights. (Data from Beljan et al., 1972; cited by Moore-Ede et al., 1982).

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Learned Motives

Opponent Process Theory: Strong emotions tend to be followed by an opposite state; strength of both emotional states over timeSocial Motives: Acquired by growing up in a particular society or cultureNeed for Achievement: Desire to meet some internal standard of excellenceNeed for Power: Desire to have social impact or control over others

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Abraham Maslow and Needs

Hierarchy of Human Needs: Maslow’s ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degreeBasic Needs: First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy Lower needs tend to be more potent (“prepotent”) than

higher needs

Growth Needs: Higher-level needs associated with self-actualizationMeta-Needs: Needs associated with impulses for self-actualization

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Fig. 12.12 Maslow believed that lower needs in the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be satisfied before growth motives are fully expressed. Desires for self-actualization are reflected in various meta-needs.

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Types of Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation coming from within, not from external rewards; based on personal enjoyment of a task

Extrinsic Motivation: Based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors

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Emotions

State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings

Adaptive Behaviors: Aid our attempts to survive and adjust to changing conditions

Physiological Changes: Include heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other bodily responses

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More Emotions

Adrenaline: Hormone produced by adrenal glands that arouses the body

Emotional Expression: Outward signs of what a person is feeling

Emotional Feelings: Private emotional experience

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Primary Emotions and Mood

Eight primary emotions (Plutchik, 2001)FearSurpriseSadnessDisgust

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Primary Emotions and Mood (cont.)

AngerAnticipationJoyTrust

Mood: Low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state

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Fig. 12.13 Primary and mixed emotions. In Robert Plutchik’s model there are eight primary emotions, as listed in the inner areas. Adjacent emotions may combine to give the emotions listed around the perimeter. Mixtures involving more widely separated emotions are also possible. For example, fear plus anticipation produces anxiety. (Adapted from Plutchik, 2001.)

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Brain and EmotionAmygdala: Part of limbic system that produces fear responsesAutonomic Nervous System (ANS): Neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glandsSympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that activates body for emergency actionParasympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves energy Parasympathetic Rebound: Overreaction to intense

emotion

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Fig. 12.15 An amygdala can be found buried within the temporal lobes on each side of the brain. The amygdala appears to provide “quick and dirty” processing of emotional stimuli that allows us to act involuntarily to danger.

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CNN – Mood Chemicals

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Lie DetectorsPolygraph: Device that records heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR); lie detector

GSR: Measures sweating

Irrelevant Questions: Neutral, nonthreatening, non-emotional questions in a polygraph test

Relevant Questions: Questions to which only someone guilty should react

Control Questions: Questions that almost always provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e.g. “Have you ever taken any office supplies?”)

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Fig. 12.17 A typical polygraph includes devices for measuring heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response. Pens mounted on the top of the machine make a record of bodily responses on a moving strip of paper. (right) Changes in the area marked by the arrow indicate emotional arousal. If such responses appear when a person answers a question, he or she may be lying, but other causes of arousal are also possible.

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Body Language (Kinesics)

Study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions

Emotional Tone: Underlying emotional state

Facial Blends: Mix of two or more basic expressions

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Three Types of Facial Expressions

Pleasantness-Unpleasantness: Degree to which a person is experiencing pleasure or displeasure

Attention-Rejection: Degree of attention given to a person or object

Activation: Degree of arousal a person is experiencing

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Fig. 12.18 When shown groups of simplified faces (without labels) the angry and scheming faces “jumped out” at people faster than sad, happy, or neutral faces. An ability to rapidly detect threatening expressions probably helped our ancestors survive (adapted from Tipples, Atkinson & Young, 2002).

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Detecting Lies

Illustrators: Gestures people use to illustrate what they are saying

Emblems: Gestures that have widely understood meanings within a particular culture

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Theories of EmotionJames-Lange Theory: Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of such arousalCannon-Bard Theory: The thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal at the same timeSchachter’s Cognitive Theory: Emotions occur when a label is applied to general physical arousalAttribution: Mental process of assigning causes to events; attributing arousal to a certain sourceFacial Feedback Hypothesis: Sensations from facial expressions and becoming aware of them is what leads to the emotion someone feels

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Fig. 12.21 Theories of emotion.

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A Modern View of Emotion

Emotional Appraisal: Evaluating personal meaning of a stimulus

Emotional Intelligence: Combination of skills, including empathy, self-control, and self-awareness; includes: Self-awareness Empathy Managing, understanding, and using emotions

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Fig. 12.23 A contemporary model of emotion.

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Nature of Love

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love: Love is made up of intimacy, passion, and commitmentIntimacy: Affection, sharing, support, and communication in a relationshipPassion: High levels of physical arousal in a relationship, especially sexualCommitment: Decision to love and stay with another personInfatuation: Passion without commitment or intimacy

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Fig. 12.24 Sternberg’s triangular theory of love.

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Types of Love

Liking: Intimacy without passion or commitment

Romantic Love: Intimacy plus passion

Fatuous Love: Passion with commitment, but lacking intimacy

Infatuation: Passion without commitment or intimacy

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More Types of Love

Companionate Love: Intimacy and commitment without passion

Empty Love: Commitment without intimacy or passion

Consummate Love: Passion, intimacy, and commitment