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PHILOSOPHY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SCHEME OF WORK

Learning Outcomes

Synopsis of Course Contents

Method of Delivery

Assessment Methods

References

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

1.1 The Term „Childhood‟ Used in Early Childhood Education 1

1.2 The Importance of Childhood Education 2

CHAPTER 2: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

2.1 Introduction to Philosophy 4

2.2 Philosophy of Education 5

2.3 Why Must Teachers Know the Philosophy of Early Childhood Education? 5

2.4 How to Build Your Own Teaching Philosophy 6

2.5 How to Prepare Yourself to Become a Professional Educator in Early

Childhood Education 6

CHAPTER 3: EDUCATION EXPERTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN EARLY

CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

3.1 Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) 8

3.2 Johann Henrich Pestalozzi (1746 – 1827) 8

CHAPTER 4: EXPERTS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

4.1 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) 12

4.2 John Amos Comenius (1592 – 1670) 14

4.3 John Locke (1632 – 1704) 16

CHAPTER 5: EXPERTS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION FROM

MIDDLE EAST

5.1 Imam Al-Ghazali (1058 – 1111) 17

5.2 Ibnu Khaldun (1332 – 1406) 21

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University of Malaya Centre for Continuing Education (UMCCed)


CHAPTER 6: PIONEERS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION FROM

THE WEST

6.1 Robert Owen (1771 – 1858) 23

6.2 Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782 – 1852) 24

6.3 Maria Montessori (1870 – 1952) 28

6.4 John Dewey (1859 – 1952) 31

CHAPTER 7: MODELS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

7.1 Bank Street “Developmental Interaction” Approach 33

7.2 Cognitively Oriented Programme: High/Scope Perry Preschool Programme 35

7.3 The Bereiter-Engelmann or Direct Instruction Model (Preschool Academic or

DISTAR) 37


8.1 Montessori Model 41

8.2 Reggio Emilia Approach 48


9.1 Sure Start Model 51

9.2 Head Start Model 52

9.3 What is the Difference Between the Head Start and Sure Start? 53

CHAPTER10: EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA

10.1 National Philosophy of Education 57

10.2 The Objectives of Preschool Education 59

10.3 The Pillars of Preschool Curriculum 60

CHAPTER 11: DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN

MALAYSIA BEFORE AND AFTER INDEPENDENCE

11.1 The Historical Development of Preschool Education in Overseas 61

11.2 The Development of Preschool Education in Malaysia 62

CHAPTER12: PRESENT ISSUES IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

12.1 Changing Families 65

12.2 Wellness and Healthy Living 65

12.3 Poverty 66

12.4 Housing 66

12.5 Children‟s Illness 66

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CHAPTER 13: PRESCHOOL EDUCATION ACT

13.1 Preschool Education Act 67

13.2 Declaration of the Rights of the Child 68

13.3 Basic Rights of the Child 68

CHAPTER 14: SETTING EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION CENTRE

14.1 Introduction 72

14.2 Planning the Setting Up of a Child Care Centre 72

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SCHEME OF WORK

Programme : Executive Diploma in Early Childhood Education

Course Code : UBSC 1102

Course Title : Philosophy on Early Childhood Education

Credit hours : 4

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this course, students will be able to:

Compare the different views of the founders of preschool education

Discuss the preschool models and curriculum abroad

Describe on the current issues and trends of early childhood education

COURSE SYNOPSIS

This course is intended to introduce the founders of early childhood and to develop a philosophy

of early childhood education. Also, students can compare the different views and discuss the

models of early childhood education locally and globally. The history of early childhood

education development will also be exposed as well as current issues, the Education Acts and the

children‟s rights.

TEACHING METHODS

Lectures, discussions, negotiation and presentations.

ASSESSMENT METHODS

Continuous Assessment 50%

Examination 50%

Total 100%

REFERENCES

1. Nor Hashimah Hashim, Panduan pendidikan prasekolah, (Pts Publications 7 Distributers

Sdn Bhd., 2003)

2. Eva L. Essa, Chapter 5: Introduction to early childhood education, (Delmar Publisher, 6th

Edition., 2010)

3. Morrison. G., Early children education today, (Merill Prentice Hall., 2001)

4. Azizah Lebai Nordin, Pendidikan awal kanak-kanak, teori dan amali, (Universiti Malaya.,

2002)

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATION

Learning Objectives

At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

explain some of the terminologies used in Early Childhood Education

explain why Childhood Education is important

1.1 The term ‘Childhood’ used in Early Childhood Education

It is important for those involved in childhood education to know and use the

terminologies of the early childhood profession. The term is used by NAEYC

(National Association for the Education of Young Children).

Childhood is referred to the period from birth to eight years old.

Early Childhood Programme is any group programme in a centre, school or other

facilities that serves children from birth through eight years old in part-day and full-

day group programmes at centres, homes and institutions, kindergarten and primary

schools.

Another way early childhood programmes can be grouped is by the age of the

children. The classification are: infants, toddlers, preschoolers, kindergarten and

children in the primary schools. Generally these are terms used for the programmes

and the purpose and age served. Some Examples of Early Childhood Programmes

(Morrison 2001):

Childcare: play/socialisation; baby-sitting

Family day care: provides care for a group of children in a home setting

Employer/Corporate Child care: Settings for meeting care needs

Nursery school (public or private): Play/socialisation, cognitive development

Pre-primary: preparing for first grade

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University Of Malaya Centre For Continuing Education (UMCCed)


Primary: Teaches skills associated with grade 1, 2, 3

Early Childhood Education: consists of services provided by early childhood

profession. Early Childhood Professionals are:

Early Childhood Educator: work with young children and has committed

to self development by participating in specialised training and

programmes to extend professional knowledge and competence

Early Childhood Teacher: responsible for planning and conducting

Early Childhood Assistant Teacher: Plans and implement activities

Care giver: provide care and education and protection for the very young

in or outside the home include parents, relatives, child care workers and

early childhood teachers.

1.2 The Importance of Early Childhood Education

Early childhood education is important and it has to be given the appropriate attention

because:

The optimum development of the brain in relation to sensory and language

happens before a child reaches first year of life while cognitive development

peaks by age two to three. Thus, the early years are crucial because the brain is

most malleable; the brain’s capacity to change decreases with age, especially

after three (Perry, 2000; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

This point of view is the same as Piaget’s theory in which cognitive

development is at its peak during the motor sensory stage that is since birth

until two years old. At this stage, children use a lot of motor sensory such as

sucking, crying, and gripping. In addition, at this stage children develop their

basic knowledge and skills which are related to four characteristics: (1)

knowledge about an object, (2) causes for things that happen, (3) space, and

(4) time. Such knowledge becomes the foundation for a more sophisticated

development. The second stage in cognitive development according to Piaget

is the pre-operational stage (2-6 years old). At this stage, children use

symbols/names for the objects in their surroundings. After mastering the

language, children will now learn to relate names with the objects. The

thinking is now more concrete, egocentric but does not understand the concept

of retention. The focus of observation at this stage is only on one aspect and

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other aspects are ignored. At the end of this stage, children become less

egocentric and begin to develop their schema towards more general and more

abstract and they are more capable of solving problems.

Play is another commonality among all children. It is a need that serves

children as a means of learning about and making sense of the world. Play

promotes mastery as children practise skills. Imam Al-Ghazali, a renowned

Islamic philosopher stressed on the aspect of play (refer to Chapter 5). Froebel

stated that playing is life and is the highest stage in childhood development

(refer to chapter 6). These signify that parents and relevant parties such as the

government and teachers should focus and emphasise on early childhood

education.

Young children are beginning to form self-concept, perception development,

and feelings about themselves. A healthy self-concept is vital to all areas of a

child. (Refer to chapter 5 Basic Child Development)

Group Discussion

What are the common terms used for Early Childhood Programmes in Malaysia? Prepare a

group presentation.

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CHAPTER 2

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Learning Objectives


explain the concept of philosophy and philosophy of education

discuss why teachers must know the Philosophy of Early Childhood Education

2.1 Introduction to Philosophy

Philosophy derives from the Greek word philosophia which means love of

wisdom. Initially, the term ‘philosophy’ was used by Pythagoras which separated

human beings into three types: those who love fun, those who love activities, and

those who love wisdom.

According to Socrates, the function of philosophy is to gain self-knowledge.

According to Plato, the goal of philosophy is to get absolute truth.

According to Aristotle, this discipline is related to the research of causes and the

principle of the matter.

Omar Al-Syaibani (1991) translated ‘wisdom’ as blessing. In describing the

meaning of philosophy, he said that philosophy is not the blessing itself but is

actually love towards the blessing and the hard work in order to get the blessing.

That is why a philosopher is someone who loves blessing and works really hard to

achieve it, focuses all his attention on it, and creates a positive attitude towards it.

Other than looking for the nature of things, a philosopher also tries to connect

causes and effects and interprets experiences of human beings.

Other than defining philosophy as a love towards cleverness, Shofield (1977:3)

also defined philosophy as ‘the process of asking questions’. He refered to

Socrates who used the questioning method in order to gain true knowledge. He

used questioning to explain one’s ideas to abolish mistakes in a person’s mind.

Socrates believed that most people accept other people’s opinions secondarily.

Without any research, they simply use the information without fully

understanding it. Socrates felt that he is the most brilliant person because he never

pretends that he knows something which he does not know.

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The definition which is used by Shofield is suitable for early childhood education

because children are always asking their parents, teachers, siblings, and caretakers

about things that they are curious to know. The role of parents, caretakers and

teachers is to explain about it.

In everyday life, philosophy is generally described as a viewpoint, lifestyle or

principles which someone embraces in his life and he uses it as a guideline in his

actions, choices or decisions (Omar Al-Syaibani 1992).

2.2 Philosophy of Education

The philosophy of education is a belief about how children develop and learn and how

they should be taught. One’s philosophy of life determines what should be taught to

children. The philosophy of education that is internalised by a teacher would help him

in determining the direction and goal of his teaching. A teacher’s faith about how

children learn well determines the teacher’s choice of teaching strategies, whether to

use a teaching method based on individuals or to teach the same things in the same

way to each child. The teacher’s philosophy also determines whether the teacher

assists children to do activities for their sake or for the children’s own sake.

2.3 Why Must Teachers Know the Philosophy of Early Childhood Education?

Knowing the philosophy of education is vital to teachers because teachers have

goals in every action taken.

By knowing the ideas of the philosophers, it helps teachers to choose a suitable

programme for children under their care. This could provide confidence to the

teacher in implementing his tasks as a teacher.

The ideas of the philosophers could assist teachers in understanding the ways to

implement teaching strategies.

By exploring, analysing and discovering the philosophers’ ideas, early childhood

educators could gain inspiration to re-evaluate their own views and motivate them

to always do their best.

White and Coleman (2000) stated that the philosophy of education that is

internalised by the teacher does not only help him in his interactions with children

but also help him in understanding in depth about teaching practices. It could also

differentiate what have been practiced by other teachers.

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However, the philosophy that is internalised by a teacher would change after the

teacher has learnt more theories about early childhood education, acquired related

knowledge about children’s development and teaching practices, and gained

practical experience in classrooms.

2.4 How to Build Your Own Teaching Philosophy

Discuss with your colleagues.

Visit other early childhood education centres.

Read related articles in journals or books.

Join societies related to early childhood education.

Attend related workshops.

2.5 How to Prepare Yourself To Become a Professional Educator in Early

Childhood Education

Build the philosophy of education and teaching

Evaluate your need to become a dedicated teacher in your profession

Familiarise yourself with activities related to teaching

Explore various programmes related to early childhood education

Talk to professionals in this field to know better about matters related to

teaching

Ask yourself if you are willing to work hard

Are you energetic enough to teach?

Are you really interested to be a good teacher?

Analyse your attitude and feelings towards children and their families

Are you patient and tolerant of the various behaviours of parents?

Do you like children and are you patient with their diverse behaviours?

You should have the confidence that all children have the ability to learn

Do you know that children posses a variety of intelligence to be nurtured?

Enhance your skill and improve your knowledge by:

Registering in education classes

Attending meetings and conferences

Reading books and journals

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Updating yourself with current issues, children and basic knowledge which

keep on changing

Try new things

Latest methods

Latest strategies

Grab the chances to experience all sorts of children who come from different

backgrounds.

Go to various places which provide opportunities to you

Reflection

List down the qualities that u have as a child educator.

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CHAPTER 3

EDUCATION EXPERTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Learning Objectives


explain the concept of early childhood education by Martin Luther

discuss the importance of early childhood education by Johann Henrich Pestalozzi

3.1 Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Martin Luther was a German monk, priest, and professor in Theology and is very

truthful to his religion.

He believed that if every individual could read, it would be easy for him to

understand the word of God mentioned in the Bible; hence he would not have to

rely on others to interpret it.

He suggested that primary education should be given to all children including girls

for their overall development—intellectual, religion, physical, emotional, and

social.

He regarded those who were not concerned about their children’s education as the

most sinful.

Among Luther’s views that have always influenced early childhood education are:

the importance of a home and a family as the foundation in building a solid

government and social regulations

parents must send their children to school

the importance of music in education

equal rights for all citizens

3.2 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827)

Born in Zurich, Switzerland. Extremely influenced by Rousseau’s ideas and book

Emile which is related to the concept of nature.

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He bought a farm to be made as a testing point for agricultural method. While

working at this farm, a great interest towards education emerged in him. In 1774,

he opened a school for poor children at the farm which was known as Neuhof.

Pestalozzi developed his ideas that integrate life at home, vocational education,

and education for reading and writing.

At this school, he applied Rousseau’s view which makes children’s natural

capabilities as the basis for teaching.

Because of the great influence by Rousseau’s natural concept, he taught his son

Jean-Jacques by using Emile as a guide. He failed in educating his son through

Rousseau’s idea because his son still could not read and write at the age of 12.

This condition might be due to his son’s physical problem (his son was suffering

from epilepsy) or might be due to the fact that he failed to interpret Rousseau’s

ideas which were abstract and therefore failed to put all the ideas into practice.

What could be learnt from his failures is that early childhood educators should not

depend fully on children’s initiative and expect that children learn all that they

need to know by themselves (Morrison 2001).

His work was built on the foundation of educational philosophy expounded by

Plato in which childhood was seen as a time of plasticity and expression of innate

goodness.

Pestalozzi’s view on childhood.

Pestalozzi’s philosophy: children learn through sense observation and perception.

Influenced by Rousseau’s focus on natural environment as a vehicle in freeing the

spirit of children.

He created the child-centred curriculum

Environment is very important. The preparation of environment to resemble the

home was a prime importance in setting the stage for children’s experiential learning.

He believed that a home-like environment creates an emotional security, the first

principle of education.

Based on his views of natural development, he designed sequence curriculum

in which material and instruction were matched to children level of

development.

Activities were organised in sequences

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Other principles

Role of teacher

The relationship between a teacher and a student represents mother and child

relationship

Child readiness

Child to please teacher rather fear

No reward—intrinsic motivation

Home and school as continuous

The nurturing attitude of the teacher

Role of Parents

Mother is the best teacher in educating children.

3.2.1 His Ideas on Education

Pestalozzi believed that the technique of teaching through remembering and

memorising is not effective. He stressed on the use of authentic materials and self-

exploration in teaching children.

One of Pestalozzi’s precious contributions is the shaping of a teaching method

which is suitable with individual needs. He believed that children need to be

involved in activities which are meaningful to them based on their interests and

experience.

He also suggested that children be taught in stages based on their capabilities and

effort.

Pestalozzi believed that education is based on sensory experiences. Children can

achieve their natural potential through suitable sensory experiences. He developed

an object-based teaching technique which derived from this belief.

Pestalozzi believed that the best way in the learning concept is through

manipulative such as counting, measuring, tasting and touching.

He also believed in multi-age grouping. In such grouping, the older children can

help the younger ones.

He believed that a mother is the best teacher in educating children.

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Group Discussion

Discuss Martin’s and Pestalozzi’s contribution to teaching and learning.

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CHAPTER 4

EXPERTS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Learning Objectives


explain Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s views on education that influence Early Childhood

Education

discuss the principle of teaching by Amos Comenius

4.1 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosophé.

He was known for his book Emile which discusses caretaking and education of

children. Emile, as visualised by Rousseau in his novel, was raised in an island

unpolluted by environmental influence that is filled with malevolence. Emile

learnt from natural environment by using her senses taught by her parents in a

beautiful atmosphere. Rousseau visualised Emile as a very capable child, raised

and developed in an environment which was not influenced by any external

disturbance.

He believed that education should begin at birth and continue until an individual

reached age 25. He emphasised on the need to support children’s natural

development instead of using instruction to socialise children and prepare them

for life. Freedom, not power, is the greatest good. “That man is truly free who

desires what he is able to perform, and does what he desires. This is my

fundamental maxim. Apply it to childhood and all the rules of education spring

from it” (Rousseau, 1762 pg 48).

His view on children education is known as naturalism. For Rousseau, naturalism

means leaving the influence of the society which is fake and untruthful.

Naturalism education allows individual development without obstacles and

disturbances.

For Rousseau, natural education could enhance qualities such as happiness,

spontaneity, and inquisitiveness.

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Rousseau’s philosophy is that human beings are noble basically, therefore,

education must be encouraged so that nobility could be well-developed. In

Rousseau’s point of view, human beings must live in a natural environment

without any unhealthy influence from the society. In his book ‘Emile’, Rousseau

views the world as ‘God makes all things good; man meddles with them and they

become evil’ (Barbara 1933:5) in (Morrison 2001:3).

In the aspect of early childhood education, Rousseau thought that children are

good at birth. They must be allowed to express their capability and feelings freely.

Each child has a unique potential which needs to be fully developed. Rousseau

believed that social and emotional equilibrium should be given priority compared

to the collection of information and skills.

Four things that are stressed in his philosophy are freedom, development, interest,

and activity. In Rousseau’s point of view, because the education process is

focused on children, therefore, children’s needs and their spontaneous

development process are the foundation of education (White & Coleman 2001).

His biggest contribution is the description on the natural characteristics of children

based on different ages. Rousseau’s point of view on such education has shaped a

curriculum which is arranged based on the different age as well as interests and

activities of the children.

Because of the fact that education must be based on children’s experience while

using objects before recognising symbols, textbooks are not important for children

until they reach the age of 12.

The role of a teacher is as guidance which allows the children themselves to

explore in order to gain knowledge and not depend on teachers who use textbooks

while teaching.

He also proposed a theory on education which stated that learning happens

through direct observation on authentic materials (Boyd 1914) in (White &

Coleman 2000).

Because Rousseau stressed on the natural development of children, its curriculum

consists of activities which are based on children’s natural experience through

senses. For example, geometry and mathematics are not taught formally but are

introduced as experience-based activities.

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Rousseau believed that children must be exposed to the use of various objects

which can be applied in counting, measuring, scaling or comparing. By allowing

children to make use of their natural capabilities while exploring various objects,

they can understand the characteristics of things such as hot, cold, hard, sizes, and

shapes.

Rousseau also thought that children’s education should begin at birth.

In terms of teaching, Rousseau asked parents and teachers to encourage children

to develop according to their natural capabilities.

Parents and teachers should observe children’s development and prepare

experiences based on suitable periods of time.

From Rousseau’s point of view, education happens through three sources: natural

conditioning, human beings, and materials.

4.2 John Amos Comenius (1592-1670)

Comenius was born in Moravia, Czechoslovakia and was also a minister in

Moravia. He spent his time mostly as a priest, teaching in schools, and writing

books. Among his books are The Great Didactic and The Orbis Pictus (The World

in Picture) which was the first pictorial book for children. In 1628 John Amos

Comenius wrote School of Infancy, which included his idea of the ‘school of the

mother lap’ where the child from birth to six learned the rudiments of all

knowledge. There are simple lessons in objects; taught to know stones, plants, and

animals; the names and uses of the members of the body; to distinguish light and

darkness and colours; the geography of cradle, the room, the farm, and the street;

and taught to say the Lord Prayer’

Comenius’s point of view on childhood education are:

Education should be based on the natural environment, interest, and

experience of a child. Early childhood educators should observe the capability

of children to avoid from forcing them to learn something which they are not

prepared for.

A well-planned experience is necessary for the development of a natural idea

from children and they learn through interactions with various materials.

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Learning can achieve its goal when it involves senses, and education which

uses such senses is often treated as the foundation to all types of learning.

Teaching should consist of materials which are natural and authentic. These

materials should be taken close to the children.

Education is vital. Therefore, the chances to be educated should be given to

everybody.

Schools are the best agent in educating the society as well as individuals.

Education of an individual should begin since small because at this time they

are still fragile and easy to educate. He likened children to candles and trees.

When soft, candles are easy to mould but when they harden, they are easy to

break. The same goes for trees. When they are still small, they are easy to be

planted, adjusted and cut, but when they have matured, they become very hard

and the process becomes difficult.

He also believed that basically, human beings are noble. Therefore, the

education given should be in the form of positive experiences with the

elements of freedom and fun.

In teaching children, Comenius thought that children are not supposed to be

taught with names which are separated from the materials or pictures of the

materials.

4.2.1 The Principle of Teaching

Comenius said that education would be easier if:

it starts from a very early stage while the brain is still fresh and clean

the brain is ready to receive education

it starts from general to specific

it begins from easy to difficult

it is not burdened with too many subjects

the process is not too fast

it is based on the right age and method

it is taught using senses

the teaching aids are shown

all that is taught uses the same method (Morrison 1995:58)

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4.3 John Locke (1632-1704)

The philosopher played a role in laying the foundation for Pestalozzi’s ideas.

Locke was considered the founder of environmentalism trend who thought that the

natural condition of human beings does not exist from birth but is produced by the

influence of the environment. An individual receives knowledge through his

experience that is connected with the term tabula rasa or blank slate. Locke

treated children as blank papers. The outcome of the environment which a person

experienced will influence him. Every child is born with equal capabilities in

terms of mental and learning development. The things that differentiate learning

achievement and behaviour of an individual are environment factors such as the

condition of the family and home, socio-economic status of the family, early

education, and also experience.

Locke believed that experience influences the state of an individual. He stressed

that the use of sight, taste, smell and hearing are effective educational methods for

children. His idea was used by subsequent educators such as Maria Montessori

who created an education system which is based on the use of senses.

Locke also admitted the importance of playing because the method of teaching

through playing makes children learn faster and they will have more fun.

Other than that, Locke also believed that intellectual development in terms of

memory and reasoning could be developed through the teaching of specific

subjects such as classic language and mathematics.

Locke focused more on the development of characters, morale, physical and

mental. In terms of learning, he thought that the learning process is more

important than the learning outcome as the ultimate goal in education.

Activities

Compare the three views of the expert in the childhood education.

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CHAPTER 5

EXPERTS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

FROM MIDDLE EAST

Learning Objectives


discuss Imam Al-Ghazali’s eating ritual and advice to teachers

discuss Ibnu Khaldun’s view on education of young children

5.1 Al-Ghazali (1058-1111)

Abu Hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad Al-Ghazali was born in 450 H/1058 M

in Ghazali, a small town located at Thus (Khurasan territory), Iran which is now

known as Meshed. He was a student of Imam al-Haramyn, Abu al-Ma’ali al-

Juwaini. He was an expert in the field of fiqh al-Syafii’ and Kalam al-Asy’ari.

He was a teacher at University of Nidzamiyah, Baghdad.

He was a renowned Islamic philosopher. He had published almost a hundred

books.

One of his famous books was Ihya’ Ulumuddin. This book was written after he

realised that Muslim people had started to forget the religion.

Al-Ghazali stressed on early childhood education.

He once said that parents should observe their children’s education since birth.

They should not ask people to take care or breastfeed their children except for a

pious woman, who is excellent in her religion and only eats what is halal (Syaikh

Muhammad Jamaluddin:443).

Views from Ihya’ Ulummiddin about children’s education

Children are parents’ responsibilities. Their uncorrupted hearts are like

pearls, highly valuable, pure, and untainted from any lines and forms.

They would accept and be inclined towards whatever is given to them.

If children are raised in good manners, they would grow up in a good

environment and thus become good human beings. Parents, teachers,

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caretakers, and other people who are involved in educating these children

would get reward from God.

On the contrary, if children are exposed to bad behaviour and their

education is disregarded, they would grow up as bad people and their sins

would be borne by their parents and those accountable to take care of

them.

Al-Ghazali stressed on eating rituals. They are:

Take food only with right hand.

Recite Bismillah before eating.

Take food that is directly in front of you.

Do not rush to take food before other people.

Do not look wildly at the food or at the faces of the people who are eating.

Do not hurry while eating.

Bite your food carefully and slowly before swallowing.

Do not put food into your mouth too quickly.

Do not get your hands and clothes dirty with food.

Get familiar with eating without dishes at certain times so that you are not

hoping to have dishes at all times when you eat.

Parents must always remind their children that eating too much is a bad habit.

Al- Ghazali regarded people who eat too much as animals.

Al-Ghazali advised parents to send their children to schools so that they could

learn how to recite al-Quran and Hadith of Rasulullah SAW, listen to the

stories of pious people and their life history so that children could take them as

examples.

Children should be forbidden from listening to sexual stories because it is

believed that such stories could threaten the moral of their children.

Reward

Al-Ghazali stressed on rewarding children. He stated that when children show

good manners, they should be rewarded and complimented so that they would

be happy. But when children accidentally make mistakes, parents should

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pretend as if they did not notice the mistake and do not ever embarrass them

by telling other people about the mistakes done.

But if they repeat the same mistake for the second time, parents should talk to

them discreetly and tell them that they should not do such things. Parents

should remind them not to repeat the same mistake because they would be

ashamed if other people know about it.

In advising children, parents should not criticise them too much because they

would be too familiar with it and they would not be scared to do the same

mistake again. Any advice would not be effective any longer. Therefore

parents should not get angry easily except for certain circumstances. Children

should also be reminded that they should respect their parents and should

avoid bad manners.

Children should not be encouraged to sleep during the day because then they

would develop a habit of laziness in themselves. However do not forbid them

from sleeping at night.

Al-Ghazali wanted children to sleep on a hard mattress so that their bodies

would be firm, strong and slim.

Children should be trained on how to behave at special occasions. They should

not do the following:

spit or force out nasal mucus in front of people at an occasion

yawn in front of people

sit with their backs to other people

sit cross-legged

support their chin with their hand

lean their head against their arms because it shows laziness

Al-Ghazali also advised:

Occupy children’s leisure time.

Educate children with appropriate religious practices such as special practices

and general practices like praying. The teaching method is by stages in terms

of behaviour and recitation.

Explain to them about religion, not only in theory but also its practical.

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Children should be explained about the disadvantages of stealing and forbid

them from eating haram food.

Children must be taught how to be humble.

Do not teach children to lie.

Children should be taught how to be modest in their behaviour.

Children should be advised not to get mixed up with bad people.

Do not let children to be too comfortable.

Teach children how to give and not to receive. Giving is noble but if we

receive from other people, it is disgraceful.

Must be strict with children.

Play

Imam Al-Ghazali stresses on the aspect of play because:

Playing is the nature of children.

Playing could develop small bodies and strengthen muscles.

Playing could make children happy.

Playing could make children relax after getting tired of studying.

Al-Ghazali forbade parents from imposing extreme punishment on children.

He suggested that parents should avoid from degrading their children too

much and avoid from focusing on their weakness; instead parents should

shape their nature and instinct carefully.

Children should not feel too proud of themselves in front of their friends.

Children should not be encouraged to ask for other people’s sympathy and

those particular people should not side with the children.

Teachers or caretakers must show their love towards children as they would to

their own children.

Al-Ghazali’s advise to teachers

Children should be taught by a woman who is religious because she could

influence them.

Children’s bad behaviour should be treated well and not by insulting.

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Teach the children based on their capability. Do not teach them a content of a

higher level because it would intimidate the children.

Teachers should practice what they teach, not just talking without doing.

Teachers should follow Rasulullah SAW in teaching where the Prophet did

not ask for any fees or expression of thanks in return, but teach in the name of

Allah and search to bring himself closer to Him. However, children should

remember other people’s kindness towards them.

Al-Ghazali thought that a teacher should feel that he has done something good

teaching the children to be close to Allah by imparting knowledge.

From Al-Ghazali’s point of view, it can be concluded that his approach is

more towards educating children with spiritual and morality.

However, he also stressed on physical development by encouraging children

to play.

5.2 Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406)

A renowned Islamic philosopher. In Islamic history, he was a well-known

historical and sociology figure.

Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunisia on 1st

Ramadan 732H (27 May, 1332M). He

obtained his basic education from his father who was a renowned scholar.

Ibn Khaldun could memorise the al-Quran and he was an expert in nahu, fiqh,

hadith, rhetoric, philosophy, and poetry.

His works had contributed a lot in understanding civilisation.

His views on education

Children should not be taught difficult matters.

Learn from the easiest to the most difficult in stages by using the method of

drilling and concrete materials as teaching aids.

Do not burden children with things that are out of their capability because this

would make them not willing to learn and hate what they learn.

Since centuries ago, Ibn Khaldun had been discussing about these concepts:

learning willingness

motivation

reinforcement

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practice

observation

individual differences

In teaching al-Quran to small children, Ibn Khaldun forbade teachers from

teaching Tafsir, regulations and others except reciting until the children are

matured enough.

Ways to teach children

He forbade teachers or parents from teaching children with cruelty because it

could make children lazy, liars, and pretentious in order to hide the truth. Such

attitude could become a habit and children would lose sense of humanity.

In his book Muqaddimah Ibn Khaldun, he stated that: “Cruelty would make

them lazy and they would lie as well as become cunning. That is, their actions

are different from what they think, because they are scared of being abused if

they tell the truth” (Ibn Khaldun 1993:776).

Ways to learn

In terms of learning time, it should not be too long because it would make

children forget. Teaching within a short time using the right method could

generate better learning.

In terms of language, he stated that language is the foundation of all

knowledge. Language teaching started from writing and reading, and then

words are related to meanings.

Activities

Discuss how your own centre organises children eating time.

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CHAPTER 6

PIONEERS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

FROM THE WEST

Learning Objectives


explain the idea of pioneers concept of early childhood Education

a) Robert Owen

b) Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel

c) Montessori

d) John Dewey

6.1 Robert Owen (1771-1858)

Owen was an environmentalist. He believed that the environment in which a child

is taught and educated is the factor that contributes to the belief, attitude, and

achievement of the child. He also believed that society shapes a child’s personal

behaviour.

Owen believed that a good behaviour should be nurtured while children are still

small and their behaviour is basically influenced by the environment.

Owen has opened an ‘infant school’ in 1816 at New Lanark, Scotland, a model of

factory town which he managed to educate 100 children from the age of 18

months to 10 years old while their parents were working at his cotton factory. His

effort leads to the opening of another ‘infant school’ in London in 1818.

Among the objectives of opening such schools were to educate children who have

uneducated parents while at the same time provide education to the workers to

make them rational people. Owen opened an evening school for them.

Owen’s contributions

The first children’s school which preceded Froebel’s kindergarten by almost a

quarter of a century.

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His ideas and practices have influenced educators in terms of the importance

of early education and the relation between education and social advancement.

6.2 Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782-1852)

An expert in German education. Spent most of his time forming an early

childhood education system.

Froebel learnt from Pestalozzi and worked with him. Compared to Pestalozzi who

focused on teaching, Froebel created early childhood curriculum and teaching

method. He was known as ‘father of the kindergarten’.

As a result of his close relationship with Pestalozzi and his reading on Rousseau’s

works, Froebel opened a school to practice his ideas. He founded a children’s

school in 1837. This school was called kindergarten. ‘Kinder’ means children,

‘garten’ means garden. Therefore, children’s garden should be filled with beauty

in order to attract children’s attention.

Froebel was very religious. He thought that human beings are generally good

people and the world is the place to work and manifest towards God. He believed

that human beings are responsible to understand the world and live in it truthfully.

Froebel’s contribution in education was in the field of learning, curriculum,

teaching methodology, and teacher training. His concept on children and how they

learn is based on the idea termed as unfolding (developing process such as a

blossoming flower) which was formerly founded by Comenius and Pestalozzi.

The educator’s role, either parents or teachers is to make observations on natural

unfolding and provide activities which enable children to learn when they are

ready. The teacher’s role is to develop the quality to learn. Teachers are treated as

designers of children’s experience and activities.

Froebel treated children like a seed that has just been planted, began to sprout and

produce shoots; it grows from soft to hard and finally produce fruits. He likened

teachers to a gardener. In a garden full of children, they are educated in a close

environment which is harmonious in nature.

Froebel’s views on kindergarten

Kindergarten should be filled with beauty to attract children’s attention. At

least, it has to be painted with bright colours, bright rooms, and full of various

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plants, animals and pictures, sounds and toys which are objects in simple

shapes, sizes and colours.

To provide comfort to children, it has to be equipped with suitable tables and

chairs according to the size of the children. It is not equipped with adult tables

and chairs or placed in a small area that could stop the flow of activities. In

other words, it has to portray a comfortable room that would make it easy to

implement activities.

Kindergarten is an institution which enables children to mix with their peers

without strict control from parents and teachers. The atmosphere in a

kindergarten should be able to prevent children from bad influence from the

society and natural disasters.

At kindergarten, children’s mental, physical, and social development should

be nurtured. It is an approach towards children’s exercises.

He thought that education is the character building of children. Education

should be based on the needs and capabilities of the children. Children learn

something through doing. Children should be treated as children and they must

be given freedom. Early childhood education is important because it is the

foundation of upcoming education. He stated that life is an evolution process,

advancing an individual would also advance the society. Both have an

influence on the other. Kindergarten is like a foundation for societal exercises

such as cooperativeness, self-effort, motivating attitude, respectfulness,

cleanliness and encouraging systematic and good health.

Teaching strategies

In terms of teaching and learning strategies of children, he stressed on the

method of playing and learning by doing. He stated that playing is life and

it is the highest stage in childhood development. Therefore, all work done

by children must have playing attributes. Children can generate their

uniqueness through playing. Play is a strategy in education which is

considered as Froebel’s biggest contribution in early childhood education.

Other than playing, Froebel also stressed on work training for children.

Therefore, all work done by children should have playing attributes. He

accepted Pestalozzi’s principles on the use of tools/objects in teaching to

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trigger interest in learning as well as the principle which says that all

education begin with the perception of senses.

Froebel categorised childhood early process between birth and six years

old to stages based on mental and physical development. There are three

stages: infancy, early childhood, and childhood.

In terms of schedule, he thought that the teaching time table of children

should not be restricted.

Exercises for children

Froebel created various exercises for each stage of childhood development.

For example, before a child leaves the cradle, he should be taught how to hold

and grip.

In order to train children with the activity mentioned above, Froebel invented

geometrical tools as toys for children. These materials are called gifts. Other

than that, he created a curriculum to train children to work such as

occupations, playing, singing, studying nature, language and mathematics to

enable children to understand the universal principle.

Among the occupations for children that Froebel suggested are paper cutting,

paper weaving, beads plaiting, drawing, embroidery and fabric weaving.

Children are taught to create the shapes that they want. Froebel’s goal was to

develop the aspects of physical, cognitive and social in children.

Gifts as suggested by Froebel are meant to train physical, mental, socio-

emotional and creativity of children. The tools that were invented by Froebel

range from easy to a more complicated one based on the children’s age. It also

started from a bigger unit to a smaller one. The first gift consists of six balls

made of wool of different colours.

Gift 1 has six soft balls made of wool with 2” in diameter. The ball has various

colours such as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple. Each ball is

equipped with a string of 6” long and a hole is made at the end of the string so

that it swings. This toy is suitable for children of three months old until three

years old. Froebel admitted that a ball is a baby’s favourite toy. It is light and

easy to hold and grip. For Froebel, a ball is a symbol of oneness because it is a

26



whole original shape. The whole is the initial concept to understand something

because each thing must be learnt from the whole concept.

Gift 2 has two 2” cube, one 2” cylinder, and one 2” sphere. Froebel named the

gift as “the children’s delight” which has different forms and designs. This gift

is suitable for children of the age of three and four.

Gift 3 is a 2” cube which can be found in Gift 2 which is now divided into

eight cubes measuring 1” each.

Gift 4 is a 2” cube which is divided into eight rectangular blocks of 2” x 1” x

½”. Children may look at the block as tiles or bricks, etc.

Gift 5 has a 3” cube divided into 21 1” cubes, six half cubes, and 12 ¼ cubes.

Gift 5 represents a bigger shape, 3” cubes and more in total as well as in

various shapes. There are cubes of half-shaped and ¼ introduces triangle. This

gift is suitable for children of age five and above.

Gift 6 has 3” cube which is divided into 18 rectangular blocks, 12 flat blocks,

in square shape, and six small pillars. This gift is suitable for children of age

five and above.

Gift 7 has 172 pieces of small boards of various shapes. Among the shapes are

squares, isosceles triangle, equilateral triangle, and right-angled triangle. Due

to the fact that this gift has various shapes, colours, and sizes, children can

separate the pieces according to the different shapes, colours, and sizes or

separate them based on more than two characteristics such as according to its

colours and shapes; colours and sizes; or colours, sizes, and shapes.

Gift 8 has a ring made of steel. There are also rings in half shape and also

wood. Children can separate these things according to shapes, as well as create

alphabets, create patterns, and many more depending on their own creativity.

Children can play with Gift 9 the same way they play with the other gifts

where they can separate the toys according to colours, patterns, etc. following

their creativity.

Gift 10 changes from a concrete shape into a more abstract shape. This gift is

built by joining the dots and lines to create various shapes.

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6.3 Maria Montessori (1870-1952)

A renowned educator in Rome, she had experience in education for spastic

children.

In 1899, she was involved in building a school for spastic children in Rome. She

spent two years with her friends training teachers in methods of observation and

spastic children education.

She spent a lot of time with children by observing and experimenting using

various materials and methods and she used all her ideas gained from her research.

Some of the children whom were labelled as ‘uneducable’ had learnt well that

they could now read and write. Some of them passed primary education with

better grades than normal children.

Teaching methodology

Montessori stresses on:

Suitable method in children’s learning problems.

Teaching aids should have special features so that children could make use of

their senses. The Montessori Method and its teaching stresses on sensory

teaching and learning. The teaching method in Montessori schools focuses on

training of seeing, hearing, and touching. Its purpose is so that children gain

experience and could make use of their senses efficiently.

In commenting about the effectiveness of teaching special children, she said “I

succeeded in teaching a number of the idiots from the asylums both to read

and to write so well that I was able to present them at a public school for an

examination together with normal children. And they passed the examination

successfully” (Morrison 1995:69).

Her contribution towards children and also the talks to the public whether in

Italy or other European countries made Maria Montessori famous because she

was a teacher and a doctor.

In 1904, she was asked to build a school for children in a slum area which was

a rehousing programme. The first and biggest school in San Lornso was meant

for children aged three until six. She named the school as Casa dei Bambini,

or the Children’s House in Italian (Lesley Britton, 1992).

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Two years later, a few more schools were founded. At these schools,

Montessori implemented her method on normal children. She believed that the

method that she used could benefit special children well and could improve

the achievement of normal children.

The principles of Montessori Method

1. Respect the children

According to Montessori, adults should treat children well.

They should be treated like children and not like adults. Adults could not

force children to accept their ideas.

Teachers and parents must respect children in various ways such as by

helping children learn to do the activities of their choice themselves

When children get to choose, they could develop their skills and

capabilities which are the foundations of effective learning, autonomy and

positive self-recognition.

2. Absorbent mind

How children gain knowledge is different from adults. If adults use their

thinking to gain knowledge, children use their physical attributes or senses.

From the age of three until six, by using conscious absorbent mind,

children could choose the information gained from their environment and

therefore enhance their senses.

At this stage, children could already master a few skills like

differentiating, matching, and grading colours.

Since born until the age of three, children’s thinking is termed as

unconscious absorbent mind which is developed through seeing, hearing,

tasting, smelling, and touching.

What children learn depends on the people around them in terms of the

way they talk, act, and their response towards other children.

Existing experience and the materials which have been prepared for

children also determine the type and quality of learning.

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3. Sensitive periods

Montessori believed that there were sensitive periods where at this time

children learn a few behaviours more effectively. (Many early childhood

educators equate sensitive periods with readiness)

All children would go through such stage but the period for each child is

different.

Parents and teachers should detect these sensitive periods and provide

experiences to develop children’s skills.

Parents and teachers should observe the children. Many educators viewed

that observation on children is more important than testing them.

Sensitive period in learning happens in the initial stage of life where there

are rapid development in terms of physical and language.

Teachers have three roles:

i) admit the existence of sensitive periods

ii) learn how to detect them

iii) provide experiences in developing children’s potential

4. Prepared environment

Children learn better in a prepared environment. Such environment could

be a classroom, at home, at a nursery or at a playground.

The goal of a prepared environment is to enable children to stand on their

own feet and not depend on adults. In fact, they do things for themselves.

5. Auto education

The meaning of auto education is when children could educate themselves

while doing activities in a prepared environment. Through involvement in

such activities, children could:

learn something

execute reflections

gain self-satisfaction

According to studies done by Montessori, all children have universal

characteristics. These characteristics are:

All children have absorbent minds.

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All children go through sensitive periods.

All children want to learn.

All children learn by playing/working.

All children go through various stages of development.

All children want to be independent.

6.4 John Dewey (1859-1952)

A renowned philosopher in America.

Dewey’s theory on schooling is known as progressivism which stresses on

children and their interests rather than subjects. The terms child-centred

curriculum and child-centred school were derived then.

Progressive philosophy also stresses on children’s preparation in facing today’s

reality rather than their preparation for the unknown future. Dewey once

mentioned that “Education, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation

for future living.” (Morrison 2001).

In a classroom which is based on Dewey’s idea, children are involved in physical

activities, making use of materials, intellectual development, and the existence of

social interaction.

Physical activities include running, jumping, and using materials. Children also

learn how to use tools and materials to build things. Dewey also suggested that

children’s daily activities should include cooking and carpentry.

In order to encourage children’s intellectual development, they must be exposed to

activities such as problem-solving, exploring new things, looking for answers

about how something happens, etc.

Children should also be trained on how to interact with people in a democratic

classroom environment. To encourage children’s mental and emotional

development, Dewey wanted children to learn in an informal classroom because

he viewed that “formalisation is hostile to genuine mental activity and to sincere

emotional expression and growth” (Morrison 2001:80).

Dewey encouraged teaching which incorporates the contents from various

subjects by using thematic method besides encouraging problem-solving and

critical thinking.

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Among his views are that the role of philosophy is not to know about the world

but how to control and develop the world. The main function of philosophy is to

find all the changes that are related to human experience.

Dewey viewed that education is living and not solely a preparation for living.

Education is a social process which presents knowledge, experience, theories,

thoughts, and facts to the younger society (children). Dewey’s school encouraged

practical teaching and skills such as carpentry, cooking, etc.

He was a pioneer for project method. This method is closely related to children’s

activities. Through such method, children would work hard to achieve success. In

teaching, teachers should start with a small group, then, individually. He also

viewed that actual education is an active process based on children’s natural

being.

Dewey also encouraged children to learn by doing because children are naturally

active and learning by doing makes children more prepared to face the future.

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CHAPTER 7

MODELS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Learning Objectives


discuss these three models and compare them in terms of the advantages and disadvantages

in children’ learning:

a) Bank Street “Developmental Interaction” Approach

b) Cognitively Oriented Programme: High/Scope Perry Preschool Programme

c) Bereiter-Engelmann or Direct Instruction (Preschool Academic or DISTAR)

7.1 Bank Street “Developmental Interaction” Approach

Founded for Head Start and “Follow Through” programme by Elizabeth Gilkeson

& Associates. It was based on Bank Street College of Education, New York.

Its curriculum was based on individual’s development stage.

The effects of learning through interaction

In terms of interaction with other people, this programme believes that

children learn more effectively through interaction with peers and adults in an

environment shaped to provide various activities.

This programme is based on philosophy – real effort to foster intellectual and

socio-emotional development.

Stress is given to cognitive skills, self-appreciation, identity (attributes, etc. of

someone), self-effectiveness, impulsive control (inner urge), self-confidence,

design, productivity, autonomy (rights or self-power), and relationships with

other people.

Evaluation

Teachers evaluate continuously towards the development of children and

provide activities that are parallel with the evaluation.

Various learning materials are provided for children.

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Thematic approach

This model suggests teaching and learning strategies to use the thematic

method.

Learning based on themes is done by combining the curriculum aspects.

The choice of themes is based on the following criteria:

Things that are interesting to children

Based on available resources

Leading to activities and discussions

Related to children and easily understood by them

Can enhance a broader development of learning the concept of ideas

Suitable according to the age of children

Have potential towards self-learning

Once a theme has been chosen, teachers need to determine what kind of

concept that can be developed with the theme. Children should enjoy

themselves while doing the activities.

The relationship between teachers and children is the foundation in the

implementation of the programme. Teachers who are friendly, loving and

supportive would encourage children to cooperate with them.

Daily timetable

Daily timetable is arranged carefully in such a way that provides a balanced

involvement. However, it is a flexible one.

Normally, children work on their own or in small groups together with adults

or without being controlled by adults.

In the daily timetable there are also reading and writing activities besides other

activities.

Children write their own books and read books written by their friends.

Relationships with parents

This programme stresses highly on two-way communication with parents.

Therefore, this programme provides a room for parents and often organises visits

to parents’ houses and other activities that could strengthen parent-teacher

relationship.

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7.2 Cognitively Oriented Programme: High/Scope Perry Preschool Programme

Founded by David Weikart and Associates at Institute of High/Scope at Ypsilanti,

Michigan. It is an effort to translate Piaget’s theory of development into the

education programme.

Initially, it was known as Perry Preschool, built in 1960s to help children who

were not privileged. This programme stresses on the development of children’s

cognitive, how children manage time, and interpret relationships between objects

and events in an environment.

Environment

Children can choose various materials that are provided for them.

Classrooms are divided into corners. Each corner is equipped with special

tools. Corners in a classroom consist of:

household corner

blocks corner

arts corner

silent corner and wide corner

corners for building things

music and movement corner

sand and water games corner

animals and plants corner

There are also space for children to keep their things so that they learn about

hygiene and also rules and regulations.

Daily timetable

Sample daily timetable for half-day programme

8:30-8:50 am Time for planning

8:50-9:45 am Time for working

9:45-10:00 am Time for cleaning

10:00-10:30 am Recall, snacks and small group activity

10:30-10:50 am Outdoor games

10:50-11:10 am Circle time

11:10-11:20 am Going back home

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Sample daily timetable for full day programme

7:30-8:30 am When children arrive, teachers do some

planning with the children and ask them to get to work

8:30-9:00 am Breakfast and brush teeth

9:00-9:20 am Time for planning

9:20-10:30 am Time for working and cleaning

10:30-10:50 am Recall session

10:50-11:20 am Outdoor games

11:20-11:45 am Circle time and prepare for lunch

11:45-12:30 pm Lunch

12:30-1:30 pm Time for nap. Children sleep or lie down quietly

while reading

1:30-2:15 pm Small group activity and snacks

2:15-4:00 pm Some children go back home while teachers and caretakers

plan with children who are staying longer at school, then the

children do their work until it is time to go back

Daily timetable is implemented to provide an understanding to children about the

concept of time.

Time for planning

Children start the activity by making plans about what activities to do. Teachers

assist the children in making the plans and record them.

Time for working—Curriculum

There are eight areas:

1) Active learning – children do their own activity including learning through

senses, manipulation, combine to know about relationships, choose their own

activity and materials, and learn to use tools and equipment.

2) Enhance the use of language – children are encouraged to speak with other

people about experiences that are meaningful to them, imagine and pour out

their feelings. Teachers write and organize language games.

36



3) Illustrate experience and ideas by identifying objects through senses, imitating

movements and voices, role-playing, drawing, and painting.

4) Do classification – starting from pre-operational where children identify

similarities and differences between objects. Children are encouraged to

illustrate characteristics of things, separate and combine things, use things in

various ways, discuss the characteristics that are not found in things, and

differentiate between little, half and all.

5) Seriation – able to arrange things, done by comparing, arranging objects in

order and joining objects.

6) Number concept – a foundation to mathematical understanding done based on

concrete experience. To enhance such concept, experiences are provided so

that children could compare and count.

7) Relationship with space – encouraged to set and separate things, rearrange and

reshape objects. Observe and illustrate things according to different

perspectives. Play with various shapes of things, experience with own bodies

and illustrate bodies, distance and positions.

8) Understanding units of time and arrange events in order.

7.3 The Bereiter-Engelmannn or Direct Instruction Model (Preschool Academic or

DISTAR)

This model is based on behavioural theory. Founded by Carl Bereiter and

Siegfried Engelmann in 1960 with the purpose of helping poor children to become

successful in primary schools. Underprivileged children were already way behind

their friends from the middle class family. They did not only need enrichment but

they also needed a programme that can quicken their learning rate.

This model is different from the others because it is designed to fulfil specific

goals determined by the teachers (not to fulfil the development of children as a

whole).

Curriculum

This model uses the direct teaching approach.

Teachers plan the teaching. Children are required to do drills and specific

exercises.

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There are three subjects that are stressed here: language, mathematics, and

reading. The goal is to provide related skills to children in the three aspects.

Each subject is designed to assist children in empowering specific skills.

For example, in the aspect of reading, children are asked to look at letters and

say the letters from left to right. The goal is to enable children to combine the

letters to form words.

In the aspect of language, the related word usage is compound words,

complete a sentence, ‘if’ sentences, positive and negative sentences, and

antonyms (big/small, up/down).

Other goals related to colours and names, number until 20, letter identification,

capability to produce rhythmic words. Teachers provide continuous

reinforcement in terms of compliments and food.

Music is taught directly for the purpose of strengthening the use of language.

According to Lay-Dopyera & Dopyera (1993), in mathematics, children are

not only taught how to count until 20, but they are also taught how to count

through addition or subtraction besides teaching of symbols +, -, and =; and

are required to answer related questions.

Environment

Teaching is based on a small classroom where teachers teach directly. A wider

classroom is for a less structured activity for a bigger group.

Floor plan consists of three small classrooms – mathematics room, reading

room, and language room. All these rooms are equipped with five chairs

which are facing the blackboard.

There are materials like puzzles, books and materials for tracing, papers and

crayons but there are no materials for creativity because creative development

is not the goal of this programme.

Timetable

Three subjects (language, mathematics, and reading) are taught intensively. They

are taught in 20 minutes. Each consists of five children, or three to eight children,

and a teacher. Groupings are done according to capabilities.

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Teachers

This programme suggests that primary school teachers are more qualified and

suitable to teach this programme compared to teachers who are trained for early

childhood.

Studies on the effectiveness of programme

A few studies have been conducted to look at the effectiveness of this

programme.

Results portray that children show a significant improvement in IQ tests and

performance tests compared to other groups of children.

But this improvement declines quicker than the children from different

programmes.

Same goes to the level of curiosity and design found in children from the

Bereiter-Engelmann programme. They are found to be lower than children

from other programmes.

This situation could be due to too much reinforcement done which possibly

lessen the intrinsic interest in children in their learning process.

When external motivation is abolished, the motivation to learn also vanished.

Studies have shown that teenagers who undergo direct teaching programme at

preschool stage show a higher rate of teenage delinquency compared to

children who undergo a programme which stresses on self-selection during

kindergarten.

Every day, teachers read books to the children. This programme provides a lot

of pictorial books and books that are easy to read by children.

Children are able to enrich their vocabulary through charts, labels, stories and

games.

Children work on their own. Children might be given plasticines or other

materials to explore and manipulate. This is not the time to teach. It gives

teachers an opportunity to observe the children and introduce the materials to

be explored by the children.

Recall time

Children review their work. It is usually done in small groups.

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Classroom Discussion

Discuss the concept, approach, and implementation of Permata Negara Programme. Compare

with the other early childhood’s model. Discuss the strength and weaknesses.

40



CHAPTER 8


Learning Objectives


discuss the view of Montessori in term of:

i) the environment of early childhood centres

ii) the curriculum of early childhood education and material used

compare between the Montessori model and the Reggio Emilia’s model

8.1 Montessori Model

This model can be found widely in the United States of America. This programme is

based on how children grow up.

The goal of Montessori Education

American Society of Montessori (1984) in Brewer (1998) stated that the goal of

Montessori programme is to develop the following aspects:

Concentration

Skills in observation

Awareness in arrangement and chronology

Coordination

Awareness in assumption and practical skills

Mathematical concept

Language skills

Reading and writing skills

Habits in creative arts

Understanding nature

Experience in understanding social science

Experience in critical thinking skills through problem-solving technique

Preschool centre environment

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Montessori stresses on having a wide compound for a centre for early

childhood education. A wide area enables children to move freely. It should be

equipped with a playground and a garden. The environment should be

attractive and enjoyable. There should be plants, flowers, and interesting toys.

Furniture such as tables and chairs should be in children’s size. Tables and

chairs should be light so that children of two and four years of age could lift

the tables and chairs.

Tables should be in the shape of a triangle that could be used by two or three

children if they sit together. There should also be a small table that only one

child could use if he has to work alone.

Equipment should be arranged in a cupboard that could be reached by

children. There should also be space that is equipped with things that enable

children to obtain specific skills.

At Montessori centres, there is also a place to wash hands that is low enough

for children of three years old to use. There should also be a place to put

soaps, nail brush, towels, etc. If possible, Montessori suggested that a small

cupboard is placed for each child for them to keep their soaps, nail brush,

toothbrush, and other necessities.

In each room, there should be a low cupboard to keep the learning materials.

The door should be easy to open. Children should be given the responsibility

to take care of the materials inside the cupboard. On the cupboard, there

should be a flowerpot, a small aquarium, and various other toys. Children

should be given the freedom to play with these toys.

Classrooms should be equipped with blackboards that are hung low so that

children could use them. These blackboards are equipped with a box to put

chalks and dusters. The blackboards should be decorated with nice pictures

that could attract children’s attention.

Montessori’s philosophy is based on logic, systematic, and beauty.

Children

Based on individual activity. Children of various age groups would get

involved in individual activities. They are free to choose any project that they

like.

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The activities are normally done on a mat or on the table. Children follow their

own rules and work on their own or in pairs. Younger children learn a

particular activity by observing and imitating older children. Montessori

programme is designed for children of 3-6 years old.

Teachers

In a Montessori programme, adults’ supervision is very minimal. Teachers

observe children from afar or get involved only during demonstrations on how to

use new tools/materials. Teachers do not compliment children because the goal of

the activity is to gain self-reward and intrinsic motivation. Montessori teachers

learn the method and curriculum through an intensive course at degree level.

Materials

Have special characteristics.

The materials are didactic, designed for specific subjects.

In a form of self-correcting where children get feedback after they were

successful or not successful in completing a task by using the materials.

Materials are built from easy to difficult. Children are given the challenge to

solve difficult concepts in a progressive manner.

Materials are developed carefully, normally using natural materials such as

varnished wood.

Curriculum

There are a few sets of activities. Among them are:

activities related to everyday lives

activities related to the use of senses

activities that are academic-like

Daily living activity

This activity is a practical one:

button up shirt

tie shoelace

polish shoes

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comb hair

water the plants

clean the windows, sweep the floor, and wipe the table

These activities do not only help in developing physical skills of children, but

train them in being discipline, independent, and self-appreciation through giving

full attention in the activities done.

Sensorial Material

This activity is carried out for the purpose of helping children to develop, arrange,

expand, and study sensorial perception in terms of seeing, hearing, touching,

smelling, and tasting. In order to develop the skills mentioned above in children,

Montessori created various tools. They are:

Pink Tower: Pink Tower consists of 10 cubes made of woods of various

shapes, texture and colour. The cubes are all in pink. The size of the cube

starts from 1 cm and is added by 1 cm for each cube. The biggest cube is

10 cm in size. The cubes are arranged horizontally from the biggest to the

smallest. This tower is extremely attractive for children of age below five

because they can topple down the tower and then rebuild them as many

times as they like.

Brown Stairs: Consists of 10 blocks made of wood. All of them are brown

in colour and differ in their thickness. Children can arrange these blocks

from the thickest to the thinnest. The thickest is 10 cm in size. Other

blocks would be 1 cm thinner for each block.

Red Rods: Consists of 10 sticks, all in red with the same size but differ in

length that starts from 10 cm to 1 cm. Children can arrange the sticks from

the longest to the shortest.

Cylinder Block: Consists of blocks with holes and small cylinders that are

suitable to be put into the holes. Children must take the cylinders out from

the blocks and place the cylinders into suitable holes.

Smelling Jar: Using two bottles of the same colour but with different

scents. Teachers would place two things with same scent as the one in the

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bottle. Children would be asked to smell these two things and match them

with the scent in the bottle.

Baric Tablets: Pieces of woods that are triangular in shape with different

weight. There are three sets altogether—light, medium light, and heavy.

Children are required to match the pieces according to their weight.

Colour Tablets: Initially, Montessori had chosen three pieces of wood

with very bright colours which are in pairs of red, blue, and yellow. All the

six woods are put in front of the children. The children would be shown a

piece of coloured wood and then they would be asked to find another piece

of wood of the same colour. At the end, children would be asked to

arrange all the colours according to pairs.

The number of wood would be added to make eight colours or sixteen

pieces. After children are able to empower all the bright colours, they

would then be asked to identify lighter colours. Then, the same colour of

wood would be added but they would differ in terms of their colour tones.

Children are required to arrange the pieces of wood according to their

tones of colours.

Sound Boxes: Various things are put into two boxes of the same size and

colour. For example, one box contains fine sands and the other box with

rough stones. Children are required to shake the boxes and match the box

with the same sound.

Temperature Jugs: This is to differentiate temperature. The jugs are

made of steel. Water of different temperature is put into the jugs. Children

are required to match the jug with the same temperature.

Montessori also taught children to taste using their tongues to know the

taste of bitter, sour, sweet, salty, etc. Children of four years old are

prepared to play such game. After the children have tasted the food, they

are asked to clean their mouths with clean water. Montessori thought that

this game does not only teach a child the various smells and tastes

available but also teaches them how to clean their mouths after tasting all

kinds of food.

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Various types of clothes – Montessori used various types of cloth to be

identified by children. There are seven different types of cloth: velvet, silk,

wool, fine linen, rough linen, light cotton, and heavy cotton.

Concept and academic materials

Geometric Insets of Wood and Frame: There are various geometrical

shapes used to teach shapes. In this set, children are asked to match the

same shape. They are required to match two similar shapes by pairing the

two shapes into a frame which has been shaped into various shapes. The

two pieces of wood are screwed so that they would not be jumbled up.

Montessori also created a cabinet to keep the geometrical tools.

Shape Tablets: Children are given a frame or tray filled with woods of

various shapes. They must take out all the shapes and mix them all up.

Children need to choose the same shapes and match them into the frame or

tray. Montessori considered this game as very effective to train children to

recognise geometrical shapes. Children are also asked to use their fingers

to touch and move their fingers according to the geometrical shapes

available.

Sand paper: Children are trained on how to use their fingers to trace the

alphabets cut from sand papers.

Alphabet: Montessori classroom is equipped with alphabets. Children are

asked to arrange the alphabets into words.

Material and exercise: Created to help children like and enjoy music and

learn to control the movement of their hands and legs in preparation to

dance. Montessori also introduced rhythm, harmony, and melody. Children

are taught how to use musical instruments and to recognise music through

sensorial training. Although drawings are not taught directly, children are

taught lines and colours before drawings are introduced (Brewer 1998).

Other activities that could enhance understanding in children in terms of

culture are maps, and pictures of animals and plants for children to identify

and classify.

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Daily timetable

Below is one example of a daily plan that can be found in a Montessori

programme, beginning from 9:00 am until 4:00 pm.

Time Task

9:00 – 10:00 1) Check hygiene of the children.

2) Daily living training: helping other friends.

3) Put on and take off the apron.

4) Check condition of the room to make sure it is clean and

tidy.

5) Language: Conversation—Children tell the whole class

about what they have gone through the day before.

6) Religious class.

10:00 – 11:00 1) Intellectual exercises.

2) Break.

3) Sensorial exercises.

11:00 – 11:30 Gymnastics: Common movements that are done in a gentle

way, normal body positions, walking, queuing, salutation,

movement to attract attention, putting things gently.

11:30 – 12:00 Lunch: Short Doa’ recitation.

12:00 – 1:00 Free activity.

1:00 – 2:00 1) Guided activity, if possible, in an open area. At this time,

older children would be doing daily living activity in turns,

cleaning up rooms, dusting and arranging things.

2) General hygiene checks up: Conversation.

2:00 – 3:00 Handcraft: Building clay models, patterns, etc.

3:00 – 4:00 1) Group gymnastics while singing, if possible, in an open

area.

2) Exercises to develop a compassionate character: tour, love

the trees and animals.

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8.2 The Reggio Emilia Approach

This approach was founded at Reggio Emilia, situated at North Italy, under the

guidance of Loris Malaguzzi based on the theories by Piaget and Vygotsky.

Environment

Attractive and enjoyable.

Can enhance human relationship and encourage learning.

Space is used to encourage communication. Space arrangement can enhance

children to work in small groups, big groups, working with only one teacher,

or working on their own.

Equipment, materials, and activities are arranged to encourage exploration,

discovery, and problem-solving as well as to give children a chance to make

their own choice.

Atelier

This model provides a special studio or workshop where children and teachers

can utilise various materials to experience new things.

Atelier is used to document the works of the children, to transcribe children’s

conversations, to take photos of their activities, and to document children’s

learning process in various projects.

The documents are meaningful to children because they can evaluate their

own products as well as their friends’ products.

Through this project, parents and teachers can evaluate and judge children’s

learning process.

Curriculum

The curriculum of Reggio Emilia is project-based. In this project, children

normally work in small groups to explore a concept or a topic in detail.

This project can be done in a short time or longer. Normally, it takes about one

month to finish. Due to the fact that Reggio Emilia programme does not

allocate a fixed duration to be in school, children can do their work peacefully

(not in a hurry).

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Project title or theme

This model stresses on the interest and tendency of children. Because of this,

the title of the project to be implemented by the children could derive from the

questions that they ask their teachers or in other words, it is based on their own

ideas.

It could also be the teachers’ ideas.

Normally, the title of the project is based on daily experience of the children.

Projects can be done in various topics.

Example

Forman (1993) in (Eva Essa 1996), proposed a project where children studied

their environment during spring season that was related to poppies. The children

started off with a drawing activity, beginning from thinking how poppies look

like. Teachers and children communicated: they were questioning and answering

questions, comparing their work with others, and discussing the things that they

found at the poppy farm. Then, they visited the poppy farm and were there for a

few days where they observed, compared, and reviewed all the questions that they

had asked before. When they went back to school, they could draw the poppies in

a more accurate and perfect manner.

Teachers

According to Malaguzzi (1993), education should involve three elements:

children, teachers, and families.

Teachers at Reggio Emilia work as partners to the children. They would sit

together with a group of children age three, from infant to three years old, and

also children of 3-6 years old.

The role of the teacher is as resources to the children and as partners in

childhood education. Teachers would be assisted by a pedagogy coordinator

and an art teacher.

Other programmes included in Reggio Emilia are weekly meetings for staff

and staff development programmes.

Both programmes could enhance communication skills and professionalism of

the teachers.

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Group Discussion

Compare Montessori Model and Reggio Emilia‘s Model.

50



CHAPTER 9


Learning Objectives


explain Sure Start

discuss the difference with Sure Start and Head Start

9.1 Sure Start Model

Philosophy

Sure Start is a programme which provides quality preschool education.

The services provided comprise aspects of education, health, social, and parent

involvement.

The close relationship and cooperation between family, school and community

is a factor that is emphasised in the programme.

Sure Start was founded on the developmentally appropriate practice based on

the theories by Piaget, Erikson, Vygotsky, and Gardner.

The programme is aimed to assist in the overall development of children and

to help families. Through this programme, children will be able to develop

their social skills and talents in order to be more productive.

Background

Sure Start is an effort from the British government to overcome the problems

of poor children and social exclusion.

Sure Start is organised through local programmes at deprived regions in the

country.

The goal is to attain the best outcome for the children, parents, and community

by setting up childcare centres for all children, enhancing children’s health,

education and emotional development as well as assisting parents in their role

and increasing aspiration for the job.

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The British government has increased the allocation to more than £1.5 billion

for years 2005-2006 and an addition of £669 million for years 2007-2008.

This is inclusive of 100,000 childcare centres which were partly placed in

schools.

Launched in 1998, children, teenagers, and families are the major focus of

Sure Start. It is managed by the Local Government, Primary Care Trusts, job

seeking agency Jobcentre Plus, local communities, and volunteering

organisations as well as the private sector.

There are 520 local programmes; programmes conducted in Scotland, Wales,

and North Ireland. These programmes focus on families with children aged

below four and cover about 800 children in each area.

The facilities provided include drop in centres for parents to discuss with Sure

Start staff, care centres, and mobile health clinics.

Each programme is administered in cooperation with government bodies

(including professionals in the fields of health and education), professionals in

child care and volunteering groups and communities just as parents work

together to provide services to the family. This sharing concept is a unique

factor in making the Sure Start programmes a success.

The programme offers high quality play and learning experience. The

language development of children is the source of Sure Start’s success. With

Sure Start, the government was able to target in decreasing the cost for

language and speech experts of four-year-old children by 5% in 2004.

9.2 Head Start Model

Sure Start was based on the Head Start programme which was implemented in the

United States of America. Head Start was launched in 1965 with the purpose to

help the community in fulfilling the needs of underprivileged children.

Studies have shown that the examination achievement of children enrolled for the

Head Start programme is better than those who were not. This programme has

also reduced the crime rate.

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9.3 What is the difference between the Head Start and Sure Start?

Head Start Model Sure Start Model

Sure Start tries to combine several

characteristics of Head Start that were

considered high quality:

One-day programme

System that encompasses education,

health, social services and parent

involvement

Medical inspection, dental, and

continuous assessment

Nutritious lunch, drinks, and snacks

Active family involvement

All programmes are based on

developmentally appropriate principle

Sure Start is based on DoDEA

(Department of Defence and

Education Activity)*

Head Start uses income as criteria of

qualification for the registration of

children. Sure Start also considers

family income as an important factor;

however other than income, other

factors are also considered.

Head Start allocates a minimum of

10% of the classrooms for children

with special needs. Sure Start does not

consider children with special needs as

criteria for registration

Parent involvement in Sure Start is an

important part in programmes

Sure Start curriculum uses DoDEA as

foundation. Teachers and programme

assistants are given training in

conducting programmes to ensure

consistency

Sure Start allocates a ratio of two

adults for each 18-20 students

The guiding principles that underscore DoDEA’s commitment to all young

children are:

Young children learn and construct knowledge as a result of meaningful and

purposeful experiences.

Optimal development in young children takes place in an environment where

collaboration with others, discussing, analysing, and developing personal

53



meaning through application of what is being learned is encouraged and

facilitated.

Young children reach different levels of learning and development at different

times.

Learning in the early childhood years develops on a continuum.

Learning is both individual and social and takes place within a social/cultural

context.

Play is an integral part of quality programmes serving young children.

Skills and concepts are developed and enhanced through child-initiated and

teacher-initiated activities.

Programmes for young children must provide opportunities for individual

activities and flexible groupings.

Young children should be involved with the teacher in planning,

implementing, and evaluating their learning experiences.

The dignity of young children and their personal circumstances and diversity

must be respected and affirmed.

Families of young children are essential partners in the educational process.

Children are best served in a safe, nurturing, and inclusive environment

Developmentally appropriate assessment of young children's learning is

essential for planning and implementing appropriate curriculum and

celebrating children’s learning.

Programme practices for young children must reflect sound research and

findings about young children and learning.

(Source: http://www.dodea.edu/curriculum/eChildhood.cfm)

Effectiveness of Sure Start programme

Parents who enrolled for the programme acknowledged that they had more fun

and were more motivated to work.

Researchers have also found that the programme succeeded in gathering

various communities including those that have never spoken to one another

prior to this. Around 70 parents including fathers from numerous communities

attended the meeting. Parents felt proud with the meeting.

54


http://www.dodea.edu/curriculum/eChildhood.cfm


An Example of Head Start Programme – Play link

A project implemented to enhance the development of language, focus, social

skills, and independent activities. It is also to strengthen family life and avoid

divorce. The project is collaboration between health programme education

implemented in North Sussex and Brighton.

This project involves weekly visits (by trained visitors including parents who

acquired training and experience) to homes. They discuss with families and

introduce numerous toys, books, drawings, simple dishes, messy play, etc.

There are also discussions held in community halls and in other places for

parents and children where they can meet and share activities including

assisting families in child care.

Studies show that 16 children who are involved in play link show a better

focus in table play and do not face as much speech and language problems

upon enrolling for the child care centres. They are also able to show high

capability, skills, and confidence when talking with other children and adults.

Who can enrol?

Sure Start is a programme that receives government funding. Initially, it was

allocated for children of four years old. Children that qualified to enrol for the

programme are based on families which may put their children “at risk”:

Based on fund ranking

Children of single parent

Parents do not have a degree

Parents are not high school graduates

Parents were in their teens when the first child was born

One of the parents speak language other than English as their first language

Children are underweight

Parents work outside the region for three months or more

Families with four or more children in which their births are not far apart from

one another

Children with a sister or brother with serious special needs

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Curriculum

1. Spiritual, Socio-Emotional, and Personality Development

2. Early Literacy, Communication, and Language Development

3. Logical Thinking and Mathematics Development

4. Environment Understanding and Knowledge Development

5. Physical Development

6. Creativity and Aesthetics Development

Strategy

Learning should be planned well and structured to emphasise on fun, play,

suitability, and motivation to all children.

Group discussion

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of these two programmes.

56



CHAPTER 10

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA

Learning Objectives


discuss on the National Philosophy of Education

explain goals of Preschool Education in Malaysia

discuss the Six Pillars of Standard National Preschool Curriculum

10.1 National Philosophy of Education

Education in Malaysia is an ongoing effort towards further developing the potential of

individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, in order to produce individuals who

are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically, balanced and harmoniously,

based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce

Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral

standards and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal

well being to contribute to the betterment of the nation, family and society.

(Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan 2010)

The Goals of Education in Malaysia (The Philosophy of Teacher Education in

Malaysia, Ministry of Education 1982)

Individual

To nurture a balance development in each individual by providing for the growth

of physical, intellectual, emotional, moral, and aesthetic potentials as a Malaysian

while upholding tenets of Rukun Negara.

Societal

To assist the individual to obtain greater insight and understanding into our

ecological and cultural heritage, social institutions, values and practices, societal

pressures, and challenges. To enable the individual to function and fulfil his

commitment and responsibilities as a citizen.

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Economic

To develop the human recourses of the nation by assisting the individual to be a

skilled, competent, rational, and responsible planner, producer, and consumer to

enable him to improve his personal wellbeing and contribute to the progress and

development of the nation.

Political

To develop in the individual understanding and acceptance of the democratic

ideas and ideals under the constitution, loyalty to the king, patriotism to the

nation, awareness of his rights, and responsibilities as a citizen in a democracy

and commitment to exercise these rights and responsibilities.

Modernity

To develop in the individual positive attitude towards scientific enquiry and

technical processes and progress, self reliance, desire and capability, for the long

life education to enable him to initiate and adapt to changes compatible with the

cultural and ethical values and aspiration of the nation.

International Peace and Understanding

To promote international peace and understanding in the individual through

the study of other nations from the geographical, sociological, economic, and

political perspective and their relationship with Malaysia.

To sanitise individuals to issues confronting human kind and develop in them

understanding and appreciation of international effort towards peace and

cooperation.

10.1.1 How to Develop the National Philosophy of Preschool Education

The national philosophy of education is the umbrella. Then match with the goal and

objective of the national standard curriculum.

10.1.2 The Goals of Preschool Education in Malaysia

Preschool education aims at exploiting the potential in the children at the age of four

to eight years old in a holistic and integrated manner covering the physical,

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emotional, spirituals, intellectual, and social aspects through the safe, enjoyable,

creative and meaningful environment. This is to upgrade the skills, enhance the

confidence, and to mould the positive personality and self concede so that they can be

successful in the exiting environment and capable of handling the challenges

confronted in the primary school later on.

10.2 The Objectives of Preschool Education

The objectives of preschool education could be achieved through the implementation

of Standard National Preschool Curriculum which prepares the opportunity for

children aged four to six years old to achieve the objective in the aspect of physical,

emotional, and social, intellectual and spiritual as the following:

To develop physical fitness

To have a healthy body

To maintain good healthy practice

To take measures to protect self safety

To acquire the hard and soft motor skill

To have emotional maturity

To have positive self concept

Able to express ones views and feelings

Able to interact with others and develop positive relationship with peers and

adults

To have good values

To perform Islamic practice in the daily life for Muslim children

Able to communicate using Bahasa Malaysia, English, and own language in the

daily life

Explore the surroundings using the skill in basic sciences

Utilise skill in mathematics in performing daily activities and solving problems

Using critical, creative, and innovative thinking skills learning and daily life

Expanding the creative and aesthetic ability

Appreciating and valuing the nature’s beauty and cultural heritage

Having positive personal characteristics, character, and self concept for patriotic

citizen

Able to use the Malay language correctly and expand its use in communication

59



Able to use the Chinese or Tamil language correctly in communication which use

Chinese and Tamil language as media of instruction

Able to use English language in daily interaction in line with status of English as a

second language.

To practice good values in daily life

Posses the cognitive, thinking and problem solving skills

Have mature emotion and social skills

Have the physical fitness and skills and practice healthy and safety

Have the creative and aesthetic ability to appreciate the nature’s beauty and

cultural heritage

10.3 The Pillars of Preschool Curriculum

Children development can be achieved through eleven learning pillars which are

integrated. These pillars include communication, spiritual, attitude and values, science

and technology, humanism, self-confident, physical development, and aesthetics.

(Please refer to National Preschool Curriculum 2010)

Group Activities

1. What are the problems that you are facing in implementing the curriculum?

2. Do you think you can achieved the goal of preschool education?

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CHAPTER 11

DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA BEFORE AND AFTER

INDEPENDENCE

Learning Objectives


describe the development of early childhood education in Malaysia pre independence

describe the development of early childhood education in Malaysia post independence

11.1 The Historical Development of Preschool Education in Overseas

The preschool education began in Europe in the early 19th

century and in the US,

it started in the 20th

century.

The famous European philosophers are Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Friedrich

Froebel, dan Maria Montessori. Froebel were the first to set up kindergarten in

Germany in 1837, naming it “kindergarten” meaning “Garden of Children”.

The first preschool established in United Kingdom was by Robert Owen in 1816

in a Scotland district, known as “The Infant School”.

In the US, the first preschool was set up in 1850 by Carl Schurz and later in 1860,

Elizabeth Peabody established a kindergarten in Boston.

The preschool in Europe and the US focused on the wealthy children only while

the poor children were neglected with no preschool education .

In ASEAN, the preschool education commenced after the World War II. In 1900s,

preschools were set up in the Philippines, Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand. In

Malaysia, the preschool education began in the 1940s.

11.2 The Development of Preschool Education in Malaysia

11.2.1 Pre Independence Period

In the 1940s. Preschools were started by the Christian missionary and it was

influenced by the British that charged high fees and attended by rich children. It

was located in the urban areas like Kuala Lumpur, Johor Baru, and Ipoh, etc. The

61



teachers were recruited from the ex-primary school teachers who had no training

in preschool education.

In Malaysia, preschool education in the form of kindergarten was introduced in

1950 and initially, they were formed for children of middle class and high class

families. Only in 1960, a few government agencies such as FELDA and KEMAS

started to build kindergartens, most of them at rural areas (Sulaiman et al 1990).

11.2.2 Post Independence Period

In 1969, the Asian Foundation contributed some fund to the Malaysian Workers

Union to set up preschool modelled on the Head Start programme in the US.

Kindergartens were set up in Kg Miniandy, Kg Manggis, and Kg Sentosa in

Selangor. The target group was the less privileged children from the Malay,

Chinese, and Indian families.

In 1970, KEMAS opened 10 preschools in the rural areas known as Tabika

(Taman Bimbingan KEMAS) to help the rural poor. This was followed by

FELDA, RISDA (1980), and Community Relations Council (1976). In 1972, the

Centre for the Curriculum Development published a book on Guidelines on

Preschool Education and established 10 experimental preschool in Malaysia.

In 1972, the Specialist Teachers Training Institute (STTI) had trained 137 primary

school and KEMAS teachers in preschool education to teach in the kindergarten.

KEMAS had opened up the Taman Asuhan Kanak-kanak (TASKA) in line with

the philosophy of rural development. This programme provides services to

children of the low income group in communities in the rural areas, urban areas,

and suburban areas.

In 1981, Sabah Foundation established the Institute for Preschool Teacher in the

Centre of Child Development with the advice of University of Malaysia.

A study which covered the whole nation regarding the position of preschool

education was conducted in 1981 and completed in 1984. It was done to provide

information to the government about the position of preschool education and to

assist the government in legislating basic guidelines on preschool education which

cover surveillance, control, coordination, teacher training, curriculum design, and

quality improvement of preschool education.

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The result of the study showed that preschool education had developed during the

period of 1981-1984. Children in the age group of four until six years old which

underwent preschool education had increased from 171,000 in 1980 to 279,000 in

1984. At the same time, there were 5,657 preschool centres compared to 2,974 in

1980. 4,487 or 79% from the total of these centres were at rural areas consisted of

about 149,850 children or 54% from the total of children who underwent

preschool education in 1984 (Fifth Malaysian Plan 1986-1990).

In 1989, there were 6,959 preschool education centres in Malaysia. 4,728 were

under various government agencies, 631 were under statutory bodies such as

FELDA (Federal Land Development Authority), 1,392 were under private sectors,

and 208 under social organisations. The number of registered children in 1989

was 33,520 which had increased from 196,992 in 1981 and 300,850 in 1986

(Educational Statistics of Malaysia, 1980-1985, 1986, and 1989 (unpublished).

Based on the assumption in 1990, about 490,700 five years old children should

receive preschool education. From this total, it was assumed that 269,450 children

(53%) did not obtain such facilities (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 1991). Such

condition forced the Ministry of Education Malaysia to form “Annex” preschool

to provide preschool education facilities for poor children from urban and rural

areas who were not able to pay for the programme fees that was considered

expensive then.

Knowing the importance of preschool education in establishing a solid foundation

among children at early age, efforts have been made to enhance the facilities and

improve the quality of preschool education. Due to the fact that private sectors

were more active in forming preschool centres in urban areas, public sector

agencies provide preschool education opportunities to children in rural areas and

those who came from poor family in urban areas. Efforts by private and public

sectors as well as NGOs have increased the number of preschool centres from

6,960 in 1990 to 10,350 in 1995. In line with this, the number of children in the 5-

6 years old category who registered at these centres has increased from 328,800 in

1990 to 420,600 in 1995 that was an increase of 27.9%. The public sector was the

biggest provider of preschool centres that was about 8,446 or 81.6%, where the

rest was provided by the private sectors and NGOs. From the total of preschool

centres formed by the government, about 80% were in the rural areas and have

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been fully utilised by 204,100 children in rural areas (Seventh Malaysian Plan

1996-2000).

In year 2000, there were 399,980 children who registered at preschool education

centres, were representing 63.7% of children of 5-6 years old. Preschool

Curriculum Guidelines were developed to standardise the curriculum, facilities,

and teacher training either in the public sector as well as private preschool centres

in order to fulfil the quality allotted in Education Act 1996. In order to enhance

the quality of preschool education, continuous training for supervisors and expert

teachers were provided (Eighth Malaysian Plan 2001-2005).

18 December 1991, the cabinet met to discuss on the Preschool programme in

Malaysia. On 27 January 1992, the ministry of Education met to discuss on the

expansion the preschools. As a result, the Education Act 1965 had proposed the

incorporation of preschool education in the Malaysian formal education system

which led to the meeting by the cabinet of preschool education on 6 June 2001.

Activities

Discuss on the historical development and status of kindergartens in Malaysia until today.

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CHAPTER TWELVE

PRESENT ISSUES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATION

Learning Objectives


explain the issues of:

i) changing families

ii) wellness and healthy living

iii) poverty

iv) housing

v) children’s illnesses

12.1 Changing Families

Family plays a very important role in children’s education. The problem of family

structure has changed much where the basic structure of father, mother, and children

is not common anymore in the 21st

century. The role of a family has also changed

with the mother or grandmother as the head of the family. If they have to perform

other functions at the office and have to manage problems of their juveniles, their

children will be neglected. The responsibility of the head will increase with the

increasing number and increasing problems that have to be managed. Financial

problems will also result in the neglect of the children education. Measures have to be

taken to deal with this issues.

Family and early childhood – family needs to understand their problem and assist the

family units to fulfil their needs which will indirectly help to fulfil the needs of their

children; e.g. taking care of their health. By assisting in making the family literate will

help the children to listen, talk, write and read.

12.2 Wellness and Healthy living

The aim of early childhood programme is provide early well being and security of the

children. If a family is threatened and do not have comfortable living, it will adversely

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affect the development of the children. Several measures should be identified to deal

with the problems of security and well beings. Discuss the illegitimate, abandoned

and AIDS infected children.

12.3 Poverty

Poverty is an issue faced by a family. The family can be assisted by the government

or NGOs that help the poor. The children from poor family will have heath problem,

truant, and fail in their education.

12.4 Housing

Many studies showed that unfavourable housing conditions will result in children who

fail in the school due to low IQ. The type of housing such as a small one-room flat

that is overcrowded will adversely affect the children. For example, they are always

sick due to poisoning by cockroach poison, and some may die due to electric shock

which equipments are not properly installed.

12.5 Children’s Illness

Health problems faced by children consist of chronic diseases and those caused by

allergies. Chicken pox, asthma, and rubella are caused by unhealthy air. Dusts, animal

hair, and stale air in children’s surrounding will result in children suffering from

asthma.

Group Work

Identify a problem faced by children and how to manage the problem.

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CHAPTER 13

PRESCHOOL EDUCATION ACT

Learning Objectives


explain the Preschool Education Act

discuss on the Child’s Right

explain NAEYC position statement on DAP

13.1 Preschool Education Act

Education Act 1996 stated that the national education system consists of preschool

education, primary education, secondary education, post-secondary education, and

higher education.

1996 Act defines “Preschool Education” as educational programme for 4-6 years

old.

No kindergarten can be established, managed, or manned if it is not registered

under this act.

The minister has the power to establish and maintain kindergartens. Programmes

and activities of each kindergarten must be based on curriculum guidelines

approved by the minister.

In terms of medium of instruction, Education Act 1996 allows the use of

languages other than the national language. However, according to subsection

17(1), if a kindergarten uses a language other than the national language, the

national language must be taught as a compulsory subject.

Education Act 1996 which was approved has given a significant improvement to

preschool education. Preschool education has been added into the National

Education System. This act stresses on the preschool education for children of 4-6

years old. The changes in the policy show that Ministry of Education Malaysia is

always concentrating on the effort to maintain and improve the quality of

preschool education (Haji Rafei 2006) in National Preschool Curriculum (2006).

The Ministry of Education of Malaysia (2006) stated that preschool education

opportunity is given to all children regardless of their social background, religion,

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place of living, mental and physical health condition, as well as their intellectual

development.

13.2 Declaration of the Rights of the Child

1. All children have the right to what follows, no matter what their race, colour,

sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, or where they were born or

who they were born to.

2. Children have the special right to grow up and to develop physically and

spiritually in a healthy and normal way, free and with dignity.

3. Children have a right to a name and to be a member of a country.

4. Children have a right to special care and protection and to good food, housing,

and medical services.

5. Children have the right to special care if handicapped in any way.

6. Children have the right to love and understanding, preferably from parents and

family, but from the government where these cannot help.

7. Children have the right to go to school for free, to play, and to have an equal

chance to develop and to learn to be responsible and useful.

The children’s parents have special responsibilities for their education and

guidance.

8. The children have the right always to be among the first to get help.

9. The children have the right to be protected against cruel acts or exploitation, e.g.

they shall not be obliged to do work which hinders their development both

physically and mentally.

Children should not work before a minimum age and never when that would

hinder their health, and their moral and physical development.

10. Children should be taught peace, understanding, tolerance, and friendship

among all people.

13.3 Basic Rights of the Child

Children are easily influenced, need care and special protection, particularly

protection by family and by the law. It confirms the need for the protection before and

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after birth and to respect the values of the child community. This is based on the

convention of the rights of the child that was adopted by the General Assembly of the

United Nations on 20 November 1989 comprising articles 1 to 54. The articles that

are related to the right to education are embedded in articles 6, 18, 27, 28 and 29.

i) Article 6

1. States Parties recognise that every child has the inherent right to life.

2. States Parties shall ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and

development of the child.

ii) Article 27

1. States Parties recognise the right of every child to a standard of living adequate for

the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral, and social development.

2. The parent(s) or others responsible for the child have the primary responsibility to

secure, within their abilities and financial capacities, the conditions of living

necessary for the child’s development.

3. States Parties, in accordance with national conditions and within their means, shall

take appropriate measures to assist parents and others responsible for the child to

implement this right and shall in case of need provide material assistance and

support programmes, particularly with regard to nutrition, clothing, and housing.

4. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to secure the recovery of

maintenance for the child from the parents or other persons having financial

responsibility for the child, both within the State Party and from abroad. In

particular, where the person having financial responsibility for the child lives in a

State different from that of the child, States Parties shall promote the accession to

international agreements or the conclusion of such agreements, as well as the

making of other appropriate arrangements.

iii) Article 28

1. States Parties recognise the right of the child to education, and with a view to

achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall,

in particular:

(a) make primary education compulsory and available free to all;

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(b) encourage the development of different forms of secondary education,

including general and vocational education, make them available and

accessible to every child, and take appropriate measures such as the

introduction of free education and offering financial assistance in case of

need;

(c) make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every

appropriate means;

(d) make educational and vocational information and guidance available and

accessible to all children;

(e) take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction

of drop-out rates.

2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school discipline is

administered in a manner consistent with the child’s human dignity and in

conformity with the present Convention.

3. States Parties shall promote and encourage international cooperation in matters

relating to education, in particular with a view to contributing to the elimination of

ignorance and illiteracy throughout the world and facilitating access to scientific

and technical knowledge and modern teaching methods. In this regard, particular

account shall be taken of the needs of developing countries.

iv) Article 29

1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to:

(a) The development of the child’s personality, talent,s and mental and

physical abilities to their fullest potential;

(b) The development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms,

and for the principles enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations;

(c) The development of respect for the child’s parents, his or her own cultural

identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in

which the child is living, the country from which he or she may originate,

and for civilisations different from his or her own;

(d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the

spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship

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among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of

indigenous origin;

(e) The development of respect for the natural environment.

2. No part of the present article or article 28 shall be construed so as to interfere with

the liberty of individuals and bodies to establish and direct educational

institutions, subject always to the observance of the principle set forth in

paragraph 1 of the present article and to the requirements that the education given

in such institutions shall conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down

by the State.

Group Discussion

What do you think of the act above? Please give your views.

71



CHAPTER 14

SETTING EARLY CHILDHOOD CENTRE

Learning Objectives


know the measures to be taken to set up a child care centre

explain the factors that influence the planning of a child care centre

plan the establishment of a child care centre

14.1 Introduction

This module will examine on the measures to be taken to plan and set up child care

centre. It covers the objective of the establishment, the construction and infrastructure

of the area, location, space, and the surroundings. In addition, it will also discuss on

such aspects as financing of the centre, organisational management, rules and

regulations in setting the of the child centre.

The quality of the preschool depends on how the management is planned as a whole.

In Malaysia preschool education is a programme implemented outside the formal

statutory education. Nevertheless, it expanded rapidly and 10,350 preschools were

established with 447,420 students by 1995.

In planning the setting up of a preschool, the following areas should be given due

attention.

14.2 Planning the Setting Up of Child Care Centre

14.2.1 Setting up Goals and Objectives

The aim of setting up child care centre is to provide equal opportunity for

education to all children below four years old. It reflects the hope and expectation

that should be attained by the preschool children.

The aim of preschool education is to explore the potentials of children between 4-

6 years old in terms of the physical, emotional, spiritual, intellect, and social

through a safe, learning environment which is creative, enjoyable, and

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meaningful. This is to improve the skills, instil confidence, and to build positive

self concept so that they can be successful in the exiting environment and ready to

face any challenges dan responsibilities in primary school later on.

Preschool is a place where children learn to familiarise with their peers and adults.

They can interact with their friends, improve their skills, and upgrade their

communicative ability. It encourages the optimum exploitation of children’s

potentials in the preschool environments.

14.2.2 Feasibility Study

In planning the setting up of a preschool, a feasibility study should be done by taking

into account on the followings:

suitability of the site and location

target group/clients

financial resources

infrastructure and facilities

curriculum/planning

human resources

regulations and laws

equipment and furniture

The specifications of the above factors/aspects are set in Act 267 (Planning) Federal

Territory 1982. The feasibility study should take into account of the followings:

a) Infrastructure of the area, location, space, building environment, etc.

According to Act 267 (Planning) Federal Territory 1982 Section 19, a building

that is to be used as a preschool cannot be used simultaneously as residential area,

shop house, or clinics. Each preschool building should be suitable in terms of

design, structure and safety. The local authorities have determined the category of

building to be used as preschool.

Suitable Building for Preschool:-

Bungalow house with the size of more than 7,000 square feet with 30% the

circulation area

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Semi-detached corner lot, or if it is an intermediate lot, it should be

combined with another lot to be one preschool

Corner lot of a terrace or linked house with a total area of not less than

3,000 square feet.

Single unit traditional house or in the Malay’s kampong

Flat or apartment with a special area for preschool

Building in a mosque, surau, or religious school area

Building in a church and Chinese or Hindu temple

Community hall or multipurpose hall

Building which is specially built to be used for preschool

According to the Fire Department, if the building consists of two storeys, a safety

ladder/step should be made available to escape from the upper floor. The most

important factor in planning for setting up the preschool is the safety aspects and

the comfort of the children.

b) Finance

Funds are required in order to obtain all the resources required for the setting up

and running of a preschool.

Four categories of resources are required to build a preschool. The materials

required to build the centre, the equipment, and facilities such as play things,

kitchen, office, transport and decoration. As for the space which includes the

building, play garden an decorations. It also include the insurance and human

resources which embedded the knowledge, skill and capabilities to produce and

deliver the services. The Management of the preschool requires a good budget

allocation as the followings:

i) Food and Budget Allocations

Planning of the food/drinks allocation

Planning monthly menu

1. Estimated expenditure

Wet supplies

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Dry supplies

2. Monthly claims on expenditure

3. Cash Book – Income & expenditure

4. Financial records/file

Letters on the claims of expenditure

Payment vouchers (with receipt)

ii) Per Capita Allocation

1. Expenditure Performa

2. Stock Register of Office supplies

Fixed Asset

Consumables

iii) Annual Budget and Financial Allocation for Food

This plan should be prepared annually before the beginning of the

preschool terms. The budget estimated will enable the management of the

preschool to know the total financial requirement for the school term. It

can be used as a guide to the preschool manager so that the fund will be

made available for the teachers and other staffs and for the purchase of all

the required stocks and supplies for a certain month.

iv) Monthly Financial Statement

The monthly financial statement should be prepared in a specific cash

book which can be used for the purpose of auditing.

Group Work

Identify the guidelines and regulations for setting up a ‘Taman Asuhan Kanak-Kanak’

(TASKA).

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