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ESEM 5133 CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

1.0 Introduction

This topic is the second of two series on foundations of curriculum. The first part of the

topic focuses on the psychological foundation of curriculum; the second part covers the

sociological foundations of curriculum. At the end of the topic, you will be able to

examine and discuss factors tha influence curriculum design and development.

2.0 Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

2.1 Psychology defined

Psychology is the science]ofmind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand

humanity by both discovering general principles and exploring specific cases.

Psychologists explore such concepts as perception, cognition, attention, emotion,phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, andinterpersonal relationships. Some, especially depth psychologists, also consider theunconscious mind.

Psychologists employ empirical methods to infercausal and correlationalrelationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, toemploying empirical and deductive methods, someespecially clinical andcounseling psychologistsat times rely upon symbolic interpretation and otherinductive techniques. Psychology incorporates research from the social sciences,natural sciences, and humanities, such as philosophy.

(Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

2.2 Psychology and Curriculum

Psychology theories provide insight into understanding the teaching and learningprocess:

What is learning? Why do learners respond as they do to teachers efforts? What impact does the school and culture have on students learning?

They also provide principles and direction for curriculum developer:

How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal level of student participation in learning the curriculums various

contents?

Orstein (1998) states that:
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Psychology is concerned with the question of how people learn and curriculumspecialists ask how psychology can contribute to the design and delivery ofcurriculum.

Psychology provides the basis for understanding a basis for understanding theteaching and learning process.

Teaching the curriculum and learning the curriculum are interrelated and psychology

cements the relationship. It furnishes theories and principles of learning thatinfluence teacher-student behaviours within the context of the curriculum.

Psychological foundations will continue to be a key basis for curricular thoughts andaction.

2.3 Psychology and Theories of Learning

Orstein (1989:101) states that psychology forms the basis for the methods, materials, and the

activities of learning and it subsequently serves as the impetus for many curriculum decisions.

The major theories of learning have been classified into three groups:

2.3.1 Behaviourism

Behaviourism, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that

organisms doincluding acting, thinking and feelingcan and should be regarded

as behaviors. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be

described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or

to hypothetical constructs such as the mind. Behaviorism comprises the position that all

theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences

between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes

(such as thinking and feeling).

Key Players: Thorndike Connectionism, Pavlov (and Watson) Classical Conditioning,

Skinner Operant Conditioning, Bandura Observable Learning and Modeling and Gagn

Hierarchical Learning

(Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism)

Theories DescriptionConnectionism Defined learning as a connection or association of an increasing number

of habits. (More complicated associations means higher levels of

understanding.) It justifies use of rewards and punishments, especiallySkinners operant model.

ClassicalConditioning(Pavlol)

The classical condition theory of learning emphasizes that learningconsists of eliciting an unconditioned response by using previously neutralstimuli. The unconditioned stimuli create reflexes that are not learned,but are instinctual. The neutral and unconditioned stimuli are introduced atthe same time. Unconditioned stimuli are gradually removed, and theneutral stimuli elicit the same reflex.
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OperantConditioning(Skinner)

Operant conditioning is the use of a behavior's antecedent and/or itsconsequence to influence the occurrence and form of behavior. Operantconditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also calledrespondent conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals withthe modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant behavior. Operant

behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by itsconsequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning ofreflexive (reflex) behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions.Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are notmaintained by consequences.

ObservationalLearning andModeling(Bandura)

Students learn through observation and modeling. He showed thataggressive behavior can be learned from watching adults fighting, violentcartoons or even violent video games. Passive behavior can also belearned from watching adults with subdued temperaments. Repeateddemonstration and modeling is used by coaches in various sports, militaryendeavors, and is also used in the classroom setting to model andpractice desired behaviours.

HierarchicalLearning(Gagne)

Robert Gagne is best known for his learning outcomes, learningconditions, and his nine events of instruction.Gagnes theories have been applied to the design of instruction in severaldomains beyond the educational realm, such as the military, InstructionalSystems Development, flying, troubleshooting, leadership, medical care, &engineering.Gagnes theory should be classified as instructional theory as opposed toa learning theory. A learning theory consists of a set of propositions andconstructs that account for how changes in human performance abilitiescome about. On the other hand, an instructional theory seeks to describethe conditions under which one can intentionally arrange for the learning of

specific performance outcomes.

2.3.2. Cognitive- Information Processing theories:

(Cognitive Perspective: Piagets Cognitive Theory, The Montessouri Method, The Theories ofJean Piaget, Piaget's Influence: Tyler, Taba, Bruner, and Kohlberg, The Theories of LevVygotsky; Focus on Thinking and Learning)

Cognitive Psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think. Piaget

)a proponent of cognitivism) describes cognitive development in terms of stages from birth to

maturity. The stages are:

(a) Sensorimotor stage (birth to age of two)

(b) Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7)

(c) Concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11)
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(d) Formal Operations Stage (ages 11 onward)

Piagets cognitive stages presuppose a maturation process in the sense that development is a

continuation and is based on previous growth. The stages are hierarchical and they form an

order of increasingly sophisticated and integrated mental operations. Although the succession

of stages is constant, stages of attainment may vary within certain limits that are function of

heredity and environment. However, they do not change the stages or sequence (Orstein,

1989)

Like Gagne , stages described as hierarchal . Learning involves: assimi lat ion (filing info

in an existing schema) accommodat ion (changing schemata to fit new info)

Schema theory explains: importance of accessing prior knowledge and why cognitive

dissonance strategies work.

Task:

Read and Discuss

In psychology,cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind

using quantitative, positivist and scientific methods, that describes mental functions

as information processing models.

Theoretical Approach

Cognitivism has two major components, one methodological, the other theoretical.

Methodologically, cognitivism adopts a positivist approach and the belief that psychology can

be (in principle) fully explained by the use ofexperiment, measurement and the scientific

method. This is also largely a reductionist goal, with the belief that individual components of

mental function (the 'cognitive architecture') can be identified and meaningfully understood.

The second is the belief that cognition consists of discrete, internal mental states

(representations orsymbols) whose manipulation can be described in terms of rules

oralgorithms.

Cognitivism became the dominant force in psychology in the late-20th century,

replacing behaviorism as the most popular paradigm for understanding mental

function. Cognitive psychology is not a wholesale refutation of behaviorism, but rather an

expansion that accepts that mental states exist. This was due to the increasing criticism

towards the end of the 1950s of simplistic learning models. One of the most notable criticisms

was Chomsky's argument that language could not be acquired purely through conditioning,

and must be at least partly explained by the existence of internal mental states.
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The main issues that interest cognitive psychologists are the inner mechanisms of human

thought and the processes of knowing. Cognitive psychologists have attempted to throw light

on the alleged mental structures that stand in a causal relationship to our physical actions.

(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)

2.3.3 Phenomenology and Humanistic Psychology

(Gestalt Theory, Maslow;s Self Actualizing Person, Rogers Non-directive and therapeutic

Learning)

During the 1950s, humanistic psychology began as a reaction to psychoanalysisandbehaviorism, which dominated psychology at the time. Psychoanalysis was focused onunderstanding the unconscious motivations that drove behavior while behaviorism studied theconditioning processes that produced behavior. Humanist thinkers felt that bothpsychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic ofemotions or failing to take the role of personal choice into account.

Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individuals potential and stressed theimportance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychologywas that people are innately good, with mental and social problems resulting from deviationsfrom this natural tendency.

It emphasizes an optimistic view of human beings, as persons who have theability to grow (human potential)

Though it does not deny the effect of the environment, it sees human beings asable to transcend it to some degree

It stresses health and actualization It is a reaction against a deterministic view of human beings

Psychoanalysis has sometimes been called the "first force" in psychology

Behaviorism was the second force

Both first and second forces are deterministic in their view of people

Humanistic psychology saw itself as the third force, stressing humanfreedom and human potential

Task

Read and Discuss

Humanistic Psychology

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology)

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-

20th century, drawing on the work of early pioneers like Carl Rogers and the philosophies

ofexistentialism and phenomenology. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence
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through investigations of meaning, values, freedom, tragedy, personal responsibility, human

potential, spirituality, and self-actualization.[1][2]

Conceptual origins

The humanistic approach has its ballsin phenomenological and existentialist thought[3](see Kierkegaard,Nietzsche, Heidegger,

and Sartre). Eastern philosophy and psychology also play a central role in humanistic

psychology, as each shares similar concerns about the nature of human existence and

consciousness.[2]

It is also sometimes understood within the context of the three different forces of

psychology: behaviorism, psychoanalysis and humanism. Behaviorism grew out ofIvan

Pavlov's work with the conditioned reflex, and laid the foundations for academic psychology in

the United States associated with the names ofJohn B. Watson and B.F. Skinner. This school

was later called the science of behavior. Abraham Maslow later gave behaviorism the name

"the second force". The "first force" came out of Freud's research of psychoanalysis, and the

psychologies ofAlfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Otto

Rank, Melanie Klein,Harry Stack Sullivan, and others. These theorists and practitioners,

although basing their observations on extensive clinical data, primarily focused on the depth

or "unconscious" aspects of human existence[4]

In the late 1950s, psychologists concerned with advancing a more holistic vision of

psychology convened two meetings in Detroit, Michigan. These psychologists,

including Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Clark Moustakas, were interested in founding a

professional association dedicated to a psychology that focused on uniquely human issues,

such as the self, self-

actualization, health, hope, love, creativity, nature,being, becoming, individuality, and

meaningthat is, a concrete understanding of human existence.

Development of the field

These preliminary meetings eventually led to other developments, which culminated in the

description of humanistic psychology as a recognizable "third force" in psychology (along with

behaviorism and psychoanalysis). Significant developments included the formation of

theAssociation for Humanistic Psychology (AHP) in 1961 and the launch of theJournal of

Humanistic Psychology(originally "The Phoenix") in 1961.

Subsequently, graduate programs in Humanistic Psychology at institutions of higher learning

grew in number and enrollment. In 1971, humanistic psychology as a field was recognized by
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the American Psychological Association (APA) and granted its own division (Division 32)

within the APA. Division 32 publishes its own academic journal calledThe Humanistic

Psychologist.[2]

The major theorists considered to have prepared the ground for Humanistic Psychology

are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Rollo May. Maslow was heavily influenced by Kurt

Goldstein during their years together at Brandeis University. Psychoanalytic writers also

influenced humanistic psychology. Maslow himself famously acknowledged his "indebtedness

to Freud" in Towards a Psychology of Being[5]Other psychoanalytic influences include the

work ofWilhelm Reich, who discussed an essentially 'good', healthy core self and Character

Analysis(1933), and Carl Gustav Jung's mythological and archetypal emphasis. Other

noteworthy inspirations for and leaders of the movement includeRoberto Assagioli, Gordon

Allport, Medard Boss, Martin Buber(close to Jacob L. Moreno), James Bugental, Victor

Frankl, Erich Fromm,Hans-Werner Gessmann, Amedeo Giorgi, Kurt Goldstein, Sidney

Jourard, R. D. Laing, Clark Moustakas, Lewis Mumford, Fritz Perls,Anthony Sutich, Thomas

Szasz, and Ken Wilber.[2][6]

A human science view is not opposed to quantitative methods, but, following Edmund Husserl:

1) favors letting the methods be derived from the subject matter and not uncritically adopting

the methods of natural science[7], and 2) advocates for methodological pluralism.

Consequently, much of the subject matter of psychology lends itself to qualitative approaches

(e.g., the lived experience of grief) , and quantitative methods are mainly appropriate when

something can be counted without leveling the phenomena (e.g., the length of time spentcrying).

Counseling and therapy

Humanistic psychology includes several approaches to counseling and therapy. Among the

earliest approaches we find the developmental theory of Abraham Maslow, emphazising a

hierarchy of needs and motivations; the existential psychology of Rollo May acknowledging

human choice and the tragic aspects of human existence; and the person-centered or client-

centered therapy of Carl Rogers, which is centered on the clients' capacity for self-direction

and understanding of his/her own development.[8]

Other approaches to humanistic counseling and therapy include Gestalt therapy, humanistic

psychotherapy, depth therapy, holistic health,encounter groups, sensitivity

training, marital and family therapies, body work, and the existential psychotherapy ofMedard

Boss.[2]Existential-integrative psychotherapy, developed by Kirk Schneider (2008), is a

relatively new development within humanistic and existential therapy.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Humanistic_Psychologist&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Humanistic_Psychologist&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Humanistic_Psychologist&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_Mayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Goldsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Goldsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Maslow_Being-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Maslow_Being-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Reichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Junghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Assagiolihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Buberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_L._Morenohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bugentalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Franklhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Franklhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Frommhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans-Werner_Gessmann&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Giorgihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Goldsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Jourardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Jourardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._D._Lainghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Moustakashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Mumfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Perlshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthony_Sutich&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Szaszhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Szaszhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Wilberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Giorgi_2009_book-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Giorgi_2009_book-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person-centered_psychotherapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person-centered_psychotherapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-clay_history-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-clay_history-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-clay_history-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanistic_psychotherapy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanistic_psychotherapy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holistic_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encounter_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_counselinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_psychotherapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_psychotherapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_counselinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encounter_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holistic_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanistic_psychotherapy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanistic_psychotherapy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-clay_history-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person-centered_psychotherapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person-centered_psychotherapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Giorgi_2009_book-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Wilberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Szaszhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Szaszhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthony_Sutich&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Perlshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Mumfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Moustakashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._D._Lainghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Jourardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Jourardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Goldsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Giorgihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans-Werner_Gessmann&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Frommhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Franklhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Franklhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bugentalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_L._Morenohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Buberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Assagiolihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Junghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Reichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Maslow_Being-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Goldsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Goldsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_Mayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Humanistic_Psychologist&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Humanistic_Psychologist&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association


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Self-help is also included in humanistic psychology: Sheila Ernst and Lucy Goodison have

described using some of the main humanistic approaches in self-help groups.[9][citation needed] Co-

counselling, which is a purely self-help approach, is regarded as coming within humanistic

psychology (see John Rowan's Guide to Humanistic Psychology). Humanistic theory has had

a strong influence on other forms of popular therapy, including Harvey Jackins' Re-evaluation

Counselling and the work ofCarl Rogers.

Humanistic psychology tends to look beyond the medical model of psychology in order to

open up a nonpathologizing view of the person.[8]This usually implies that the therapist

downplays the pathological aspects of a person's life in favour of the healthy aspects. A key

ingredient in this approach is the meeting between therapist and client and the possibilities for

dialogue. The aim of much humanistic therapy is to help the client approach a stronger and

more healthy sense of self, also called self-actualization.[2][8]All this is part of humanistic

psychology's motivation to be a science of human experience, focusing on the actual lived

experience of persons.[2]

Humanistic psychology and social issues

Although social transformation may not have been the primary focus in the past, a large

percentage of contemporary humanistic psychologists currently investigate pressing social,

cultural, and gender issues[10]. Even the earliest writers who were associated with and

inspired psychological humanism[2]explored topics as diverse as the political nature of

"normal" and everyday experience (RD Laing), the disintegration of the capacity to love in

modern consumerist society (Erich Fromm)[11], the growing technological dominance over

human life (Medard Boss), and the question of evil (Rollo May-Carl Rogers debate). In

addition, Maureen OHara, who worked with both Carl Rogers andPaolo Freire, has pointed to

a convergence between the two thinkers given their distinct but mutually related focus on

developing critical consciousness of situations which oppress and dehumanize.[12]

3.4 Humanistic Psychology and Learning

Humanistic learning emphasizes that:

Teachers are sensitive to the students world, not just the adult world.

Learners are viewed as individuals, with diverse needs, abilities, and aptitudes

The learners self concept and self esteem are considered as essential factors in

learning

Learning is considered holistic, not just cognitive; the act of learning involves emotions,

feelings, and motor-dependent skills.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-helphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheila_Ernst&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Goodisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-counsellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-counsellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rowan_(psychologist)http://ahpweb.org/rowan_bibliography/index.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Jackinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-evaluation_Counselinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-evaluation_Counselinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-clay_history-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-clay_history-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-actualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-existential_East-West-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-existential_East-West-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-existential_East-West-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RD_Laing&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Frommhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Fromm_Loving-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Fromm_Loving-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Fromm_Loving-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_Mayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Freirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Freirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-O.27Hara_Freire-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-O.27Hara_Freire-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-O.27Hara_Freire-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-O.27Hara_Freire-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Freirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_Mayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medard_Bosshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-Fromm_Loving-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Frommhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RD_Laing&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-existential_East-West-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-aanstoos_et_al_history-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-actualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-clay_history-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-evaluation_Counselinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-evaluation_Counselinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Jackinshttp://ahpweb.org/rowan_bibliography/index.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rowan_(psychologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-counsellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-counsellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Goodisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheila_Ernst&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-help


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Learning is based on warm, friendly and democratic student-teacher interactions,

coercive and strict disciplined measures are minimized.

The quality of learning is considered as important than the quantity of learning; teachers

nurture learners.

Students share ideas, work together, and tutor and help each other; homogenous

grouping, academic tracking, and competitive testing or programmes are minimized. Students and teachers plan together the experiences or activities of the curriculum.

Students are given the choice and freedom; the extent of choice and freedom is related

the maturity level and age of the students.

Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and experimenting (Orstein,

1998)

4.0 SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM

Sociology is the study of society, social process and social change is a growing science. It isessential for the development of a curriculum. Sociological foundations of educationemphasizes on the role of the teachers, the community, and the administrations, the studentsand the historical traditions of a particular society. These include matters such as the schoolcommunity relations, the school culture, the recruitment and the training of teachers, the historyand geography of a particular community and the history of educational problems.

(Ornstein,1998 mentioned:

Schools exist within, not apart from, social contexts. Through their curricula, schoolsinfluence the cultures of the people that the schools serve. Likewise, the cultures affectand shape the schools and their curricula. Schools, through their teaching of the

curriculum, can alter society, and society can mold the school and its curriculum. Wecannot meaningful consider the development or delivery of curriculum without reflectingon the relationship of school and society

Schools today exists at a time when the many voices presenting different views of whatit means to be a social beings are gaining audience.

Social foundations of curriculum are crucial to our making decision that enablemeaningful curriculum to be created and offered.

Observations:

Man not only lives in a society, he grows and functions in a social context and variousfactors contribute to the growth of an individual.

Education can hardly be separated from society. School is a replica of the society; it reflects the society and what happens in a society.

Teachers and parents play prominent roles in a school.

Culture occupies a significant place in a society. A community cannot grow withoutculture. Similarly, a society cannot survive without culture. As in every dynamic societythere are problems, so in every school there are typical situations.

Teachers are change agents; they have a distinct role as a social worker and communitymember.


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4.3 Some Issues in Sociology and Curriculum

Society, Education, and Schooling

Post Modern Family

Sex Roles and Sex Differences

Moral Education

Do Schools Make a Difference?

Learning and earning: 1980s and 1990s

Task

Class discussion. State your views on the following topics.

Society and Malaysian Personality

A Dynamic Changing Society and Education

Schools as an agent of Change

Education for All.

3 Conclusion

a) What are impact of psychology on curriculum development and planning?

b) How do sociological factors affect the planning, designing and development ofcurriculum in Malaysia. Provide examples.

T4 Psychological and Sociological-040613_111953 (1)

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