T3 Synthesis

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METHODS OF SYNTH ESIS AND TECHNOLOGY OF DRUG PRODUCTION METHODS FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF THYROXINE AND TRIIODOTHYEONINE P. M. Kochergin, R. M. Palei, UDC 615.357:577.175.443.444].012.1[048.8] A. N. Kravchenko, and E. V. Popova Thyroxine (I, T~, tetraiodothyronine, L-~-amine-~-[3,5-diiodo-4-(3',5'-diiodo-4'-hydroxy- phenoxy)phenyl]propionic acid) and triiodothyronine (II, T 3, L-~-amino-$-[3,5-diiodo-4-(3'- iodo-4'-hydroxyphenoxy)phenyl]propionic acid)* are hormones produced by the thyroid glands of humans and animals. They are responsible for vitally important functions in the human body: they regulate energy processes, tissue oxygen utilization, growth, and tissue differentia- tion; they affect the states of the nervous and cardiovascular systems. Deficient or excess secretion of I and II result in a number of severe diseases, the thyroid hormones I and II have consequently found wide medical use [7, 23, 27, 28, 40, 59, 69, 70]. The similarity in structure results in similarities in biological actions, with the difference that II is 3-5 times more active than I [7, 13, 63]. Apart from their therapeutic uses, I and II have recently become useful as starting mate- rial for the preparation of diagnostic reagents, in radioimmunoassay kits [44, 80], and in immunoenzyme assay kits [3, 4, 8, 61], which allow easy and rapid assessment of the functional state of the thyroid gland in patients. The biological actions of I and II have been reviewed in detail [2, 7, 23, 27, 28, 40, 59,. 69, 70], though the methods of their synthesis have not yet been considered systematically. The only review available describes the chemistry of I, covering data up to 1950 [51]. The aim of the present review is to attempt to generalize the various experimental and clinical data on the synthesis of I and II, as methods for their synthesis is important for the industrial production of thyroid hormones. I I i ~ i ,r-" N H i ~ -~ I Z 3' 2' 3 Z 5' 6 5 6 .N]"[ Z '~ I I JqHz I ~Z l I I I~" N" NH z HttZ I 1 ~ NH7 1~IJl ] ~I]le alternative names for these hormones, L-~-[3,5-diiodo-4-(3',5'-diiodo-4'-hydroxyphenoxy)- phenyl]alanine (I) and L-6-[3,5-diiodo-A-(3'-iodo-4'-hydroxyphenoxy)phenyl]alanine (II), are often found in the literature. S. Ordzhonikidze Science Research Chemicopharmaceutical Institute, Moscow. Translated from Khimiko-farmatsevticheskii Zhurnal, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 43-49, June, 1990. Original arti- cle submitted June 29, 1989. 430 0091-150X/90/2406-0430512.50 1991 Plenum Publishing Corporation

Transcript of T3 Synthesis

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M E T H OD S O F S Y N T H E S I S A N D T E C H N O L OG Y O F D R U G P R O D U C T I O N

M E T H O D S F O R T H E S Y N T H E S I S O F T H Y R O X I N E A N D T R I I O D O T H Y E O N I N E

P . M . K o c h e r g i n , R . M . P a l ei , U D C 6 1 5 . 3 5 7 : 5 7 7 . 1 7 5 . 4 4 3 . 4 4 4 ] . 0 1 2 . 1 [ 0 4 8 . 8 ]

A . N . K r a v c h e n k o , a n d E . V . P o p o v a

T h y r o x i n e ( I, T ~ , t e t r a i o d o t h y r o n i n e , L - ~ - a m i n e - ~ - [ 3 , 5 - d i i o d o - 4 - ( 3 ' , 5 ' - d i i o d o - 4 ' - h y d r o x y -

p h e n o x y ) p h e n y l ] p r o p i o n i c a c i d ) a n d t r i i o d o t h y r o n i n e ( II , T 3, L - ~ - a m i n o - $ - [ 3 , 5 - d i i o d o - 4 - ( 3 ' -

i o d o - 4 ' - h y d r o x y p h e n o x y ) p h e n y l ] p r o p i o n i c a c i d ) * a re h o r m o n e s p r o d u c e d b y t h e t h y r o i d g l a nd s

o f h u m a n s a n d a n i m al s . T h e y a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s i n t h e h u m a n

b o d y : t h e y r e g u l a t e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s , t i s s u e o x y g e n u t i l i z a t i o n , g r o w t h , a n d t i s s u e d i f f e r e n t i a -

t i o n; t h e y a f f e c t t h e st a t e s o f t h e n e r v o u s a n d c a r d i o v a s c u l a r s y s t em s . D e f i c i e n t o r e x c es s

s e c r e t i o n o f I a n d I I r e s u l t i n a n u m b e r o f s e v e r e d i s e a s e s , t h e t h y r o i d h o r m o n e s I a n d I I

h a v e c o n s e q u e n t l y f o u n d w i d e m e d i c a l u s e [ 7 , 2 3, 2 7, 2 8, 4 0, 5 9, 6 9 , 7 0] . T h e s i m i l a r i t y

i n s t r u c t u r e r e s u l t s i n s i m i l a r i t i e s i n b i o l o g i c a l a c t i o n s , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t I I i s

3 - 5 t i m e s m o r e a c t i v e t h a n I [ 7 , 1 3 , 6 3] .

A p a r t f r o m t h e i r t h e r a p e u t i c u s e s, I a n d I I h a v e r e c e n t l y b e c o m e u s e f u l a s s t a r t i n g m a t e -

r i a l f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f d i a g n o s t i c r e a g e n t s , i n r a d i o i m m u n o a s s a y k i t s [ 4 4, 8 0 ], a n d i n

i m m u n o e n z y m e a s s a y k i t s [ 3, 4, 8, 6 1] , w h i c h a l l o w e a s y a n d r a p i d a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l

s t a t e o f t h e t h y r o i d g l a n d i n p a t i e n t s .

T h e b i o l o g i c a l a c t i o n s o f I a n d I I h a v e b e e n r e v i e w e d i n d e t a i l [ 2 , 7 , 2 3 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 4 0 , 5 9 ,.

6 9, 7 0 ] , t h o u g h t h e m e t h o d s o f t h e i r s y n t h e s i s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n c o n s i d e r e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y .

T h e o n l y r e v i e w a v a i l a b l e d e s c r i b e s t h e c h e m i s t r y o f I , c o v e r i n g d a t a u p t o 1 9 5 0 [ 5 1 ].

T h e a i m o f t h e p r e s e n t r e v i e w i s to a t t e m p t t o g e n e r a l i z e t h e v a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d

c l i n i c a l d a t a o n t h e s y n t h e s i s o f I a n d II , a s m e t h o d s f o r t h e i r s y n t h e s i s i s i m p o r t a n t f o r

t h e i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n o f t h y r o i d h o rm o n e s .

I I

i ~ i ,r-" N H i ~ -~

I Z

3 ' 2 ' 3 Z

5 ' 6 5 6 .N ] " [Z

' ~ I I

J q H z I ~ Zl

I I

I~" N"

NH z HttZ

I 1

~ NH71 ~ I J l ]

~I ]l e a l t e r n a t i v e n a m e s f o r t h e se h o r m o n e s, L - ~ - [ 3 , 5 - d i i o d o - 4 - ( 3 ' , 5 ' - d i i o d o - 4 ' - h y d r o x y p h e n o x y ) -

p h e n y l ] a l a n i n e (I ) a n d L - 6 - [ 3 , 5 - d i i o d o - A - ( 3 ' - i o d o - 4 ' - h y d r o x y p h e n o x y ) p h e n y l ] a l a n i n e ( I I) , a r e

o f t e n f o u n d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

S . O r d z h o n i k i d z e S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h C h e m i c o p h a r m a c e u t i c a l I n s t i t u t e, M o s c ow . T r a n s l a t e d

f r o m K h i m i k o - f a r m a t s e v t i c h e s k i i Z h u r n a l , V o l . 2 4, N o. 6 , p p . 4 3 - 4 9 , J u n e , 1 9 90 . O r i g i n a l a r t i -

c l e s u b m i t t e d J u n e 2 9 , 1 9 8 9 .

4 3 0 0 0 9 1 - 1 5 0 X / 9 0 / 2 4 0 6 - 0 4 3 0 5 1 2 . 5 0 1 9 91 P l e n u m P u b l i s h i n g C o r p o r a t i o n

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S c h e m e 1

2I' [o] Iz

/F Iz X Iz 2Z

S c h e m e 2

I

+I

~ r . ~ rI I

~ 0 N O Z ~ ~ O N H z H+

I I

XlZ 2~

I ~ O ~ M e T = N I C [ I O u-- q~ M e o O G N Sr;CI~

5 Z 7

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I

2 Z ~ 0

_ ~ C H ] ' - / > ' - P h H20o =

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I I

M e O ~ o ~ C H = 'CCOOH-7;'~"+~HCOPh Me O- </ ~\ ~- O~ ~ 3 H = C C O O E t

I -~J ~woPhf

I

HI m H O - ~ O~ C I i 2 C I HCOOH

I NHZ

D-7 J%eparation ~ - I + D - Iinto enatiomers

The importanc e of the thyroid hor mones and their major role in the etiology of the en-

docrine diseas e hypot hyroi dism were alrea dy known at the end of the last century. English

and German investigat ors exctrac ted a substance (iodothyrine), with a high (up to 75%) conten

of iodine, usin g acid and alkaline hydrolys is of the thyroid gland [59]. In 1914, Kendall

extracted a pure compound from the thyroid gland, and designated it thyroxine, though he

mistak enly sug gested it to be an iodinated indole derivati ve [59, 69].

The chemical structur e of I was determine d in 1926-1927 by Harin gton and Barger [47,

~8, 59, 69].

431

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I I w a s e x t r a c t e d f r o m h u m a n b l o o d a n d b u l l t h y r o i d g l a n d i n 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 3 b y G r o s s a n d P i t t -

R i v e r s [ 4 5 , 4 6, 6 9 ] , a n d b y R o c h e e t al . [ 7 1 -7 7 ] . T h e s e t w o g r o u p s i n d e p e n d e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d

its struct ure, and carri ed out the first sy nthe ses [45 , 46, 60, 69, 72, 76].

I n s t r u c t u r a l t e r m s, I a n d I I a r e t e t r a - a n d t r i - i o d o d e r i v a t i v e s o f t he a m i n o a c i d t h y r

n i n e ( II I, Y ), w h i c h d o e s n o t o c c u r i n n a t u r e : t h y r o n i n e i s i n t u r n a d e r i v a t i v e o f th e a m i n o

a c i d t y r o s i n e ( IV ), w h i c h i s w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e a n i m a l a n d p l a n t w o r l d s.

I a n d I I a r e o p t i c a l l y a c t i v e s u b s t a n c e s , a s e a c h c o n t a i n s a n a s y m m e t r i c c a r b o n a t o m .

T h e y c a n t h e r e f o r e e x i s t a s t w o e n a n t i o m e r s : t h e l e v o r o t a t o r y a n d t h e d e x t r o r o t a t o r y , a n d

a s a r a c e m a t e ( L- , D - , a n d D L - f o r m s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . T h e n a t u r a l c o m p o u n d s I a n d I I a r e L -

e n a n t i o m e r s , a n d h a v e t h e s a m e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a s L - I V [ 4 1 , 6 9] .

I a n d II a r e s t a b l e , s o l i d , c r y s t a l l i n e s u b s t a n c e s . A s a - a m i n o a c i d s, t h e y a r e a m p h o t e r

a n d f o r m s a l t s w i t h b o t h a l k a l i s a n d w i t h m i n e r a l a c i d s . I a n d I I t h e m s e l v e s a r e u s e d f o r

c l i n i c a l p u r p o s e s , a s t h y r o i d h o r m o n e s , a s a r e t h e i r s o d i u m s a l t s a n d h y d r o c h l o r i d e s , i n t h e

L - f o r m s . T h e l a t t e r is b e c a u s e t h e L e n a n t i o m e r s h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r a c t i v i t y i n c o m -

p a r i s o n w i t h t h e D e n a n t i o m e r s a n d t h e r a c e m a t e s . T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 3 ], L - I I is 14 t i m e s

m o r e a c t i v e t h a n D - I I , a n d 1 . 7 t i m e s m o r e a c t i v e t h a n D L - I I .

D - I ( d e x t r o t h y r o x i n e ) a n d i t s s o d i u m s a l t a l s o h a v e c l i n i c a l u s e s , b u t in o t h e r d i s e a s e

f o r e x a m p l e , i n a t h e r o s c l e r o s i s , a s D - I h a s a n t i c h o l e s t e r o l e m i c p r o p e r t i e s [ 6 3 ] .

A p a r t f r o m I a n d I I, h ~ a n a n d a n i m a l b l o o d a n d t h y r o i d g l a n d s a r e n o w k n o w n t o c o n t a i n

s e v e n o t h e r i o d i n a t e d t h y r o n i n e ( I I I ) a n d t y r o s i n e ( I V ) d e r i v a t i v e s : 3 , 3 ' , 5 ' - t r i o d o t h y r o n i n e

( V) , 3 , 5 - d i i o d o t h y r o n i n e ( VI ), 2 ' , 6 ' - d i i o d o t h y r o n i n e ( V II ) , 3 , 3 ' - d i i o d o t h y r o n i n e ( V I I I ) , 3 -

i o d o t h y r o n i n e ( IX ), 3 - i o d o t y r o s i n e ( X ) , a n d 3 , 5 - d i i o d o t y r o s i n e ( X I ) .

C o m p o u n d s V - X I a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o b e h o r m o n e s [ 4 0 , 6 9, 7 4 , 7 5] , a n d b i o l o g i

c a l r o le s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n d i s c o v e r e d f o r m o s t o f t h e m . I t i s k n o w n o n l y t h a t X an d X I a r e

i n t e r m e d i a t e s i n t h e b i o s y n t h e s i s o f I a n d II . I t s ho u l d , h o w e v e r , b e n o t e d t h a t X I i s u s e d

a s a t h e r a p e u t i c a g e n t f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f e n d o c r i n e d i s e a s e s [ 7] , b u t i s t h u s f a r e x c l u d e d

f r o m g e n e r a l u s e b e c a u s e o f i t s l o w a c t i v i t y.

S c h e m e 3

I I

M O z

N O z 2 XZ Z ~ R = M e , P h C O

I O = r - O ,

R C O N H C H ~ H ~ E O O C H i ~ ~

x x~ ~ M e . P h

I IH ~

-------- O 0 CH = Q- OOOMe------RO-<~ ~}-O-~' "2-CH= -C OO Met

- - ~ O R ~ { Z N H C O RNO7.

X X V / / X X V I / /

1Ro o -CO?Me SO - m =

I-I*L o o R j

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IH Cf X~ ; ~ - - ~ " ~ _ C S e p a r a t i o nnto

----- HO O CH ~ H C O O H ~ L - ~ E 7 "r D - ~

A.C~O -- ~ en an ti om er s I(. i(~9 ~ l -l C H O H I O H ) H 2 0

D L - xxx , L - 2 X ~ D - ~L - I D - I

432

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T h e b i o s y n t h e s i s o f I a n d I I t ak e s p l a c e i n t h e t h y r o i d g l a n d , a n d c o n s i s t s o f a n u m b e r

of steps [40 , 69] (Sche me i).

T h e f i r s t s t e p i s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f i n o r g a n i c i o d i d e s f r o m t h e b l o o d i n t o t h e t h y r o i d

g l a n d . T h i s p r o c e s s i s r e g u l a t e d b y t h e h o r m o n e t h y r o t r o p i n . I o d i d e s a r e o x i d i z e d b y p e r o x -

i d a s e t o f r e e i o di n e , w h i c h i o d i n a t e s t y r o s i n e ( I V) b o u n d t o t h e p r o t e i n t h y r o g l o b u l i n , t o

f o r m 3 - i o d o - a n d 3 , 5 - d i i o d o t y r o s i n e s ( X a n d X I ) . X a n d X I r e s i d u e s r e a c t t o g e t h e r t o f o r m

I a n d II , w h i c h r e m a i n b o u n d t o t h y r o g l o b u l i n . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s o x i d a t i v e

r e a c t i o n ha s a r a d i c a l - m e d i a t e d m e c h a n i s m , w i t h t h e r e m o v a l o f a n a - a l a n i n e f r a g m e n t , i n t h e

f o r m o f a - a m i n o a c r y l i c a c i d, w h i c h i s t h e n t r a n s f o r m e d t o p y r u v i c a c i d a n d a m m o n i a . P r o t e o l -

y s i s o f t h y r o g l o b u l i n - b o u n d I a n d II r e s u l t s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e f r e e h o r m o n e s , w h i c h

e n t e r t h e b l o o d .

I h a s a l s o b e e n s y n t h e s i z e d f r o m X I i n v i t r o : b y t h e o x i d a t i o n o f X I w i t h a i r o x y g e n

i n w e a k l y a l k a l i n e c o n d i t i o n s i n t he p r e s e n c e o f a n M n 3 0 . c a t a l y s t [ 9, i i , 6 5 - 6 9 , 7 9] . H o w -

e v e r, t h i s s i m p l e o n e - s t e p s y n t h e s i s o f I f r o m t h e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e X I h a s n o t f o u n d u s e f o r

t h e r a p e u t i c p r e p a r a t i o n s , b e c a u s e o f i t s l o w y i e l d a n d t h e l os s o f o p t i c a l a c t i v i t y .

O t h e r p o s s i b l e m e c h a n i s m s o f t h e b i o s y n t h e s i s o f I a nd I I h a v e a l s o b e e n c o n s i d e r e d [ 4 0 ,

6 9] : p a r t i a l o x i d a t i o n o f X I p r o d u c e s d i i o d o a r y l p y r u v i c a c i d [ XI I] , w h i c h r e a c t s w i t h t h e

i n i t i a l s u b s t r a t e X I t o f o r m I, I I b e i n g p r o d u c e d b y d e i o d i n a t i o n o f I (s e e S c h e m e i ) .

T h i s r o u t e f o r b i o s y n t h e s i s h a s a l s o b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d c h e m i c a l l y : b y o x i d a t i o n w i t h

a i r o x y g e n o f a m i x t u r e o f X I a n d X I I I i n a q u e o u s b u f f e r ( p H 7. 6 ) , p r o d u c i n g I w i t h a y i e l d

o f 2 3 - 3 6 % [ 5 3 , 6 2] ( s e e S c h e m e I ) .

A h o r m o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n o f n a t u r a l o r i g i n , t h y r o i d i n , h a s b e e n u s e d f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e si n t h e t h e r a p y o f e n d o c r i n e d i s e a s e s w i t h a l t e r e d t h y r o i d f u n c t i o n . T h i s i s a d e f a t t e d a n d

d r i e d t h y r o i d g l a n d e x t r a c t f r o m s l a u g h t e r a n i m a l s , c o n t a i n i n g I an d I I i n t h e r a t i o 4 - 5 : 1

[6, 7, 23, 25-28, 50, 59, 69].

T h e u s e of t h is p r e p a r a t i o n i s n o w d e c l i n i n g b e c a u s e o f t h e s y n t h e t i c p r o d u c t i o n o f I

and II.

T h e p h a r m a c e u t i c a l i n d u s t r y ha s g r e a t e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f n a t u r a l h o r m o n e s

f r o m a n i m a l m a t e r i a l s [ 2 5 , 2 6] . H o w e v e r , t h i s i s n o t a g o o d r o u t e f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n I a n d

I I, b e c u a s e o f t h e i r l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e t h y r o i d a n d t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e i r e x t r a c t i o n

a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n [ 5 0 , 5 9, 6 9 ]. A s a r e s u l t , i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s y n t h e t i c m e t h o d s f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f I a n d II . S u c h m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n

d e v e l o p e d , a n d h a v e b e e n s c a l e d u p fo r i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n i n s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s ( U S A, S w i t z

erland, FRG, Belgium, Hunga ry, GDR, and others).

T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s y n t h e t i c I a n d I I r e s u l t e d i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e v e l o p i n g s t a t e

o f t h e a r t t h e r a p e u t i c p r e p a r a t i o n s w i t h s t r i c t l y c o n t r o l l e d d o s i n g l e v e l s , i n c l u d i n g a n u m -

b e r o f p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r p e d i a t r i c u s e. T h e s y n t h e t i c s a l s o a l l o w I a n d I I t o b e u s e d t o g e t h e

i n d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n s , a n d w i t h p o t a s s i u m i o d i d e [ 7 ].

P r e p a r a t i v e m e t h o d s f o r t he s y n t h e s i s o f I a n d I I a r e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w.

T h e f i r s t s y n t h e s i s o f I , w h i c h c o n f i r m e d i ts s t r u c t u re , w a s c a r r i e d o u t i n 1 9 2 7 b y

H a r i n g t o n a n d B a r g e r [ 4 8] . T h e s e w o r k e r s s t a r t e d w i t h 4 - m e t h o x y p h e n o l ( X I I I ) a n d 1 , 2 , 3 - t r i -

i o d o - 5 - n i t r o b e n z e n e ( X I V) , f r o m w h i c h , v i a a s e r i e s o f r e a c t i o n s t h r o u g h c o m p o u n d s X V - X X I I I ,

I w a s p r o d u c e d i n t h e f o r m o f a r a c e m a t e ( S c h e m e 2 ). T h i s m a t e r i a l a p p e a r e d t o b e b i o l o g i c a l

l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h e n a t u r a l h o r m o n e e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e t h y r o i d g l a n d . D L - I w a s r e s o l v e d t o

i ts o p t i c a l e n a n t i o m e r s u s i n g a - p h e n y l e t h y l a m i n e [ 49 ]. R e d u c t i o n o f L - I t o t h y r o n i n e ( I I I )

s h o w e d t h a t t h i s h o r m o n e h a s t h e s a m e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a s t h e n a t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n a s t h e a m i n oacid tyrosi ne (IV) [41].

T h i s s y n t e s i s o f I w a s i m p r o v e d b y N a h m a n d S i e d e l [ 64 ], b y t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f X I V w i t h

3 - i o d o - 4 - h y d r o x y - 5 - n i t r o b e n z a l d e h y d e ( X XI V ) u s i n g S c h e m e 3 ( v i a c o m p o u n d s X X V - X X X I) . T h e s e

a u t h o r s n o t e d t h a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f D L - I i n t o o p t i c a l e n a n t i o m e r s w a s d i f f i c u l t . T h e y t h e r e

f o r e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s o p e r a t i o n s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e s t a g e o f N - f o r m y l - 3 , 5 - d i i o d o -

t h y r o n i n e ( D L - XD L \ I ) u s i n g b r u c i n e ( d i m e t h o x y s t r y c h n i n e ) [ 2 2 , 4 1, 4 9 , 64 ]. L - I a n d D - I w e r e

o b t a i n e d b y h y d r o l y s i s o f t h e f o r m yl g r o u p a n d s u b s e q u e n t i o d i n a t i o n o f t he r e s u l t i n g c o m p o u n

L - X X I I I a n d D - X X I I I ~ s e e S c h e m e 3 ) .

T h e s e m e t h o d s h a v e n o t b e e n u s e d i n d u s t r i a l l y , s i n c e t h e y a r e b a s e d o n t h e u s e o f s t a r t i n

c o m p o u n d s o f l o w a v a i l a b i l i t y , t h e l a r g e n u m b e r o f st a g e s , a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f r a c e m i c m i x -

t u r e s ( I, X X I I I ) , r e q u i r i n g r a t h e r c o m p l e x s e p a r a t i o n i n t o e n a n t i o m e r s .

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I n 19 4 9 H e m s e t a l. [ 42 ] d e s c r i b e d a n e w s t e r e o s p e c i f i c s y n t h e s i s o f I. T h e w i d e l y a v a i l

a b l e L - t y r o s i n e ( I V) w a s u s e d as s t a r t i n g m a t e r i a l ; t h i s w as p r e p a r e d b y h y d r o l y s i s o f k e r a -

t i n - c o n t a i n i n g w a s t e p r o d u c t s o f m e a t f a c t o r i e s , o r b y e n z y m a t i c s y n t h e s i s [ 2 9 -3 1 ].

3 , 5 - d i n i t r o t y r o s i n e ( X X X I I ) w a s p r e p a r e d b y n i t r a t i o n o f I V , u s i n g a m i x t u r e o f n i t r ic

a n d s ul f u r i c a c id s . S u b s e q u e n t a c e t y l a t i o n o f X X X I I a n d e s t e r i f i c a t i o n o f X X X I II p r o d u c e d

t h e e t h y l e s t e r o f N - a c e t y l - 3 , 5 - d i n i t r o t y r o s i n e ( X X X I V) . T r e a t m e n t o f E X D ( IV w i t h p - t o l u o l -

s u l f o c h l o r i d e a n d p - m e t h o x y p h e n o l i n a n h y d r o u s p y r i d i n e w i t h o u t e x t r a c t i o n o f t he i n t e r me d -

i a t e t o s y l a t e ( X X X V ) r e s u l t e d i n t h e s y n t h e s i s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i p h e n y l e s t e r ( X X X V I ) ,

f r o m w h i c h t h e d i a m i n e ( X X X V I I ) w a s p r o d u c e d b y h y d r o g e n a t i o n . D i a z o t i z a t i o n o f X X X V I I , f o l -

l o w e d b y r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e d i a z o g r o u p o f Y XK XV II I w i t h i o d i n e, u s i n g t h e S a n d m e i e r r e a c t i o n

p r o d u c e d t h e e t h y l e s e r of N - a c e t y l - 3 , 5 - d i i o d o - 4 ' - m e t h o x y t h y r o n i n e ( X XX I X) . A l l t h e p r o t e c t i n

g r o u p s w e r e r e m o v e d b y h e a t i n g t h i s c o m p o u n d w i t h c o n c e n t r a t e d H I o r H B r , r e s u l t i n g i n t h ef o r m a t i o n o f L - d i i o d o t h r y o n i n e ( X XI I I) . T h e H a r i n g t o n - B a r g e r s c h e m e w a s t he n f o l l o w e d , w i t h

i o d i n a t i o n o f X X I I I w i t h i o d i n e ( 2 m o l e s ) i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f p o t a s s i u m i o d i d e a n d e t h y l a m i n e ,

p r o d u c i n g L - I w i t h a y i e l d o f 2 6 % i n t e r m s o f I V ( S c h e m e 4 ).

A f t e r t h e d i s c o v e r y o f II , s c h e m e 4 w a s s u c c e s s f u l ] y u s e d f o r i t s s y n t h e s i s , b y i o d i n a -

t i o n of L - X X I I I w i t h a n e q u i m o l a r q u a n t i t y o f i o d i n e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f p o t a s s i u m i o d i d e i n

a q u e o u s a m m o n i a o r p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y a m i n e s [ i 0 , 1 2, 1 3, 1 8, 2 4] . A p a t e n t e d p r o c e d u r e

I 1 5 ] u s e s N - i o d o a c e t a m i d e a s i o d i n a t i n g a g e n t , a n d t h e r e a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i n a n h y d r o u s m e t h -

a n o l i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t r i e t h y l a m i n e . T h e y i e l d o f L - I I r a n g e d f r o m 5 0 - 9 5 % i n t e r m s of L-

XXIII, or 8-15% in terms of the initial L-IV { Scheme 5) [i0 , 12, 13, 15, 18, 24].

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S c h e m e 5

L - X X I l l I . ~K1

M e C O N H I

L - I IlS c h e m e 6

- • "NaI04~ o m o r m f f r o ~ o x"

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I

_ + _

I

D - I I w a s s y n t h e s i z e d b y a r o u t e a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t u s e d f o r L - I I , b y t h e i o d i n a t i o n o f

D - X X I I I w i t h i o d i n e , a n d D L - I I w a s s y n t h e s i z e d b y i o d i n a t i o n o f D - X X I I I b y N - p o t a s s i u m - i o d o - p

t o l u o l s u l f o n a m i d e [ 1 6 , 6 4] .

T h e s e s y n t h e s e s o f I a n d I I h a v e a n u m b e r o f d i s a d v a n t a g e s , t h e m a i n o n e s b e i n g t h e n i t r

t i o n o f I V t o X X X I I a n d t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e t w o a m i n o g r o u p s w i t h i o d i n e b y t h e S a n d m e i e r

r e a c t i o n , t h e u s e o f a n h y d r o u s p y r i d i n e a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d H I o r H B r , a n d t h e l o w y i e l d s o f

I and II (8-26% in terms of the initial c ompo und IV).

I t s h o u l d a l s o b e n o t e d t h a t t h e i o d i n a t i o n o f X X I I I p r o d u c e s h e t e r o g e n e o u s p r o d u c t s .

D u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n o f I , c o m p o u n d I I i s f o r m e d a s a n a d m i x t u r e , w h i l e I i s a l w a y s p r e s e n t i n

p r e p a r a t i o n s o f i t. A p r o p o r t i o n o f X X I I I a l s o r e m a i n s u n r e a c t e d . A s a r e s u l t , p u r i f i c a t i o n

o f I a n d I I m u s t b e c a r r i e d o u t c a r e f u l l y , w i t h m e t h o d s i n c l u d i n g p r e p a r a t i v e c h r o m a t o g r a p h y

[12, 13, 69].

D e s p i t e t h e s e d i s a d v a n t a g e s , t h e s y n t h e s i s o f I a n d II u s i n g s c h e m e s 4 a n d 5 h a s i n d u s t ra l v a l u e . A t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e b r o u g h t t o a n u m b e r o f l a t e r p a p e r s , e . g . , [ 24 ], a n d p a t e n t s ,

e . g ., [ i 0 , 1 9] , d e s c r i b i n g a n u m b e r o f m o d i f i c a t i o n s b o t h of i n d i v i d u a l s t a g e s , a n d o f m e t h o d

o f e x t r a c t i o n a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f i na l p r o d u c t s I a n d II .

A n u m b e r o f a u t h o r s [ 3 2 , 3 7, 3 8 ] h a v e t r i e d t o p r e p a r e X X I I I f r o m 3 , 5 - d i i o d o t y r o s i n e

( XI ), t h o u g h t h e s e a t t e m p t s w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l , w h i c h i s p r o b a b l y e x p l a i n e d b y t h e d i f f i c u l t y

i n f o r m i n g d i p h e n y l e s t e r s u s i n g 2 , 6 - d i i o d o p h e n o l s [ 3 2 , 3 7, 3 8 , 4 1, 5 1 ].

A l t h o u g h s l o w l y , 2 , 6 - d i i o d o p h e n o l s d o r e a c t w i t h d i a r y l i o d o n i u m i o d i d e s ( o r b r o m i d e s )

w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e d i p h e n y l e s t e r s . T h i s r e s u l t e d i n t h e p r o p o s a l o f a s e c -

o n d s t e r e o s p e c i f i c s y n t h e s i s o f L - I a n d L - I I f r o m L - I V t h r o u g h L - X I [ 1 5 , 1 7, 2 0 , 52 ] ( S c h e m e

6 ) .

T h e e n t i r e s y n t h e s i s o f I a n d II c o n s i s t s o f s e v e n s te p s . T r e a t m e n t o f a n i s o l e ( X L)

w i t h s o d i u m i o d a t e a n d p o t a s s i u m i o d i d e o r a m i x t u r e o f i o d i n e p e n t o x i d e , f o l l o w e d b y a d d i t i o

o f s o d i u m b r o m i d e r e s u l t e d i n t h e s y n t h e s i s o f 4 , 4 ' - d i m e t h o x y d i p h e n y l i o d o n i u m i o d i d e a n d t h e

r e s p e c t i v e b r o m i d e ( X L I ) [ 1 4 , 3 3] . T h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t , t h e e t h y l e s t e r o f N - a c e t y l - 3 , 5 - d i -

i o d o t y r o s i n e ( X L I I I ) w a s o b g t a i n e d b y i o d i n a t i o n o f IV w i t h i o d i n e o r w i t h i o d i n e - c h l o r i n e

[ i, 35 ], w i t h s u b s e q u e n t a c y l a t i o n w i t h XI a n d e s t e r i f i c a t i o n w i t h XL I I . T h e r e a c t i o n o f

X L I I I w i t h X L I p r o d u c e s t h e e s t e r X X X I X . H e a t i n g X X X I X w i t h H I o r H B r p r o d u c e s 3 , 5 - d i i o d o -

t h y r o n i n e ( X X I I I) . T h i s w a s i o d i n a t e d t o p r o d u c e L -I a n d L - I I w i t h y i e l d s o f 25 % i n t e r m s

of the startin g com pound IV II 0, 12-15, 18, 21] (Scheme 6).

A l t h o u g h t h i s s y n t h e s i s o f I a n d I I i s t w o s t e p s s h o r t e r c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e s y n t h e s i s

v i a 3 , 5 - d i n i t r o t y r o s i n e ( X X X I I ) b v S c h e m e 4 , i t h a s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i s a d v a n t a g e , n a m e l y t h e

p r e p a r a t i o n o f i o d o n i u m i o d i d e { o r b r o m i d e ) ( X L I ) . T h i s s u b s t a n c e m a y b e e x p l o s i v e , a s ar e

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S c h e m e 7

z

I Iz I

1

S c h e m e 8

I

I ~I z

I 1

o t h e r i o d i n a t e d c o m p o u n d s [ 5 ] . T h e l o w y i e l d s o f X L I ( 1 2 - 4 7 % ) a n d X X X I X ( 5 0 - 6 0 % ) , a n d th e

l o n g r e a c t i o n t i m e r e q u i r e d ( 2 4 - 8 0 h ) s h o u l d a l s o b e n ot e d .

I o d i n a t i o n o f t h r y o n i n e ( I I I ) m a y b e a n a t t r a c t i v e r o u t e f o r t h e s y n t h e s i s o f I a n d I I.

T h e a u t h o r s w h o f i r s t s y n t h e s i z e d t h i s a m i n o a c i d [ 48 ] a t t e m p t e d t o i o d i n a t e i t , b u t d i d n o to b t a i n c o m p o u n d I .

T h e i o d i n a t i o n o f I I I w a s l a t e r s t u d i e d i n m o r e d e t a i l b y R o c h e e t al . [ 7 2 , 7 3, 7 6 , 7 7 ].

T h e y a l s o f a i l e d t o o b t a i n I a n d I I, s i n c e i o d i n a t i o n o c c u r r e d o n t h e m o r e d i s t a l b e n z e n e

r i n g B , w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f 3 ' - i o d o - a n d 3 ' , 5 ' - d i i o d o t h y r o n i n e ( X L I V , X L V ) ( S c h e m e 7) . W h e n

3 - i o d o t h y r o n i n e ( I X) w a s i o d i n a t e d , t h e r e a c t i o n a l s o t o o k p l a c e i n r i n g B , w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n

o f 3 , 3 ' - d i i o d o - a n d 3 , 3 ' , 5 ' - t r i i o d o t h y r o n i n e s V I I I a n d V { 7 3 , 7 5] ( S c h e m e 8) .

F u r t h e r i o d i n a t i o n o f V a n d V I I I w a s n o t d i s c u s s e d .

F i n a l l y , a f t e r t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f I a n d I I w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d a n d m e t h o d s f o r t h e i r s y n t h e s i

w e r e d e v e l o p e d , a n d t h e i r g r e a t m e d i c a l v a l u e f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f a n u m b e r o f d i s e a s e s w e r e

r e c o r d e d , a n u m b e r o f p a p e r s a p p e a r e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e s y n t h e s i s o f d i f f e r e n t

d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e s e h o r m o n e s , a n d o f c o m p o u n d s o f s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e [ 40 , 6 9] . T h e b a s i c

a i m of t h e s e s t u d i e s w as t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e b i o l o g i -

c a l a c t i o n s o f t h e c o m p o u n d s , a n d t o a t t e m p t t o p r o d u c e c o m p o u n d s m o r e a c t i v e t h a n I a n d II .

A n u m b e r o f a u t h o r s [ 4 0 , 6 9] s y n t h e s i z e d d e r i v a t i v e s o f I a n d I I c o n t a i n i n g O H - , N H 2 ,

a n d C O O H - g r o u p s , e v e n a d d i n g a t h i r d i o d i n a t e d b e n z e n e r i n g ( c o m p o u n d s X L V I a n d X L V I I ) [ 39 ].

I. I. I

I / ~ ] / I / ~ Z~ E

I I

O t h e r s t u d i e s i n c l u d e d t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f i o d i n e a t o m s i n c o m p o u n d s I a n d I I f o r a t o m s

o f o t h e r h a l o g e n s , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a l k y l r a d i c a l s a t t h e 5' p o s i t i o n , t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f

t h e b r i d g i n g o x y g e n a t o m w i t h s u l f u r , t h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f i o d i n e a t o m s i n o t h e r p o s i t i o n s o f

b e n z e n e r i n g s A a n d B , t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e ~ - a l a n i n e s i d e c h a i n w i t h f r a g m e n t s o f o t h e r

a m i n o a c i d s , a n d t h e s y n t h e s i s o f a n a l o g s o f I a n d I I b a s e d o n o - a n d m - t y r o s i n e s a n d o t h e r

compo unds [34 , 36, 40, 43, 54-58, 69, 78].

T h e b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e s e c o m p o u n d s s h o w e d t h a t t h e y w e r e e i t h e r i n a c t i v e

e r h a d w e a k t h y r o i d a c t i v i t y . S i n c e a t t e m p t s t o s y n t h e s i z e d i f f e r e n t d e r i v a t i v e s o f 1 a n d

7 I h a v e n o t p r o d u c e d u s e f u l t h e r a p e u t i c p r e p a r a t i o n s , t h e i r m e t h o d s o f s y n t h e s i s a r e n o t r e-

viewed here,

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L I T E R A T U R E C I T E D

i . A . s . 4 0 5 8 6 9 , U S S R ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

2 . T . B e r z i n , T h e B i o c h e m i s t r y o f H o r m o n e s [ i n R u s s i a n ] , M o s c o w ( 1 9 6 4 ) .

3 . B . M . G o r o v i t s , E . A . E r e m i n , a n d A . P. O s i p o v , Z h . V s e s . K h i m . O b s h c h . i m . G . I . M e n d e -

leeva, 34, No. i, 125 (1989).

4 . S . A . E r e m i n a n d S . K . M o r a l e s , A l l - U n i o n C o n f e r e n c e o n t h e U s e o f E n z y m e s i n B i o c h e m i c a l

A n a l y s e s : A b s t r a c t s . P a l a n g a ( 1 9 8 2 ) , P a r t 2 , p . 1 9.

5 . P . K a r r e r , C o u r s e i n O r g a n i c C h e m i s t r y [ R u s s i a n t r a n s l a t i o n ] , L e n i n g r a d ( 1 9 6 0 ) .

6 . V . R . K l y a c h k o , S o y . M e d . , N o . 9 , 4 4 - 5 2 ( 1 9 7 5 ) .

7 . M . D . M a s h k o v s k i i , T h e r a p e u t i c S u b s t a n c e s [ in R u s s i a n ] , M o s c o w ( 1 9 8 4 ) , Vo l . I , p p . 5 4 4 -

548.8 . D . B . P a p k o v s k i i , O . A . S t a f e e v a , a n d A . P . S a v i t s k i i , P r o b l . E n d o k r i n o l . , 3 4 , N o . I,

5 7 - 6 1 ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

9 . P a t e n t 5 9 8 6 9 1 , E n g l a n d ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; C h e m . A b s t r . , 4 3 , 2 6 2 ( 1 9 4 9) .

i 0 . P a t e n t 6 5 9 3 3 , G D R ( 1 9 7 0 ) .

i i . P a t e n t 2 4 3 5 9 4 7 , U S A ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; C h e m . A b s t r . , 4 2 , 2 7 3 2 ( 1 9 4 8 ) .

1 2. P a t e n t 2 7 8 4 2 2 2, U S A ( 1 9 5 7 ).

1 3. P a t e n t 2 8 2 3 1 6 4 , U S A ( 1 9 5 8) .

1 4. P a t e n t 2 8 3 9 5 8 3 , U S A ( 1 9 5 8 ).

1 5. P a t e n t 2 8 8 6 5 9 2, U S A ( 1 9 5 9 ) .

1 6. P a t e n t 2 8 9 4 9 7 7, U S A ( 1 9 5 9 ).

1 7. P a t e n t 2 8 9 5 9 2 7, U S A ( 1 9 5 9) .

1 8. P a t e n t 2 9 9 3 9 2 8 , U S A (1 9 6 1 ).

1 9. P a t e n t 8 9 6 9 4 6 , F R G ( 1 9 5 3 ) .20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

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26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

~5.

46.

47 .

P a t e n t 1 0 6 4 5 2 9 , F R G ( 1 9 6 0 ).

P a t e n t 1 0 6 5 8 5 5 , F R G ( 1 9 6 0 ).

P a t e n t 1 0 7 7 6 7 3 , F R G ( 1 9 6 1) ; C h e m . A b s t r . , 5 5 , N 1 4 3 9 0 e ( 1 9 6 1 ) .

Z . N . R o s e n , B a s i c E n d o c r i n o l o g y [ R u s s i a n t r a n s l a t i o n ] , M o s c o w ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

M . V . R u b t s o v a n d A . G . B a i c h i k o v , S y n t h e t i c C h e m i c o p h a r m a c e u t i c a l D r u g s [ i n R u s s i a n ] ,

M o s c o w ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 1 1 1 - 1 1 4 .

C o n t e m p o r a r y H o r m o n a l D r u g s o f A n i m a l O r i g i n : R e v i e w [ i n R u s s i a n ] , P . M . K o c h e r g i n ( e d .) ,

M o s c o w ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 4 - 1 6 .

C o n t e m p o r a r y H o r m o n a l D r u g s o f A n i m a l O r i g i n : R e v i e w [ in R u s s i a n ] , P . M . K o c h e r g i n a n d

G . T . C h e r n e n k o , e d s . , M o s c o w ( 1 9 8 4 ) , p p . 2 -3 6 .

Y a , K h . T u r a k u l o v , T h e N o r m a l a n d P a t h o l o g i c a l B i o c h e m i s t r y o f T y r o i d H o r m o n e s [ in R u s -

s i a n ] , T a s h k e n t ( 1 9 6 2 ).

Y a , K h . T u r a k u l o v , T . A . B a b a e v , a n d T . S a a t o v , T h y r o i d I o d o p r o t e i n s [ in R u s s i a n ] , T a s h -

k e n t ( 1 9 7 4 ) .

I . V . T y s y a c h n a y a , V . I . Y a k o v l e v a , a n d A . K . A r e n , P r i k l . B i o k h i m . , 1 7 , N o . 5, 6 4 5 - 6 4 9

( 1 9 8 1 ) .

I . V . T y s y a c h n a y a , M . K h . R o d r i g e s , V . I. Y a k o v l e v a , e t a l . , P r i k l . B i o k h i m . , 2 0 , N o .

i , 7 9 - 8 7 ( 1 9 8 4 ) .

V . I. Y a k o v l e v a , M . B. K u p l y a t s k a y a , a n d I. V . T y s y a c h n a y a , V e s t n . M G U , S e r . , 2 , 2 0 ,

N o . 5 , 4 8 5 - 4 9 8 ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

G . H . B a r n e s , J . C h e m . S o c . , p p . 2 8 2 4 - 2 8 3 3 ( 1 9 5 0 ) .

F M . B e r i n g e r e t a l . , J. A m . C h e m . S o c . , 7 5 , 2 7 0 5 - 2 7 0 8 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .

B B l a n k , R . F . P f e i f f e r , M . C. G r e e n b e r g , e t a l . , J. M e d . C h e m . , 6 , 5 5 4 - 5 6 3 ( 1 9 6 3 ) .

P B l o c k a n d G . P o w e l l , J . A m . C h em . S o c . , 6 5 , 1 4 3 0 - 1 4 3 1 ( 1 9 4 3 ) .

M B . B o l g e r , B . M i c h a e l , E . C . J o r g e n s e n , e t a l . , J. B i o l . C h e m . , 2 5 5 , 1 0 2 7 1 - 1 0 2 7 8 ( 1 9 8

E T . B o r r o w s , Y . C . C l a y t o n , a n d B. A . H e m s , J . C h e m . S o c . , S u p p l e m e n t i , p . 1 8 5 ( 1 9 4 9 ) .

E T . B o r r o w s , Y . C . C l a y t o n , B . A . H e m s , a n d A . G . L o n g , J . C h e m . S o c . , S u p p l e m e n t i ,

p p . 1 9 0 - 1 9 9 ( 1 9 4 9 ) .

M . B o v a r n i c k , K . B l o c h , a n d G . L . F o s t e r , J . A m . C h e m . S o c . , 6 1 , 2 4 7 2 - 2 4 7 4 ( 1 9 3 9 ) .

A . B u rg e r , M e d i c i n a l C h e m i s t r y ( 3 r d e d n . ) , N e w Y o r k ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p a r t 2 , p p. 8 3 8 - 8 5 8 .

A . C a n z e n e l l i , C . R . H a r i n g t o n , a n d C . C . R a n d a l l , B i o c h e m . J . , 2 8 , 6 8 ( 1 9 3 4 ) .

Y . R . C h a l m e r s , G . T . D i c k s o n , Y . E l k s , a n d B. A . H e m s , J . C h e m . S o c . , 3 4 2 4 - 3 4 3 3 ( 1 9 4 9 ) .

S . W . D i e t r i c h , M . B. B o i g e r , P . A . K o l l m a n , a n d E. C. J o r g e n s e n , J . M e d . C h e m . , 2 0 ,

8 6 3 - 8 8 0 ( 1 9 7 7 ) .

H . E r i k s o n , J . N i l s s o n , a n d B. M a t t i a s s o n , A p p l . B i o c h e m . B i o t e c h n o l . , 8 , 1 - 8 (1 9 8 3 ).

Y . G r o s s a n d R . P i t t - R i v e r s , L a n c e t , i i , 7 6 6 ( 1 9 5 1 ) .

Y . G r o s s a n d R . P i t t - R i v e r s , B i o c h e m . J . , 5 3 , 6 4 5 - 6 5 4 ( 1 9 5 3 ) .

C . R . H a r i n g t o n , B i o c h e m . J . , 2 0 , 2 9 3 - 3 0 0 ( 1 9 2 6 ) .

4 3 7

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