T-Rex in Action: T-Rex in Action: Assessing the impact of translation upon Assessing the impact of translation upon

non-English academic discoursesnon-English academic discourses

Karen Bennett, University of Lisbon Centre for English StudiesKaren Bennett, University of Lisbon Centre for English Studieskaren.bennett@netcabo.ptkaren.bennett@netcabo.pt

“…“…. . a powerful carnivore gobbling up the a powerful carnivore gobbling up the other denizens of the academic linguistic other denizens of the academic linguistic grazing groundsgrazing grounds” ” (Swales, ‘English as (Swales, ‘English as Tyrannosaurus Rex, 1997)Tyrannosaurus Rex, 1997)

↓↓ ousting of other languages by English in international ousting of other languages by English in international

academic settingsacademic settings ““loss of specialized registers in otherwise healthy languages”loss of specialized registers in otherwise healthy languages”

Linguistic imperialism: Linguistic imperialism: landmarkslandmarks

1992: Phillipson, R. 1992: Phillipson, R. Linguistic Imperialism. Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford Oxford: Oxford University Press;University Press;

1994: Pennycook, A. 1994: Pennycook, A. The Cultural Politics of English as an The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language. International Language. Essex: Longman;Essex: Longman;

1999: Canagarajah, A. S. 1999: Canagarajah, A. S. Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching. English Teaching. Oxford: OUP; Press. Oxford: OUP; Press.

2002: Canagarajah, A. S. 2002: Canagarajah, A. S. A Geopolitics of Academic Writing. A Geopolitics of Academic Writing. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.

2004: Tardy, C. ‘The role of English in scientific 2004: Tardy, C. ‘The role of English in scientific communication: Lingua franca or Tyrannosaurus Rex?’ In communication: Lingua franca or Tyrannosaurus Rex?’ In Journal of English for Academic PurposesJournal of English for Academic Purposes 3: 247-269. 3: 247-269.

Aims: Aims:

Describe how the process of linguistic Describe how the process of linguistic imperialism is being manifested in Portugal:imperialism is being manifested in Portugal:

I. Academic discourse in PortugalI. Academic discourse in Portugal

II. The changing discourse of HistoryII. The changing discourse of History

Open the subject up to discussion involving Open the subject up to discussion involving other languages and culturesother languages and cultures

A different discourse?A different discourse?

Taste for ‘copiousness’ Taste for ‘copiousness’ (general ‘wordiness’ and (general ‘wordiness’ and redundancy);redundancy);

Preference for high-flown Preference for high-flown erudite register (complex erudite register (complex syntax; lexical syntax; lexical abstraction, etc); abstraction, etc);

Propensity for indirectness Propensity for indirectness (main idea often (main idea often embedded, adorned or embedded, adorned or deferred at all ranks);deferred at all ranks);

Presence of literary Presence of literary devices and rhetorical devices and rhetorical features.features.

Clarity, economy and Clarity, economy and precision;precision;

Straightforward syntax; Straightforward syntax; Clearly-defined lexis, with Clearly-defined lexis, with

preference for concrete preference for concrete terms over abstractions;terms over abstractions;

Structured rational Structured rational argument supported by argument supported by evidence;evidence;

Avoidance of ‘dubious Avoidance of ‘dubious persuasive techniques’ and persuasive techniques’ and figurative languagefigurative language..

I. Academic Discourse in PortugalI. Academic Discourse in Portugal

1)1) Corpus of Portuguese Academic TextsCorpus of Portuguese Academic Texts2)2) Review of Portuguese Academic Style Review of Portuguese Academic Style

Manuals Manuals 3)3) Survey of Portuguese ResearchersSurvey of Portuguese Researchers

Academic Discourses in PortugalAcademic Discourses in Portugal

1)1) The ‘modern’ styleThe ‘modern’ style: ‘windowpane prose’ - : ‘windowpane prose’ - identical to EAD in all respects; prevalent in identical to EAD in all respects; prevalent in more ‘scientific’ subjects;more ‘scientific’ subjects;

2)2) The ‘traditional’ styleThe ‘traditional’ style: ornate, rhetorical, : ornate, rhetorical, ‘literary’; prevalent in humanities subjects ‘literary’; prevalent in humanities subjects and many social sciences;and many social sciences;

3)3) The ‘postmodern’ styleThe ‘postmodern’ style: modelled on : modelled on poststructuralist discourse; prevalent in ‘arty’ poststructuralist discourse; prevalent in ‘arty’ subjects and some humanities writingsubjects and some humanities writing

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Graph 1. Variance Factor (%): Complete corpus (word count)

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Graph 2. Variance Factor (%): Humanities and Social Science texts (word count)

Enquanto a Europa se desenvolve até a era quatrocentista, à beira do oceano mas sem que a sua vida por ele seja penetrada e sem que por ele se aventure, ao redor do Índico as diferentes populações vão-se interligando pelas vias marítimas e as suas economias não dispensam tais conexões longínquas de navegação; o complexo europeu é predominantemente mediterrâneo e não se abre a poente, onde é meramente costeiro: a África setentrional liga-se ao complexo mediterrâneo, a ocidental permanence mole de terra firme sem respiração marinha; em contraste, o Oriente afro-asiático é oceânico.

Extract 1. Vitorino Magalhães Godinho, ‘O oceano Índico de 3000 a.C. até o século XVII’ in Ensaios, Vol. I. Lisbon, 1968.

E, ainda antes de avançarmos, seja-nos permitido relevar, por um lado, a dimensão do modo de vida dos que não só em Lisboa, como no Porto e em outras cidades e vilas litorâneas, se dedicavam aos serviços da fretagem naval, bem como ao transporte de encomendas e ao comércio marítimo, a ponto de uma outra carta régia, também de 1414, para evitar burocracias excessivas, aceitar como prova dos direitos alfandegários o juramento dos mestres do navios reinóis e dos mercadores que fretassem navios estrangeiros; por outro, registe-se a já crónica dependência nacional em relação ao trigo de fora, designadamente ao do Noroeste Europeu e do Mediterráneo.

Extract 2. João Marinho dos Santos (1993). Reproduced with the kind permission of the author.

As Ordens Militares existiram em toda a Cristandade e não apenas na Terra Santa. Em parte, a sua implantação na Península deve-se à necessidade de aplicar o conceito de cruzada, no âmbito das alterações que marcaram a organização social na viragem do 1º para o 2º milénio.

Neste trabalho partimos da concepção pluralista da cruzada, que a define como uma forma particular de guerra santa cristã, penitencial, associada à peregrinação, mas que se manifesta em diversos espaços. Assim, é definida pelas suas origens e características e não pelo seu destino – Jerusalém.

Extract 3. Paula Pinto Costa (2007). Reproduced with the kind permission of the author.

Hybrid textHybrid text(Schäffner & Adab, 1995: 325)(Schäffner & Adab, 1995: 325)

“A hybrid text is a text that results from a translational process. It shows features that somehow seem ‘out of place‘ / ‘strange’ / ‘unusual’ for the receiving culture, i.e. target culture. These features, however, are not the result of a lack of translational competence or examples of ‘translationese’, but they are evidence of conscious and deliberate decisions by the translator. Although the text is not yet fully established in the target culture (because it does not conform to established norms and conventions), a hybrid text is accepted in its target culture because it fulfils its intended purpose in the communicative situation (at least for a certain time).”

To what extent does language contact in translating affect target text production beyond lexical borrowings to take the form of the transfer of patterns such as syntactic constructs, reproduction of source text repetition and cohesion?

Adapted from Musacchio (2005: 73)

See also: House (2006, 2008), Baumgarten et al. (2004)

HypothesisHypothesis

Effect of English on Italian economics articlesEffect of English on Italian economics articles

(Musacchio, 2005:93)(Musacchio, 2005:93)• LexisLexis: :

Loan words, loan translations, Loan words, loan translations, formation of formation of compound terms, phraseology and figurative compound terms, phraseology and figurative languagelanguage

• SyntaxSyntax: : CClose rendering of syntactic constructs; repetition; lose rendering of syntactic constructs; repetition;

higher frequency of cohesive links such as higher frequency of cohesive links such as coordinators, subordinators, possessive determiners coordinators, subordinators, possessive determiners and demonstrative pronounsand demonstrative pronouns

Influence of English on German popular Influence of English on German popular science and economics texts science and economics texts

(House, 2008: 92)(House, 2008: 92)

“… “…analyses of most recent popular science analyses of most recent popular science and economic texts do in fact point to a shift in and economic texts do in fact point to a shift in the use of those linguistic means which realise the use of those linguistic means which realise the interpersonal function component, in the interpersonal function component, in particular linguistic means of expressing particular linguistic means of expressing ‘stance’, ‘subjectivity’, ‘point of view’ and ‘stance’, ‘subjectivity’, ‘point of view’ and addressee orientation.”addressee orientation.”

II. The changing discourse of historyII. The changing discourse of history

To what are extent changes in Portuguese To what are extent changes in Portuguese historiographic discourse due to the influence historiographic discourse due to the influence of translated texts?of translated texts?

MethodMethod

Assess the prevalence of works translated from Assess the prevalence of works translated from English into Portuguese in history libraries English into Portuguese in history libraries (Institute of Social and Economic History, University of (Institute of Social and Economic History, University of Coimbra)Coimbra)

Analyse those translations to determine the Analyse those translations to determine the

strategy used strategy used (prevalence of DDFs)(prevalence of DDFs)

Institute of Social and Economic History, Institute of Social and Economic History, University of CoimbraUniversity of Coimbra

(total holdings - 21892 volumes / 10000 acquired since 1985)(total holdings - 21892 volumes / 10000 acquired since 1985)

33% 33% foreignforeign (i.e. non-Portuguese) works (i.e. non-Portuguese) works 78% are 78% are untranslateduntranslated (French – 58%; Spanish – 19%; (French – 58%; Spanish – 19%;

English – 18%)English – 18%) 22% are 22% are translatedtranslated (76% in Portuguese)(76% in Portuguese)

63% from French63% from French

35% from English35% from English

↓↓

Projected presence of Eng→Port translations Projected presence of Eng→Port translations

(approx. 2.5% of total holdings)(approx. 2.5% of total holdings)

Preliminary ResultsPreliminary Results

Prevalence of untranslated foreign textsPrevalence of untranslated foreign texts Great influence of French (untranslated and Great influence of French (untranslated and

translated texts) upon Portuguese historytranslated texts) upon Portuguese history French and English works of different natureFrench and English works of different nature

↓↓

accounts for why the traditional discourse in accounts for why the traditional discourse in Portuguese has persisted for so long Portuguese has persisted for so long

Mechanisms of language change in Mechanisms of language change in the era of globalizationthe era of globalization

1) Calquing through imitation: “unconscious 1) Calquing through imitation: “unconscious imbibing of a dominant language” (Cronin, imbibing of a dominant language” (Cronin, 2010: 251)2010: 251)

2) Authorial self-censorship: removal of DDFs 2) Authorial self-censorship: removal of DDFs prior to translationprior to translation

Self-censorship by authors writing Self-censorship by authors writing for international public for international public

(Bennett, 2010b; 2011)(Bennett, 2010b; 2011)

General orientationGeneral orientation: : more factual / pragmaticmore factual / pragmatic

/ technical; concrete rather than abstract / technical; concrete rather than abstract StructureStructure: argument clearer / more linear; text : argument clearer / more linear; text

& paragraphs more rigidly organised& paragraphs more rigidly organised StyleStyle: more precise; more succinct; less : more precise; more succinct; less

elaborate; more limited vocabulary; less elaborate; more limited vocabulary; less rhetorical or figurative devicesrhetorical or figurative devices

Historical situations where translation has Historical situations where translation has played a role in language changeplayed a role in language change

C12: calques onto Latin of terminology and C12: calques onto Latin of terminology and grammatical structures from Greek and Arabic grammatical structures from Greek and Arabic (Montgomery, 2000:148-9)(Montgomery, 2000:148-9)

Late C19: systematic translation of Western Late C19: systematic translation of Western science into Chinese (science into Chinese (Wright, 2009)Wright, 2009)

C19: deliberate imposition of scientific C19: deliberate imposition of scientific discourse onto Indian languages (discourse onto Indian languages (Dodson, Dodson, 2009)2009)

C21: creation of language of science in ArabicC21: creation of language of science in Arabic

Topics that could be elaborated onTopics that could be elaborated on

Reactions of Portuguese researchers to Reactions of Portuguese researchers to encroachment of Englishencroachment of English

Appearance and development of Portuguese Appearance and development of Portuguese academic style manualsacademic style manuals

The ‘worldview’ encoded into EADThe ‘worldview’ encoded into EAD The ‘worldview’ encoded into Portuguese The ‘worldview’ encoded into Portuguese

(Spanish/French) humanities discourse(Spanish/French) humanities discourse Translation strategiesTranslation strategies

Possible discussion questionsPossible discussion questions

In your culture, does there exist a ‘traditional’ In your culture, does there exist a ‘traditional’ discourse of knowledge that is different from EAD? discourse of knowledge that is different from EAD? Is it under pressure to change?Is it under pressure to change?

How is academic discourse translated in your culture How is academic discourse translated in your culture (to and from English)?(to and from English)?

Is the spread of EAD a good thing (i.e. promoting Is the spread of EAD a good thing (i.e. promoting international communication) or is it leading to an international communication) or is it leading to an ‘epistemological monoculture’?‘epistemological monoculture’?

Can translators do anything to impede the process of Can translators do anything to impede the process of linguistic imperialism in the academic sphere? linguistic imperialism in the academic sphere?