Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Dr. Carl Le Roux,MB

© Jan 2017– All Rights Reserved

Page 1

“EXPECT TO BE HEALTHY AND YOU ARE NOW”

Alter a belief and you can change reality. What we believe, determines what we make

true. By repeating the healing language, I am telling my unconscious mind it is OK to heal my body

with the help of Archangel Raphael.

Quantum Mechanics (QM), also known as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a fundamental branch of physics which deals with physical phenomena at nanoscopic scales, where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.

The Planck constant, denoted h, (also called Planck's constant) is a physical constant that is the quantum of action in quantum mechanics. A quantum (plural: quanta) is the minimum amount of any physical entity involved in an interaction.

Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive aspects and results of quantum mechanics have provoked strong philosophical debates and many interpretations. Richard Feynman once said, "I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics." According to Steven Weinberg, "There is now in my opinion no entirely satisfactory interpretation of quantum mechanics."

Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our universe. Quantum mechanics is often the only tool available that can reveal the individual behaviors of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matter (electrons, protons, neutrons, photons and others).

SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

QUANTUM THEORY

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Dr. Carl Le Roux,MB

© Jan 2017– All Rights Reserved

Page 2

Sub-atomic particles do “weird” things in the microscopic world (10 billionth of a meter). These particles can go through solid objects with ease, can be in multiple places at the same time and can seemingly go backwards in time and change the past. It is like throwing a baseball to 1st base and home plate at the same time or to change the seemingly pre-determent outcome of a play while it is still going on.

“Quantum Entanglement” is two particles communicating across the universe instantly. In Quantum physics, what happens to an object in one place, can instantly affect what happens to an object in another place and the 2nd place can be millions of miles away. When two sub-atomic particles interact, they can become entangled – that means their spin, position and other properties become entangled through a process unknown to modern science.

When you make a measurement of one particle in one place that instantaneously determines what the behaviour of the other particle in a different location should be. That’s weird! That means information has travelled instantaneously, faster than the speed of light, from one particle to another. Also, often human observation seems to decide what happens. It seems that the behaviour of quantum mechanics is different when we are looking at it, compared to when we are not looking at it. This profound conclusion comes from performing the ‘double hole experiment’. “Spooky action at a distance” as Einstein called it.

When scientists observe the microscopic world, they find it is governed by rules that are incomprehensible to those of us in the normal world.

Quantum entanglement can one day help humans to communicate over vast distances instantly. It can transform modern computing – using cubits (quantum bits instead of computer bits) to perform many calculations at the same time.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Dr. Carl Le Roux,MB

© Jan 2017– All Rights Reserved

Page 3

(It is being tested at the University of Massachusetts).

One of the most famous experiments in Quantum physics shows how one object can be in two places at the same time. A result that startled Einstein. This experiment was done over a century ago by firing photons of light through a metal plate with two slits. The light that went through the holes hit a screen behind the plate. If you throw a baseball through the two holes, they will form a predictable pattern. They will be in one place or another. That’s natural, it is what we expect.

In the microscopic universe, when we use electrons (10 trillion times smaller than a baseball), we get an odd result. Wavelike properties - the particles go through both holes at the same time and interfere with themselves.

How can particles exhibit wavelike properties? Do they clone themselves in mid-air? After years of study, scientists still don’t know what’s happening and how.

They didn’t just look at what happened to particles as they landed on the screen, but what happened to them as they passed through the holes. When scientists observed them going through the holes they behaved like baseballs did – as we expect the particles to. When scientists weren’t watching, the electrons behaved like waves, but not both at the same time.

Observation seems to change behaviour of the sub-atomic particles. When we look, the particles go through one hole or the other; when we don’t look, they go through both holes. This is what’s called the “Quantum enigma”

To make an observation, you somehow have to interact with it. For example, to shine light on an object and have the light bounce off an object – it does not affect macroscopic particles much, but it affects macroscopic particles. It changes where it is and how it’s moving. It doesn’t explain why observation

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Dr. Carl Le Roux,MB

© Jan 2017– All Rights Reserved

Page 4

doesn’t just change the direction of the particles, but why it changes the nature of the particles when being observed. We don’t know – that’s why Quantum mechanics is difficult. Einstein said he didn’t believe in Quantum mechanics, because he believed that the moon was there even when he wasn’t looking. He was referring to the implication of Quantum mechanics theory – that the moon isn’t anywhere until it is observed!

A “high tech” version of the double hole experiment was developed. Its results call into question our perception of time itself. Electrons are fired toward a barrier with two holes in it, but the scientists can delay their decision about whether to observe the electrons until after they passed through the holes, but before they hit the wall behind.

At that moment of observation, the electrons in essence become particles (instead of waves) and seemingly always were particles from the time they left the electron gun. So it’s as though they went back in time to before they went through the holes and decided to go through one or the other - and not through both as they would when behaving like waves. That’s the enigma – that our choice of what experiment to do determines the prior state of the electron. Somehow or another we had an influence that appears to travel backwards in time.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 5

The nervous system is the part of the body that coordinates its voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of its body. In most species, it consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or axons that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS includes motor

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 6

neurons, mediating voluntary movement; the autonomic nervous system, comprising the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system, which regulate involuntary functions, and the enteric nervous system, which functions to control the gastrointestinal system.

At the cellular level, the nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell, called the neuron, also known as a "nerve cell". Neurons have special structures that allow them to send signals rapidly and precisely to other cells. They send these signals in the form of electrochemical waves traveling along thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses.

The central nervous system functions to send signals from one cell to others or from one part of the body to others and to receive feedback. Malfunction of the nervous system can occur as a result of genetic defects, physical damage due to trauma or toxicity, infection or simply ageing. In the peripheral nervous system, the most common problem is the failure of nerve conduction, which can be due to different causes including diabetic neuropathy and demyelinating disorders such as multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Cells The nervous system contains two main categories or types of cells: neurons and glial cells.

Neurons The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell - the neuron (sometimes called "nerve cell"). Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number of ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells via synapses, which are membrane-to-membrane junctions containing molecular

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 7

machinery that allows rapid transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical.

Glial cells Glial cells (named from the Greek for "glue") are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition. Among the most important functions of glial cells are to support neurons and hold them in place; to supply nutrients to neurons; to insulate neurons electrically; to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons.

Function At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others or from one part of the body to others.

At a more integrative level, the primary function of the nervous system is to control the body. It does this by extracting information from the environment using sensory receptors, sending signals that encode this information into the central nervous system, processing the information to determine an appropriate response, and sending output signals to muscles or glands to activate the response. The evolution of a complex nervous system has made it possible for various species to have advanced perception abilities such as vision, complex social interactions, rapid coordination of organ systems and integrated processing of concurrent signals. In humans, the sophistication of the nervous system makes it possible to have language, abstract representation of concepts, transmission of culture, and many other features of human society that would not exist without the human brain.

Major elements in synaptic transmission - An electrochemical wave called an action potential travels along the axon of a neuron. When the wave reaches a synapse, it provokes release of a small amount of neurotransmitter molecules, which

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 8

bind to chemical receptor molecules located in the membrane of the target cell.

Pathology The central nervous system is protected by major physical and chemical barriers. Physically, the brain and spinal cord are surrounded by tough meningeal membranes and enclosed in the bones of the skull and spinal vertebrae, which combine to form a strong physical shield. Chemically, the brain and spinal cord are isolated by the so-called blood–brain barrier, which

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 9

prevents most types of chemicals from moving from the bloodstream into the interior of the CNS. These protections make the CNS less susceptible in many ways than the PNS; the flip side, however, is that damage to the CNS tends to have more serious consequences.

Although nerves tend to lie deep under the skin, except in a few places such as the ulnar nerve near the elbow joint, they are still relatively exposed to physical damage, which can cause pain, loss of sensation or loss of muscle control. Damage to nerves can also be caused by swelling or bruises at places where a nerve passes through a tight bony channel, as happens in carpal tunnel syndrome. If a nerve is completely transected, it will often regenerate, but for long nerves this process may take months to complete. In addition to physical damage, peripheral neuropathy may be caused by many other medical problems, including genetic conditions, metabolic conditions such as diabetes, inflammatory conditions such as Guillain–Barré syndrome, vitamin deficiency, infectious diseases such as leprosy or shingles, or poisoning by toxins such as heavy metals. Many cases have no cause that can be identified, and are referred to as idiopathic. It is also possible for nerves to lose function temporarily, resulting in numbness as stiffness - common causes include mechanical pressure, a drop in temperature or chemical interactions with local anesthetic drugs, such as lidocaine.

Physical damage to the spinal cord may result in loss of sensation or movement. If an injury to the spine produces nothing worse than swelling, the symptoms may be transient, but if nerve fibers in the spine are actually destroyed, the loss of function is usually permanent. Experimental studies have shown that spinal nerve fibers attempt to regrow in the same way as nerve fibers, but in the spinal cord, tissue destruction usually produces scar tissue that cannot be penetrated by the regrowing nerves.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 10

The immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Pathogens can rapidly evolve and adapt, and thereby avoid detection and neutralization by the immune system; however, multiple defense mechanisms have also evolved to recognize and neutralize pathogens.

Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer. Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections.

Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical and biological barriers. The waxy cuticle of many leaves, the exoskeleton of insects, the shells and membranes of externally deposited eggs, and skin are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection

However, as organisms cannot be completely sealed from their environments, other systems act to protect body openings such as the lungs, intestines and the genitourinary tract. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract. The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens, while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms.

Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete antimicrobial peptides. Enzymes saliva, tears and breast milk are also anti-bacterials. In the

IMMUNE SYSTEM

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 11

stomach, gastric acid and proteases serve as powerful chemical defenses against ingested pathogens.

Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection. The symptoms of inflammation are redness, swelling, heat and pain, which are caused by increased blood flow into tissue.

The complement system is a biochemical cascade that attacks the surfaces of foreign cells. It contains over 20 different proteins and is named for its ability to "complement" the killing of pathogens by antibodies.

Leukocytes (white blood cells) act like independent, single- celled organisms. These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing microorganisms.

Natural killer cells Natural killer cells, or NK cells, are a component of the innate immune system which does not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self." This term describes cells with low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (major histocompatibility complex) – a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells. They were named "natural killer" because of the initial notion that they do not require activation in order to kill cells that are "missing self." For many years it was unclear how NK cells recognize tumor cells and infected cells. It is now known that the MHC makeup on the surface of those cells is altered and the NK cells become activated through recognition of "missing self". Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors (KIR) which essentially put the brakes on NK cells.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 12

The endocrine system refers to the collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards a distant target organ. The major endocrine glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus, gastrointestinal tract and adrenal glands

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 13

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 14

Hypothalamus

Secreted Hormone Effect Thyrotropin- releasing hormone

Stimulate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) release from anterior pituitary (primarily)

Dopamine (Prolactin- inhibiting hormone)

Inhibit prolactin released from anterior pituitary

Growth hormone- releasing hormone

Stimulate Growth hormone (GH) release from anterior pituitary

Somatostatin (growth hormone- inhibiting hormone)

Inhibit Growth hormone (GH) release from anterior pituitary Inhibit thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) release from anterior pituitary

Gonadotropin- releasing hormone

Stimulate follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) release from anterior pituitary Stimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) release from anterior pituitary

Corticotropin- releasing hormone

Stimulate adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release from anterior pituitary

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)

Increases water permeability in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorption and increasing blood volume

Pineal body

Secreted Hormone

Effect

Melatonin Antioxidant. Monitors the circadian rhythm including induction of drowsiness and lowering of the core body temperature

Pituitary Gland The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold. The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem or pituitary stalk. The pituitary fossa, in

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 15

which the pituitary gland sits, is situated in the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis and the secretion of other hormones.

Anterior pituitary lobe Secreted Hormone

Effect

Growth hormone (somatotropin)

Stimulates growth and cell reproduction Stimulates Insulin-like growth factor 1 release from liver

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)

Stimulates thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) synthesis and release from thyroid gland Stimulates iodine absorption by thyroid gland

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin)

Stimulates corticosteroid (glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid) and androgen synthesis and release from adrenocortical cells

Beta-endorphin Inhibits perception of pain Follicle-stimulating hormone

In females: Stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles in ovary In males: Stimulates maturation of seminiferous tubules In males: Stimulates spermatogenesis In males: Stimulates production of androgen- binding protein from Sertoli cells of the testes

Luteinizing hormone

In females: Stimulates ovulation In females: Stimulates formation of corpus luteum In males: Stimulates testosterone synthesis from Leydig cells (interstitial cells)

Prolactin Stimulates milk synthesis and release from mammary glands Mediates sexual gratification

Melanocyte- stimulating hormone

Stimulates melanin synthesis and release from skin/hair melanocytes

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 16

Posterior pituitary lobe Secreted Hormone

Effect

Oxytocin In females: uterine contraction during birthing, lactation (letdown reflex) when nursing

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) (ADH or AVP)

Increases water permeability in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorption and increasing blood volume

Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone are not secreted in the posterior lobe, merely stored.

Thyroid

Secreted Hormone

Effect

Triiodothyronine (T3)

(More potent form of thyroid hormone) Stimulates body oxygen and energy consumption, thereby increasing the basal metabolic rate Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II, thereby promoting protein synthesis

Thyroxine (T4) (tetra iodothyronine)

(Less active form of thyroid hormone) (Acts as a prohormone to triiodothyronine) Stimulates body oxygen and energy consumption, thereby increasing the basal metabolic rate Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II, thereby promoting protein synthesis

Calcitonin Stimulates osteoblasts and thus bone construction Inhibits Ca2+ release from bone, thereby reducing blood Ca2+

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 17

Alimentary System

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 18

Stomach

Secreted Hormone

Effect

Gastrin (Primarily)

Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells

Ghrelin Stimulate appetite, Secretion of growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland

Neuropeptide Y Increased food intake and decreased physical activity. It can be associated with obesity.

Somatostatin Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine.

Histamine Stimulate gastric acid secretion Endothelin Smooth muscle contraction of stomach

Duodenum (small intestine)

Secreted Hormone

Effect

Secretin Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's glands Enhances effects of cholecystokinin, stops production of gastric juice

Cholecystokinin Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas Release of bile from gallbladder, hunger suppressant

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 19

Liver

Secreted Hormone

Effect

Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin) (Primarily) (IGF)

Insulin-like effects Regulate cell growth and development

Angiotensinogen and angiotensin

vasoconstriction release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen.

Thrombopoietin (THPO)

stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets

Hepcidin inhibits intestinal iron absorption and iron release by macrophages

Pancreas Pancreas is a mixed endocrine and exocrine gland and it secretes both enzymes and hormones.

Secreted Hormone

Effect

Insulin (Primarily) Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes Other anabolic effects

Glucagon (Also Primarily)

Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver increases blood glucose level

Somatostatin Inhibit release of insulin Inhibit release of glucagon. Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas.

Pancreatic polypeptide

Self-regulate the pancreas secretion activities and effect the hepatic glycogen levels.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 20

Kidney

Secreted hormone Effect

Renin (Primarily) Activates the renin-angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen

Erythropoietin (EPO) Stimulate erythrocyte production

Calcitriol (1,25- dihydroxyvitamin D3)

Active form of vitamin D3

Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH

Thrombopoietin stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets]

Adrenal glands Adrenal cortex

Secreted Hormone Effect Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol)

Stimulates gluconeogenesis Stimulates fat breakdown in adipose tissue Inhibits protein synthesis Inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Inhibits immunological responses (immunosuppressive) Inhibits inflammatory responses (anti- inflammatory)

Mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone)

Stimulates active sodium reabsorption in kidneys Stimulates passive water reabsorption in kidneys, thus increasing blood volume and blood pressure Stimulates potassium and H+ secretion into nephron of kidney and subsequent excretion

Androgens (including DHEA and testosterone)

In males: Relatively small effect compared to androgens from testes In females: masculinizing effects

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 21

Adrenal Medulla

Secreted Hormone Effect Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Primarily)

Fight-or-flight response: • Boost the supply of oxygen and

glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells)

• Dilate the pupils • Suppress non-emergency bodily

processes (e.g., digestion) Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

Fight-or-flight response: • Boost the supply of oxygen and

glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells)

• Increase skeletal muscle readiness. Dopamine Increase heart rate and blood pressure Enkephalin Regulate pain

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 22

Testes

Secreted Hormone

Effect

Androgens (chiefly testosterone)

Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength, Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair.

Estradiol Prevent apoptosis of germ cells Inhibin Inhibit production of FSH

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 23

Ovarian Follicle and Corpus Luteum

Secreted Hormone

Effect

Progesterone Support pregnancy: • Convert endometrium to secretory stage • Make cervical mucus thick and

impenetrable to sperm. • Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the

human embryo • Decrease uterine smooth muscle

contractility • Inhibit lactation • Inhibit onset of labor. Other: • Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels • Increase core temperature during ovulation • Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle

(widen bronchi and regulate mucus) Anti-inflammatory • Reduce gall-bladder activity • Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone,

zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy

• Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts

• Increase resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament, and skin

• Promote healing by regulating collagen • Provide nerve function and healing by

regulating myelin • Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating

effects of estrogen Androstenedione Substrate for estrogen Estrogens (mainly estradiol)

Structural: • Promote formation of female secondary sex

characteristics • Accelerate height growth • Accelerate metabolism (burn fat) • Reduce muscle mass • Stimulate endometrial growth • Increase uterine growth

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 24

• Maintain blood vessels and skin • Reduce bone resorption, increase bone

formation Protein synthesis: • Increase hepatic production of binding

proteins Coagulation: • Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9,

10, antithrombin III, plasminogen • Increase platelet adhesiveness • Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth • Decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance: • Regulate salt (sodium) and water retention • Increase growth hormone • Increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract: • Reduce bowel motility • Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin: • Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer: • Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers

(Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.)

Lung function: • Promote lung function by supporting

alveoli. Inhibin Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 25

Placenta (When Pregnant)

Secreted hormone

Effect

Progesterone (Primarily)

Support pregnancy: • Inhibit immune response, towards the fetus. • Decrease uterine smooth muscle

contractility • Inhibit lactation • Inhibit onset of labor. • Support fetal production of adrenal

mineralo- and glucosteroids. Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone

Estrogens (mainly Estriol) (Also Primarily)

Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

Promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo.

Human placental lactogen (HPL)

Increase production of insulin and IGF-1 Increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance

Inhibin Suppress FSH

Uterus (When Pregnant)

Secreted Hormone

From cells

Effect

Prolactin (PRL) Decidual cells

Milk production in mammary glands

Relaxin Decidual cells

Unclear in humans and animals

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 26

Parathyroid

Secreted Hormone

Effect

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Calcium: • Stimulates Ca2+ release from bone, thereby

increasing blood Ca2+

• Stimulates osteoclasts, thus breaking down bone

• Stimulates Ca2+ reabsorption in kidney • Stimulates activated vitamin D production in

kidney Phosphate: • Stimulates PO3− release from bones, thereby 4

increasing blood PO3− . 4 • Inhibits PO3− reabsorption in kidney, so more 4

PO3− 4 is excreted

• Overall, small net drop in serum PO3− . 4

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 27

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 28

The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones and blood cells to/from cells in the body to nourish it and help fight diseases, stabilize body temperature and pH, and to maintain homeostasis. Examples of homeostasis include regulation of temperature and balance between acidity and alkalinity (pH).

The circulatory system is often seen to comprise both the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph. These are two separate systems. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets that is circulated by the heart through the vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning 'heart'-'vessel') system comprises the blood, heart and blood vessels. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.

Kidneys are used to remove excess water and ions from the blood. These are then expelled as urine. Kidneys perform a vital role in homeostatic regulation, removing excess water, salt and urea from the blood. If the water content of the blood and lymph fluid falls, it is restored in the first instance by extracting water from the cells. The throat and mouth become dry so that the symptoms of thirst motivate a person to drink. If the oxygen content of the blood falls, or the carbon-dioxide concentration increases, blood flow is increased by more vigorous heart action and the speed and depth of breathing increases.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 29

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 30

The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system, comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph (from Latin lympha meaning water) directionally towards the heart.

The human circulatory system processes an average of 20 litres of blood per day through capillary filtration which removes plasma while leaving the blood cells. Roughly 17 litres of the filtered plasma get reabsorbed directly into the blood vessels, while the remaining 3 litres are left behind in the interstitial fluid.

One of the main functions of the lymph system is to provide an accessory return route to the blood for the surplus 3 litres. The other main function is that of defense in the immune system. Lymph is very similar to blood plasma but contains lymphocytes and other white blood cells

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 31

Lymphoid tissue associated with the lymphatic system is concerned with immune functions in defending the body against infections and the spread of tumors.

The spleen and the thymus are also lymphoid organs of the immune system. The tonsils are lymphoid organs that are also associated with the digestive system.

The thymus and the bone marrow constitute the primary lymphoid organs involved in the production and early clonal selection of lymphocyte tissues. Bone marrow is responsible for both the creation of T cells and the production and maturation of B cells. From the bone marrow, B cells immediately join the blood system and travel to secondary lymphoid organs in search of pathogens. T cells, on the other hand, travel from the bone marrow to the thymus, where they are allowed to develop further. Mature T cells join B cells in search of pathogens.

The spleen synthesizes antibodies in its white pulp and removes antibody-coated bacteria and antibody-coated blood cells by way of blood and lymph node circulation.

A lymph node is an organized collection of lymphoid tissue, through which the lymph passes on its way back to the blood. Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymphatic system.

The lymphatic system has multiple interrelated functions: • It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from

tissues • It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle from

the digestive system • It transports white blood cells to and from the lymph nodes

into the bones • The lymph transports antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such

as dendritic cells, to the lymph nodes where an immune response is stimulated.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 32

The human musculoskeletal system (also known as the locomotor system, and previously the activity system) is an organ system that gives humans the ability to move using their muscular and skeletal systems. The musculoskeletal system provides form, support, stability, and movement to the body.

It is made up of the bones of the skeleton, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other connective tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together. The musculoskeletal system's primary functions include supporting the body, allowing motion and protecting vital organs

The skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of the hematopoietic system.

This system describes how bones are connected to other bones and muscle fibers via connective tissue such as tendons and ligaments. The bones provide stability to the body. Muscles keep bones in place and also play a role in the movement of bones. To allow motion, different bones are connected by joints. Cartilage prevents the bone ends from rubbing directly onto each other. Muscles contract to move the bone attached at the joint.

MUSCULO-SKELETAL SYSTEM

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 33

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 34

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 35

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 36

There are several organs and other components involved in the digestion of food and the largest structure of the digestive system is the gastrointestinal tract (GI), which starts at the mouth and ends at the anus, covering a distance of about nine metres.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 37

The spleen breaks down both red and white blood cells that are spent. This is why it is sometimes known as the 'graveyard of red blood cells'.

A product of this digestion is the pigment bilirubin which is sent to the liver and secreted in the bile. Another product is iron, which is used in the formation of new blood cells in the bone marrow. Western medicine treats the spleen solely as belonging to the lymphatic system, though it is acknowledged that the full range of its important functions is not yet understood. In contrast to this view, traditional Chinese medicine sees the spleen to be of central importance in the digestive system. The role of the spleen is seen to affect the health and vitality of the body in its turning of digested material from the stomach into usable nutrients and energy. Symptoms that include poor appetite, indigestion, bloating and jaundice, are seen to be indications of an imbalance in the spleen. The spleen is further seen to play a part in the metabolism of water, in ridding the body of excess fluid. In the west, the spleen is seen to be paired with the stomach but in Chinese medicine, reference is made to the spleen system, which involves the pancreas. Fluids in the body are seen in traditional Chinese medicine to be under the control of the spleen. Fluids include digestive enzymes, saliva, mucous, fluid in the joints, tears, sweat and urine. They are categorized as thin and thick and together they are seen as nourishing all tissues and organs. In acupuncture, two widely used acupuncture points - the stomach (close to the knee) and the spleen (halfway down from the knee) have long been seen to be connected and involved in digestive issues.

The liver is the second largest organ (after the skin) and is an accessory digestive gland which plays a role in the body's metabolism. The liver has many functions some of which are important to digestion. The liver can detoxify various metabolites; synthesize proteins and produce biochemicals

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 38

needed for digestion. It regulates the storage of glycogen which it can form from glucose (glycogenesis). The liver can also synthesize glucose from certain amino acids. Its digestive functions are largely involved with the breaking down of carbohydrates. It also maintains protein metabolism in its synthesis and degradation. In lipid metabolism, it synthesizes cholesterol. Fats are also produced in the process of lipogenesis. The liver synthesizes the bulk of lipoproteins. The liver is located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen and below the diaphragm to which it is attached at one part. This is to the right of the stomach and it overlies the gall bladder. The liver produces bile, an important alkaline compound which aids digestion.

The pancreas is a major organ functioning as an accessory digestive gland in the digestive system. The endocrine part secretes insulin when the blood sugar becomes high; insulin moves glucose from the blood into the muscles and other tissues for use as energy. The exocrine part releases glucagon when the blood sugar is low; glucagon allows stored sugar to be broken down into glucose by the liver in order to re–balance the sugar levels. Digestive enzymes are also produced.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 39

The respiratory system (also called respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 40

In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings, respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs. The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation, and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation; this process is collectively called breathing or ventilation. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs and diaphragm. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveoli air sacs in the lungs.

Control Ventilation occurs under the control of the autonomic nervous system from parts of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata and the pons. This area of the brain forms the respiration regulatory center, a series of interconnected brain cells within the lower and middle brain stem which coordinate respiratory movements.

Inhalation Inhalation is initiated by the diaphragm and supported by the external intercostal muscles. Normal resting respirations are 10 to 18 breaths per minute, with a time period of 2 seconds.

Exhalation Exhalation is generally a passive process; however active or forced exhalation is achieved by abdominal and internal intercostal muscles. During this process air is forced or exhaled out.

Gas exchange The major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange between the external environment and an organism's circulatory system. In humans and other mammals, this exchange facilitates oxygenation of the blood with a

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 41

concomitant removal of carbon dioxide and other gaseous metabolic wastes from the circulation.

Immune functions Airway epithelial cells can secrete a variety of molecules that aid in the defense of lungs. These secretions can act directly as antimicrobials to help keep the airway free of infection.

Vocalization The movement of gas through the larynx (vocal cords), pharynx and mouth allows humans to speak. Because of this, gas movement is extremely vital for communication purposes.

Coughing and sneezing Irritation of nerves within the nasal passages or airways, can induce a cough reflex and sneezing. These responses cause air to be expelled forcefully from the trachea or nose, respectively. In this manner, irritants caught in the mucus which lines the respiratory tract are expelled or moved to the mouth where they can be swallowed.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 42

The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body.

In a typical human, the cerebral cortex (the largest part) is estimated to contain 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called ‘action potentials’ to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.

Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.

Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a biological computer, very different in mechanism from an electronic computer, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world, stores it, and processes it in a variety of ways.

Cellular Structure The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells: neurons and glial cells. Glial cells (also known as glia or neuroglia) come in several types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation and guidance of development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances. They send these signals by means of an axon, which

THE BRAIN

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 43

is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body.

Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called synapses. Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain. The essential function of the brain is cell-to-cell communication, and synapses are the points at which communication occurs.

Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components, along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood:

• The medulla, along with the spinal cord, contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and involuntary motor functions such as vomiting and heart rate.

• The pons lies in the brainstem directly above the medulla. Among other things, it contains nuclei that control often voluntary but simple acts such as sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder function, equilibrium, eye movement, facial expressions and posture.

• The hypothalamus is a small region at the base of the forebrain, whose complexity and importance belies its size. It is composed of numerous small nuclei, each with distinct connections and neurochemistry. The hypothalamus is engaged in additional involuntary or partially voluntary acts such as sleep and wake cycles, eating and drinking and the release of some hormones.

• The thalamus is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions: some are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres, while others are involved in motivation. The subthalamic area (zona incerta) seems to contain action-generating systems for several types of

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 44

"consummatory" behaviors such as eating, drinking, defecation and copulation.

• The cerebellum modulates the outputs of other brain systems, whether motor related or thought related, to make them certain and precise. Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in, but learned by trial and error. The muscle coordination learned while riding a bicycle is an example of a type of neural plasticity that may take place largely within the cerebellum.

• The optic tectum allows actions to be directed toward points in space, most commonly in response to visual input. In mammals it is usually referred to as the superior colliculus, and its best-studied function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements and other object-directed actions. It receives strong visual inputs, but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input in owls and input from the thermosensitive pit organs in snakes. In some primitive fishes, such as lampreys, this region is the largest part of the brain. The superior colliculus is part of the midbrain.

• The pallium is a layer of gray matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain and is the most complex and most recent evolutionary development of the brain as an organ. In reptiles and mammals, it is called the cerebral cortex. Multiple functions involve the pallium, including smell and spatial memory. In mammals, where it becomes so large as to dominate the brain, it takes over functions from many other brain areas. In many mammals, the cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows or fissures called sulci. The folds increase the surface area of the cortex and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the amount of information that

can be stored and processed.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 45

• The hippocampus, strictly speaking, is found only in mammals. However, the area it derives from, the medial pallium, has counterparts in all vertebrates. There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in complex events such as spatial memory and navigation in fishes, birds, reptiles and mammals.

• The basal ganglia are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain. The primary function of the basal ganglia appears to be action selection: they send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate motor behaviors, and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition, so that the action-generating systems are able to execute their actions. Reward and punishment exert their most important neural effects by altering connections within the basal ganglia.

• The olfactory bulb is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium. It is a major brain component in many vertebrates, but is greatly reduced in humans and other primates (whose senses are dominated by information acquired by sight rather than smell).

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them - neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse’s target cell, and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids, nicotine, heroin, cocaine, alcohol, antidepressants, antipsychotics and many others.

Learning and memory Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 46

Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process.

Neuroscientists currently distinguish several types of learning and memory that are implemented by the brain in distinct ways:

• Working memory is the ability of the brain to maintain a temporary representation of information about the task that an animal is currently engaged in. This sort of dynamic memory is thought to be mediated by the formation of cell assemblies - groups of activated neurons that maintain their activity by constantly stimulating one another.

• Episodic memory is the ability to remember the details of specific events. This sort of memory can last a lifetime. Much evidence implicates the hippocampus in playing a crucial role: people with severe damage to the hippocampus sometimes show amnesia, that is, inability to form new long-lasting episodic memories.

• Semantic memory is the ability to learn facts and relationships. This sort of memory is probably stored largely in the cerebral cortex, mediated by changes in connections between cells that represent specific types of information.

• Instrumental learning is the ability for rewards and punishments to modify behavior. It is implemented by a network of brain areas centered on the basal ganglia.

• Motor learning is the ability to refine patterns of body movement by practicing or more generally by repetition. A number of brain areas are involved, including the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and especially the cerebellum, which

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 47

functions as a large memory bank for micro adjustments of the parameters of movement.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 48

HORMONE VS ENZYME A hormone is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine signaling system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signaling) or nearby cells (paracrine signaling). Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues to physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood. Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid non-genomic effects or slower genomic responses where the hormones acting through their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in increased expression of target proteins. Amino acid–based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei. Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the cardinal example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a wide range of regulatory systems. For instance, serum calcium concentration affects parathyroid hormone synthesis; blood sugar (serum glucose concentration) affects insulin synthesis; and because the outputs of the stomach and exocrine pancreas (the amounts of

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 49

gastric juice and pancreatic juice) become the input of the small intestine, the small intestine secretes hormones to stimulate or inhibit the stomach and pancreas based on how busy it is. Regulation of hormone synthesis of gonadal hormones, adrenocortical hormones, and thyroid hormones is often dependent on complex sets of direct influence and feedback interactions involving the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA), -gonadal (HPG), and -thyroid (HPT) axes. Upon secretion, certain hormones, including protein hormones and catecholamines, are water-soluble and are thus readily transported through the circulatory system. Other hormones, including steroid and thyroid hormones, are lipid-soluble; to allow for their widespread distribution, these hormones must bond to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)) to form ligand-protein complexes. Some hormones are completely active when released into the bloodstream (as is the case for insulin and growth hormones), while others are prohormones that must be activated in specific cells through a series of activation steps that are commonly highly regulated. The endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream typically into fenestrated capillaries, whereas the exocrine system secretes its hormones indirectly using ducts. Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to nearby target tissue. Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions. The molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life. The set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. The study of enzymes is called enzymology. Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types. Most enzymes are proteins, although a few are catalytic RNA molecules. Enzymes' specificity comes from their unique three-dimensional structures. Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by lowering its activation energy. Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 50

faster. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the equilibrium of a reaction. Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules: inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, and activators are molecules that increase activity. Many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH. Some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics. Some household products use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions: enzymes in biological washing powders break down protein, starch or fat stains on clothes, and enzymes in meat tenderizer break down proteins into smaller molecules, making the meat easier to chew.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 51

SYMPATHETIC VS PARASYMPTATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The sympathetic nervous system is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-or-flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis. The sympathetic nervous system is described as being complementary to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "rest-and-digest" or "Feed and breed". The name of this system can be traced to the concept of sympathy, in the sense of "connection between parts", first used medically by Galen. In the 18th century, Winslow applied the term specifically to nerves. Structure There are two kinds of neurons involved in the transmission of any signal through the sympathetic system: pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic. The shorter preganglionic neurons originate from the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord specifically at T1 to L2~L3, and travel to a ganglion, often one of the paravertebral ganglia, where they synapse with a postganglionic neuron. From there, the long postganglionic neurons extend across most of the body. At the synapses within the ganglia, preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on postganglionic neurons. In response to this stimulus postganglionic neurons—with two important exceptions—release norepinephrine, which activates adrenergic receptors on the peripheral target tissues. The activation of target tissue receptors causes the effects associated with the sympathetic system. NEXT PAGE:

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 52

The two exceptions mentioned above are postganglionic neurons of sweat glands and chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. Postganglionic neurons of sweat glands release acetylcholine for the activation of muscarinic receptors, except for areas of thick skin, the palms and the plantar surfaces of the feet, where norepinephrine is released and acts on adrenergic receptors. Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are analogous to post-ganglionic neurons; the adrenal medulla develops in tandem with the sympathetic nervous system and acts as a modified sympathetic ganglion. Within this endocrine gland, pre-ganglionic neurons synapse with chromaffin cells, stimulating the chromaffin to release norepinephrine and epinephrine directly into the blood. The sympathetic nervous system extends from the thoracic to lumbar vertebrae and has connections with the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic plexuses. To reach target organs and glands, the axons must travel long distances in the body, and, to accomplish this, many axons relay their message to a second cell through synaptic transmission. The ends of the axons link across a space, the synapse, to the dendrites of the second cell. The first cell (the presynaptic cell) sends a neurotransmitter across the synaptic cleft where it activates the second cell (the postsynaptic cell). The message is then carried to the final destination. Information transmission Messages travel through the sympathetic nervous system in a bidirectional flow. Efferent messages can trigger changes in different parts of the body simultaneously. For example, the sympathetic nervous system can accelerate heart rate; widen bronchial passages; decrease motility (movement) of the large intestine; constrict blood vessels; increase peristalsis in the esophagus; cause pupillary dilation, piloerection (goose bumps) and perspiration (sweating); and raise blood pressure. One exception is with certain blood vessels such as those in the cerebral and coronary arteries, which dilate (rather than constrict) with an increase in sympathetic tone. This is because of a proportional increase in the presence of β2 adrenergic receptors rather than α1 receptors. β2 receptors promote vessel dilation instead of constriction like α1 receptors. NEXT PAGE:

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 53

The first synapse (preganglionic neuron to postganglionic neuron) is mediated by nicotinic receptors activated by acetylcholine. The target synapse of the postganglionic neuron is mediated by adrenergic receptors and is activated by either norepinephrine (noradrenaline) or epinephrine (adrenaline). There are two exceptions to this pattern of sympathetic postganglionic receptors: First, the sweat glands receive sympathetic innervation but have muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Second, chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are technically post-ganglionic, but receive stimulation via acetylcholine to release catecholamines such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. Function

NEXT PAGE:

Organ Effect Eye Dilates pupil Heart Increases rate and force of contraction Lungs Dilates bronchioles via circulating adrenaline Blood Vessels Dilate in skeletal muscle (in animals).

Constricts in gastrointestinal organs Sweat Glands Activates sweat secretion Digestive tract Inhibits peristalsis Kidney Increases renin secretion Penis Inhibits detumescence Ductus deferens Promotes emission prior to ejaculation

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 54

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for up- and down-regulating in many homeostatic mechanisms in living organisms. Fibers from the SN innervate tissues in almost every organ system, providing at least some regulatory function to things as diverse as pupil diameter, gut motility, and urinary system output and function. It is perhaps best known for mediating the neuronal and hormonal stress response commonly known as the fight-or-flight response. This response is also known as sympatho-adrenal response of the body, as the preganglionic sympathetic fibers that end in the adrenal medulla (but also all other sympathetic fibers) secrete acetylcholine, which activates the great secretion of adrenaline (epinephrine) and to a lesser extent noradrenaline (norepinephrine) from it. Therefore, this response that acts primarily on the cardiovascular system is mediated directly via impulses transmitted through the sympathetic nervous system and indirectly via catecholamines secreted from the adrenal medulla. Relationship with the parasympathetic nervous system Together with the other component of the autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body's internal organs. Reaction to stress—as in the flight-or-fight response—is thought to counteract the parasympathetic system, which generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest. The comprehensive functions of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are not so straightforward, but this is a useful rule of thumb.

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion and defecation. Its action is described as being complementary to that of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response.

NEXT PAGE:

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 55

Nerve fibres of the parasympathetic nervous system arise from the central nervous system. Specific nerves include several cranial nerves, specifically the oculomotor nerve, facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, and vagus nerve. Three spinal nerves in the sacrum (S2-4) also act as parasympathetic nerves. These are commonly referred to as the pelvic splanchnic nerves.

Because of its location, the parasympathetic system is commonly referred to as having "craniosacral outflow", which stands in contrast to the sympathetic nervous system, which is said to have "thoracolumbar outflow".

Structure

The parasympathetic nerves are autonomic or visceral branches of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Parasympathetic nervous supply arises through three primary areas:

1. Some of the cranial nerves in the cranium, namely the preganglionic parasympathetic nerves (CN III, CN VII, and CN IX) usually arise from specific nuclei in the central nervous system (CNS) and synapse at one of four parasympathetic ganglia: ciliary, pterygopalatine, otic, or submandibular. From these four ganglia the parasympathetic nerves complete their journey to target tissues via trigeminal branches (ophthalmic nerve, maxillary nerve, mandibular nerve).

2. The vagus nerve does not participate in these cranial ganglia as most of its parasympathetic fibers are destined for a broad array of ganglia on or near thoracic viscera (esophagus, trachea, heart, lungs) and abdominal viscera (stomach, pancreas, liver, kidneys). It travels all the way down to the junction between the midgut and hindgut, just before the splenic flexure of the transverse colon.

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 56

3. The pelvic splanchnic efferent preganglionic nerve cell bodies reside in the lateral gray horn of the spinal cord at the T12-L1 vertebral levels (the spinal cord terminates at the L1-L2 vertebrae with the conus medullaris), and their axons exit the vertebral column as S2-S4 spinal nerves through the sacral foramina. Their axons continue away from the CNS to synapse at an autonomic ganglion. The parasympathetic ganglion where these preganglionic neurons synapse will be close to the organ of innervation. This differs from the sympathetic nervous system, where synapses between pre- and post-ganglionic efferent nerves in general occur at ganglia that are farther away from the target organ.

As in the sympathetic nervous system, efferent parasympathetic nerve signals are carried from the central nervous system to their targets by a system of two neurons. The first neuron in this pathway is referred to as the preganglionic or presynaptic neuron. Its cell body sits in the central nervous system and its axon usually extends to synapse with the dendrites of a postganglionic neuron somewhere else in the body. The axons of presynaptic parasympathetic neurons are usually long, extending from the CNS into a ganglion that is either very close to or embedded in their target organ. As a result, the postsynaptic parasympathetic nerve fibers are very short.

Vagus nerveThe vagus nerve, named after the Latin word vagus (because the nerve controls such a broad range of target tissues – vagus in Latin literally means "wandering"), has parasympathetic that originate in the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve and the nucleus ambiguus in the CNS. The vagus nerve is an unusual cranial parasympathetic in that it doesn't join the trigeminal nerve in order to get to its target tissues. Another peculiarity is that the vagus has an autonomic ganglion associated with it at approximately the level of C1 vertebra. The vagus gives no parasympathetic to the cranium. The vagus nerve is hard to track definitively due to its ubiquitous nature in the thorax and abdomen so the major contributions will be discussed.

NEXT PAGE:

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 57

Several parasympathetic nerves come off the vagus nerve as it enters the thorax. One nerve is the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which becomes the inferior laryngeal nerve. From the left vagus nerve the recurrent laryngeal nerve hooks around the aorta to travel back up to the larynx and proximal esophagus while, from the right vagus nerve, the recurrent laryngeal nerve hooks around the right subclavian artery to travel back up to the same location as its counterpart. These different paths are a direct result of embryological development of the circulatory system. Each recurrent laryngeal nerve supplies the trachea and the esophagus with parasympathetic secretomotor innervation for glands associated with them (and other fibers that are not PN).

Another nerve that comes off the vagus nerves approximately at the level of entering the thorax are the cardiac nerves. These cardiac nerves go on to form cardiac and pulmonary plexuses around the heart and lungs. As the main vagus nerves continue into the thorax they become intimately linked with the esophagus and sympathetic nerves from the sympathetic trunks to form the esophageal plexus. This is very efficient as the major function of the vagus nerve from there on will be control of the gut smooth muscles and glands. As the esophageal plexus enter the abdomen through the esophageal hiatus anterior and posterior vagus trunks form. The vagus trunks then join with preaortic sympathetic ganglion around the aorta to disperse with the blood vessels and sympathetic nerves throughout the abdomen. The extent of the parasympathetic in the abdomen include the pancreas, kidneys, liver, gall bladder, stomach and gut tube. The vagus contribution of parasympathetic continues down the gut tube until the end of the midgut. The midgut ends two thirds of the way across the transverse colon near the splenic flexure.

Pelvic splanchnic nerves: The pelvic splanchnic nerves, S2-4, work in tandem to innervate the pelvic viscera. Unlike in the cranium, where one parasympathetic is in charge of one particular tissue or region, for the most part the pelvic splanchnics each contribute fibers to pelvic viscera by traveling to one or more plexuses before being dispersed to the target tissue.

NEXT PAGE:

Angel Empowerment – Systems of the Body Cindy Smith AEP™ and Carl Le Roux, MD Copyright June 2015 – All Rights Reserved

Page 58

These plexuses are composed of mixed autonomic nerve fibers (parasympathetic and sympathetic) and include the vesical, prostatic, rectal, uterovaginal, and inferior hypogastric plexuses. The preganglionic neurons in the pathway do not synapse in a ganglion as in the cranium but rather in the walls of the tissues or organs that they innervate. The fiber paths are variable and each individual's autonomic nervous system in the pelvis is unique. The visceral tissues in the pelvis, that the parasympathetic nerve pathway controls, include those of the urinary bladder, ureters, urinary sphincter, anal sphincter, uterus, prostate, glands, vagina, and penis.

Unconsciously, the parasympathetic will cause peristaltic movements of the ureters and intestines, moving urine from the kidneys into the bladder and food down the intestinal tract and, upon necessity, the parasympathetic will assist in excreting urine from the bladder or defecation. Stimulation of the parasympathetic will cause the detrusor muscle (urinary bladder wall) to contract and simultaneously relax the internal sphincter muscle between the bladder and the urethra, allowing the bladder to void. Also, parasympathetic stimulation of the internal anal sphincter will relax this muscle to allow defecation. There are other skeletal muscles involved with these processes but the parasympathetic plays a huge role in continence and bowel retention.

Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. This natural opposition is better understood as complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the police responders and the parasympathetic division as the court system. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. A useful mnemonic to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system is SLUDD (salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion and defecation).