STABILITY under CONSTRAINED SWITCHING ; SWITCHED SYSTEMS with INPUTS and OUTPUTS
SYSTEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1.Open flow systems: inputs and outputs of energy and matter 2.Closed...
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Transcript of SYSTEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1.Open flow systems: inputs and outputs of energy and matter 2.Closed...
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SYSTEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
1. Open flow systems: inputs and outputs of energy and matter
2. Closed flow systems: NO inputs or outputs
Natural Flow systemsEx: • Flow of energy from Sun to Earth (energy)•River system (matter)
A system is a set of relationships between features, processes or phenomena
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Positive: if the flow is reinforcedNegative: if the flow is reduced
FEEDBACK AND EQUILIBRIUM
EQUILIBRIUMThe flow rates remain about the same
FEEDBACK: When flow (matter/energy) in a pathway acts either to reduce or increase the same flow in another pathway
The amounts of energy and matter within the system are constant.
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Positive: if the flow is reinforcedNegative: if the flow is reduced
Initial condition (matter/energy)
causes
changes inAnother variables
causes changes in
Initial condition MODIFIED(matter/energy)
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LOW TEMPERATURE
MORE SNOW
MORE ALBEDO
LESS SOLAR RADIATION
LOWER TEMPERATURE
Example:
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THE SUN-EARTH RELATIONSHIP
SOLSTICE/ EQUINOX CONDITIONS AND SEASONS
SOLSTICE: One of the poles is tilted away from the Sun
EQUINOX:The Earth’s axial tilt is neither toward nor away from the Sun
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SOLSTICE CONDITIONS
One of the poles is tilted away from the Sun
• Observe the circle of illumination at different latitudes: because the tilt toward the Sun, we only have equal halves in Equator.
JUN 21-22 DEC 21-22
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EQUINOX CONDITIONS
The Earth’s axial tilt is neither toward nor away from the Sun
•The circle of illumination has equal halves in all latitudes
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INSOLATION AND SUN ANGLE
The angle of the Sun’s rays determines the intensity of insolation on the ground
This is controlled by the latitude of the location and the time of the year.
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DAILY INSOLATION OVER THE YEAR AT VARIOUS LATITUDES (NORTH
HEMISPHERE)
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THE SUN-EARTH RELATIONSHIP
Location with 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night along all year?Location with 24 hours of night on March 21st?
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ENERGY FLUXES
•Radiation: Shortwave (SWR), Longwave (LWR)•Heat fluxes (Sensible and Latent heat)
Short waves (warmer temperatures)
Long waves (cooler temperatures)
TEMPERATURE
Less energy
More energy
RADIATION (LONGWAVE AND SHORTWAVE)
NET RADIATION = INPUT – OUTPUT
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SOLAR RADIATION (short wave radiation, SWR)
•As solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, is affected by absoption and reflection
Albedo: An important property of a surface. It measures how much solar energy will be reflected:A surface with high albedo (snow, ice) reflects most of the solar radiationA surface with low albedo (black pavement) absorbs most of incoming solar radiation
INCOMING LWR
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LONG WAVE RADIATION (LWR)
The atmosphere, land and ocean also emit energy in the form of long wave radiation
INCOMING LWR The Earth’s surface emits energy to the atmosphere that is absorbed by the atmosphere and radiated back down to Earth’s surface
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R = INPUT – OUTPUTR = ( SWR + LWR) – ( SWR + LWR)
INCOMING LWR
NET RADIATION (RADIATION BUDGET)
It is the difference between total upward and downward radiation fluxes and is a measure of the energy available at the ground surface.
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THE ENERGY BALANCE AT SURFACE
Net Radiation + Sensible Heat + Latent Heat + Ground Heating = 0
1st LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (CONSERVATION OF ENERGY):Energy only changes from one form to another. It cannot be created or destroyed.
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SENSIBLE AND LATENT HEAT
SENSIBLE HEAT:•Heat sensed by touching or feeling (measured by a thermometer)
•Sensible heat transfer (Ex: conduction, convection)
LATENT HEAT:•Hidden heat, stored in the form of a molecular motion when a change of state takes place (solid to liquid, liquid to gas, solid to gas)
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SENSIBLE HEAT
LATENT HEAT
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THE AIR TEMPERATURE
Factors that influence air temperature:
1.Insolation2. Latitude3. Surface type4. Coastal vs interior location5. Elevation
WORLD LATITUDE ZONES
Temperature at surface is determined by the balance among energy flows:
1. Net radiation (positive at day, negative at night)2. Sensible heat transfer 3. Latent heat transfer
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URBAN-RURAL DIFFERENCES
RURAL:
vegetation
transpirationcooler surface
moist soil evaporation
URBAN:
dry surface
insolation warmer surface
asphalt and roofing(dark surfaces)
more absorption(twice the vegetation)
warmer surface
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GLOBAL PATTERNS OF AIR TEMPERATURE
1. Temperatures decrease from equator to poles2. Subartic and artic regions have extremely low temperatures
in winter3. Temperatures in equatorial regions change little from January
to July4. Large shift of isotherms (north-south) between January and
July over continents in midlatitudes and subartic regions Winter: equatorward Summer: poleward5. Areas of perpetual ice and snow (Greenland, Antarctica) are
always intensely cold
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GLOBAL WARMING
GREENHOUSE EFFECTThe atmosphere traps longwave radiation and returns it to the surface
Greenhouse gases (LWR absorbers):CO2, water vapor
Greenhouse liquid:Clouds (tiny water droplets)
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Volcanic activity
Particles and gases (SO2)into stratosphere (aerosols)
Strong winds spread throughout the entirely layer
Aerosols reflect income radiation (cooling effect)
Aerosols : suspension of fine solid or liquid particles (smoke from fires, volcanic activity, air pollution)
COOLING EFFECT
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GLOBAL DIMMING
The gradual reduction in the amount of global sun radiation at Earth’s surface
Gerald Stanhill (Israel):
Solar Radiation observations: 22% decrease (1950s-1980s)
Beate Liepert (Germany):Similar pattern in Alps
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1950-1990 decrease of solar energy:• 9% Antartica•10% USA•30% Rusia
Antartic
Arctic
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SEPTEMBER 12, 2001 (USA):
Near-total shutdown of air traffic during the three days
US climate absent from the effect of contrails (visible trails of condensed water vapor).
During this period, an increase in temperature over 1°Cwas observed in some parts of the U.S.
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PRECIPITATION
What do we need to have precipitation?
•Water vapor (humidity)•Cooling of water vapor (for condensation)
•Formation of clouds (collision and coalescence)
Key concepts:• dew point•lifting condensation level
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ADIABATIC COOLING
atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude
Air parcel expands and cools
ADIABATIC PROCESS: Heating or cooling process as result of pressure change
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ADIABATIC RATE: Temperature change with elevation
10°C/1000m (each 1000m temperature drops 10°C)
ADIABATIC COOLING
As the parcel of air continues rising, the air is cooled to its dew point temperature. Then, condensation starts (lifting condensation level), and we have saturated air
DRY ADIABATIC RATE: Temperature change with elevationof an air parcel that has NOT reached saturation. Constant, 10°C/1000m
WET ADIABATIC RATE: Temperature change with elevationof an air parcel that has reached saturationVariable, most 5°C/1000m
EXERCISE: Estimating the lifting condensation level
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EXERCISE: Estimate the temperature at the lifting condensation level
To=20.0°C
Dry adiabatic lapse rate = 10°C /1000mWet adiabatic lapse rate = 5°C /1000 m
What is the temperature at 1500m?What is the Tdew?
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PRECIPITATION PROCESSES
1. Orographic precipitation2. Convectional precipitation3. Movement of air masses
OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION
warm and dry airRainshadow: a belt of dry climate
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CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION
Convection:
• The upward motion of a parcel of heated air
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MOVEMENT OF AIR MASSES
1.An area of warm air meets and area of cold air.
2.The warm air is forced over the cold air
3.Where the air meets the warm air is cooled and water vapor condenses.
4. Clouds form and precipitation occurs.
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THUNDERSTORMS: CONVECTION IN UNSTABLE AIR
•The air parcel rising, is warmer and less dense that surrounding air
•While it remains warmer than surrounding air, it continues rising
•As it rises, it is cooled adiabatically, and condensation takes place (cumulus cloud formation)
• Normally, this cloud evaporates (mix of winds)
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THUNDERSTORMS: CONVECTION IN UNSTABLE AIR
However, sometimes convection continues
Dense cumulonimbus cloud
Thunderstorms (heavy rain)
SO, WHAT DO WE NEED TO HAVE THIS CONDITION?
1. Very warm and moist air
2. A big environmental lapse rate : temperature of surrounding decreases faster with elevation (compared to dry and wet adiabatic lapse rate)
UNSTABLE AIR
See Figure 4.13, page 113