Systems Analysis and Design Best Practices with Successes

Fon SundaravejCollege of Business Administration, University of Missouri – St. Louis

8001 Natural Bridge Road, St. Louis, MO 63121Phone: 314-516-7322

Email: sundaravejf@umsl.edu

Abstract

While a system success and failure has been an important concern in systems analysis

and design, there is no theoretical paper attempting to relate the overall systems analysis

and design best practices to system successes. This paper analyzes the systems analysis

and design best practices found in existing information systems (IS) literatures. These

practices studied by IS researchers are compared to the practices proposed by IS

practitioners. The findings from this study confirm that many best practices such as user

involvement, executive management support, clear statement of requirements, proper

planning, realistic expectations, competent staff, and hard-working and focused staff,

yield a system success, whereas some other systems analysis and design best practices

such as smaller project milestones, ownership, and clear vision and objectives, are still

challenging IS researchers for their future studies.

1. Introduction

The 1994 CHAOS Report proposed by the Standish Group represents a failure record of

IT application development. Only 16 % of surveyed projects are completed on-time and

on-budget with all features and functions as initially specified. The project success and

failure factors are specified. Unfortunately, little theoretical knowledge is available on

how systems are best designed and analyzed in order to reduce the number of IT project

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failures and increase more successes. The Standish Group does not describe theirresearch

methodology, resulting in an invalidity and unreliability of their results (Jorgensen &

Molokken, 2006). The objectives of this research are to learn the systems analysis and

design best practices and their successes presented in IS leading journals and to be able to

specify which area in systems analysis and design has been explored or needs more

attention from IS researchers.

2. Theoretical Background

The Standish Group surveyed and interviewed IT executive managers for their major

reasons of a project success and failure. The samples include all size companies across

industries. The top ten project success factors are 1) user involvement, 2) executive

management support, 3) clear statement of requirements, 4) proper planning, 5) realistic

expectations, 6) smaller project milestones, 7) competent staff, 8) ownership, 9) clear

vision and objectives, and 10) hard-working, focused staff. The first three factors are

major elements of a project success. The success defined by the Standish Group refers to

the project implementation within time and budget and with initially specified features.

Unfortunately, the statistical records presented by the Standish Group demonstrate only

16% of successful projects, whereas almost 53% of challenged projects and 31% of

impaired projects.

Even if the findings by the Standish Group inform us the situations of the IT project

development and implementation, including how to achieve a project success or to avoid

a project failure, a research method to validate the outcomes of the success or failure

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factors is not discussed. As a result, the validity and reliability of these findings are still

questionable. In addition, the definition of each best practice, including processes to

achieve the practice is ignored. It would be more beneficial to practitioners if they are

equipped with some guidelines to execute the best practices in their IT projects. Besides

the results offered by IT consultants, it is also interesting to investigate what IS

researchers have presented in terms of the systems analysis and design best practices

towards a success.

The rest of this paper is organized as follows. The research methodology discusses the

data collection and operationalization of key constructs. The results, including the

limitations, of the study are revealed and discussed. The contributions and implications

for theory and practice are provided at the end of this paper.

3. Research Methodology

The research methodology is differentiated into two sections: data collection and

operationalization of key constructs. How to gather and analyze data for the current study

is discussed below.

3.1 Data Collection

The article search is based on the following author supplied keywords: systems analysis,

systems design, systems development, information systems analysis, information systems

design, information systems development, systems analysis and design, IS analysis, IS

design, and IS development from the EBSCO host research database on the selected top

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three IS journals. The journals include MIS Quarterly (MISQ), Journal of Management

Information Systems (JMIS), and Information Systems Research (ISR). These three high-

quality journals are believed to be sufficient representations of majority works of IS

researchers. The abstract of each matched articles is reviewed. Only articles that represent

best practices and successes in systems analysis and design will be selected by the

researcher. If the abstract contains unclear information regarding the best practices and

successes, the content of the article is further analyzed.

3.2 Operationalization of Key Constructs

Two key constructs, systems analysis and design best practice and success, are analyzed

in this study. Best practice is defined as a form, manner, and order of conducting actions

towards a success in systems analysis and design. Success refers to a favorable or desired

outcome derived from the best practice. These two definitions are used to determine if an

article should be retained or dropped from the study. The selected articles must contain

an empirical study to prove the association between a defined best practice and success.

4. Results

The search results are presented in Table 1. The first three rows represent the search

results of the three different journals. The last row displays the grand total number of

selected and matched articles, including its percentage. The first column presents the

name of the selected three journals in this study. An article is selected into the study if it

represents a relationship between a best practice in systems analysis and design and a

success. The second column shows the number of selected articles. The selected articles

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come from a pool of matched articles based on the key word search. The third column

represents the total number of the matched articles. Finally, the last column is the

percentage of the selected articles from the matched articles.

The results from Table 1 inform us that less than one fourth (23%) of the systems

analysis and design articles correlate a best practice to a success. MISQ yields 33 of 163

articles, which represents 20%. JMIS yields 12 of 44 articles or 27%. Finally, ISR yields

16 of 55 articles or 29%. The detailed of best practices and their successes in the selected

articles from the three journals are demonstrated in Appendix.

Journal Number of Selected Articles

Total of Matched Articles

Percentage

MISQ 33 163 20%JMIS 12 44 27%ISR 16 55 29%

61 262 23%Table 1: Search Results

5. Discussion

An analysis of the results of this study leads to six notifications. First, several matched

results represent the best practices with a success specific to a particular context. Second,

the findings from many studies prove many systems analysis and design best practices

provided by the Standish Group. Third, some studies appear to present overlapped best

practices due to a lack of exact definition of each best practice by the Standish Group.

Fourth, in some studies, the best practice appears to be the success and the actual success

is missing. Fifth, there are tremendous volumes of studies that demonstrate best practices

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but lack a specification of the success to strengthen their findings. Lastly, some best

practices proposed by the Standish Group need more attentions from IS researchers.

Several matched results represent best practices that lead to a success but are specific to a

particular context. Examples are the geographical information system (Puri, 2007),

physicians’ profile system (Kohli and Kettinger, 2004), Teledemocracy (Ytterstad and

Watson, 1996), database (Ahrens and Sankar, 1993), integrated computer-aided software

engineering system (Subramanian and Zarnich, 1996; Banker and Kauffman, 1991),

payment processing (Kozar and Mahlum, 1987), Financial and Accounting Management

Information System (Semprevivo, 1980), online relational database management system

(Berrisford and Wetherbe, 1979), electronic data processing (Rittenberg and Purdy,

1978), computer-mediated knowledge sharing system (Ma and Agarwal, 2007), online

searching (Galletta et al, 2006), peer to peer file sharing networks (Asvanund et al.,

2004), expert system (Kim et al., 2000; Gill, 1996; Abdul-Gader and Kozar, 1990),

colonial system (Porra, 1999), decision support system (Sinha and May, 1996; Kasper,

1996; Houdeshel and Watson, 1987), and executive information system (Wall et al.,

1992; Fowler, 1979). Although these studies provide an evidence of how the proposed

best practices bring a certain type of successes, the generalization of these practices to

different contexts may be doubtful.

The findings from many studies, however, help strengthening the systems analysis and

design best practices provided by the Standish Group such as user involvement

(Baskerville and Stage, 1998; McKeen and Guimaraes, 1997; Barki and Hartwick, 1994;

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Newman and Noble, 1990; Baronas and Louis, 1988; McNeil, 1979), executive

management support (Ravichandran and Rai, 2000: Banker and Slaughter, 2000; Guinan

et al, 1998; Schonberger, 1980), clear statement of requirements (Sun et al., 2006;

Burton-Jones and Meso, 2006; Marakas and Elam, 1998; Wang, 1996; Tan, 1994; Abdul-

Gader and Kozar, 1990; Montazeml and Conrath, 1986), proper planning (Tam, 1990;

Colter, 1984; McKeen, 1983), realistic expectations (Lawrence and Low, 1993),

competent staff (Majchrzak et al., 2005; Tiwana and McLean, 2005; Guinan et al, 1998;

Janz et al., 1997; Markus and Benjamin, 1996), and hard-working, focused staff (Guinan

et al, 1998).

Unfortunately, due to a lack of definition of each best practice by the Standish Group,

some studies appear to present overlapped best practices. Proposed by Kim et al. (2000),

the best practice of visual cues and contextual information in multiple diagrams that

facilitate a process of searching for related information and of developing hypotheses

about the target system can be accounted for either clear statement of requirements,

proper planning, or both. There is no clear boundary between these two best practices.

Another example is a study by McLean (1979). The study proposes that to allow end

users to function as their own developers is a way to relieve workload and to lessen the

maintenance load. The best practice represented in this study can be seen as user

involvement, ownership, or both. It is again difficult to classify the best practice of this

study. Thus, there should be a call for a definition or categorization of systems analysis

and design best practices to promote clearer understanding.

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Additionally, in some studies, the best practice appears to be the success and the actual

success is missing. For example, Te’eni (2001) uses a model of organizational

communication to obtain a balance between relationship and action, between cognition

and affect, and between message and medium. These balances are believed to reflect a

more realistic picture of communication behavior in organizations. The realistic picture

of communication within an organization can be considered as a realistic expectation.

This study can be accounted into a valid study if the author further investigates what

success gained from such realistic communication. The second example can be

represented from a study by Ahituv and Neumann (1984). They claim that each step

along the information systems development life cycle (ISDLC) should be decomposed

into several dimensions, resulting in periodic reviews and revisions whenever the project

reaches a certain milestone. Again, this study would be more valuable if the authors

demonstrate a success that is derived from smaller project milestones. The last example is

a study by Shomenta et al. (1983). They specify that the application approach worksheet

is used to identify the characteristics of a proposed application. Once the application’s

characteristics are defined, the user utilizes the worksheet’s matrix to determine which

development method might be most appropriate for the application. The practice would

be strengthened by a specific success obtained from the clear vision and objectives from

the worksheet’s matrix.

Moreover, even if many studies demonstrate best practices, they lack a specification of a

success to strengthen their findings. Sharma and Yetton (2007) claim that training is a

critical intervention to support the successful implementation of information systems

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innovations when technical complexity and task interdependence are high. Ba et al.

(2001) assert that incentive management is recommended as an important dimension of

any information systems design and evaluation. Mann and Watson (1984) specify that the

level of user involvement in DSS development varies considerably. These studies are not

counted into the current study because there is no proof to shows that such practices

result in what type of successes in systems analysis and design.

Finally, even though many studies prove the best practices presented by the Standish

Group, there are still some areas of systems analysis and design best practices lacking

attentions from IS researchers, for instance, smaller project milestones, ownership, and

clear vision and objectives. Future researchers should put greater efforts in studying these

best practices to completely validate the results proposed by the Standish Group.

6. Limitations

The main limitation of this study is a single researcher. Even though a definition of

systems analysis and design best practice and success are carefully defined, it is very

difficult to avoid bias from a single researcher to determine a valid article in this study.

Without a clear definition of best practices, it is also challenging for a single researcher to

categorize the best practices of valid articles. To reduce bias, at least three researchers are

needed to bring a majority agreement and more reliable results into the study.

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7. Implications

This study benefits both IS researchers and practitioners. The contributions and

implications for theory and practice are discussed below.

7.1 Contributions and Implications for Theory

This study presents a general picture of existing studies regarding to the systems analysis

and design best practices in the IS discipline. There are many areas that prior IS

researchers have been putting their efforts on and helping strengthen the 1994 CHAOS

report proposed by the Standish Group. Still, the future study of systems analysis and

design best practices needs greater concerns. First, researchers should ensure the

generalization of their proposed best practices in different contexts. Second, there are

several unexplored areas, especially the best practices other than top three factors offered

by the Standish Group. Third, to strengthen the findings of the study, researchers should

clearly define a definition of best practices, including processes to achieve such practices.

Moreover, researchers should prove that their proposed best practice lead to a type of

successes. With all these considerations, the future studies are hopefully able to

contribute more value to the IS discipline.

7.2 Contributions and Implications for Practice

Without a doubt, best practices in systems analysis and design proposed by the Standish

Group is useful resources for practitioners to be aware of what factors bring a project

success or failure. This study, however, informs practitioners that not every best practice

is confirmed to yield a desirable result. Some best practices need further explanation on

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their definition, categorization, or process to achieve a project success. To apply these

practices into a real setting, practitioners should keep in mind that some best practices

suggested by the Standish Group may not valid and reliable. Some best practices do not

bring a clear success. On some occasions, a success is even omitted.

8. Conclusion

The 1994 CHAOS Report proposed by the Standish Group suggests the top ten systems

analysis and design best practices that lead to a project success. A literature review from

the three leading IS journals validates many of these best practices. User involvement,

executive management support, clear statement of requirements, proper planning,

realistic expectations, competent staff, and hard-working, focused staff are found

supported by the literatures. Yet, some best practices need more validation by

researchers. There is vague or no evidence per se to prove smaller project milestones,

ownership, and clear vision and objectives as best practices that result in a success in

systems analysis and design. Researchers should explore these areas in their future

research to generate more validation and reliability of the 1994 CHAOS Report.

Practitioners who consider applying the best practices from the 1994 CHAOS Report

should place concern on the context and selected practice and its success.

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Appendix

MIS Quarterly (MISQ) yields valid 33 out of 163 matched results. Details of best practices and successes are explained below.

Best Practice Success SourceThe use of geographical information systems (GIS) for land management in India had made possible effective action leading to a significant rise in the water levels, which in turn allowed beneficial changes in the cropping patterns. These changes also came as a result of the associated redefinition of the relationships between scientists and community members, and the restructuring of the institutional framework.

Rise in the water levelsBeneficial changes in the cropping patterns

Puri, 2007

A cooperative learning strategy called collaborative elaboration provides a theoretical and practical basis for stimulating client learning during an IS design process. Teams using more collaborative elaboration had more client learning and teams with more client learning achieved better IS design-phase outcomes.

Client learningBetter IS design-phase outcomes

Majchrzak et al., 2005

A physicians’ profiling system (PPS) was used to monitor and benchmark physicians’ clinical practices and outcomes resulting in changed practice behaviors in closer congruence with management’s goals. It reduced clinical procedural costs and adopted practices benchmarked to produce better outcomes by legitimize managerial authority to a better understanding of how to informate autonomous professionals.

Closer congruence with management’s goalsReduced clinical procedural costs

Kohli and Kettinger, 2004

A model of organizational communication provides a balance between relationship and action, between cognition and affect, and between message and medium. Such a balance is believed to reflect a more realistic picture of communication behavior in organizations.

More realistic picture of communication behavior in organizations

Te’eni, 2001

Software quality goals are best attained when top management Software quality Ravichandran and Rai,

creates a management infrastructure that promotes improvements in process design and encourages stakeholders to evolve the design of the development processes. All elements of the organizational system need to be developed in order to attain quality goals and piecemeal adoption of select quality management practices are unlikely to be effective.

2000

Increased behavioral flexibility of IS specialists, the ability to switch roles in different circumstances, would improve organizational effectiveness and IS specialist credibility.

Organizational effectivenessIS specialist credibility

Markus and Benjamin, 1996

Risk analysis enables appropriate risk resolution strategies to be placed in effect before the prototyping process breaks down. It facilitates consensus building through collaborative decision making and is consistent with a high degree of user involvement.

Consensus building Baskerville and Stage, 1996

A job design perspective of expert systems adoption can be a valuable tool in predicting user acceptance and ultimately systems usage.

Predicted user acceptance and systems usage

Gill, 1996

Teledemocracy is used as information technology implemented in Norway to enhance political work in supporting the exchange of documents between politicians and local government officers.

Exchange of documents Ytterstad and Watson, 1996

To avoid the lack of familiarity with database design methods and increase effective implementation of the database management packages, the solution would be for end users to learn required database design skills from software tutors. The tutors were based on a modified Entity-Relationship database design method. Empirical comparison of the tutors tested the teaching effectiveness of the facilitators.

Familiarity with database design methodsIncreased effective implementation of the database management packages

Ahrens and Sankar, 1993

The user perception of representation is the most significant influence on user satisfaction.

User satisfaction Lawrence and Low, 1993

The application of modern information systems development methodology does not decrease maintenance time. However, time spent on emergency error correction, as well as the number of system failures, decreased significantly with the application of modern methodology.

Decreased time spent on emergency error correction and the number of system failures

Dekleva, 1992

An order of magnitude gain in software development productivity and the importance of reuse in integrated computer-aided software engineering (ICASE) as a driver in realizing this result was indicated. In addition, the viability of the firm’s information systems strategy was demonstrated. It offered new ideas for code reuse and software development measurement that could be applied in development environments that emphasize reuse.

Code reuse Banker and Kauffman, 1991

System implementation represents a threat to users’ perceptions of control over their work and a period of transition during which users must cope with differences between old and new work systems. User involvement is effective because it restores or enhances perceived control.

Enhanced perceived control Baronas and Louis, 1988

Up-to-date payment processing would provide information valuable to generating increased organization revenues. The backlogged project was given life by having the users, with tutoring and guidance, perform tasks usually assigned to systems analysts.

Increased organization revenues Kozar and Mahlum, 1987

Traditional user/analyst interactions display primarily error-prone characteristics, and that the new organizational learning interaction methodology successfully generated more valid information with increased detection of errors.

More valid information with increased detection of errors

Salaway, 1987

Factors contributing to the success of the Management Information and Decision Support System (MIDS) include a committed senior executive sponsor, carefully defined systems and information requirements, a team approach to systems

Better informationImproved communicationsAn evolving understanding of information requirements

Houdeshel and Watson, 1987

development, an evolutionary development approach, and careful computer hardware and software selection. MIDS’ benefits include better information, improved communications, an evolving understanding of information requirements, a test-bed for system evolution, and cost reductions.

A test-bed for system evolutionCost reductions

Managers’ information preferences were not influenced by their characteristics but were influenced by the decision task. The managers demonstrated an understanding of information uses, providing support for user specification of MIS information requirements.

Understanding of information usesUser specification of MIS information requirements

Nutt, 1986

The use of cognitive mapping for information requirements analysis provides three benefits. It aids in the identification of irrelevant data. It can be used to evaluate the factors that affect a given class of decisions. It enhances the overall understanding of a decision maker’s environment, particularly when it is ill-structured.

Identification of irrelevant dataEvaluated factors that affect a given class of decisionsEnhanced the overall understanding of a decision maker’s environment

Montazeml and Conrath, 1986

Each step along the information systems development life cycle (ISDLC) should be decomposed into several dimensions, resulting in periodic reviews and revisions whenever the project reaches a certain milestone.

Periodic reviews and revisions Ahituv and Neumann, 1984

One methodology for fully utilizing human resources to implement effective computer systems has been maximizing productivity by stressing team effort.

Fully utilizing human resources White, 1984

The combination of systems analysis tools ensures complete analysis products.

Complete analysis products Colter, 1984

The application approach worksheet is a document used by mid-level and senior user management to identify the characteristics of a proposed application. Once the application’s characteristics are defined, the user utilizes the worksheet’s matrix to determine which development method might be most appropriate for the application.

Determined characteristics of a proposed application

Shomenta et al., 1983

Systems which spent more time in the analysis phase required less time to code, resulting in greater user satisfaction, and were developed in agreement with established budgets and deadlines.

User satisfactionAgreement with established budgets and deadlines

McKeen, 1983

The major advantage of the mis-en-scene approach, a framework used in file criticism, is that it allows the information analyst to classify, document, and interpret important factors which usually remain at the subconscious level.

Determined analysis Kendall and Kendall, 1981

A Dictionary/Directory Facility (DDF) of the integrated online Financial and Accounting Management Information System (FAMIS) proved to reduce significantly the amount of conventional computer programming required to develop FAMIS. It also proved to be a valuable aid in facilitating systems, and user and management interaction.

Reduced amount of programmingSystems, user, and management interaction

Semprevivo, 1980

Executives or even various stakeholder groups may assume active leadership where warranted by the circumstances. With design leadership correctly placed, project purpose may be more carefully identified and design activities may be properly channeled to meet those objectives.

More précised project purpose Schonberger, 1980

The executive intelligence system was used as a design strategy for providing managers with relevant information for choosing courses of action.

Relevant information for managers Fowler, 1979

The diversity of client characteristics and of output media which can be handled through the functional interface standards for all software run on its central processing facility has made possible an extraordinary corporate growth rate in excess of 25% per year, with a corresponding expansion in client base and MIS services.

Corporate growth McNeil, 1979

To meet the demand of computer-based information systems, one solution is to allow end users to function as their own developers, relieving workload and lessening the maintenance

Relieved workload and maintenance load

McLean, 1979

load.A structured group process as a decision-oriented approach is used to generate both critical decisions and information needs for a manufacturing firm. The approach is effective, particularly for organizational units that are line oriented.

Critical decision and information needs

Henderson and West, 1979

Heuristic development simulates user capabilities early in the systems development process. Such approach is made possible by the use of an online relational-type Database Management System. Introduction of such user capabilities allows users to interact with the system and heuristically determine information requirements.

User and system interactionDetermined information requirements

Berrisford and Wetherbe, 1979

Upgrading of internal auditor expertise in EDP systems appears to be the key to improved acceptance.

Improved acceptance Rittenberg and Purdy, 1978

Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS) yields valid 12 out of 44 matched results. Details of best practices and successes are explained below.

Best Practice Success SourceTeam creativity results primarily from integration of individually held expertise of team members at the team level through the process of expertise integration.

Team creativity Tiwana and McLean, 2005

Creativity techniques are strategies for strengthening system analysis skills, especially of novice systems analysts, in the problem-solving approaches during an information requirement task.

Strengthening system analysis skills Schenk et al., 1998

The cognitive interview was found to be both more effective and more efficient than standard interviewing techniques in eliciting episodic knowledge from reference librarians, resulting in a richer recall of details relevant to the task domain.

A richer recall of details relevant to the task domain

Moody et al., 1998

Not all user participative behaviors were equally effective in all User satisfaction McKeen and Guimaraes,

situations. Depending on the level of task complexity and system complexity, some user participative behaviors resulted in imported user satisfaction, while others had no relationship with satisfaction.

1997

While employee autonomy may lead to increased levels of satisfaction and motivation, the level of team development and an organization’s learning capacity may be more important in achieving improved work outcomes.

Improved work outcomes Janz et al., 1997

Superior performance was observed when the process-oriented tool was applied to the process-oriented task. For the object-oriented task, however, the performance effects of cognitive fit require further investigation since there was no difference in subject performance across the two tools.

Superior performance Agarwal et al., 1996

The protocol-based method, which was used to formalize procedures for object-oriented analysis, produced analyses that more closely matched the problem. It required less time to complete an analysis, and it was perceived as easier to use than the structured analysis method.

Analysis that is more closely matched the problemLess time analysisEase of use

Wang, 1996

For integrated computer-aided software engineering (ICASE) projects, function points accounted for 74 to 82 percent of the variance in software development effort. Technical complexity factor, however, had only a small indirect effect on software effort. Productivity was significantly higher for the rapid application development method in comparison with the productivity associated with the traditional systems development life cycle method. Higher levels of tool experience were associated with significant increases in software productivity.

Software productivity Subramanian and Zarnich, 1996

A framework for injury assessment and reduction of legal liability that can be used to guide computer-based systems (CBS) developers in assessing the possibility of injury resulting

Safer systems Bordoloi et al., 1996

from development flaws might provide safer systems to avoid harming individuals.The effective communication between systems analysts and clients is the outcome of complex processes that are influenced by the personal and situational characteristics of the participants.

Effective communication between systems analysts and clients

Tan, 1994

In learning to specify information requirements, novice analysts performed more effectively when trained to use a methodology, when familiar with the application, and when they used procedural methodology knowledge rather than declarative methodology knowledge alone.

Novice analyst performance Vessey and Conger, 1993

The Coherence Method proved useful in facilitating the understanding of the experts’ discourse, especially in early knowledge acquisition interviews.

Understanding of the experts’ discourse

Abdul-Gader and Kozar, 1990

Information Systems Research (ISR) yields valid 16 out of 55 matched results. Details of best practices and successes are explained below.

Best Practice Success SourceIT features that facilitate computer-mediated knowledge sharing are those supporting virtual co-presence, persistent labeling, self-presentation, and deep profiling.

Member satisfaction and knowledge contribution

Ma and Agarwal, 2007

Data flow specification and data flow analysis are two basic components that increase analytical rigor to business process management by detecting data flow anomalies such as missing data, redundant data, and potential data conflicts.

Analytical rigor to business process management

Sun et al., 2006

Delay, familiarity, and breadth factors collectively impact performance and user attitudes, in turn affecting behavioral intentions to return to the site which are concerned as the cognitive costs and penalties that users incur when making

Improved performance and attitudeBehavioral intention

Galletta et al., 2006

choices in their search for target information.Five conditions (minimality, determinism, losslessness, weak coupling, and strong cohesion) of the good decomposition model that explains the degree to which conceptual models communicate meaning about a domain to analysts result in effectively domain communication.

Effectively domain communication Burton-Jones and Meso, 2006

In peer to peer file sharing networks, a proper amount of contribution from users helps increase resource sharing. At some point the costs will exceed the value the users provide to the network.

Resource sharing Asvanund et al., 2004

High investment in software quality practices such as structured design is not economically efficient in all situations. Instead, organizational mechanisms in promoting efficient design choices are encouraged.

Reduction of costs and errors Banker and Slaughter, 2000

Visual cues and contextual information in the multiple diagrams facilitate a process of searching for related information and of developing hypotheses about the target system is involved.

Understanding a system by multiple diagrams

Kim et al., 2000

The mean-risk measure in expert system which has consistent and separable properties helps decision making under risk.

Decision making under risk Mookerjee and Mannino, 2000

Colonies in colonial systems can be used as a metaphor to design new human systems that capture a greater degree of humanness than do the models of machines and organisms.

Degree of humanness Porra, 1999

Certain question types during system analysis phase are associated with increased accuracy of logical representations regardless of analysis experience level.

Accuracy of logical system representations

Marakas and Elam, 1998

A computer-based design assistant, an integrated and comprehensive framework for decision support, provides effective and efficient assistance in solving routine design problems.

Decreased routine design problems Sinha and May, 1996

Expressiveness, visibility, and inquirability are requisite components of the DSS design for user calibration.

User calibration Kasper, 1996

Team skill, managerial involvement, and little variance in team experience enable more effective team processes than do software development tools and methods.

Effective team processes Guinan et al., 1998

User participant, conflict, and influence play a key role in the satisfactory resolution of conflict.

Resolution of conflict Barki and Hartwick, 1994

The executive information system can be addressed through a design theory of vigilant information systems which denote the ability of an information system to help an executive remain alertly watchful for weak signals and discontinuities in the organizational environment relevant to emerging strategic threats and opportunities.

Executive alertness Walls et al, 1992

Four processes of user involvement: learning, conflict, political, and garbage-can occur in different stages of system development and contexts. Such processes lead to a two stage model of user involvement for complex design situations. The two stages are structuring of conflict and its development and conflict resolution.

Resolution of conflict Newman and Noble, 1990

Concept induction that infers concept description from sample instances of the concept is a viable tool to automate the process of knowledge acquisition by shortening the development cycle.

Knowledge acquisition Tam, 1990