Synthesis and Performance of Iron Oxide-based Porous Ceramsite

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Synthesis and performance of iron oxide-based porous ceramsite in a

biological aerated filter for the simultaneous removal of nitrogen and

phosphorus from domestic wastewater

Teng Bao a,b, Tianhu Chen a,⇑, Juan Tan a, Marie-Luise Wille c, Dan Zhu a, Dong Chen a, Yunfei Xi b,d,⇑

a Laboratory for Nanominerals and Environmental Material, School of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, He Fei, Chinab Institute for Future Environments, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australiac Institute of Health & Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australiad School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), 2 George Street, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane,

QLD 4000, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 21 January 2016

Received in revised form 9 May 2016

Accepted 9 May 2016

Available online 10 May 2016

Keywords:

Iron oxide-based porous ceramsite

Nitrogen and phosphorus removal

Nitrification

Denitrification

Biological aerated filters

a b s t r a c t

A novel iron oxide-based porous ceramsite (IPC) was synthesized and applied as a microbial biofilm car-

rier in a biological aerated filter (BAF) to treat domestic wastewater and compared to commercially avail-

able ceramsite (CAC). The results indicate that IPC has a higher porosity in comparison to CAC. The

uniformity and interconnectivity of pores, as well as the rough surface of the IPC are suitable for microbial

biofilm growth. Biofilm growth occurs in the internal pores of the media and promotes nitrogen and

phosphorus removal. The effect of air-water ratio (A/W) on the removal of total organic carbon, ammonia

nitrogen, total nitrogen, and phosphorus were investigated. The results show that the performance of IPC

BAF is much better than CAC BAF. For instance, at an A/W ratio of 3:1, the total nitrogen removal was

46.26% with IPC and 15.64% with CAC, and the PO43 removal was 72.25% with IPC compared with only

33.97% with CAC. An analysis of the microbial community in the IPC BAFs by polymerase chain reaction

denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis identified Dechloromonas sp., Sphaerotilus sp., and Nitrospira sp.

microbes. The diversity on microbial population, along with the attached growth benefit from the mor-

phological properties of IPC, allows enhancement in the simultaneous nitrification and denitrification

performance in IPC BAF. Hence, IPC can be considered a very effective novel media material in BAF for

the simultaneous removal of nitrogen and phosphorus.

2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Eutrophication can occur when excessive nitrogen and phos-

phorus reach water bodies through runoff or discharge of wastew-

ater [1]. Eutrophication can lead to the deterioration in water

quality damaging aquatic ecosystems. An outbreak of harmful cya-

nophytes, commonly known as cyanobacteria, will eventually

result in increased mortality of aquatic organisms. Hence, the dis-

charge of treated wastewater must meet effluent quality standards

for phosphorus and nitrogen. Novel wastewater treatments are

required for the simultaneous removal of phosphorus and nitrogen

(SPN) since conventional treatments have commonly been

designed to focus on removal of one nutrient. Traditionally, tech-

nologies such as biological and chemical treatment for phosphate

or nitrate have been widely used [2,3]. Chemical treatment

employs a metal salt to coagulate and remove phosphate by sedi-

mentation. The excess amount of sludge produced is a major lim-

itation to this process [2]. Adsorption is the most widely used

and suitable method for phosphorus removal. Of all the adsorbents,

iron oxides and untreated clays are considered the most effective

sorbent materials [4,5]. Previous studies have shown that raw

goethite, nano zero-valent iron (Fe0), and hematite are very effec-

tive materials adsorbing phosphorus [6,7]. Simultaneous nitrifica-

tion and denitrification (SND) for the removal of nitrogen can be

achieved through biological processes. SPN removal from wastew-

ater can be achieved by the combination of different biological

and/or chemical technologies (i.e., sequential treatment). A biolog-

ical aerated filter (BAF) is a fixed-film biosystem with a small foot-

print that employs filter media with a high specific surface area

and porosity. The filter can promote in-growth biofilm(s) for

wastewater treatment. BAFs can reduce chemical oxygen demand

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2016.05.011

1383-5866/ 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding authors at: School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical

Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology

(QUT), 2 George Street, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia (Y. Xi).

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (T. Chen), [email protected] (Y. Xi).

Separation and Purification Technology 167 (2016) 154–162

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

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(COD), suspended solids and ammonia [8,9]. Microbial biofilm sup-

ported filter media, which are made of raw clay, wastewater

sludge, construction waste and raw zeolite, have been evaluated

in recent years and have achieved good results for nitrogen

removal [2,10,11]. Dissolved oxygen (DO) plays a key role during

the BAF process. Denitrifiers are active in areas of very low DO con-

centration whereas nitrifiers are active in areas of high DO concen-

tration [12]. SND has been proven to be the most effective way to

remove total nitrogen (TN) which occurs naturally inside the

microbial biofilms of filter media [13]. Porous filter media involv-

ing a mixed population and upholding oxygen diffusion limits cre-

ate both anoxic and aerobic micro-environments. As such, the filter

media allows the sequential use of electron acceptors, such as oxy-

gen and nitrate. Such mass transfer leads to the stratification of

microbial species in the microbial biofilm of filter media [15,16].

BAF technology is applied to wastewater treatment; hence, the

selection of filter media plays a significant role in maintaining a

variety of microbial populations and a high amount of active bio-

mass. Recently, some waste materials, such as waste ceramics

and polyethylene plastic, have been utilized as filter media for bio-

logical aerobic filters, providing a new approach for disposing the

waste sawdust [2]. This strategy serves as a ‘‘win–win” solution

by treating wastes with wastes. Furthermore, several new filter

media for BAF have been recently investigated to enhance

biodegradation capability. For example, combined up-flow anaero-

bic biofilters and up-flow BAF that employ filter media prepared by

sludge, coal cinder, and straw have been used to treat synthetic

wastewater [17]. These filter media achieved favorable results for

nitrogen removal. However, only a few studies investigated in

detail SPN with BAF.

In China, commercially available ceramsite (CAC) has been

newly used in filter media for domestic wastewater treatment.

However, such material was reported to exhibit extremely low

nitrogen and phosphorus removal efficiencies in BAFs. This result

is probably due to the poor affinity of CAC to microbial biofilm bio-

mass, which is caused by biocompatibility and suboptimal surface

hydrophilicity [2,11]. For this reason, developing a novel filtermedium as a substitute for CAC in the simultaneous removal of

nitrogen and phosphorus must be accomplished as quickly as

possible.

Previous studies reported that sawdust was treated at 700 C to

produce a desirable porous material. The formation of interior

pores improves microbial growth. It was reported that hematite

and palygorskite calcined at 700 C can effectively absorb phos-

phorus [2,5]. In this study, iron oxide-based porous ceramsite

(IPC) with goethite, sawdust, and palygorskite were synthesized

by calcination in an O2 atmosphere, used as microbial biofilm sup-

port in BAF and compared to commercially available ceramsite

(CAC) [14]. The properties of IPC, CAC and microbial characteristics

were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM),

porosimetry analysis (PM) and micro-computed tomography(Micro-CT). The effect of air-water ratio (A/W) on the removal of

total organic carbon (TOC), ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N), total nitro-

gen (TN) and phosphorus (P) was investigated using both supports.

Finally, the relationship between protozoa and metazoa as well as

the characteristics of microbial biofilms were determined using

polymerase chain reaction denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis

(PCR-DGGE) of the microbial community of the IPC BAF.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Characterization and analytical methods

Details of reagents and preparation of the proposed filtermedia-IPC are provided in the supplementary material. IPC and

CAC surface morphologies were examined using a Scanning Elec-

tron Microscope (SEM, Philips XL30 ESEM-Netherlands Philips

Company). The physical characteristics of IPC and CAC were mea-

sured in accordance with the sandstone pore structure method of

image analysis. Rubber casting experiments were used to generate

quantitative size and shape data from pores in the thin section

(d = 3 cm) [2,14,18]. The porosities of IPC and CAC specimens were

determined using Micro-CT (l

CT 40, Scanco Medical, Brüttisellen,

Switzerland). The two samples were scanned in air at 70 kV and

57lA, with an isotropic voxel size of 12 lm. A region of interest

(ROI) was defined for each gray-value image, which corresponded

to the exact circumference of the sample. A binary threshold was

applied to each sample and Scanco built in reconstruction algo-

rithms were used to derive the porosity and to construct the 3D

image [19–21].

Microscopic observations for protozoan and metazoan popula-

tion growth were carried out using a U-RFL-T Olympus Biological

Microscope (Olympus Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). The multi-point

BET surface area of IPC and CAC was measured using a Quan-

tachrome Nova 3000e automated surface area analyzer. The

growth of biofilm was determined according methods available

in the literature [2,13]. The microbial populations in IPC BAF were

analyzed by using domain-specific F341 R907 primers and PCR

amplification of 16S rRNA gene fragments for genomic DNA from

bacteria. The PCR products were applied in the DGGE analysis

using a BioRad Dcode system (BioRad Co. Ltd., USA). A DGGE gel

of 8% polyacrylamide with a linear denaturing gradient ranging

from 35% to 60% (100% denaturing gradient contains 7 M urea

and 40% formamide) was used. Electrophoresis was conducted at

a constant voltage of 75 V in 1 TAE buffer at 65 C for 14 h. The

gels were then stained with 5% Gold view in 1 TAE buffer for

40 min and imaged using UV trans-illumination. Selected DGGE

bands were excised using the SK1131 kit (Sangon Biotech (Shang-

hai) Co., Ltd) and re-amplified by PCR with the aforementioned pri-

mers. The PCR products were sequenced at Sangon Biotech Co., Ltd

(Shanghai, China). The obtained sequences were submitted and

compared to the reference microorganisms in the GenBank data-base using the BLAST program [22,23].

2.2. Operating conditions of IPC BAF and CAC BAF

A schematic diagram of the experimental set-up is provided in

the supplementary material. Biofiltration was initiated by intro-

ducing seed sludge obtained from the Hefei City wastewater treat-

ment plan into BAFs. Each experiment was divided into 3 stages for

each BAF. During each test stage, the operating conditions of both

BAFs were identical (see Table 1). A stable hydraulic retention time

(HRT) of 7 h was used. Three air-water (A/W) ratios of 1:1, 3:1, and

6:1, respectively, were tested. The two BAFs were monitored for

4 months after the initiation of biofiltration. Both BAFs were oper-

ated in summer at wastewater temperatures ranging from 26 C to

30 C. Samples were analyzed for NH3-N and P in accordance with

Chinese EPA standards [2,24]. A TOC/TN (Jena Multi N/C 2100) ana-

lyzer was used to measure TOC and TN. Dissolved oxygen (DO)

concentrations were measured using a portable digital DO meter

(Oxi-315, Hao-Yang Biotech Company, Shanghai, China).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Characteristics of IPC and CAC

Table 1 shows the elemental properties of IPC and CAC. IPC pos-

sesses a higher surface area and porosity than those of CAC. Lower

apparent and bulk densities were also observed in the IPC. All of these properties are associated with the chemical compositions

T. Bao et al. / Separation and Purification Technology 167 (2016) 154–162 155

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of the materials. Sawdust comprised 20% of IPC, which is propitious

for the manufacture of lightweight porous IPC because of the

decomposition of sawdust during calcination (Section 1.2, Support-

ing information). The lower apparent and bulk densities of IPC may

be ascribed to the addition of sawdust. The gas-forming compo-

nents from the sawdust also rendered the IPC surface rougher than

the CAC surface, generating a larger surface area in the former. Fur-

thermore, the microbial biofilm biomass was greater in amount on

the IPC than on the CAC because of the former’s rough surface. For

IPC and CAC, the surface area reached over 79 m2 g1 and 2 m2 g1,

respectively (Table S1). The rough surface distributed with largepores was beneficial for the microbial biofilms to grow onto the

IPC. These special surface morphology properties also demon-

strated that IPC was fit as filter material.

3.2. Micro-CT based pore characterization

Micro-CT is a powerful tool for non-destructive and repro-

ducible analysis of the architecture of porous materials based on

3D geometrical considerations [25–27]. In this study, micro-CT

was used to analyze structural characteristics and porosity of IPC

and CAC. Fig. 1A shows the 3D micro-CT reconstruction of IPC.

The red spherical particles in IPC sections denote calcined molded

composite particles (calcined palygorskite, calcined sawdust, and

calcined goethite) and pores can also be observed. This 3D imagedemonstrates that IPC has considerable external porosity by vol-

ume. Fig. 1B shows a 0.72 mm thick cross-section (stack of 20 scan

slices) of IPC with large pores of diameters approximately 100–

500lm. Fig. 1C and D shows a 3D reconstruction and 0.72 mm

thick cross-section (stack of 20 scan slices) of CAC and CAC filled

with epoxy, respectively. The porosity was determined to be

3.46% ± 2.05%. The formation of liquid phases at temperatures

P1000 C reduces the number of pores in CAC due to a higher per-

centage of fine particles. This characteristic in CAC hinders the ini-

tiation of cracks and results in a low porosity [28].

Porosity is a key factor in ensuring successful nitrogen removal

in a given BAF process due to the uneven distribution of DO and

substrate inside the IPC’s pores or on the rough surface. This fea-

ture allows simultaneous proliferation of nitrifying and denitrify-ing bacteria. Micro-organisms are immobilized in the IPC’s pores

which maintain a high biomass concentration while retaining a

high hydraulic loading rate [13]. Micro-CT analysis shows that

when sintered at 700 C, the IPC has a porosity of 40.86% ± 3.26%

with many unevenly distributed pores (100–500 lm). In principle,

this characteristic is suitable for the growth of attached micro-

organisms on rougher surfaces [13].

3.3. Cast thin section of IPC and CAC

Fig. 2 shows the internal pore structures of IPC and CAC. The IPC

porosity (40.86% ± 3.26%) rendered the material ideal for microbial

biofilm in-growth (Fig. 2A). By contrast, CAC possessed much lower

porosity (3.46% ± 2.05%), which limits microbial growth (Fig. 2C)[14]. Microbial biofilm growth can form on external surfaces and

within internal pores of the IPC; a rich supply of organic matter

and nutrient substance allows these microbial biofilms to thrive.

The microbial biofilm excretes slimy, glue-like exopolymeric sub-

stances that further improve microbial anchoring to the IPC [29].

DO affects the distribution, nitrification, and denitrification rates

of the microbial biofilm of the IPC as follows. Autotrophs are

mainly located on the outer layer of the microbial biofilm to meet

a fundamental requirement for converting NH4+–N. By contrast, the

location of heterotrophs in the microbial biofilm is less restricted

because the microorganisms can occupy the microbial biofilm cen-

ter. In this case, the heterotrophs may grow with an organic sub-strate during the feast phase with the use of NO3

–N as electron

acceptor [30]. Heterotrophs may also grow on the outer layers of

the microbial biofilm where DO can be used as electron acceptor

[30]. The concentration of DO first decreased rapidly within the

microbial biofilm thickness and then decreased gradually to zero

at the outer region of the microbial biofilm [31]. Nitration occurred

outside the microbial biofilm. Given the limited oxygen diffusion,

gradients of DO concentrations within the microbial biofilm

became possible. Deep within the microbial biofilm, oxygen trans-

fer may be blocked, and large external oxygen consumption may

occur, thus producing anoxic zones. Denitrifying bacteria predom-

inantly enabled anoxic denitrification within the microbial biofilm.

Hypoxic microbial biofilms were found within the pores. SND was

also observed both inside and outside of the flocs [32–35].Previous research has shown that staining epoxy resin can be

used to impregnate the pore space of rock samples. This method

is a very useful technique for identifying mineral components of

sedimentary rocks [36,37]. However, few reports have investigated

the porosity of filter media by using staining epoxy resin. The thin

sections of CAC and IPC, as depicted in Fig. 2, were analyzed to

obtain direct evidence of microorganisms in the porous structure

of both materials. The rubber casting experiments were used to

generate quantitative size and shape data from pores in the thin

section [36,37]. The intergranular pore textures observed in a thin

section and the red netted texture sections in Fig. 2A are identified

as calcined palygorskite, goethite (hematite) and sawdust (biomass

residues), while the gray area (arrowed) represents internal pores

of the IPC. IPC have a greater variety of internal pores than guest

microbial biofilm [2]. In addition, the size of those interconnected

pores is about 100–500 lm (Fig. 2A), which is consistent with the

results of Micro-CT analyses. It is well known that most microbes

are approximately 0.5 lm in diameter. Thus, microbes can achieve

a sustained growth of bacterial population in these open pores. In

Fig. 2B, the blue section was obtained by vacuum impregnation

with blue-dyed epoxy (arrowed) in IPC. Fully interconnected pores

with a diameter of 100–500 lm between the narrowest parts can

be observed. In fact, Fig. 2C and D shows that blue-dyed epoxy in

the porosity system cannot overcome the capillary resistance of

the throat(s) and enter into porosity space [2]. There are also some

closed pores in CAC (closed pore - arrowed), where microbes can-

not penetrate the internal pores of the CAC. Previous studies have

shown that the biofilm biomass was 63.4 mg TN/g for IPC BAF and

2.2 mg TN/g for CAC BAF [14].

Table 1

Operating conditions.

Sample HRT (h) pH T (C) A/W TOC NH3-N PO43

AIC ± SD AIC ± SD AIC ± SD

Water quality indexes and operating conditions

Stage one 7 6.7 (±0.5) 27–30 1:1 26.06 ± 0.205 9.75 ± 0.196 0.558 ± 0.022

Stage two 7 6.6 (±0.5) 28–30 3:1 26.10 ± 0.449 9.79 ± 0.329 0.484 ± 0.015

Stage three 7 7.1 (±0.5) 23–30 6:1 25.29 ± 0.486 9.81 ± 0.175 0.486 ± 0.016

Note: TOC/NH3-N/PO43 values are influent concentrations mg/L; standard deviation – SD; average influent concentrations – AIC; HRT – hydraulic retention time; A/W – air/

water ratios.

156 T. Bao et al. / Separation and Purification Technology 167 (2016) 154–162


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3.4. Comparison of the influence of A/W ratio on TOC removal in the

IPC BAF and CAC BAF

Fig. 3A, Tables 1 and 2 show the IPC BAF and CAC BAF perfor-

mance for TOC removal with a HRT of 7 h at different A/W ratios

(i.e., 1:1; 3:1; 6:1). These results confirm that for steady organic

input loading, microbe bioactivity is enhanced with increase of

A/W ratio (1:1? 6:1). On the other hand, diffusivity is strength-

ened with increase of A/W ratio and contributes to TOC removal.

Fig. 3A and Table 2 also indicate that the IPC has higher perfor-mance due to enhanced physicochemical properties of IPC as con-

firmed by the analyses of Micro-CT and porosimetry. The surface

and internal pore structures of IPC are uniform and well developed

so that organic matter and nutrient substances are able to reach

the internal pores of IPC. The available space for microorganism

growth, mass transfer rate of DO and the dispersion potential of

biofilm biomass are also increased by soluble pollutants extending

to the internal pores of the IPC. These attributes result in a more

favorable development of the filter layer and improve the effective-

ness of biofiltration [13].

3.5. Influence of A/W ratio on NH 3-N and TN removal

The data in Fig. 3B, Tables 1 and 2 also show optimum removalof NH3-N. The removal rate is higher when the A/W ratio increases

from 1:1 to 3:1 and then decreases at higher A/W ratio to 6:1. A

higher air-flow inhibits the microbial biofilm resulting in

decreased NH3-N removal. IPC BAF had a slightly higher NH3-N

removal compared to the CAC BAF. A/W is one of the key parame-

ters responsible for nitrification; therefore, it is the limiting factor

for nitrification when the A/W ratio in the BAF is lower than

required for bio-reactions with an A/W ratio of 1:1. Studies by

Lazarova and Manem [38] have reported that autotrophic bacteria

compete with heterotrophic bacteria for oxygen, substrates and

habitation area within a microbial biofilm. This outcome is becauseslow growing autotrophic bacteria inherently compromises the

nitrification process [38]. The main cause of this difficulty is a

decrease in nitrifying activity that affects the competition between

aerobic heterotrophic bacteria and autotrophic bacteria [12].

From Fig. 3C, Tables 1 and 2, it can be seen that TN removal effi-

ciencies first increase (1:1–3:1) and then decrease with an increase

of A/W ratio (3:1–6:1). The results confirm that TN removal is

affected by the A/W ratio in the two BAFs. Denitrification produces

less energy yield than oxygen respiration. Hence, a bacterial cell

growing in aerobic conditions will choose to use oxygen as a termi-

nal electron acceptor. In addition to this competitive effect, oxygen

controls denitrification at two levels: (i) reversible inhibition of the

activities of the denitrification enzymes and (ii) regulation of gene

expression [39]. It can beseen that the IPC BAF has a slightlyhigher

TN removal rate compared with the CAC BAF (Fig. 3C). Normally, a

(A) 3 dimensional reconstruction of IPC;

(B) 20 slices (0.72 mm) cross-section of IPC;

(C) 3 dimensional of CAC;

(D) 20 slices (0.72 mm) cross-section CAC;

Fig. 1. Micro-CT of IPC and CAC.


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(A) IPC; (B) IPC filled with epoxy (light blue = open pores);

(C) CAC; (D) CAC filled with epoxy;

Fig. 2. Internal porosity of CAC and IPC (cross-section). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this

article.)

0

40

80

0 25 50 75

10

20 R e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y

( % )

T O C ( m g / L )

Time (d)

A/W=1:1 A/W=6:1A/W=3:1

CAC removal

IPC removal

0 25 50 75

0

5

10

40

80

120

R e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c

y ( % )

N H 3 - N ( m g / L )

Time (d)

A/W=1:1

CAC removal

IPC removal

A/W=6:1A/W=3:1

0

30

60

90

0 25 50 75

3

6

9

12

R e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y ( % )

T N ( m g / L )

Time (d)

Influent

CAC effluent

IPC effluent

A/W=1:1 A/W=6:1A/W=3:1CAC removal

IPC removal

0

50

100

150

0 25 50 750.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

R e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y ( % )

P ( m g / L )

Time (d)

A/W=1:1 A/W=6:1A/W=3:1

CAC removal

IPC removal

DC

BA

Influent

CAC effluent

IPC effluent

Influent

CAC effluent

IPC effluent

Influent

CAC effluent

IPC effluent

Fig. 3. Removal efficiency of TOC, NH3-N, TN, and PO43 over time.



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Table 2

Average removal rates for IPC and CAC in BAF at different air/water ratios.

TOC NH3-N

A/W 1:1 3:1 6:1 1:1 3:1

Material AEC ± SD ARR ± SD AEC ± SD ARR ± SD AEC ± SD ARR ± SD AEC ± SD ARR ± SD AEC ± SD A

IPC 19.93 ± 1.21 23.51 ± 4.88 13.53 ± 3.68 47.95 ± 14.96 9.98 ± 2.52 60.50 ± 10.25 7.80 ± 0.75 20.02 ± 7.70 0.57 ± 0.61 9

CAC 21.87 ± 2.63 16.07 ± 10.13 16.91 ± 2.32 35.06 ± 9.81 12.45 ± 1.34 50.77 ± 5.29 8.25 ± 0.69 15.33 ± 7.46 4.62 ± 2.54 5

TN PO43

A/W 1:1 3:1 6:1 1:1 3:1

Material AEC ± SD ARR ± SD AEC ± SD ARR ± SD AEC ± SD ARR ± SD AEC ± SD ARR ± SD AEC ± SD AR

IPC 9.11 ± 0 .76 15.86 ± 8.74 5.55 ± 1.84 46.26 ± 1 8.95 7.22 ± 0.98 31.73 ± 8.94 0.16 ± 0.048 73.70 ± 9 .01 0.13 ± 0 .03 72

CAC 9.97 ± 0 .62 8.09 ± 5 .09 8.76 ± 0 .88 15.64 ± 1 0.56 8.99 ± 0.87 14.96 ± 8.44 0.37 ± 0.07 34.21 ± 12.75 0.32 ± 0 .05 33

Note: Standard deviation – SD; average removal rates – ARR (%); average effluent concentrations – AEC (mg/L).


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bacteria, Dechloromonas sp. (No. 6) is a genus in the phylum pro-teobacteria. Dechloromonas sp. is facultative denitrifying bacteria

[46]. No. 2 demonstrates 99% similarity with Azonexus sp., a genus

in the phylum proteobacteria [47]. No. 3 demonstrates 99%similar-

ity with Hydrogenophaga sp., a genus of comamonad bacteria. Sev-

eral of these bacterial species were previously classified in the

genus Pseudomonas [48]. No. 7 and No. 8 demonstrate 99% similar-

ity with Sphaerotilus sp., an aquatic periphyton organism associ-

ated with polluted water that forms colonies commonly known

as ‘‘sewage fungus”. However, an aquatic periphyton organism

Sphaerotilus sp. was later identified as a tightly sheathed filamen-

tous bacteria [49]. No. 16 demonstrates 100% similarity with Nitro-

spira sp. which is a phylum of bacteria. This phylum contains only

one class, nitrospira, which itself contains one order (Nitrospirales)

and one family (Nitrospiraceae) [50]. This analysis demonstratesthe biological diversity of microbes found in the biofilm and con-

firms that nitrifying bacteria and denitrifying bacteria are present.

This diversity of both bacterial types enhances performance in

wastewater treatment systems.

4. Conclusion

This study reports the performance of synthesized IPC and CAC

as filter media in a BAF process. SEM and PM results suggest that

uniform and interconnected pores in IPC are more suited to micro-

bial growth compared with the compact and closed pore structure

of CAC. Three-dimensional rendering using micro-CT of the pores

also reveals critical details of the pore structure and is an accuratemethod to characterize porosity. These observations support

enhanced microbial growth for IPC compared to CAC. A highermicrobial biofilm production rate is observed in IPC compared to

CAC when used in the BAF system. The performance efficiency of

the IPC BAF is higher than that for CAC BAF, particularly for TOC,

TN, P, and NH3-N removal. This efficiency also improves when

the A/W ratio is increased from 1:1 to 6:1. These results indicate

that IPC is a promising material for the simultaneous removal of

nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater treatment. The biological

diversity of microorganism communities in the IPC BAF plays a

key role in the simultaneous removal of nitrogen and phosphorus.

Finally, a large quantity of protozoan and metazoan organisms

observed in IPC BAF are indicators of good performance in wastew-

ater treatment systems.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the support by the National Natural

Science Foundation of China – China (41572029 and 41130206).

Appendix A. Supplementary material

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in

the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2016.05.

011.

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IPCBAF for line 1, line 2, and line 3.

Line 1 Line 2 Line 3

Fig. 5. DGGE profiles of bacterial and archea 16S rRNA genes from the IPCBAF for line 1, line 2, and line 3.


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Synthesis and Performance of Iron Oxide-based Porous Ceramsite

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