SyntaxSyntax

The Verb Phrase: summaryThe Verb Phrase: summary

• The VP consists of a The VP consists of a head verbhead verb, , either alone or accompanied by one either alone or accompanied by one or more auxiliariesor more auxiliaries

• If the VP contains only one verb, it is If the VP contains only one verb, it is a a lexicallexical verb (arrived) verb (arrived)

• If the VP contains more verbs, one is If the VP contains more verbs, one is a a lexical verblexical verb and the others are and the others are pre-modifying pre-modifying auxiliariesauxiliaries or or modalsmodals ( (isis arriving, arriving, hashas arrived, arrived, maymay arrive, arrive, might bemight be arriving, etc.) arriving, etc.)

The role of auxiliary verbsThe role of auxiliary verbs

• They are used to express grammatical They are used to express grammatical categories such as categories such as aspectaspect, , voicevoice and and modalitymodality..

• The primary auxiliary The primary auxiliary bebe is used to form is used to form the the passive passive voice (the man was hit by a voice (the man was hit by a car) and the car) and the progressiveprogressive aspect (I am aspect (I am working)working)

• The primary auxiliary The primary auxiliary havehave is used to is used to form the form the perfectperfect aspect (I have worked) aspect (I have worked)

• The primary auxiliary The primary auxiliary dodo is used to form is used to form the the negativenegative and and interrogativeinterrogative forms (I forms (I don’t know, Do you know?)don’t know, Do you know?)

modal verbs and modalitymodal verbs and modality they are frequently used in English and they are frequently used in English and

belong to the Germanic core of the belong to the Germanic core of the languagelanguage

they express a wide range of meanings they express a wide range of meanings

referring either to actions controlled by referring either to actions controlled by humans (humans (deonticdeontic modality) or to the modality) or to the levels of certainty of an event (levels of certainty of an event (epistemicepistemic modality)modality)

the same modals can express different the same modals can express different meanings; the same meanings can be meanings; the same meanings can be expressed in different waysexpressed in different ways

the main meanings of the main meanings of modal verbsmodal verbs

1.1. permissionpermission e.g. e.g. Can I ask you a question? Can I ask you a question? Could I borrow your notes? (Am I allowed Could I borrow your notes? (Am I allowed to ask a question?) to ask a question?)

2.2. abilityability e.g. e.g. I can ski (I know how to do it) I can ski (I know how to do it)

3.3. possibilitypossibility e.g. e.g. She may be ill. She might She may be ill. She might be ill (Perhaps she is ill) be ill (Perhaps she is ill)

4.4. obligationobligation e.g. e.g. You must stop talking. You You must stop talking. You should pay attention. should pay attention.

5.5. logical necessitylogical necessity (probability)(probability) e.g. e.g. She She must be ill (She is very likely to be ill) must be ill (She is very likely to be ill)

6.6. volitionvolition e.g. e.g. I’ll do it for youI’ll do it for you

7.7. predictionprediction e.g. e.g. It will rain tomorrowIt will rain tomorrow

what about modal verbs in what about modal verbs in Italian?Italian?

Translate the following expressions into English:Translate the following expressions into English:

Devi smettere di fumareDevi smettere di fumareDovresti smettere di fumareDovresti smettere di fumarePosso fumare?Posso fumare?Potrei fumare?Potrei fumare?Domani può piovereDomani può piovereDomani potrebbe piovereDomani potrebbe piovereDomai pioveràDomai pioveràSa sciare molto beneSa sciare molto beneSapeva sciare bene quando era giovaneSapeva sciare bene quando era giovane

Italian has the verbs Italian has the verbs potere, sapere potere, sapere and and doveredovereSome modal expressions are expressed through Some modal expressions are expressed through the the conditional moodconditional mood or the or the future tensefuture tense, which do not , which do not exist as morphologically marked forms in Englishexist as morphologically marked forms in English

other phrasesother phrases

• Adjective Phrase (AdjP)Adjective Phrase (AdjP)e.g. extremely e.g. extremely importantimportant, very, very unhappy unhappy,,

good good at languagesat languages

• Adverb Phrase (AdvP)Adverb Phrase (AdvP)e.g. very e.g. very badlybadly, perfectly , perfectly wellwell

• Prepositional Phrase (PP)Prepositional Phrase (PP)e.g. e.g. inin the garden, the garden, toto London London(see pp. 153-158)(see pp. 153-158)

How can a clause be analysed?How can a clause be analysed?

1.1. Subject + predicateSubject + predicate

John John (what is talked about) (what is talked about) is English is English (what is said (what is said about the topic)about the topic)

2. The main functional 2. The main functional elements of the clauseelements of the clause

Clause and clause elementsClause and clause elements

• A clause is a syntactic unit made up of A clause is a syntactic unit made up of one or more phrases, containing at one or more phrases, containing at least one VP:least one VP:

e.g. Run!e.g. Run!

John sang.John sang.

My brother gave me a beautiful My brother gave me a beautiful dress.dress.

Did you like the concert last Did you like the concert last night?night?

5 major clause elements 5 major clause elements (constituents)(constituents)

• Subject (S)Subject (S)• Verb (V) or Predicator Verb (V) or Predicator • Object (O)Object (O)• Complement (C)Complement (C)• Adverbial (A) Adverbial (A)

Word Order (p. 136)Word Order (p. 136)• Translate the following clauses into English:Translate the following clauses into English:

Seguiranno alcuni esempi Seguiranno alcuni esempi Some examples will followSome examples will follow Nel capitolo 3 verrà presentata la grammatica Nel capitolo 3 verrà presentata la grammatica Grammar will be presented in Chapter 3Grammar will be presented in Chapter 3 Giovanni parla molto bene l’italiano /l’italiano Giovanni parla molto bene l’italiano /l’italiano

molto bene molto bene John speaks Italian very wellJohn speaks Italian very well Odio stirare Odio stirare I hate ironingI hate ironing Piove forte da molte ore Piove forte da molte ore It’s been raining heavily for many hoursIt’s been raining heavily for many hours• C’è un gatto in giardinoC’è un gatto in giardino There is a cat in the gardenThere is a cat in the garden

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION::

• The unmarked word order in The unmarked word order in English in SVO, while in Italian English in SVO, while in Italian this order can vary to a certain this order can vary to a certain extent. extent.

• The subject is compulsory in The subject is compulsory in English, and not in Italian. English, and not in Italian.

• If there is no subject, a ‘dummy’ If there is no subject, a ‘dummy’ subject will be used subject will be used (it/there).(it/there).

The Verb (p. 159)The Verb (p. 159)

……is the central part of the clause since it is the central part of the clause since it determines the other elements (e.g. determines the other elements (e.g. verb verb complementation or valency)complementation or valency)

She was laughing She was laughing one-place verbone-place verb

She was playing the piano She was playing the piano two-place verbtwo-place verb

She was very beautiful She was very beautiful two-place verbtwo-place verb

She gave him a kiss She gave him a kiss three-place three-place verbverb

She made him happy She made him happy three-place three-place verbverb

clause elementsclause elementsSS VV OO CC AA

The The black black labrador labrador (NP)(NP)

has has bitten bitten (VP)(VP)

Mr Mr Allington Allington (NP)(NP)

in the in the garden garden (PP)(PP)

Optional Optional AA

He (NP)He (NP) put (VP)put (VP) the keysthe keys(NP)(NP)

in his bagin his bag(PP)(PP)

ObligatorObligatory Ay A

Sue Sue (NP)(NP)

is is feeling feeling (VP)(VP)

very very sleepy sleepy (AdjP)(AdjP)

SS VV OO CC AA

It (dummy It (dummy subject)subject)

is going is going (VP)(VP)

to rain to rain (non- (non- finite finite VP)VP)

ArmstronArmstrong (NP)g (NP)

became became (VP)(VP)

the first the first man on man on the the moon moon (NP)(NP)

Chris Chris (NP)(NP)

made made (VP)(VP)

Sara Sara (NP)(NP)

really really angry angry (AdjP)(AdjP)

yesterdayesterday (AdvP)y (AdvP)

What I What I don’t don’t understanunderstand (clause)d (clause)

is (VP)is (VP) why you why you lied to lied to meme(clause)(clause)

S+V+Oi+Od (di-transitive)S+V+Oi+Od (di-transitive)

SS VV OOii

(Indirect Object)(Indirect Object) OOdd

(Direct Object)(Direct Object)

My My friend friend

toldtold me me a liea lie

Sue Sue gavegave her sisterher sister a glass of winea glass of wine

JohnJohn showed showed his friendshis friends his new carhis new car

SV (intransitive verb). No SV (intransitive verb). No complementationcomplementation

The black labrador was barking The black labrador was barking clauseclause

S:NP P:VPS:NP P:VP

det. mod.(adj.) head (n.) aux. det. mod.(adj.) head (n.) aux. head (v.)head (v.)

the black labrador was barkingthe black labrador was barking

A new teacher has arrivedA new teacher has arrived

SVOSVOdd (monotransitive) (monotransitive)Andrew bought a sports carAndrew bought a sports car

clauseclause

S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V OV Odd:NP:NP

head (n.) head (v.) head (n.) head (v.) det. mod. (adj.) det. mod. (adj.) head (n.)head (n.)

Andrew bought a sports Andrew bought a sports carcar

My sister plays the pianoMy sister plays the piano

SVA (+ an obligatory Adverbial)SVA (+ an obligatory Adverbial)The taxi is waiting outsideThe taxi is waiting outside

clauseclause S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V A:AdvPV A:AdvP

det. head (n.) aux. head (v.) det. head (n.) aux. head (v.)

head (adv.)head (adv.)

The taxi is waiting The taxi is waiting outsideoutside

The waiter put the bread on the The waiter put the bread on the tabletable

SVCSVCs s (copular verb)(copular verb)The weather has turned very nastyThe weather has turned very nasty

clauseclause

S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V C:AdjPV C:AdjP

det. head (n.) aux. head(v.) mod.(adv.) det. head (n.) aux. head(v.) mod.(adv.) head(adj.)head(adj.)

The weather has turned very nastyThe weather has turned very nasty

The news sounds very The news sounds very interestinginteresting

• My 80-year-old grandmother is in good My 80-year-old grandmother is in good healthhealth

Copular verbsCopular verbs

• be, feel, seem, appear, look, remain, be, feel, seem, appear, look, remain, stay, become, sound, tastestay, become, sound, taste

e.g. I am / feel e.g. I am / feel rather tiredrather tired (C: AdjP) (C: AdjP) She became She became a nursea nurse (C:NP) (C:NP)

You look You look extremely happyextremely happy (C:AdjP) (C:AdjP) Mary appeared Mary appeared in good healthin good health

(C:PP)(C:PP) That is That is what I meanwhat I mean (C: clause) (C: clause)

SVOSVOiiOOd d (di-transitive)(di-transitive)Gill told her child a bedtime storyGill told her child a bedtime story

clauseclause

S:NP P:VPS:NP P:VP

V OV Oii:NP O:NP Odd:NP:NP

head(n.) head(v.) det. head(n.) det. mod.head(n.) head(v.) det. head(n.) det. mod.(n.) h(n.)(n.) h(n.)

Gill told her child a Gill told her child a bedtime storybedtime story

She should tell me the truthShe should tell me the truth

Di-transitive verbsDi-transitive verbs

• Give, tell, bring, buy, showGive, tell, bring, buy, show

e.g. John showed e.g. John showed meme (Oi) his new car (Oi) his new car (Od)(Od)

They bought They bought himhim (Oi) a new racket (Oi) a new racket (Od)(Od)

Tell Tell usus (Oi) the truth (Od) (Oi) the truth (Od)

SVOSVOddCCo o (complex transitive)(complex transitive)The judges declared Jackie the winnerThe judges declared Jackie the winner

clauseclause

S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V O:NP CV O:NP Coo:NP:NP

det. head (n.) head (v.) head(n.) det. h(n.)det. head (n.) head (v.) head(n.) det. h(n.)

The judges declared Jackie the The judges declared Jackie the winnerwinner

Rebecca considers her brother a geniousRebecca considers her brother a genious

SVOSVOddAA

Terry put the rubbish in the dustbinTerry put the rubbish in the dustbin

clauseclause

S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V O:NP A:PPV O:NP A:PP

head (n.) head(v.) det. h(n.) head (n.) head(v.) det. h(n.) h (prep) C:NPh (prep) C:NP

det. det. h(n.)h(n.)

Terry put the rubbish in the Terry put the rubbish in the dustbindustbin

The linguistics professor The linguistics professor

will introduce will introduce

the chapter on lexis the chapter on lexis

tomorrowtomorrow

The 7 basic clause patternsThe 7 basic clause patterns

• SV SV (intransitive) (intransitive) The dog is barkingThe dog is barking• SVA (intransitive+obligatory A) SVA (intransitive+obligatory A) They are waiting They are waiting

outsideoutside

• SVCSVCs s (copulative) (copulative) You look greatYou look great

• SVOSVOdd (monotransitive)(monotransitive) I miss my familyI miss my family

• SVOSVOiiOOdd (di-transitive)(di-transitive) John showed me his new carJohn showed me his new car

• SVOSVOddCCoo (complex-transitive)(complex-transitive) The judges declared The judges declared Jackie the winnerJackie the winner

• SVOSVOddAA (transitive with obligatory A) (transitive with obligatory A)

The waiter put the The waiter put the bread on bread on the tablethe table

In the summer A:PPIn the summer A:PP

high humidity levels S:NPhigh humidity levels S:NP

make P:VPmake P:VP

the weather O:NPthe weather O:NP

unbearable Co:AdjPunbearable Co:AdjP

Luckily A:AdvPLuckily A:AdvP

he S:NPhe S:NP

found P:VPfound P:VP

all the exam questions O:NPall the exam questions O:NP

very easy Co:AdjPvery easy Co:AdjP

ComplementComplement

• Cs Cs complemento predicativo del soggettocomplemento predicativo del soggetto

It follows copular verbs be, feel, seem, appear, look…It follows copular verbs be, feel, seem, appear, look…

I am/feel tiredI am/feel tired

You look/ appear/ seem tired.You look/ appear/ seem tired.• Co Co complemento predicativo dell’oggettocomplemento predicativo dell’oggetto

It follows a direct object and occurs with complex It follows a direct object and occurs with complex transitive verbs make, elect, consider, find, call…transitive verbs make, elect, consider, find, call…

This experience made me strongerThis experience made me stronger

I found his reaction stupidI found his reaction stupid

AdverbialAdverbial

• Optional elements added to the obligatory Optional elements added to the obligatory elements of the clauseelements of the clause

• Circumstance adverbial: additional informationCircumstance adverbial: additional information

e.g. The taxi is waiting e.g. The taxi is waiting outside outside • Stance adverbial: speaker’s feeling / attitudeStance adverbial: speaker’s feeling / attitude

e.g. e.g. HopefullyHopefully I will pass all my exams in June I will pass all my exams in June• Linking adverbialLinking adverbial

e.g. e.g. In conclusionIn conclusion, all’s well that ends well., all’s well that ends well.

Obligatory adverbialObligatory adverbial

• Adverbials that are required to complete Adverbials that are required to complete the meaning of the verbthe meaning of the verb

• E.g. Sally E.g. Sally putput the bread the bread on the table on the table (obligatory Adverbial)(obligatory Adverbial)

vs. Sally vs. Sally cutcut the bread on the table (optional the bread on the table (optional Adverbial)Adverbial)

Verbs: put, last, liveVerbs: put, last, live

Adverbials vs. complementsAdverbials vs. complements

• John was John was very quietvery quiet (C) (C)• John was in bed (A)John was in bed (A)• They are They are in dangerin danger (C) (C)• They are in the garden (A)They are in the garden (A)• You should stay You should stay sobersober (C) (C)• You should stay here (A)You should stay here (A)

Complements describe or characterize the S (or Complements describe or characterize the S (or O)O)

Adverbials typically express place or direction.Adverbials typically express place or direction.

main and subordinate clausesmain and subordinate clauses

1.1. Mary Mary had been waiting had been waiting for more than an for more than an hourhour

2.2. SuddenlySuddenly, she , she stood up stood up and and went outwent out

3.3. She She saidsaid that she that she was not feeling was not feeling well well because the air in the room because the air in the room waswas stuffy stuffy

4.4. She She wantedwanted to get to get some fresh airsome fresh air

• a main clause always contains a finite verb a main clause always contains a finite verb and typically contains an overt subjectand typically contains an overt subject

• a subordinate clause cannot stand alone a subordinate clause cannot stand alone and needs to be attached to a free-and needs to be attached to a free-standing clausestanding clause

• a non-finite clause is always subordinatea non-finite clause is always subordinate• simple clauses consist of a clause, simple clauses consist of a clause,

compound clauses consist of two compound clauses consist of two coordinate clauses, complex clauses coordinate clauses, complex clauses consist of a main and one or more consist of a main and one or more subordinate clauses.subordinate clauses.

Types of ClausesTypes of Clauses

typical functions of clause typestypical functions of clause types

FormForm FunctionFunction

declarativedeclarative statementstatement

interrogativeinterrogative questionquestion imperativeimperative directivedirective exclamativeexclamative exclamationexclamation

You’re wearing a new dress. You’re wearing a new dress. Are you wearing a new dress?Are you wearing a new dress?Buy yourself a new dress!Buy yourself a new dress!What a lovely dress you’re wearing!What a lovely dress you’re wearing!

declarative clausesdeclarative clauses

• declarative clauses are normally declarative clauses are normally used to make statementsused to make statements

• declarative sentences typically have declarative sentences typically have an an overt subjectovert subject, a , a verbverb element and element and any necessary any necessary verb complementationverb complementation

• declarative sentences may also have declarative sentences may also have optional adverbialsoptional adverbials

Philip will see his dentist in London Philip will see his dentist in London todaytoday

interrogative clausesinterrogative clauses

• yes-no questions: yes-no questions: Are you happy?Are you happy?• wh- questions: wh- questions: Where do you live?Where do you live?• question-tag : question-tag : She’s Australian, isn’t she? She’s Australian, isn’t she?

She doesn’t love him, does she?She doesn’t love him, does she?

So, you have changed your mind, have you?So, you have changed your mind, have you?

• the interrogative structure implies a the interrogative structure implies a subject-operator subject-operator inversioninversion

• any auxiliary which is used to make interrogative any auxiliary which is used to make interrogative sentences is labelled sentences is labelled operatoroperator (be, have, do) (be, have, do)

• questions tags may have questions tags may have contrastive or constant polaritycontrastive or constant polarity

marked structures: Cleftingmarked structures: Clefting

• to to highlighthighlight a particular element of a particular element of the sentencethe sentence

• the focussed element is introduced by the focussed element is introduced by a a dummy Subjectdummy Subject and followed by a and followed by a relative clauserelative clause

it-cleft structureit-cleft structureTerry plays jazz piano for fun.Terry plays jazz piano for fun.

It is It is TerryTerry who who plays jazz piano for fun. plays jazz piano for fun.

It’s jazz piano thatIt’s jazz piano that Terry plays for fun Terry plays for fun

It’s for fun thatIt’s for fun that Terry plays jazz piano Terry plays jazz piano

The man hit the boyThe man hit the boy

It was the manIt was the man who hit the boy who hit the boy

wh-cleft structurewh-cleft structure

I would like a book for my birthdayI would like a book for my birthday

What I would likeWhat I would like for my birthday is a book for my birthday is a book

I want a book for ChristmasI want a book for Christmas

What I wantWhat I want for Christmas is a book for Christmas is a book

sentencesentence

• the largest unit of syntactic structurethe largest unit of syntactic structure• a sentence must consist of at least one clause a sentence must consist of at least one clause

(main clause)(main clause)I agreed to go with them although I wasn’t I agreed to go with them although I wasn’t really happy with the idea.really happy with the idea.

• in writing, a sentence starts with a capital letter in writing, a sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stopand ends with a full stop

• in speech sentences are not always completein speech sentences are not always complete

types of subordinate clausestypes of subordinate clauses

1.1. NominalNominal I just hope (that) I just hope (that) they will understandthey will understand

2.2. RelativeRelative The man The man who is sitting next to Tomwho is sitting next to Tom is John is John

3.3. AdverbialAdverbial Call me Call me as soon as you get home as soon as you get home (time)(time) because I because I have to talk to you have to talk to you (reason). The boy stood on the (reason). The boy stood on the box box so that he could see better so that he could see better (purpose). (purpose). Even Even though I am tired though I am tired (concession), I’ll do it.(concession), I’ll do it.

4.4. ComparativeComparative This hotel is not This hotel is not as nice as I expectedas nice as I expected

types of relative clausestypes of relative clausesIn what ways do the following relative clauses differ? In what ways do the following relative clauses differ?

which relative pronouns can be used in each which relative pronouns can be used in each context?context?

This is the best hotel This is the best hotel (that, which, who, whom, whose, (that, which, who, whom, whose, zero pronoun) I was able to findzero pronoun) I was able to find

This hotel, (This hotel, (which, that, who, whose, whom, zero which, that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) was renewed last year, pronoun) was renewed last year, is one of the best is one of the best in the cityin the city

The man (The man (which,which, that, who, whose, whom, zero that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) you see in the photo pronoun) you see in the photo is my brother is my brother

The man (The man (which,which, that, who, whose, whom, zero that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) is coming towards us pronoun) is coming towards us is my brotheris my brother

The music The music (that, which, who, whose, whom, (that, which, who, whose, whom, zero article) we are listeningzero article) we are listening to is Mozart to is Mozart

We stayed in a lovely hotel, (We stayed in a lovely hotel, (which, that, who, which, that, who, whom, whose) owner is a good friend of minewhom, whose) owner is a good friend of mine

We stayed in a lovely hotel, (We stayed in a lovely hotel, (which, that, who, which, that, who,

whom, whose) we booked on the Internetwhom, whose) we booked on the Internet

rule of relative clausesrule of relative clauses

Relative clauses can be either Relative clauses can be either defining (or defining (or restrictive) or non-defining (non-restrictive)restrictive) or non-defining (non-restrictive) depending on whether they define the antecedent or depending on whether they define the antecedent or add extra information (no commas)add extra information (no commas)

The tourists who got up early could see the dawn on the The tourists who got up early could see the dawn on the NileNile

The use of relative pronouns is conditioned by the The use of relative pronouns is conditioned by the antecedentantecedent, whether it is , whether it is human human ( who,whom, whose, ( who,whom, whose, that) or that) or non-human non-human (that, whose, which), whether it (that, whose, which), whether it plays the role of plays the role of subjectsubject (who, that, which) or (who, that, which) or object object (whom, that, which, zero pronoun), whether it is (whom, that, which, zero pronoun), whether it is defining (defining (who, whose, whom, that, which) or who, whose, whom, that, which) or non-non-definingdefining (who, whose, which). (commas are required) (who, whose, which). (commas are required)

The tourists, who got up early, could see the dawn on the The tourists, who got up early, could see the dawn on the NileNile

conditional sentencesconditional sentences

1) If the weather 1) If the weather is niceis nice, tomorrow , tomorrow we will gowe will go to the seaside ( it is an open possibility)to the seaside ( it is an open possibility)

* If the weather * If the weather will bewill be nice, … nice, …

2) If the weather 2) If the weather were/was nicewere/was nice, we , we would gowould go to to the seaside ( it is unlikely)the seaside ( it is unlikely)

*If the weather *If the weather would bewould be nice, nice,

3) If the weather 3) If the weather had been nicehad been nice, we , we would have would have gonegone to the seaside (it did not happen) to the seaside (it did not happen)

• My friends sent me an invitation to their My friends sent me an invitation to their wedding.wedding.

• I put some poison for the mice in the garage.I put some poison for the mice in the garage.• Chris made Sara really angry yesterday.Chris made Sara really angry yesterday.• Yesterday the doctor told the patient the good Yesterday the doctor told the patient the good

newsnews • The car keys are on the table.The car keys are on the table.• The cash machine is faulty.The cash machine is faulty.