SYN'IHETIC METHOOOLCX.iY FOR 'IHE CALCUIATICN .AND PRELIMINAR.Y SPECIFICA.TION OF MICRO HYDRO roffiR STATIONS

3. 2. APPROXIMATE DETERMINATION OF 1HB INSTALLED CA.PACI'IY REQUIRED

3.3 . .ANALYTICA.L METIIODOL<.m' FOR DETER\fINING 1HE INSTALLED CAPACITY

REQUIRED AND 1HE ENERGY CONSUMPTIOO

4. EVALUATION OF 1HE PHYSICA.L ENVIRONMFNT ANO ESTIMA.TE OF lliE UfILIZABLl

RESOURCE

4. 1. MINIMUM RECONNAISSANCE REQUIRF.MEN'l'S

4. 2. FLOW MEASUREMENTS

5. PROCEDURE FOR CA.LCULA.TING ANO DETERMINING TErnNICA.L SPECIFICA.TIOOS

5.1. DEFINITION OF POWER RANGES .AND EFFICIENCIES

5. 2. SPECIFICA.TIONS AND ALTERNATIVES IN 'IHE SELECTIOO OF PENSTOCKS

5. 3. CALCUIATION OF HEAD LOSSES, NET HEAD, .AND REQUIRED FLOW

5.4. VERIFICA.TIOO OF 'IHE MINIMUM 1HICKNESS R)RTIIE PENSTOCK WALLS

S.S. CALCUIATION OF 'IHE PENSTOCK WEIGIIT

5.6. SELECTION OF 'IHE PENSTOCK DIAMETER

5.7. PRELIMINARY TIJRBINE SELECTION

l. SCOPE

2. CLASSIFICA.TION AND DEFINITIONS

2.1. CLASSIFICATION

2.2. DEFINITIONS

2.3. UNITS

3. EVALUATION OF ENERGY DFMAND

3.1. SOCIO-ECONCMIC .ANALYSIS

CONI'ENTS

APPENDIX I PROGRAM POR CALCULATING MICRO STATIONS ON A PROGRMMABLE

TEXAS INSTRUMFNrS MINI-CALCULATOR (M)DEL TI -59)

APPENDIX II CONVERSION OF UNITS

APPENDIX I II BIBLIOGRAPHY

The basic principles contained herewith are applicable to any type or size of plant; however, sorne methodological aspects­ related to the simplifica­ tion of the project engineering and to the application of some non­conven­ tional teclmologies­ preve particularly relevant for the lower power ranges, and this applicabili ty is reduced as the power capaci ty increases. For that reason , we chose to include the tenn 'micro hydro power stat ions" in our title; according to the classification system adopted by 01.ADE, this tenn corresponds to those stations with a power range lower than 50 kW, as is explained in the following section.

The intention herein is not to provide large doses of originality in the ideas set forth; actually, an effort has been made to the contrary, in or­ der to present practica! solutions for the application of sorne of the non­ conventional teclmologies as yet only slightly disseminated, as in the case of penstocks in non­metallic materials.

This document is directed especially to young engineers or those who have had no professional experience in the field of hydroenergy; and it is with­ in the scope of professionals from any of the engineering specialties, as long as their training has included the fundamentals of hydraulics anden­ ergy.

We think that it would be overly pretentious to consider this document a "manual" in the broadest sense of that tenn, if we understand a manual as dealing broadly with the various aspects rerated to a subject, but with sufficient depth for each of its aspects. 'lb.e author has atternpted, instead, to presenta si.mpler instrument, almost a simplified methodology for approximating the design of Micro Hydro Power Stations, and thus has evolved the almost excessively synthetic nature of this presentation of the material. Obviously, such approximation obiiges us to leave aside some useful cornments and reconmendations, as well as a demonstration of the fonm.ilas employed.

l. SCOPE

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With regard to the contents of this document, aspects of a general nature are presented: classification and definitions, simplified methods for the evaluation of the energy·demand and of the hydro resources, and basic pro­ cedur~s and calculations involved in specifying a hydro power plant.

In addition, despite t;he fact that hydroenergy technology is of a univer­ sal nature, those elements which the author has judged to be most relevant for Latin .America are those which have been stressed herein, especially insofar as the Spanish teililinology used and its regional equivalencies, the technologies and equipment with the greatest prospects for regional availability, and the ernphasis on medium and high falls.

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­ Regulable (control of the flow at the turbine entry), either manua.lly or automatically

e) according to the type of regulation:

Run of the river With a reservoir or dam

b) according to the form of capture:

The ranges of power and head are only indicative. The low, meditun, and high heads approximately correspond to the typical use of Axial Flow, Francis or Michell­Banki, and Pelton turbines, respectively. The tenn "Sma.11 Hydro Power Stations" also refers to all of the stations with power ranges of up to 5000 kW. The present document is destined for use mainly in Micro Hydro Power Stations with meditun and high falls.

a) according to power capacity and heads:

POWER HEAD (m) RANGE LCM MEDUM HIGH

Micro Hydro Less than t.t>re than Power Stations Up to so 15 15­50 so Mini Hydro Less than More than Power Stations 50­500 20 20­100 100 9nall Hydro Less than M>re than Power Stations 500­5000 25 25­130 130

<lWIT No. 1 PCMER RANGES AND HEADS

We have adopted the system proposed by OLADE:

2.1. CLASSIFICATION

2. CLASSIFICATICN .AND DEFINITIONS

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We follow with a glossary to explain the main elements of a hydro power station; in sorne cases, alternative tenns are indicated in parentheses.

2.2. DEFINITIONS

Stations with non­conventional technologies. These frequently make use of existing water intakes nd irrigation canals which have been Improved ; a forebay installed in line with the canal, including a silt remover; penstocks in non­metallic materials; and electromechanical equipment designed and built on the basis of technologies adapted to the level of industrial development of a given country and taking into account the availability of national materials, standardized equipment, modular switchboards, and minimal instrumentation.

Stations with conventional technologies. These include quality civil structures for the water intake, canal, and forebay, silt removal in the intake, steel penstocks, expensive electromecha­ nical equipment, construction with the most demanding criteria for materials and manufacturing processes, anda well­equipped instrument p~l.

This is an indicative classification, referring to the nature of the principal technological elements of a plant.,

e) according to technological features:

Isolated stations Stations linked with small electrical systems Stations linked with large regional or national grids.

d) according to the link with the electrical system:

Constant load, be that dueto the very nature of the loador to the dissipation of excess energy

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i) Main valve (master valve). This element serves asan insulator between the turbine and the penstock. It is not nonnally used for regulation purposes.

h) Head (fall). Th.is is the difference in levels between the free water surface at the forebay and the maximum utilization level in the turbine.

g) Penstocks (pressure pipes). This piping transports the water from the forebay to the turbine and pennits the utilization of

"the head's potential energy.

f) Grates (grills). These devices avoid the passage of floating solids or carry­overs above a certain size.

e) Gates. Th.ese devices control the water flow at intakes and in the canals and forebay.

d) Silt remover (solids separator). This civil structure facili­ tates the settling of solid particles in suspension in the wa­ ter, by reducing the velocity of the flow. It can be installed in the water intake or in the forebay.

e) Forebay (reservoir, loading chamber or tank). This structure receives the water from the canal before its entry into the penstock.

b) Conduct ionx This can take the form of a canal or tunnel which carries water from the intake to the forebay, or even farther when irrigation canals are used.

a) Water intake. This can include reservoirs (dams, dikes) in the principal water course, run­of­the­river intake (lat~ral intake). Frequently, submerged dams (diversion dams) are in­ stalled to raise the water level at the intake entry.

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cubic meters/second (m3/s) Flow:

meters/second (m/s) ~ Speed:

Bxcept for diameters and thicknesses of pipe walls, where dimen ­ sions are in millimeters (nm) and nominal values for standard piping, which are expressed in inches (in. or '').

meters (m) ­ Length and height:

We mainly employ the following units:

2. 3. UNITS

p) Distribution. lines. These are used to feed low­tension house­ hold systems.

o) Transmission lines. Low and medium tensions a¡'e used for trans­ mission from small.hydro power stations to the place of conSUinJ?­ tion.

n) Transformer.

m) Switchboard or instrument panel.

1) Generator. • This electrical machíne converts mechanical energy into electrical energy (elec.tricity); it can be an alternator (asynchronous generator) oran asynchronous generator (inverted electrical mo~or).

.k) Turbine­generator transmission. This system transmits energy from the tur.bine axis to the generator axis, either through a direct connection or through intermediate transmission by V­ belts, flat belts, gears, or chains.

j_) Turbine. Thí.s hydraulic engine utilizes the available hydrau­ lic energy and converts it into mechanical energy .

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Appendix II gives sorne unit conversion factors.

degrees­Centigrade (º C)

kilogram­force/square millimeter (kg­f/nm2)

revolutions/minute(RPM)

­ Temperature:

­ Stress:

­ Speed of rotation:

­ Power capacity: kilowatts (kW) F.xcept for indicators for per capita installed capacity require­ ments, which are expressed in watts (W) and ''power" specific speed (Ns), where the values for the power capacity are expressed in steam horsepower (CV).

kilowatt­hours (kW­H) ­ Work:

­ 9 ­

Population: Magnitude, nwnber and size of families, distribution according to

Scope:

.Method: Direct survey (total population ora sufficiently large sample) .. Appreciation of prospects, forecasts, and iden­ tification of projects in productive activities with en­ ergy inputs.

Objective: To determine basic information on energy requirements and demand .

3. l. SOCIO­ECONOOC ANALYSIS

­ Application of indicators and typing of the energy demand in arder to evaluate probable energy consllll1ption.

­ Application of indicators to determine installed capacity requirements.

- An overall socio­economic analysis based on field information, from which prospects for energy development can be discerned.

To this end, the analysis of the demand can be substantiated on the basis of the following aspects:

The present methodology <loes not attempt to analyze those aspects related to the financial­economic feasibility of projects, but rather its inten­ tion is merely to present those elements which permit the determination of techniques and alternatives for orienting the preliminary analysis of Micro Hydro Power Station projects. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that the depth and breadth of the studies undertaken for any specific pro­ ject should be in relation to the security which is desired for the in­ vestment; and consequently, there should be a suitable ratio between the costs of the studies and the total project investment.

3. EVALUATION_ OF ENERGY DEM.t\ND

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Existence of electrical supply.

Socio­economic and cultural levels of­the population.

For prel:iminary evaluations­ or whén there is limited so~io­economic information about the settlement,_ especially with respect to the ave­ rage size of families­ it is useful to employ indices for the installed capacity requirements per inhabitant, the magnitude of which depends on:

3. 2. APPROXIMATE DETERMINATION OF 1HE INSTALLED CAPACITY REQUIRED

Physical description of the site: Geographical location, distance, physical description (streets, distances, types of constIUction, etc.); maps of the site.

Education: Schools and cultural activities; educational needs and their speci­ fic energy requirements.

Servic~s: Potable water, sewage disposal, energy availability, connnerce.

Transportation and Connnunication: Transportation systems (personal and freight); roads, mail service, telecornmunications, etc.

Economic Activities: Description of current productive and support activities; economic impact. Potential of the area. Identification of investment pro­ jects in activities dernanding energy inputs. Requirements fot the development of projects; time periods.

activities, income level, cultural level, etc. Typing of possible levels of satisfaction of energy needs, Historical information on growth (or stagnation); migrations.

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In deterinining the installed capacity, it is worthwhile to study the forecasts with respect to sinrultaneous consumption for domestic re­ quirements and productive activities. In Micro Hydro Power Stations (under SO kW) attending isolated populations in Latin America, it is conmon to find that the utilization of electricity occurs primarily during the evening (6­12 hours), for domestic purposes and public lighting. In this case, the installed capacity selected to cover the peak demand generally leaves an ample rnargin of plant availability for the existing productive activities and new activities lUlderway,

A mininn.un value would be on the order of 2SO W/household, although it is possible to conceive of larger values, on the order of SOO W/house­ hold (ref. 2).

When more socio­economic infonnation is available, it is better to use indicators for family units or households, since the energy needs at the domestic level are more linked to the number of housing llllits than to the population in general.

The indicators for installed capacity requirements, per capita, can vary widely in the Latín .American n.i.ral areas. For the particular case of isolated populatic;:s with low levels of socio­economic devel­ opnent, the requirements are between sorne 30 W/inhabitant (ref. 1). and sorne 100 W/inhabitant (ref. 2). For estima.tes on the basis of little anaiysis, it is reasonable to assune a value of SO W/inhahitant.

­ Average size of families.

­ Existence of systems and education directed to the rational use of energy.

­ Load factor: the effect of high peak loads tends to increase the installed capacity requirements. It is irnportant to consider the levels of sbnultaneous consumption, rnainly for households and pro­ ductive activities.

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(Cp in kW)

(C.¡_ in kW) C = f X C. p s 1

a) Peak Load (Cp) for each daily "period" and "sector": This is established by identifying the requirements of installed constmip­ tion capacity (Ci) which could operate, corrected with a proba­ bility factor for s:imultaneity (fs). For greater security, and whenever it is considered possible that the peak load is equiva­ lent to the installed consumption capacity, f5 = 1 will be asslDiled. In genera!, this factor will have a value lower than one (1), tm­

Iess the requirements. for starting up t11íf electric motors are such that they oblige the cons+rerat íon of values larger than one (1),

The system consists of analyzing the energy requirements as a func­ tion of discontinuous "periods" into which a typical :lay of operation can be divided, andas a function of each consumption "sector", with the "peak load" and a "specific load coefficient" determined for each ''period" and "sector", as follows:

In the previous item, some indíces were pointed out to permita pre­ liminary estimate of the capacity to be installed; however, in order to define these requirements more accurately, it is useful to analyze the structure of the demand in greater detail, as indicated below and illustrated in Chart No. 2. It should be mentioned that this method preves app­licable for isolated plants which operate discontinuously and in which the reduced scale of the energy requirements pennits an adequate evaluation of the installed consumption capacity and of the probabilities of s:imultaneous demand.

3. 3. ANALYTICAL MErnODOLOGY FOR DETERMINING TIIE INSTALLED CA.PACITY RE­ QUIRED AND .1HE ENERGY CONSUMPTION

for these operate mainly during the day (agroindustry, services, etc.) or in the early morning (bakeries).

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Household consumption. The typical consumption characteris­ tics should be established according to representative popu­ lation groups, establishing a "typical" family and household

Public lighting. Its specific load coefficient would be near one (1), reduced only by the incidence of damaged lights; a value of fe= 0.95 can be assumed.

At the 5ame time, it is necessary to define the consúmption sec­ tors; and fpr the purpose of ahalyzing the proposed demand, it is suggested that these be reduced to a mínimum and broken down in the following way:

Period 3: This could be defined as 6 p.m.­11 p.m., hours charac­ terized mainly by the requirements of public lighting and household consumption.

Period 2: This could be defined as 7 a.m.­5 p.m., hours charac­ terized mainly by the demand of productive activities (agroindustry, services. etc.).

Period 1: This could be defined as 2 a.m.­5 a.m., hours occupied by activities such as breadmaking.

The daily "periods" are groups of hours, in the same day, during which it is expected that the plant will be functioning continu­ ously; these depend on the characteristics of the demand antici­ pated during a 24­hour period. For example, in a plant destined exclusively to night­time lighting, one single "period11 can be considered: from 6 p.m. to 11 p.m. As a maximum , we point out three more or less typical periods of energy utilization for an isolated settlement with a reasonable diversification of demand:

b) Specific Load Coefficient (fe) for each daily "period" and "sec­ tor": This is defined as the ratio between the "mean load" (Cm) in kW and the "peak load" (Cp).

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1he starting up of electric motors can temporarily double the power requirements of each tmit e ref. 2 and 3). An adequate controlbasedon sequences of motor start­up is a viable alterna­ tive in small settlements. Moreover, the use of low­tension starting devices can be considered; but these are expensive.

Limitations on the use of water during the dayy due to,other pri­ orities (mainly agriculture). This can be significant for micro hydro power stations that use existing irrigation canals. Consider institutional aspects.

Possibilities for utilizing the existing plant availability for productive purposes during the day. and in the early morning; pros­ pects for expanding productive activities; daytime surplus availa­ bility far eventual domestic utilization.

1he energy requirementsfor productive activities and services should be studied in accordance with the following:

Consumption by productive activities and services. Since a Micro Hydro Power Station cannot be expected to attend a large ntnnber of units for productive activities and services, the installed capacity requirements and consumption can be approximated by anal­ yzing the production processes and the energy requirements for each one.

for each group. In addition, it should be taken into account whether or not it is thought to install devices to limit con­ sumption, for these tend to reduce the peak loads. In the case of isolated rural populations with low income levels, the domestic consumption will principally consist of lighting requirements, with specific load coefficients which are quite high (on the order of 80%). For each typical household, the constnnption capacity and the ap­ plicable specific load coefficients should be studied for the pur­ pose of determining the accumulated installed capacity requirements.

­ 15 ­

In defining the installed capacity, allowances should be Ede for energy losses during transmissicm. and distribution¡ and a quali- tative appreciation should be made of the probabilities of coin- cidence in.the peak loads of the various sectors during the saae period, as well as of the limitaticm.s with nspect to the conti- nuity of ser.rice and electrical black·outs.

After adding together the peak loads for. all of the sectors far each period, that period which requi.res the greatest peak load (~)is selected as a reference point-for determini.ng the installed capacity requirements.

e) Determination of the installed capacity:

In order to detennine the annual coommption, possible seasonal elements should be taken into account in the daily CODS\lllPtion, along with the shutdown periods due to maintenance or llllitations on the use of the water.

Th~ sllll. of the consmption for each period of the day determines the daily energ)' consmption, and the sum of each sector's con- 51.Dption during the day is equivalent to the daily sector e<>nS\Jlll)-

tion.

(in kW)

.i) Energy Consumption (e) for each ºperiod" and "sector": This is determined as the product of the mean load and the DLIDber of hours (h) corresponding to the period, as follows:

(in Id()

e) Mean Load {So): 'Ibis is determined by the product of the peak load and the specific load coefficient.

- Possibili tiés of the direct itilization of mechanical energy.

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It is important to note that jh many Lat ín Amttrican cóuntzíes , it is not 1ecessary to consider growth indices for the rural population, dueto the intensive migration processes towards the cities; and this phenomenon has been only partially cur­ tailed as a result of the more widespread availability of elec­ trical energy. ­

In addition, future demand should be projected, not .only as a function of population growth but also as a function of the in­ crease in tm.it demand indices~ evaluating the comparative advan­ tages and disadvantages of having a surplus of installed capa­ city as opposed toan eventual ex:pansion.

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rnART No. 2 - .ANALYTICAL DIAGRAM OF LOAD AND CONSUMPTION (A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE)

(*) Considering the start­up of the electric motor with the greatest power capacity; for the case indi­ cated in the chart, an installed capacity of 26 kW was considered (without allowing for future in­ creases in demand).

CONSUMPTION BY PUBLIC HOUSFROLD PROilJCTIVE LIGHTING CONSUMPTION ACTIVITIES & TafAL SECTOR SECTOR SERVICES

PERIOD "l" Installed consumption 2 a.m, ­ 6 a.m. capacity -ci- (kW) ­ - 2.0 (4 hours) Simultaneity factor­f - ­ 1.0 Peak load­~­ (kW) 5 - - 2.0 2.0 Specific loa coef.­f - - 0.8 Mean load ­Cm­ (kW) e - - 1.6 Energy constnnption -e

(kW­h) - - 6.4 6.4 PERIOD "2" Installed con5umption 7 a.m. ­ 5 p.m. capacity ­Cí­ (kW) - ­ 10.0

(10 hours) ~~li~~i:y :aC~~­f5 - ­ l. 2(*)

Specific lo~ coef.­fc - - 12.0 12.0 - - 0.7 Mean load ­Cm­ (kW) - - 8.4 Energy consumption -e

(kW­h) - ­ 84.0 84.0 PERIOD "3" Installed constunption 6 p.m. ­ 11 p.m. capacity ­Ci­ (kW) 1 8.0 20.0 -

(5 hours) Sinrultaneity factor­f5 0.9 0.9 - Peak load­~­ (kW) 7.2 18.0 ­ 25.2 Specific loa coef.­fc 0.95 0.8 ­ Mean load ­Cm­ (kW) 6.84 14.4 ­ Energy consumption -e 34.2 72.0 -

DAILY ENERGY CONSUMPTION -e- (kW­h) 34.2 72.0 90.4 196.6

In applying these to the study of basins and sub­basins for micro hydro power stations, the following should be considered:

­ Hydrology ­ ­ Ecology ­ Geology ­ Geomorphology ­ Geotechniques ­ Avaílability of aggregates

1he level of reconna.íssance of the physical environment of a basin can ínclude the followíng aspects:

For individual micro hydro power statíon projects, the reconnais­ sance studies of the physical environment should be reduced to a lllÍl1Ílm.D1l, dueto theír high costs with respect to the investment. It proves more recarmendable to orient the studies of the physical enviromnent towards the evaluation of basins and sub­basins, so as not only to detennine the potentiaJ of a given basin but also to utilize and generalíze the information obtained, in arder to apply it to sets of specífíc projects without having to undertake such evaluations for each one in.dividually.

4.1. MINIM.M RECDNNAISSANCE REQUIRFMENTS

Given the framework of the present methodology, we do not intend to pro­ vide an exhaustive analysis of the methods of evaluation of the physical enviromnent, but rather only to identify aspects to be evaluated and their l:imitations, with stress on known methods for calculating the main para­ meters of specific projects, in other words, available flow and utiliza­ ble head.

4. EVAUIATICN OF 1HE PHYSICAL ENVIR(N.ffiN'f AND ESTIW.TE OF 1HE UTILIZABLE RF.SOURCE

­ 19 ­

At any rate, the mininrum monthly flow, or that which predominates 95% of the time, or sometimes a lower value (depending on the exi­ gencies of continuous tun­of­the­river service) can be defined as a percentage of the multi­annual average. Equations can be estab­ lishedto relate the average armual flow to the average annual hy­ dro yield (m3/s/km2) and to the corresponding drainage area of the basin, which jointly with the duratuin curves, indirectly de­

The pluviometric infonnation should be completed by establishing regression equations with the existing data; likewise, one should proceed with the available hydrometric information, generally applying interpolation criteria for the completion of the flow logs. When there are no representative hydrological series for the sub­basins, it is also possible to utilize hydrological mod­ els which sinrulate tunuff series for the drainage area being con­ sidered. An interesting model­ which would require sorne adapta­ tion in arder to be applied to Latín America­ is the SNSF­Norway system, in which the transfer across ea.ch sub­basin is simulated oy a system of tanks (ref. 4.D.).

lt is alsc possible to establish criteria far constant similarity between the sub­basins ~~d the main basins, thus permitting the generalization of the hydrological infonnation most probably available for the majar basins, principally precipitation/dura­ tion and flow/duration curves.

a f HYDROLOGY Objective: To estima.te the flows utilizable for micro hydro power stations, generally determining the mínimum flows, wi th about a 95% probability that they will be exceeded. Methodological aspects: The detennination of the minimum flow is generally obtained on the basis of the flow/duration curve; however, frequently, there are difficulties in determining this by direct methods1 since many times hydrometric gauges are not available and indirect methods based on the detennination and application of index values nrust be recurred to.

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b) ECOLOGY Objective: To describe the environment in l>lhich the plants will be developed, for the purpose of calculating, on the one hand, its influence on the features of the projects (the construction, materials, and equipment to be employed) and its expected effect on conservation and, reciprocally, the effect of the installation of micro stations on the ecology of the bain or sub­basin. Methodological aspects: This type of study is only appropriate fer the evaluation of basins and not for specific projects, due to the reasons pointed out previously. In the latter case, only general comnents are required on the ecological aspects.

In addition, the referential infonnation supplied by the local population, when duly interpreted, can contribute to estimating historical flows, principally with regard to flooding. The maxí­ mum flows constitute ~ useful referencefor the design of the ci­ vil structures, above all insofar as their protection.

Ideally, it would be useful to have evaluations of the water course frorn which the waters would be derived for a mínimum of three years Nevertheless, this only proves practica! for sets of projects in a given basin and not for a specific micro station

The daily flows can vary considerably, with the minimum dáily valúes generally lower than the minimum monthly ones. However, their prediction is quite tnlcertain, and this results in a prob­ lem apparently difficult to solve, considering that accunrulation is practically negligible in the case of the nm­of­the­river micro stations. Despite this difficulty, the problem i~ not very relevant, due to the fact that the occurence of mínimum daily flows lower than the monthly enes would only temporarily affect the operation of the plant.

tennined, can give rise to linear expressions for calculating the minimum. montbly flows.

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d) GEOMJRPHOLOGY Objective: To study the fonnation of the earth's surface and to evaluate such, so as to detennine, primarily, the accumulation and deposit of sediments in the water courses, while considering the impact of these in tenns of equipment erosion and, consequent­ ly, the need to design adequate silt removal systems and to select appropriate materials for the turbines (principally for the run­ ners and the injection systems). This also permits the orienta­ tion of the final selection of project sites, taking into account possible landslides. Methodological aspects: Identification of structures on the basis of geomorphological maps, mainly with respect to cliffs, springs,

Lithology (geological fonnations, applying stratigraphic meth­ ods)

­ Structural geology (faults, volcanic orientation and activity) Seismology (logs, probability of seismic activity and its mag­ nitude)

e) GEOLOGY Objective: To detennine the basic characteristics and composi­ tion of the soils and sub­soils of the basin, for the purpose of establishing bases for a general orientation of the construc­ tion, mainly in its structural and seismic aspects. :Methodological aspects: It is more useful to undertáke studies applicable to basins and sub­basins rather than to specific pro­ jects. The most relevant aspects of such a study are:

­ Climate ­ Biological zones ­ Soils (from the point of view of their utilization by Man)

­ Vegetation ­ Fauna ­ Waters and aquatic biology

The foilowing aspects are included:

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f) AVAILABILITY OF AGGREGATES Objective: To study the existence of adequate materials for ag­ gregates (stone, gravel, sand, etc.), an important factor in re­ ducing the project costs and in assuring the selection of suita­ ble rnaterials, project designs, and construction methods.

The extent of its use is linked to the rnagnitude of the speci­ fic project, not only with respect to the cost of the study but also to the risks of the project itself. In the case of Micro Hydro Power Stat1ons, the geotechnical studies are generally re­ duced to a minimum, qualitative appreciations mainly based on excavations and probes, the approximate detennination of the ~arrying capacity of the soil and the estirnation of safety fac­ tors for the design of the ·water intake, the forebay, sorne pip­ ing anchors, and fotm.dations for the principal equipment.

The geotechnical study is particularly relevant for the study of soils in possible specific sites fer the civil structures, with the aims of orienting the selection of definitive sites and defining design requirements.

e) GEOTECHNIQUES Objective: To study the soils with regard to their characteris­ tics, mechanical properties, stability, and water tables, mainly in order to orient the design and construction of the hydraulic structures. Methodological aspects: Given the enonnous variations at dif­ ferent points, the application of geotechnical studies at the level of basins and sub­basins is limited. Consequently, in such cases, they are restricted to the descriptive aspects de­ rived from geological studies.

and the valley floor (water course); applicable to the global study of basins and sub­basins.

­ 23 ­

INS1RUMENTS AND MATERIALS:

1 chronometer 1 rule (1­3 meters long, with graduations in nun) for measuring the width of the canal 1 plastic measuring stick (30­100 cm long> graduated in nm) to

­ 1hat the surface speed­ duly corrected with a factor that depends on the material of the canal walls and on the sec­ tion/wetted peri.meter ratio­ is equivalent to the water's average speed.

­ 1hat the mean section of the canal is the average of two or three measured sections from the length of canal chosen for measuring the speed.

PRINCIPLE: 1his method is based on the fact that the flow is the prciduct of the average speed of the flow through the submerged part of the canal, considering the following hypotheses:

a) Approximate measurement by means of a buoy: 1his method per­ mits a rapid and simple approximate measrurement of the water­ flow in an open conduction or canal. When careful measurements are taken, the margin of error for this method is on the order of ± zoi as a result, this method shbtild only~e used for pte­ riminary waterflow estimates.

­ Approximate measurernent by means of a buoy. ­ Measurement by means of a rectangular weir. ­ Measurement by means of a triangular weir.

1hree procedures are described in this regard:

3. 2. FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Methodological aspects: Differential study of the availablity and characteristics of the main types of rnaterials required (granular material, stone material, quarry material, etc).

­ 24 ­

(See illustration on page 26.)

4. Select 2 or 3 sections that characterize the canal and di­ vide the width of each section into 4 parts. For each sec­ tion, take rneasurements of the initial depth, the,depths in the first quarter, the center, the third quarter, and, fi­ nally, at the opposite side.

(mis) X t V=

3. Calculate the surface speed: ence.

PROCEDURE: l. Selecta length of canal upstream of the point of water

utilization, but downstream of the last point of derivation of water for other purposes. The length chosen should be fairly straight and its section should be fairly unifonn along its full length. A length of sorne 10 mis reconunended.

2. After measuring and rnarking the chosen length, toss the buoy into the water befare the initial point and time how long it takes, in seconds (t), to travel the full length. Repeat the test severa! times, observing if the buoy touches bottorn or the edges at any point, in which case the test would be discarded. If the results are scattered within a small range, then average the times. If there is an up­ per group anda lower group, then average the latter, since the higher values could have been subject to sorne interfer­

measure the depth of the canal 1 long rule (10­30 meters long) to measure the length of the section of canal selected 1 buoy (This can be a small bottle one third full of water, a piece of wood, etc., in order to detennine the water speed.)

­ 25 ­

It is useful to calculate the value of the factor k for each section; however, when the difference between the highest and lowest S/p values for two sections is less

0.&97 0.0150 M.ASONRY CANAL 0.847 0.0362 STONE CANAL 0.782 0.0905 EARTIIEN CANAL

B A

by means of a graph, Figure 1, or the following empirical equation:

2 b 2 CY3­Y4) +(¡) +y4

m2/m 7. Determine the correction factor (k) of the average speed

(­b4) [y Y4 J 2º + Y1 + Yz + Y3 + 2

5. Calculate ea~h section by the trapeze method:

s = ~ H º + y 1 + y 2 + y 3 + + J (rn2)

6. Calculate the section/wetted perimeter ratio for each sec­ tion:

Fig. 1

­ 26 ­

H·+ .Ü:!l '¡:tj 1tl ·!·

J f lt J .. :--at-

!. +

ti .

'- + -1

.J· ·.·+ ·' '+

:j:

·t·

·±-'· j:

.. -~~

11 +-'-. . .J

l+ t

+

;. "

··I

i- .•... ... . - l·H·

,,

­+

. _t,l

.i · .... ,¡

trt

_i~--:- ~'tt t 11 "IT~ltt""'"'­t­~

;t j+t+

i ·•

rm t '"+t

·-J--• .tr +!

.t.

·.a ...... .

! _+.

+• ..

-.:<· -

H¡ l n­ • t

f

•I 1­::J.

~- tfa tH :J

'­~.~:

r

~_:¡

~­ '+ .tf

! ,¡, • ..... J.

t! ·+

..•. ­~

fü 1

+ .f:'i H

t t +-+ ·~

+Í

1 t_1_ ~,.1..

i!u l

-+· -;

.. -~~!

1: ft-t '" - 1· ! ~

.. ~- . ..... ~ .. ', -.:.:~.

!:t.

­ ~~'+­ ¡ttlttlH_I 1 i_f ~ ~1- ;.~-.

1:·:. itt_J :rr; Lltl

thc:!, t-!tt. - - ti:b': ~-H--1- ·i· ! 1 ~

~ .i.,.q iJ. jil.~!· ..

r c:Hl ......... :¡ t ~fü .

-,-;_m tHí

: 1 t 1

iJI ~1 H• · rth tt

t; - -· ·Att. ;- 1! -~+j ·H

~Jil"" Ilff ii

rr tl_~i

_,·)1 lt

~tt·- ·,Ji

• ! ¡- i:· r+~

·i. ' .... ¡. H1±t±i

·-+

~;-.L . ~ . ~- ~ J¡·· .J.,~. ¡ .. 1 ­+·• ••. .... ~- Ju!

¡¡ Jl J:

JI¡ ;t IJ ' t.

1ii

.•. 1+ . !'i.t

. .L.

j-.H ¡¡:m:¡:r¡.q:l} u, ¡ r •· . ~~-

i

.,,... •. J

f

The flow is calculated in the following way:

It is useful to install the weir in a straight length with a relatively unifrom section. Two meters upstream of the weir (mínimum one meter) a wooden stake should be driven into the ground, with its upper part level with the horizontal edge of the weir; or else, a measuring rod should be installed, with graduations above the water level and "zero" at the level of the horizontal edge of the weir.

The weir shoula be arranged so as to have an air space "a" be­ low the stream of water and so that the width "b" of the rec­ tangular incision will be less than the width of the water course "B" (Figure 2), for the purpose of avoiding distortion in the results,due to the presence of whirlpools.

b) t­1easurement of the flow by means of a rectangular weir: The rectangular weir consists of a plate or board, usually wooden, assembled over the course of a current of water, which has a rectangular incision with a beveled edge; it is preferable to mount a thin sheet of stainless steel to serve as such.

(m3 /s)

than 0.1, it is sufficient to average the S/p values far all of the sections under consideration and to detennine one single value for the correction factor k.

8. Calculate the flow:

[ kl sl + kzSz + •••• + knsn J

Q= VkS=V . ~~ n

where n = the mnnber of sections considered (usually 2 or 3). If ene single value has been detennined for the coefficient k for all of the sections, the fonnula can be simplified as follows:

[s1 Q = Vk

- 28 -

Fig. 2

' . ' -1~z1m.- '

2 b 1 ~3~n = 0.3838 + 0.0386 ­ir­+ 0.00053 """11"""

where Bis the total width of the water course where the weir is mounted.

h is the height of the free surface of the water over the edge of the weir, in meters. g is the standard acceleration of gravity: 9.8:i\m/s2 bis the width of the rectangular incision of r~ 1.Veir, in meters. nis the weir coefficient, with the possibility if taking a mean value of O. 53, but thí.s can be calculated using the fol­ lowing empirical formula, which is valid for values of b 0.1 m:

where: Q is the flow in m3/s.

­ 29 ­

We are of the opinion that there is sufficient literature regarding the procedures of topographical leveling nonnally employed for de­ termining the profile of the fall and, consequently, the utilizable gross head, the length of the penstock, its supports and accessories Nevertheless, for the preliminary detennination of the head and the profile, it is possible to use simpler methods which require a míni­ mum of instruments and personnel qualifications. In the particular

3.3 .. APPROXIMATE LEVELING TO DETERMINE 'IHE PROFILE OF 'IHE FALL

Fig. 3

5/2 Q = 1.415 h

The arrangement for measuring the height h is similar to that for the rectangular weir, except that here the '~eight" refers to the lower angle of the weir (Figure 3), using the following fonm.lla:

e) Measurement of the flow by means of a triangular weir: This variation is preferably used for the measurement of smaller flows below 0.2 m3/s, and in canal s with a reduced width/depth ratio, where it does not preve viable to install a rectangular weir.

With a w.ell­installed and well­built weir, a measurement which is done correctly should have a margin of error lower than ± 10\ for the measurement of the flow.

-30

OPTIONAL INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT: Compass for orienting the profile. Cord or twine, sufficiently long (100­200 m) in arder to outline the prof ile. Lime or powdered plaster to outline the profile; water­based paint anda brµsh.

INSTRUMENTS AND MAETRIALS: 1 rule (10­30 meters long, graduated in centimeters) far measuring horizontal distances and leveling heights. 1 well­aligned wooden pole or metallis tube, approximately 3m long; optionally, it can be graduated in cm in arder to simplify the rnea­ surernent of heights. and it can also incorporate alead weight (plurnb) to verify verticality. The use of flexible materials or those with small sections should be avoided in arder not to have distortions dueto deflection. 1 carpenter's level (with bubbles anda base of no less than 30 cm). 1 cord (10­30 rneters long). At least 2 wooden stakes; however, it is useful to leave the stakes in the places where they have been driven, in which case it is ne­ cessary to have one stake for each leveling station. 2 straight poles (2 rneters high, without graduations). These can be straight canes (as visual references for the initial and final leveling points).

case of the Ivl]cro Hydro Power Stations, when it is required that the preinvestment costs be reduced to a minimum, and when non­ metallic penstocks (PVC and polyethylene) are employed ­ these being easily adapted to the configuration of the terrain­ the approximate determination of the profile of the fall, which is presented below, can prove sufficient even for the purposes of the definitive project, considering that with a carefully done measurement, the margin of error for the determination of the head will not exceed ± 3%; and this has been verified in prac­ tice by the author.

­ 31 ­

PROCEDURE: l. Visual inspection and study of the map (scale of 1:25,000 or

less). If the canal has not been built as yet, or if an at­ tempt is being made to make use of an already existing canal, it is necessary to identify alternative sites for the fore~ bay and the powerhouse. To select tentative initial and final points for the penstock, consider these factors, among others:

Proximity to the center of consumption. Maximum difference in levels between the waterways, irriga­ tion ditches or canals. Preferably choose the point from the upper level, which per­ mits a sharp fall; in other words, consider favorably that point which has a larger "maximum slope". This pennits a minimum penstock length, which in turn tends to reduce the initial investment and the load loss. In addition, consi­ der the difficulties in tending and anchoring the penstock if the slope were quite pronounced. RJrthe forebay and the eventual location of the powerhouse, consider places protected from landslides; study the terrain in search of signs of past slides and verify this factor with the local residents. Consider possible utilizable installations (gates, houses, abandoned mills, etc.) that can define the site, even though they may be outside the optinrum points. Preferably, the penstock should not c.ross areas under culti­ vation. · Consider possible irrigation rights and other legal problems and difficulties that might arise with respect to use of the water. Inspect the existing water intake, for the purpose of veri­ fying its condition and possible improvement (expansion of the flow) without further investments. In the case of existing canals, verify the condition of the trough or canal which it is thought to use and the possibi­ lities for increasing its capacity.

­ 32 ­

l. (m.) 1

n

+ 1N =L i=l

(m.) Hb = h. + h2 + h3 + h4 . + hn = L hi i = 1 The projected horizontal length of the profile wi11 resUl.~

from: 7.

n 6. The gross head is detennined bv:

S. Drive the second stake on the slope of the fall, at a lower point than the first and maintaining the alignment well­defined. Place the pole vertically on the stake and; sirnilarly to the previous method, stretch and leve! the cord from the first stake to the pole, to determine the positive height (h) and the horizontal length (1). Repeat this procedure for succes­ sive stations until reaching the level of the discharge canal, which will constitute the last station. Record the levels wbere it would be possible to instan the powerhouse.

4. If leveling is being done from a given point, drive a stake and continue the leveling from there.

3. If leveling is being done for an existing canal, drive a stake at the highest point and place a pole vertically in the bank closest to the upper canal. Stretch a cord from the pole to the stake, and level it at the middle (assure that the cord is tight). Measure the height of the cord above the water level to detennine the negative height (­h)­with respect to the level of the first station­and the length of the cord when pulled tight (1).

2. Once the end points (upper and lower) have been selected, place two poles for the purpose of orienting the outline of the pro­ file; if it is possible, stretch a cord and outline with lime. Paint sorne stones as landmarks.

­ 33 ­

Figure 4 provides a practical example of approximate leveling with the proposed method.

(rn) h.z + 1.2 1 1

n

L i=1

8. The effective profile length (Z) will be given by:

z =J h,2 + 1,2 +~h/ + 1/ +J h/ + 132 •••••• tJhn2+ 1n2 =

­ 34 ­

~05. 9!

APPROXIM\TE LWELING OF A MICRO SfATIOO FALL

Fig. No. 4

a'( 81.U154.6f) ~ z¡.(U .. 4015i4.fS) 1 2 8 (i04,QJ ,56,'30)

29( 'º'·9!, 60.00 J

Once the generator has been pre­selected, from the same ccmner­

Pg is the power capacity of the generator (in kW) kVA is the apparent power in kilo volt amperes Cos ~is the power factor. Usually, it is set ata value of 0.8; however, in rural applications, where resistive loads frequently predaninate, nigher values (0.9­0.95) could be spe­ cified.

where: P g = kVA x COs ~

a) Power at generator tenninals Considering the installed capacity requirements which have been detennined from the analysis of demand (Section 2) and taking into account transrnission and distribution losses, the power required at the generator tenninals can be established. Then, a preliminary selection of the generator should be made on the basis of cOJllllercial specifications. Por micro stations. it is reccmnended that generators with two

or four poles be used (1800 RPM and 3600 RPM, respectively, at 60 Hz). Generally, alternators are chosen, although the use of asyn.­ chronous generators can also be considered. In accordance with comnercial specifications (catalogs), a size is selected so that the resulting power capacity will be as close as possible to that requires, or slightly greater ., as follows:

S .1. DEFINITION OF POWER RANGFS AND EFFICIENCIES

'Ihis section develops a sequence of calculations for defining the speci­ fic:ations of a Micro Hydro Power Station and the main components of its electromechanical equipnent.

S. PRCX:EOORE FOR CALCUIATING AND DETERMINING TECHNICAL SPECIFICATICNS

­ 36 ­

e) Power absorbed by the turbine (Pa) The hydraulic efficiency (nh) of the turbine should be consi­ dered in light of the hydrodynamic characteristics of the ma­ chine,and the volumetric efficiency in light of the losses due to water which <loes not circulate through the n.mner, as follows:

The mechanical efficiency of the turbine depends on its design characteristics; for microturbines, it is reasonable to assume nm values jn the range of 0.95­0.97.

p = h

d) Hydraulic power of the turbine (Ph) Considering the mechanical efficiency of the turbine (J:\n), de­ tennined by the presence of mechanical losses dueto friction, the following results:

0.95 BELTS 0.98 GEARS p = t

e) Power brake of the turbine (Pt) If there is a direct coupling between the turbine and the generator, the power brake of the turbine will be equal to the power transmitted to tne generator; if there is sorne other fonn of transmission, the transmission efficiency (ntr) should be considered according to the following:

p g

b) Power transmitted to the generator (Ptr)

cial catalog, its efficiency (ng) must be detennined; but if this is not available, an efficiency on the arder of 0.86 can be assumed.

­ 37 ­

The selection of the type of penstock is d~tennined by its availa­,

The present section analyzes the use of steel penstocks and non­ metallic ones. In the latter case, data are only presented for penstocks made with polyethylene, PVC, and asbestos­~ement. It should ~e pointed out that it is possible to use other materials, such as fiberglass, wood, and ferrocement.

5.2. SPECIFICATIONS AND ALTERNATIVES IN 1HE SELECTION OF PENSTOCKS

In more rudimentary machines, the volumetric efficiency values can be quite low, reaching values on the arder of 0.90 or less in consideration of poor adjustment or alignment or imprecise dimensions in construction or assembly, which give rise to impqrtant water leakages.

In well­built machines, the volumetric efficiency value is frequently negligible (1\r - 1.0). Thus, it can be incorpo­ rated into the hydraulic efficiency value or, alternatively, values on the arder of 0.98­0.99 can be assumed.

0.60­0.70 0.82­0.87

0.75­0.82

nh 0.86­0.92 0.85­0.90

­ Axial Flow 'I\Irbines Francis 'I\Irbines

­ Michell­Banki 'IUrbines (well ­des igned and .. .al.I - buil t)

­ Michell­Banki 'I\Irbines (rudimentary construction)

­ Pelton 'IUrbines

The hydraulic efficiency (nh) depends on the type of turbine, its hydraulic design, the hydrodynarnic characteristics of its cross sections, and the proportions and precision of its con­ struction. In general, the following ranges of rnaximurn effi­ ciency values can be considered for machines with power capa­ cities smaller than 50 kW:

p = a

­ 38 ­

2 sf = 21 kg/nm 1.5 over fluency stress S - 14 kg/nm2 d ­

= 7.85

Fluency stress Safety factor Design stress Material density

These can be built in various qualities of steel; but for or­ dinary structural steel, the following values can be assumed:

ln4INAL OUTSIDE INSIDE DIAMETER D1.AMETER DI.AMETER 'IHICKNESS

(in.) (mn.) (11111.) (nm.)

2 60.33 52.50 3.91 2 1/2 73.03 62. 71 6.16 3 88.90 77.93 5.49 4 114.30 102.26 6.02 5 141.30 128.19 6.55 6 168.28 154.05 7 .11

8 219.08 202. 72 8.18 10 273.03 254.51 9.27

SI'EEL PENSTOCKS - SQIEOOLE 40

a) Steel penstocks This constitutes the most widely diffused conventional solu­ tion. Generally, penstocks built ad­hoc by means of rolling and welding are used; consequently, their diameter can be adapted to the ~equirements of a specific project. Por small diameters, where it would be difficult to roll the penstock, standard piping (cold­fonned and welded) can be used. In the following chart, the dimensional characteristics are indicated for the nonnal series (Schedule 40).

bility in the diameters and thicknesses required and by econc:mic considerations, in which not only the price of acquisition.must be taken into account but also transportation costs, handling, assembly, and COIUlection requirements as well.

­ 39 ­

The table on page 41 gives dimensions for Class 10 penstocks, which are adequate for nominal pressures of up to 10 kg/nm2•

Their main disadvantages are dueto the need to use metallic coup­ lings at the joints of the penstock sections; and these are costly require careful assembly, by means of forced fitting with heat , and give rise to high load .Iosses due to throttling. M'.>reover, these penstocks are generally only manufactured with sma.11 dia­ meters, which limits their application to the smallest tmits.

An addtional advantage is their ease of transportation, for they can be rolled to a diameter 32 times greater than their nomial djameter.

b) Polyethylene Penstocks These have the advantages that their cost is considerably lower tlian that of the steel penstocks, although higher than that of their PVC and asbestos­canent counterparts; their installation is simple, since they adapt to the configuration of the terrain dueto their great flexibility; they require a mínimum of anchors (innnediately after each joint); they can settle directly onto the ground and they have minimal requirements with respect to the precise detennination of the fall profile before their instal­ lation. Likewise, they are quite resistant to solar radiation.

Although this is the most widely disseminated option, the use of steel penstocks in Micro Hydro Power Stations is generally the most expensive alternative, not only with regard to the ac­ quisition price, but also with respect to transportation and assembly costs because of their weight and the need to weld sections in the field and/or to install flanges.

­ 40 ­

Their sncoth interior determnes smaller head losses. They can gene­ rally be obtained with diameters of up to 15 or even 20" in Class 10 (10 kg/nun2 of nominal pressure) and Class 15 (15 kg/rrnn2 of ~omi nal pressure). 1he table on page 42 provides dimensions for the standard PVC penstocks for Class 10, with a nominal diameter of up to 10 inches.

'Iheir principal disadvantagea are their tendency to deteriorate because of solar radiation and their relative fragility on impact; consequently, it is convenient to install them underground.

1he PVC penstocks are very flexible and they easily adapt to the configuration of the terrain dueto their elasticity; further­ more, they are light and easy to transport. The joining of sec­ tions is done by means of spigots and bells, with a special glue.

e) PVC Penstocks 1heir cost is lower than that of equivalent piping in steel or polyethylene, but higher than that of the asbestos­cement pen­ stocks.

5 0.464 kg/nnn2

2.32 kg/nnn2 Ultiinate stress equivalent (traction) (25º C) Recorrunended safety factor Design stress

POLYETHYLENE PENSTOCKS ­ CLASS 10

NOMINAL OITTSIDE INSIDE DIAMETER DIAMETER DIAMETER TIUCKNESS

(in.) (mm.) (nnn.) (mm.)

3 88.5 70.5 9.0 4 114.0 90.8 11.6 6 168.0 133.8 17.1 8 219.0 174.4 22.3

10 273.0 218.0 27.5

­ 41

Although they are rigid, their joints permit direct iona I clanges of up

They have an excellent resistance to environmental conditions, and their assembly is simple. Their principal drawbacks are their weight­ which is much greater than that of their PVC and polyethy­ lene counterparts­ and their relative fragility, which makes it advisable tó install them underground.

d) Asbestos­cement Penstocks These probably constitute one of the most interesting alternatives for micro stations, mini stations, and even far small hydro power stations,­due to their low cost and wide availability, in a broad range óf diameters and thiclm.esses.

= 1.43 Material density = 1.0 kg/nnn2 stress Working

Ultimate stress (bending) = 7­9 kg/nnn2 2 Ultima.te stress (compression) = 6-7 kg/nnn

Operating under pressure, a safety factor of 5 is reconnnended at ZOºC.

= s-s.z kg/mm2 Ultimáte stress (traction) (25°C)

NCMINAL OUTSIDE INSIDE DIAMETER DIAMETER DIAMETER IBICKNESS (in.) (mm.) (mm.) (mm.)

2 60.0 53.0 3.5 2 1/2 73.0 65.0 4.5 3 88.5 78.9 4.8 4 114.8 102.0 6.0 5 141.8 126.0 7.5 6 168.0 150.2 8.9 8 219.0 195.8 11.6

10 273.0 244.0 14.5

PVC PENSTOCKS ­ CLASS 10

- 42 -

NQ\1INAL OUTSIDE INSIDE DIAMETER DI.AME TER DIAMETER THICKNESS

(in.) (mm.) (mm.) (nnn.)

4 124 100 12 6 178 150 14 8 238 200 19

10 298 250 24 12 354 300 27 14 412 350 31 16 468 400 34 18 526 450 38 20 584 500 42 24 698 600 49

ASBESTOS­CEMENT PENSTOCKS ­ CLASS 10

Their smooth walls determine reduced coefficients for h~ad los­ ses, comparable to those corresponding to the P\TC piping. The table below presents the standard dimensions on Class 10 asbestos­ cement penstocks (up to 10 kg/mm2of nominal pressure), for dia­ meters of up to 24".

to 5° , which facilitates their adaptation to the configuration of the terrain. In addition, this flexibility at the joints allows for expansion.

­ 43 ­

DETAIL OF THE ASBESTOS­CEMENT PENSTOCK JOINT

Pens tock pípe \ /

~~ ,---¡-~- ----¡----- \ \ ! í

Rubber ring - 7

DETAIL OF THE PVC PaTSTOCK JOINT

___ ..L ---¡----·

__Bell f

I I

Spigot Fig. No. 5

DETAIL OF THE POLYETHYLENE PENSTOCK JOINT

I (

J-en~tock pipe Coupling

Ph = hydraulic power of the turbine nh = hydraulic efficiency of the turbine 1\, = volumetric efficiency af the Lurbine H = net head n Q = flow (m3/s)

where:

Q =

2. Calculation of the flow.

According to the peculiarities of the applicatian, tentatively select different sizes and types of penstocks, calculate the speci­ fications of the station for each case, and then proceed to the fi- nal penstock selection. The calculatian sequence is followed for each type or size af penstock whose application it is desired to verify.

l. Penstock selectian far the calculations.

It is necessary to determine the head lasses and flow by means of repeated trials, using the data on power capcity, efficiencies, and grass head.

It is proposed that the procedure sununarized below be used for the required calculations. Considering the fact that various alter.ia­ tives and conditions must be tried out during the stage of design and specification, it is reconunended that the calculation process indicated under item 5.1. be adapted far a programm.able mini­cal­ culator. Appendix I presents a program suitable for a Texas In­ struments calculator, model TI-59.

5. 3. CALCUIATION OF HEAD LOSSES, NET HE.AD, AND REQUIRED FLOW

- 45 -

6. Return to point 2 with the new Hn value and repeat the procedure tmtil finding a value Q for a given approximation.

~ = gross head (m)

5. Calculation of the utilizable net head (Hn). (m)

Note: This does not include losses at joints, valves, and di­ rectional changes. These have to be calculated separately.

L¡­ = equivalent penstock length in meters Di Di

2 .. 7209 ) CDi

- + 0.8217 H :;;; (0.4893 + w

For PVC, polyethylene, and asbestos­cement penstocks: Lr cz

Di 0.4827 )

e 8w:;;; (0.7334 +

For steel penstocks with seams:

4. Calculation of the head loss (Hw) (m)

Di:;;; internal diameter of the penstock (nun)

., .. D.2 1 1

4 X 106 Q e:;;;

3. Calculation af water speed in the penstock (m/s).

Note: In the first trial, it is assumed that there are no head los­ ses; consequently, the net head Cf\i) will be equal to the gross head Cfb).

- 46 -

w = Ly e(Di +e) 1000

S.S. CALCULATION OF 1HE PENSTOCK WEIGHT

1Th

It should be pointed out that far the definitive design, some localized stresses deserve to be studied more carefully, mainly with respect to those at directional changes and joints.

If e . '"­" e, then reject the penstock in question. m1n

Once the mínimum thickness has been determined, it is compared with the real penstock thickness.

emin =.minimum thickness of the penstock walls (mm) Di = internal diameter of the penstock (mm) Ht = maximum design height (m)

This is equivalent to the gross head (Hb) plus an additional tolerance dueto water hanuner The margin for excess pressure due to W3.ter hammer is generally determined as a function of the water speed within the pen­ stock, the penstock length and material, the anticipat.ed max:imm closing~up speed of the valve, and the existence of a surge tank. At the preliminary level, it is connnon to assume a 20­30% mar­ gin above the gross head (Hb) when non­metallic penstocks' are used.

sd = design stress for traction of the penstock material.

where:

Di Ht e . = 0.001 m1n

5. 4. VERIFICATION OF 1HE MINIMUM 1HICKNESS FOR 1HE PENSTOCK WALLS

- 47 -

Vp = value of the penst0ck plus accessories, equal to: unit value of a section x length of a section/total length +

no. of accessories x unit value of accessories i =. annual interest (%) n °= number of years for amortization Vkwh = per kW rate Pb = power at generator tenninals

where:

The mínimum value ro~ Ca pennits us to select the optinrum penstock.

i ­n 1 - (l + 100)

H w vkwh pb X 8760 X fe X +

An approxirnation of the econornic analysis will he given by the com­ bined annual cost, expressed by:

1. Vp X 100

In general, the econornical choices have water speeds within the pen­ stock of between 1 and 3 m/s.

Considering the specification of materials for the penstock as a func­ tion of the technical and econornic aspects seen in itern 5.2., and af­ ter discounting the unsuitable altematives dueto insufficient thick­ ness of the penstock walls, proceed to selecting the penstock which offers the best tecno­econornic conditions, in a cornprornise between load loss and the value of an investrnent in a penstock with a larger diarneter.

5.6. SELECTION OF THE PENSTOCK DIAMETER

Wt =total penstock weight (kg) _j), = penstock material density Lr = penstock length (rn)

where:

- 48 -

n = N Q 1/2 q

The second specific speed permí ts us to establish similarity criter: independent of efficiency; this expression is given by:

p = net power capaci ty in cv/ ­··' 8N =~et head (m)

N = speed (RPM)

where:

p 1/2 n5 = N

~ 5/4

There are two expressions for specific speed. The first depends on the turbine efficiency and is as follows:

Figure 6 represents a nomogram for the selection of turbines in func­ tion of their principal parameters.

The type of turbine to be used in each case is determined by the spe­ cific speed (n or n ) which corresponds to the operating condí.t íons s q given by the power capacity, head , speed (RPM) and eff icí.ency.

5. 7. PRELIMINAR.Y TIJRBINE SELECTION

The first term represents the costs of amortization and interests on the penstock and the second, the value of the energy left unpro­ duced dueto load losses'

fe =average load factor for the plant 1­\y ~ head loss (m) 1\, = gross head (m)

­ 49 ­

1. Assime a speed of rotation for the turbine (RPM), considering a speed equal to or lower than that of the generator; in general, it is best not ta exceed 1800 RPM. 0n thi s basis, also define whe­ ther the turbine would be coupled directly to the generator or if there would be sorne kind of intermediate transmission. In the latter case, it is useful to consider the ratios of generator/ turbine speed which permita given system of transmission. In general, for transmission by belts or V­belts, it is preferable not to have values larger than approxirnately 3.5. Far transmis­ sion by gears, larger ratios are acceptable.

AsslDlling an ad­hoc design and specification, an independent approxi­ rnation of a standardized series of turbines can be made in the fol­ lowing way:

One way to make the selection consists of consulting manufacturers' catalogs for standardized turbines; this permits the selection of a standard size of a given turbine, on the basis of data on the head and flow, which consequently determine the corresponding speed of rotation. One very illustrative exarnple of this process appears in the document "Design and Standardization of Michell­Banki Turbines" by C.A. Hernandez.

nh = hydraulic efficiency of the turbine (fraction)

where:

In addition, the following equation can be deduced from the two spe­ cific speeds:

Q = flow in m3 / s

where:

­ 50 ­

Dv = Pelton diameter (m), i.e., twice the radius determined by the axis of the jet stream tangent to the runner.

where:

41.45{& N

D = V

and for Pelton turbines, by:

Dv = n.mner diameter (m) Hn = net head (m) N = RPM of the turbine

where:

39.85 Vrk' N

For the case of Michell­Banki turbines, the runner diameter is given by the following equation:

5. In selecting a turbine with in­depth considerations, its prin­ cipal dimension can be detennined on the basis of the runner dia­ meter.

4. Select the type of turbine fonn the nomogram or from the chart in Figure 6.

3. Using the speed of rotation for the turbine, determine its spe­ cific speed.

2. Draw up preliminary specifications and designs for the generator/ turbine transmission system in arder to detennine its tecno­ economic viability.

- 51 -

TYPE OF TURBINE n n H adm. s q max. Pelton (one nozzle) 10 ­ 29 3 ­ 9 .1800 ­ 400 Pelton (two or more nozzles) 29 ­ 59 9 ­ 18 400 ­ 350 Michell­Banki 29 ­ 220 9 ­ 68 400 ­ 80 Francis (slow) 59 ­ 124 18 ­ 38 350 ­ 150 Francis (normal) 124 ­ 220 38 ­ 68 150 ­ 80 Franéis (fast) 220 ­ 440 68 ­ 135 80 ­ 20 Axial Flow (Helical and Ka.plan) 342 ­ 980 105 ­ 300 35 ­ 5

In the case of Pelton turbines, it is worth mentioning that more than one nozzle can be used (usually up to a maximum of six). In this case, the nmner diameter is proportional to the square root of the ntnnber of nozzles.

6. If the predetermined n.mner diameter results in an unsuitable J(lagnitude, or if it is necessary to set standardized values for the same, foI1Tll.llas can be adapted for detennining the speed of rotation on the basis of a given n.mner diameter, in which case steps 3­5 will have to be repeated.

These foI1Tll.llas are derived from technical considerations that relate the optima! speed to the net head, for a given angle of entry for the jet­and typical experimental coefficients for losses in the injector and in the n.mner.

­ 52 ­

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- 53 -

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TITLE /() iC/.>

Ft. 0.3048 m

Ft3/s 0.028317 m3/s (0.0283168466)

HP 1.0139 cv (1.013869794)

cv 0.7355 KW (9. 80665 X 3/ 40)

Ns 4,446 Ns (British System) (4.44603) (Metric System) RPM VHP RPM VCT

(m)S/4 (ft)S/4

To Obtain M..lltiplit

APPENDIX II

CONVERSION OF UNITS .

/

4.B BERG.SENG, M.S. Elect. Eng. J., ­ "Electrical Equipment for Small Scale Hydro Power Plants".

4.C JENSEN, M. Se. Civil Eng. J. , - Waterways Iams and Power Buildings for Small Scale Power Plants".

4 .D L~UIST, Hydrologist D. - ''Hydrology of Srnall Catchments" 4.E JENSEN, M. Se. Civil Eng. J., ­ "Mllti Pul)50~ Aspectsº. 4.F GJNNES, M. Se. Civil Eng. O. - "Proceedings Regarding Planning

Official Treatment and Implementation".

4 .A MJ0LLNER, W. - ''Small Scale Hydro Power Plants".

4. (5 Expertos Noruegos) ­ ''Hydroelectric Power Technology in Norway with Spe­ cial Bnphas i s on Small Scale Power Plants". 1979 - Nonregion Water Re- sources and Electricity Board; comprende los siguientes trabajos:

3. GAM\RRA G., Ing. Abraham y GARCIA. S., Ing. Osear ­ "Efectos Transitorios ­ en Sistemas de Generación Local durante el Arranque de lvbtores Eléctricos" 1979 ­ V Congreso Nacional de Ingeniería Mecánica, Eléctrica y Ramas Afi_ nes ­ Lima, PERU.

2. GIAQUEA B., Ing. Osear; l.DBO GUERRERO, Ing. Jaime; BUR1DN, Ing. John D., CASASBUENAS M., Ing. Cons tant ino­ "Viabilidad de las Microcentrales Hidro eléctricas en Colombia". 1979 ­ Fundación Mariano Ospina Pérez y C.Gf.LG. LTDA. Ingenieros Contratistas. Bogotá, CDI.DMBIA

1 . NOZAKI, Ing. Tsuguo ­ "Guía para la Elaboración de Proyectos de Pequeñas Centrales Hidroeléctricas destinadas a la Electrificación Rural del Perú". 1968 ­ Ministerio de Energía y Minas. Lima,PERU.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX III

Tt a~~Ual

LOC ICODE KEY COMMENTS LOC CODE KEY COMMENTS LOC CODE KEY COMMENTS

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APPENDIX II

CONVERSION OF UNITS ]y_ M.Iltiply

4.B BERG.5ENG, M.S. Elect. Eng. J., - "Electrical Equipment for Small Se.ale Hydro Power Plants".

4.C JENSEN, _M. Se. Civil Eng. J. , - Waterways Dams and Power Buildings for Small Scale Power Plants".

4. D L~UIST, Hydrologist D. - ''Hydrology of ~11 Catchments"

4 .E JENSEN, M. Se. Civil Eng. J., - ''Mll ti Purpose Aspects". 4.F G.JNNES, M. Se. Civil Eng. O. ­ ºProceedings Regarding Planning

Official Treatment and Implementation".

4 .A MJ0LLNER, W. - "Small Scale Hydro Power Plants".

4. (5 Expertos Noruegos) ­ ''Hydroelectric Power Technology in Norway with lilpe­ cial Fmphasis on Sma.11 Scale Power Plants". 1979 - Nonregion Water Re- sources and Electricity Board; comprende los siguientes trabajos:

3. GAMARRA G., Ing . .Abraham y GARCIA c., Ing. Osear ­ "Efectos Transitorios en Sistemas de Generación Local durante el Arranque de r.btores Eléctricos" 1979 - V Congreso Nacional de Ingeniería ~cánica, Eléctrica y Ramas Afi nes ­ Lima, PERU.

2. GIAQUEA B., Ing. Osear; LOBO GUERRERO, Ing. Jaime; BUR'ION, Ing. John D., CASASBUENAS M., Ing. Constantino­ ''Viabilidad de las Microcentrales Hidro eléctricas en Colombia". 1979 - Fundaci6n Miriano Ospina Pérez y C.QI.LG. LTDA. Ingenieros Contratistas. Bogotá, OJl.OMBIA

1 • NOZAKI, Ing. Tsuguo ­ "Guía para la Elaboración de Proyectos de Pequeñas Centrales Hidroeléctricas destinadas a la Electrificaci6n Rural del Perú". 1968 - Ministerio de Energía y Minas, Lima, PERU.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX III

9. GRUPO DE EXPERIDS ­ "El Desarrollo de Pequeñas Centrales Hidroeléctricas en Latinoamérica y el Caribe". 1979 ­ OLADE ­ Qui to, ECUAIOR.

8. HE~Z, Carlos Alberto ­ Diseño y Estandarización de 1\lrbinas Michell­ Banki". 198 O ­ OLADE ­ Qui to, ECUAOOR.

7. HERNANDEZ, Carlos Alberto ­ "Desarrol.lo Tecnológico para el Equipamiento de Pequeñas Centrales Hidroeléctricas". 1980 ­ ITINTEC - Lima, PERU.

6. INDAO)(}IEA, Tng. Enrique ­ "Estudio del Caso de la Microcentral Hidroeléc trica Piloto de Obrajillo (Perú)" 1979 ­ ONUDI ­ Seminar ­ Workshop on the Exchange of Experíences and Technology Transfer on Mini Hydro Electríc Generation Units ­ Kathmandu ­ NEPAL.

s. INDAOOGIEA, Ing. Enrique ­ "Problemática del Desarrollo de la Tecnología de Microcentrales Hidroeléctricas y su C.Ontribución a la Electrificación Rural". 1979 ­ ITINTEC - Lima. PERIJ.

1HE LATIN AMERICAN ENERGY ORGANIZATION (OLADE)

First Printing: July 1980 (Spanish) Seconci. Printing: June 1981 (Revised Spanish edition and first English edi­ tion, to be presented during the Serninar­ Workshop on Mini Hydro Power Plants, or­ ganized by,UNIDO and the Austrian Autho­ rities in Vienna, Austria, June 29­July 3, 1981).

F.dited by: