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République Démocratique Populaire AlgérienneMinistère de L’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche

Scientifique

Ecole Normal Supérieure de Constantine

Distant Course LMDFourth Semester

Writing and Grammar

Prepared byMrs RadIa Bouguebs and Mrs Dihia Taoutaou

(Maitres Assistantes à L’ENS de Constantine)

2008/2009

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Part one : Writing

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Part one I. Classification Essay

In a classification essay, the writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories. When you classify, you divide members of a group that share the same characteristics into categories. For example, say you need to sort the stack of papers on your desk. Before you would put them in random piles, you would decide what useful categories might be:

1. 1st category: papers that can be thrown away; 2. 2nd category: papers that need immediate action; 3. 3rd category: papers to read; 4. 4th category: papers to pass on to other co-workers; or papers to file.

1. The Principle of Classification:

To assign the members into categories, we need a principle of classification, or a guideline for the procedure of classification. To classify, or sort, things in a logical way, find the categories to put them into. For example, if you are asked to identify the principle of classification of the following categories: teachers who dress conservatively, teachers who dress fashionably, and teachers who dress in a variety of styles. In this context we can say that the principle of classification of these teachers is the way they dress.

Exercise: study the following subjects and categories then write down the principle of classification.

1. Teachers: those with Bachelor’s degrees, those with Master’s degrees, and those with PhDs.The teachers of this school can be classified according to……………………………

2. Burns: first degrees, second degrees, and third degrees.Burns can be classified according to ………………………………………………….

3. Snakes: those that swallow the prey live, those that inject poison into the prey, and those that squeeze the prey to death.Snakes can be classified according to ………………………………………………….

4. Smokers: those who smoke because of nervousness, those who smoke to look sophisticated, those who smoke because of boredom.Smokers can be classified according to……………………………………………….

2. Organizing the Classification essay: 1. Categorize each group: we have to identify the name of each group. For example,

what is the name of 1st degrees burns?2. Describe or define each category. List down the general characteristics of the members

of this category. Once you have finished, discuss the common characteristics of the members.

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3. Provide enough illustrative examples. It is so important to illustrate the characteristics by giving concrete examples of typical members of the category. An example should be a typical representative of the group. The most important category, usually reserved for last, might require more elaboration.

4. Point out similarities or differences of each category, using comparison-contrast techniques. You have to discuss the characteristics of the second category by comparing and contrasting them with those of the first category.

3. Thesis Statement of a Classification Essay

The thesis statement usually includes the topic and how it is classified. Sometimes the categories are named.

(topic)...(how classified)...(category) (category) (category)

Ex: Tourists in Hawaii can enjoy three water sports: snorkelling, surfing, and sailing.

Exercise: write the thesis statement of the following subjects and categories.

1. Police officers: detectives, sergeant, captains.2. Transportations: on land, by water, by air.3. Automobiles: two doors, four doors, station wagons.

4. Common Classification Transitions

Since a classification essay is combination of example and comparison essays; so, the transitions that are used in addition to those used in example and comparison and contrast essays are the following:

The first kind (the second kind, the third kind) includes those who......... The first type (the second type, the third type) includes those who......... The first group ( the second group, the third group) includes those who.........

Remember: In a classification essay, you have to organize, or sort, things into categories. In addition to that, three steps should be remembered: organize things into useful categories, use a single organizing principle, and give examples of things that fit into each category.

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Birth Order – The Perfectionist, The Tornado, and The Princess

Before I had children, I did not believe that birth order could affect the personality of a person. But now I have three beautiful yet very different daughters. So different that not only is it sometimes hard to believe they come from the same two parents, it’s sometimes hard to believe they come from the same species! I have come up with three categories to describe the peculiarities of birth order, the Perfectionist, the Tornado, and the Princess, at least as they pertain to my daughters.

The Perfectionist is the oldest child. Miss Perfection has been the center of attention since the moment of conception. The parents just know that this child would be the smartest, most compassionate, most beautiful child ever born on the face of the earth. The parents then pour all their energies into making sure this is true. The child then decides that this is what life is like. The oldest child believes that their hair has to always be perfect with a hair bow that is the exact shade of their carefully chosen ensemble. Their schoolwork reflects this also. They will be at the top of their class in everything from reading to hopscotch. They will also be involved in everything imaginable – drama, girl scouts, cheerleading, youth group, yearbook, honor societies, and the list goes on and on. These are the children you find in gifted classes and are bored if they don’t get challenging enough homework. On top of everything else, things have to be perfect the first time. In my oldest daughter, Megan’s mind, a rough draft of a paper means that the handwriting is messy. These children are also natural born leaders. Bossing their siblings around just comes naturally. This can benefit them when they become CEO’s, politicians, or dictators.

The middle child is the Tornado. The middle child will gladly expound on why life is not fair. They will do this in a loud and very emotional way. No matter their age, they think they should be able to do everything their older and younger siblings do. And if they can’t, “It’s not fair!” is followed by an endless tirade about how they are not loved and how they are going to run away and find people who have no children so they can be an only child. Ten minutes later this same madman will be asking you to listen to a song they wrote about how much they love their siblings or calling you to come see the cute new thing their younger sibling is doing. This child can be very compassionate and loving but life is so unfair to them that they forget to show it sometimes. This child constantly hears “Can’t you be more like your older sister?” This only enflames the child to do even bigger and better things than their older sibling. This makes all of life a competition for this child. They are constantly trying for better grades, bigger trophies, faster times, and higher jumps. If they don’t better their sibling they go into deep depression. If they can do better than their sibling, they strut around and brag for weeks. And they never let their older sibling forget. Life with the Tornado is never boring! In fact, if you ever hear that Hurricane Maddie is heading for Texas, EVACUATE!!! It won’t be a hurricane but my middle daughter in a major meltdown!

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Then there’s the baby, the Princess. The youngest believes that life revolves around them. When they are very young they have no motivation to learn to do anything on their own, including crawling, walking or talking. Their older siblings cater to their every need. As the Princess gets older she expects this behavior to continue much to the annoyance of their older siblings and the older siblings can’t figure out how that sweet little baby became such a spoiled brat. Of course, the parents don’t help the situation. This is the “baby” of the family and everybody needs to watch out for them. Maybe this is why our three year old has taken to wearing a crown around the house and demanding to be referred to as “Princess Katie.”

Birth order, I thought it was study done to waste taxpayer’s money, but it does exist. If you still don’t believe it just visit my home for a while. Just don’t forget to bow to the Princess.

Questions on the model:

1. What is the thesis?2. What seems to be the writer’s purpose for writing about the peculiarities of birth

order?3. What is the principle of classification?

4. What are the characteristics of the Perfectionist?

5. What are the characteristics of the Tornado?

6. What are the characteristics of the Princess?

7. Do the examples the writer uses to illustrate the categories seem appropriate?8. Does the conclusion appear to be logical?9. Write an outline of this essay?

Exercise: using the preceding essay as a sample, choose one of the following topics then write a classification essay.

1. You have received a letter from a friend back home asking you about your friends here. In your response you have decided to classify your friends.

2. Teachers in you college can be classified according to the way they dress.3. Teachers at the university can be classified according to their educational degrees.

4. If we are to define process analysis it can be said that it is the examination of a series of activities that results in a certain planned output.

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II. Process Analysis Essay1. Definition:

If we are to define process analysis it can be said that it is the examination of a series of activities that results in a certain planned output. In a process analysis essay, you write to explain how to do something or how something works. Whereas the narrative essay tells what happens and the cause and effect essay tells why it happens, the process analysis explains how it happens. a good process analysis either helps your readers perform the steps or it can help them understand how something works.

2. Types of process analysis:

There are two types of process essays: directional and informational.

The directional type essays tell how to do something. For example, a directional process might explain how to find an apartment. The purpose of this type of essay is to clarify the steps in the procedure so that the reader can re-create the steps and the results.

The informational type essays tell how something works, how something is made, or how something occurred. This type of essay explains or analyzes a process. For example, you could explain how World War II began or how hurricanes form. The informational process essay has a purpose different from that of a directional process essay. It s main purpose is to inform, explain, or analyze. The reader is gaining an understanding of the process; he or she does not necessarily expect to be able to recreate the process.

The choice between directional and informational approaches to process analysis would however depend on the subject. An analysis of the process of repairing an automobile will necessarily have to be directional. On the other hand, clarifying how N.Mahfouz wrote his first book has to be informational.

3. Planning The Process Analysis Essay

Though directional or informational processes have different purposes, they can be developed by using the same pattern of development and organization. To construct adequately the process analysis essay, some advice should be taken into account by the writer.

Be aware of the audience. Because your piece of writing is written for a given audience, you should know before starting the planning of your process essay what do your readers know about the topic you will develop. To who I’m writing, or the identification of the audience is important in deciding what to include and what to

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omit in the essay. For example, imagine that you decided to explain how to prepare a traditional cake to an inexperienced audience - people who never before prepared a cake. You would have to be very specific and assume that the readers know little or nothing about the process. However, if your audience is made up of professional or experienced in this field, you would have to approach the assignment differently. In this case, you would provide them with something special say new techniques in preparing this cake that your audience may not be aware of.

Order the steps chronologically. Knowing that a process analysis essay describes a sequence of steps, it is important that these steps have to be discussed in the order that they occur. In other words, the steps should be arranged in chronological order. Ordering ideas chronologically is vital, especially if readers are to be able to re-create the process. The principle of organization in a process analysis essay is the same followed in a narration essay. The only exception to break from chronological order is when you find it important to explain an unfamiliar word, or to give an advice.

4. Suggested transition words: Like narration essays, Process essays are generally organized according to time: that is, they begin with the first step in the process and proceed in time until the last step in the process. Some common transitional words used in process essays are listed below:

Onetime Transition

Anothertime

TIME

After a few hours, Immediately following,

Afterwards, Initially,

At last In the end,

At the same time, In the future,

Before In the meantime,

Before this, In the meanwhile,

Currently, Last, Last but not least, Lastly,

During Later,

Eventually, Meanwhile,

Finally, Next, Soon after,

First, Second, Third, etc. Previously,

First of all, Simultaneously,

Formerly Subsequently,

Immediately before, Then,

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5. A Sample of Process Essay

Successful Exercise Regular exercise is something like the weather—we all talk about it, but we tend not to do anything about it. Exercise classes on television and exercise programs on videos and CDs—as well as instructions in books, magazines, and pamphlets—now make it easy to have a low-cost personal exercise program without leaving home. However, for success in exercise, you should follow a simple plan consisting of arranging time, making preparations, and starting off at a sensible pace. Everyone has an excuse for not exercising: a heavy schedule at work or school; being rushed in the morning and exhausted at night; too many other responsibilities. However, one solution is simply to get up half an hour earlier in the morning. Look at it this way: if you're already getting up too early, what's an extra half hour? Of course, that time could be cut to 15 minutes earlier if you could lay out your clothes, set the breakfast table, fill the coffee maker, and gather your books and materials for the next day before you go to bed. Next, prepare for your exercise session. To begin with, get yourself ready by not eating or drinking anything before exercising. Why risk an upset stomach? Then, dress comfortably in something that allows you to move freely. Since you'll be in your own home, there's no need to invest in a high-fashion dance costume. A loose T-shirt and shorts are good. A bathing suit is great in summer, and in winter, long underwear is warm and comfortable. If your hair tends to flop in your eyes, pin it back or wear a headband or scarf. Prepare the exercise area, too. Turn off the phone and lock the door to prevent interruptions. Shove the coffee table out of the way so you won't bruise yourself on it or other furniture. Then get out the simple materials you'll need to exercise with. Finally, use common sense in getting started. Common sense isn't so common, as anyone who reads the newspapers and watches the world can tell you. If this is your first attempt at exercising, begin slowly. You do not need to do each movement the full number of times at first, but you should try each one. After five or six sessions, you should be able to do each one the full number of times. Try to move in a smooth, rhythmic way; this will help prevent injuries and pulled muscles. Pretend you're a dancer and make each move graceful, even if it's just getting up off the floor. After the last exercise, give yourself five minutes to relax and cool off—you have earned it. Finally, put those sore muscles under a hot shower and get ready for a great day.

Establishing an exercise program isn't difficult, but it can't be achieved by reading about it, talking about it, or watching models exercise on television. It happens only when you get off that couch and do something about it. As my doctor likes to say, "if you don't use it, you'll lose it."

Questions on the model:

1. What is the thesis?

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2. Does the author establish a need for this process? If so, where?3. Look at the paragraph divisions. Why does the author divide the steps as he does?4. What are the steps of this process?5. What is the principle of organization followed in this essay?6. Is there a topic sentence for each paragraph? If not, is it implied?7. Is the essay unified? Coherent?8. Are the steps clearly explained? Is the process complete?9. Who is the audience?10. Is this essay an informational or directional process explanation?11. What tense verbs are used in this essay? Underline them in the essay.12. Is the conclusion appropriate and logical13. Write an outline of this essay.

Exercise: using the preceding essay as a sample, choose one of the following topics then write a process analysis essay. First decide if you want write a directional process or an informational process. Then make a list in a chronological order of the steps involved in the process. Make sure that the process is complete. Define any unfamiliar term. Be sure to use appropriate transitions.

1) Write an essay on how to prepare and eat one of your traditional dishes?

2) Explain how to repair something, such as sewing on a button or changing a car tire?

3) Can you explain the life cycle of an insect (butter fly, bee…)?

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III. Definition Essay

1) Definition:

Because the definition of a word or a phrase is the key to our understanding, If we are to define definition essay, it can be said that it is to characterize the object or the phenomenon by its notion, structure (how something is organized or put together), function (explain what something does and how something works), features, properties, etc. In other words, a definition essay tends to explain what a term means. Some terms have definite concrete meaning such as dog, moon, or forest. Terms such as peace, love, or courage are abstract ones and depend more on a person's point of view.

In order to write an effective definition, you should tell your reader about the term you are with, or the term you are defining. The information you provide for this term should be clear and basic. To support your definition, you can use facts and illustrations that may help your readers more in their understandings. So, to write a successful definition essay you must share all the knowledge you have obtained on the subject with your readers.

If you are asked to write about «feminism", to help the reader to have an absolute understanding of the word "feminism," you may want to start with the history. From that point you could tell about the men and women who saw the need for equality, and finally how feminism affects us today.

2. Characteristics of a Definition essay

1.    Choose the subject you want to define.

2.    As a second step, you have to carefully consider all of its meanings by organizing all of your thoughts in the order that would best convey the message. It is better to follow an outline at this step.

3.    Because a definition essay is often a combination of narration, process analysis, comparison and contrast essay, you have to decide what style of essay you want to use. If you are breaking your definition into parts, the process method may be your best choice. If you are defining by comparing your subject to another, comparison and contrast may be your approach.

4.    Avoid defining a word by quoting the dictionary. Example: Oxford’s dictionary says . . .

3. Choosing a Definition

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The first step in writing a definition essay is to choose a definition. To reach this key step, you need to understand the term before you can define it for others.

a. Read the dictionary, but don't just copy the definition because taking the words of others may lead to plagiarism. Thus, if you take thoughts and ideas of other people, you to quote and give reference to the original source. Even if you paraphrase ideas from books, articles or websites, you should give reference to this source.

b. Explain the term briefly in your own words. c. Limit your term before you start defining it. For example, you could write forever on

the term "love." To limit it, you would write about either "romantic love," "platonic love," or "first love."

4. Significant Topics for Definition Essays

The best topic for a definition essay is connected with abstract words. Since there, to develop these topics following this type, the writer will have the opportunity to reflect on what other people think this word means. For instance, such words, as freedom, love, hate, education, morality can be understood differently by different people and cultures.

To write on an abstract word, it is advised to use simple and clear language so that everyone can understand your ideas and explanations. Besides, you may use facts, statistics, and examples to support your paper.

5. Thesis Statement of a Definition Essay

The thesis statement of a definition essay usually identifies the term being defined and provides a brief, basic definition.

(Term) (Basic definition)

Ex: Assertiveness is standing up for your rights.

6. Some Rhetorical Points about defining things:

To write acceptable definitions for the term you are defining avoid the following:

Avoid using the phrases "is where" and "is when" in your definition: "Total Quality Management is when management and labor agree to. . . ." "A computer virus is where . . . ."

Avoid circular definitions (repeating the defined term within the predicate, the definition itself): "A computer virus is a virus that destroys or disrupts software . . . ."

Avoid using a too narrow definition, one that would unduly limit the scope of your paper: "Reggae music is sung on the Caribbean island of Jamaica. . . ."

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Remember: A definition essay is writing that explains what a term means. When writing a definition essay, remember to tell readers what term is being defined, to present a clear and basic definition, and to use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand.

I. A sample of Definition essay:

What is a Yankee?

To most of the world, a Yankee is an American, anybody who lives in the United States. It is not always a pleasant connotation; in fact, "Yankee, go home!" calls up images of angry Latin American mobs protesting the oppression of American imperialist policies.

To most Americans, though, the word Yankee means either the pin-striped New York baseball team or the Northern forces in the American Civil War, the soldiers from north of the Mason-Dixon Line. In time, though, the idea that the word Yankee suggests has shrunk geographically until it is on the verge of extinction.

Perhaps the most famous Yankee of all (no offense to the musical Damn Yankees! intended) has star billing in Mark Twain's novel Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. I have lived most of my life, now, in that southern New England state, and I can assure you there are precious few real Yankees around. Real Yankees might have lived in Connecticut at one time, but now they are from another place and perhaps another time. As television and other forms of mass media invade our homes and tend to diminish regional differences, to make Americans more and more homogeneous, the Yankee might more homogeneous, the Yankee might be one of the first genuine American characters to disappear.

A neighbor of mine claims he knows what a real Yankee is all about. Years ago, he says, he lived next door to one. It seems his plumbing was acting up and he'd actually removed the toilet from the floor and taken it out into the backyard to do some surgery on it. Now he knew that his neighbor, who happened to be a professional plumber as well as the putative Yankee, was well aware of the fact that he was struggling to fix his toilet and he knew that his neighbor was home, doing nothing in particular that day, probably watching from the kitchen window. But would he come over and offer to help? No way. But when my friend finally gave up and went over and asked for assistance, the plumber-neighbor not only agreed to help, he did so gleefully. He spent the entire afternoon finding and fixing the problem and helping to return the toilet to its proper place. And wouldn't accept a dime, of course.

According to my friend, that's the first tenet of Yankee-ness. You must never offer help because that makes the person to whom you have proffered assistance "beholden" to you. And a Yankee must never be "beholden" to anyone. (That's how the word for this concept is said, and so we must spell it that way, too.) To be beholden means that you owe something to someone else. Now everyone in the world can owe something to the Yankee, but the Yankee must never owe anyone else anything, and he can't really understand someone who would be

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willing to be beholden. Thus he will not offer help — oh, maybe in a real emergency, he would be as good a Samaritan as anyone else — until asked. When asked, it's another story. You will get more help than you can imagine, help in great abundance, more than you could ever deserve or pay back. So it's not that Yankees are stingy; on the contrary, a Yankee is generous to a fault. But there is a sense of reserve that prohibits the true Yankee from offering help before being asked. The sense of inviolate space is paramount: "Good fences make good neighbors," says the neighbor in Robert Frost's poem, "Mending Wall," and the Yankee will not cross the fence until asked.

Another friend of mine knows someone, a Yankee, a chap born so far north in Vermont that he's nearly Canadian, who comes over to help with his taxes ever year. To re-pay him, my friend must resort to trickery, leaving something on the doorstep in the middle of the night. To offer anything else, up front, might tip the beholden scales in his favor and that would be risky.

That's what I think defines this dying breed of the American Yankee: an extraordinary sense of balance and reserve, a holding off — and yet, behind all that reserve, a reservoir of generosity and friendliness that can be nearly overwhelming.

Questions on the model:

1. What is the thesis?2. How does the writer organize his definition of the Yankee? 3. Does the writer give a dictionary definition for the Yankee?4. Is the word Yankee an abstract word?5. Does the writer support his definition with examples?6. List at least two examples that the writer illustrates to support his definition of the

Yankee?7. How many definitions does the writer provide for this term?8. Look at the paragraph divisions. Why does the author divide the body of his essay as

he does?9. What is the principle of organization followed in this essay?10. Is the essay unified? Coherent?11. Who is the audience?12. Is the conclusion appropriate and logical13. Write an outline of this essay.

Exercise1: The following is a definition of what a good student is.

‘A good student is not necessarily one that earns good grades or even one that does his or her best; a good student is one that makes the teacher feel like a good teacher.’

Write a definition essay on the characteristics of a good student. Use the preceded definition as the thesis statement of you essay.

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Exercise2: Using the preceding essay ‘What is a Yankee’ as a sample, choose one of the following topics then write a definition essay.

1) What is a good teacher?2) What is a good parent?3) What is a good lover?4) What is justice?

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I. Cause and effect Essay

I. Definition: The cause and effect essay explains the reasons of the event or interprets the consequences of the event. The aim, then, is to explain the causes (reasons) or the effects (results) of an event or situation.e.g. Causes of air pollution (multiple factors leading to air pollution).e.g. Effects of watching too much TV (many effects of a situation).

The cause and effect essay could be considered more professional than a descriptive or narrative essay because it includes some elements of writing that the other types (mentioned above) do not include. Accordingly, it is important that the tone of the author of this type of essays should be reasonable, and that his presentation of the topic should be factual and believable. In developing a cause/effect essay, there may be several causes or effects of a situation. Because the purpose of a cause and effect essay is to be as convincing as possible and to convince readers to accept the cause/effect as plausible, it is advisable to focus only on those causes or effects that help you in persuading you readers. For example, there may be more than four causes of air pollution, the student has focus on the major causes and keep the number of major points to 2 or 3, which form separate developmental paragraphs.

II. Planning a Cause, or Effect Essay

I. Introduction

1. In the introduction, your reader should be, first, provided with the necessary information of the event or the phenomenon you are dealing with. he must understand what you are talking about. The degree of explanation depends on the complexity of the issue. If it's a simple issue, a writer might be able to explain it in the introduction. If it's a complex issue, a writer might need a paragraph after the introduction which goes into more detail. You may have to prove that a trend exists, for instance, before you can argue what its cause/effect is.

  2. Because your aim is to persuade A convincing argument is necessary to persuade your readers that the proposed causes or results are at least as plausible as their own. To present such an argument, you have to use sources which state facts and evidence; moreover, you can also use examples and anecdotes can also be used.

  3. As it has been said earlier, in a cause/effect essay the tone should be more professional, and more reasonable. Because a reasonable voice may help you in convincing your readers about the trend you are supporting. Consider the following example:

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It's obvious that the changes in our weather patterns are due to industry's refusal to control their pollution. These slick business people have bought and paid for our Congresspersons.

In this example, by saying "It's obvious," the writer has insulted the reader's intelligence in advance. Then the writer goes on to name-calling ("slick") and a further insult of our elected officials. It could all be true, but why should we accept it? Compare: The changes in our weather patterns could certainly be due to a number of factors, in particular, the heavy pollution created by our industry and the confusing and contradictory information touted by industrial lobbyists on the one hand and environmentalists on the other.

It's important to be fair and to keep your writing voice modulated, reasonable, and professional. It can be playful, but it must be authoritative. You must not sound uncertain or be insulting.

Copyright 1988 Jennifer Jordan-Henley III. Organization of a Cause/Effect essay: In organizing a cause/effect essay , you follow three patterns of organization:

1. Multiple causes-->effectIn this pattern, the organization is as follows:

I. Introduction:Thesis statement: Air pollution is caused by the following factors: exhaust gases from cars, uncontrolled factory releases, and burning of low-quality coal for heating.II. Body1.exhausts gases from cars   a. government does not have enough control   b. citizens are not conscientious2. Uncontrolled factory gases    a. no regular checks on gases released

b. factories are inside the borders of residential areas3.Burning of low-quality coal for heating    a. no governmental control    b. other forms of energy too expensive II. Conclusion

    In multiple causes>effect pattern of organization, each developmental paragraph is devoted to one of the causes ( eg: causes of air pollution). Each cause is supported by two minor supports. While writing, these major and minor ideas should be adequately explained and exemplified as well.

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 2. Cause-->Multiple effects

In cause>multiple effects pattern, the effects of a certain situation are explained in separate paragraphs. The following outline shows how this pattern could be organized.

Outline

I. Introduction 

Thesis statement: Watching too much TV is one of the major sociological issues of this

century, which has many effects on the physiology and psychology of people.

II. Body

1. Eating disorders

    A. TV meals

    B. obesity

2. Communication problems

    A. more violence

    B. no interpersonal talks

III. Conclusion

   

Again, we have grouped related effects under two main points: physiological and psychological. Then, we have supported each effect with two minor supports (A and B). While writing, we should explain these major and minor supports by giving examples and/or defining what we mean, as well.

1. Causal chain / Domino

 Sometimes an event causes something to happen, and that situation leads to another event, and it causes another event to happen. This is called the causal chain or domino effect. The organization of the causal chain pattern could be best illustrated via the following outline.

    e.g. Use of deodorants will bring the end of the world.

I. Introduction

 Thesis statement: Using deodorants with chlorofluorocarbon gas will bring the end of world.

II. Body

1. Chlorofluorocarbon gases are contained in most deodorants and released by some

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factories into the air.

2. This gas causes the ozone layer to become thinner and finally disappear in patches.

3. The unfiltered ultraviolet rays of the sun cause overheating in the poles of the earth, where

the icebergs start to melt.

4. The huge amount of water released from the poles leads to a rise in the sea-level.

5. The sea will cover the land and this will be the end of the world.

III. Conclusion

 

In this pattern of organization, each major point should be supported with examples, statistics. In the preceding example, each major point should be supported with examples that show that there are some factories and deodorants that release chlorofluorocarbons, that there is a rise in the sea-level, etc.IV. Transitions expressing Cause/Effect:

To explain reasons and results, we use following transitions:

As a result,

As a consequence,

Consequently,

So,

Since

As,

Because

One reason why...

One of the most important reasons why...

The main reasons why...

There are other reasons, too...

 The use of transitions enables the piece of writing to be coherent; so that the reader may

fllow easily is easier for the reader to follow the writer’s ideas. But don’t forget that an

overuse of transitions may harm the unity and the coherence of the essay. Hence, we should

be using transitions only when necessary.

IV. Sample of Cause/Effect essayRead the following essay, and then answer the questions.

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Upsetting the Balance of Nature

The members of living community exist together in a particular, balanced relationship, or ecosystem. One animal species eats another animal species, which in turn eats another. Over the years, a balance is worked out among the plants and animals in a community, and it remains basically stable. It is like a huge puzzle with all of the pieces in their proper places. However, at times this balance in nature is disturbed, resulting in a number of possibly unforeseen effects. Perhaps a disease results in the near extinction of one species, leaving another species with no natural predator. The result can be a terrific increase in that one species’ population. This could further result in the devastation of a shared food supply, which could in turn affect another species. It is possible for the disruption in the balance of nature to have natural causes: disease, drought, fire. Sometimes, however, human beings intervene in a natural environment, perhaps slightly and with good intentions. The result is the same. The balance of nature becomes unbalanced and results in an entire chain reaction of an foreseen and unwanted effects. A good example of this occurred in the Antilles in the 1870’s. sugar cane was a major crop there, but rats were eating and nesting in the cane, causing a great deal of damage. The mongoose, a one-half-foot-long mammal of the East Indies, was known to be an excellent rat hunter. Several males and females were imported in 1872, and laws were established that forbade the killing of them or their offspring. The mongoose flourished in the Antilles. After ten years it had multiplied abundantly and had significantly reduced the rat population. Consequently, damage to the cane fields was greatly reduced. It seemed that the scheme to add another piece to the ecological puzzle in the Antilles had been successful.

However, that is not the end of the story. The influence of the mongoose did not stop there. As the rat population decreased and the mongoose population increased, the mongoose needed to enlarge its menu. It attacked young pigs and goats, game, poultry, and began to destroy bananas, maize, and pineapples. Because the mongoose could not be hunted, its number increased rapidly, and it became a terrible pest. All of the indigenous animals suffered damage. The mongoose learned to enjoy the native birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles and their eggs. Now, it was specifically these animals that kept that kept the local insect population in check. There were in the ecosystem of the Antilles a number of beetles, borers, and other insects that lived on and in the sugar cane. Until that time, they had not caused significant damage to the cane because they were the local food of so many local animals that kept their numbers down. However, as the birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles disappeared, the insect population began to increase. With no natural predators to keep them in check, the insect began to do more and more damage to the cane of fields.

Finally, the people of the Antilles realized that the introduction of the mongoose had caused a finely and delicately balanced system to go awry. The law against killing the mongoose was rescinded, and the mongoose population was reduced. Gradually, the different members of the plant and animal community came back into balance with each other and equilibrium was reestablished. However, the human members of the community would not soon forget that a single change in an ecosystem can cause a chain reaction that results in a completely unforeseen and sometimes unwanted effects.

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Adapted from Karl Von Frisch, Biology: the Science of Life

) New York: Harper and Row, 1964 (

Questions on the modal:1. What is the writer’s purpose in analyzing this topic?2. What is the thesis statement is it directly stated, or is it implied?3. What is the incident in the Antilles an example of?4. What is the pattern of organization used by the writer?5. Is the relationship among the causes and effects clearly and logically presented?6. Is this causal chain logical?7. What leads to the disaster in the Antilles?8. List the different results that come as a reaction from the human interference in the

Antilles ecosystem?9. Does the writer seem to be serious about this topic?10. Does the conclusion logically follow?11. Make an outline of this essay.

Exercise 2: Choose one of the outlines that are presented above, and then write a cause and effect essay. Use the essay ‘Upsetting the Balance of Nature’ as a modal while developing your essay.

Exercise 3: choose one of the following topics and then write a cause and effect essay. Choose the pattern of organization you will use in you essay.

1) ‘Watching TV does more harm than benefits’ discuss this statement.2) Write an essay in which you describe the causes of one of the following geological

events:A-EarthquakesB-Volcanic eruptionsC-Erosion

3) Explain the principle of supply and demand and the effects that changes in supply and demand can have on prices.

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II. The Argumentative Essay

It seems so easy to write an argumentative essay because we might think if one has an opinion, one can argue it effectively. However, these people are surprised when, others don't agree with them because their logic seems so correct. A writer of argumentation should not forget that his primary purpose in an argument is to win it. Meaning that, he should convince his readers to accept his argument, and refutes and concedes his opponents argument.

An argumentative essay, then, attempts to convince or persuade the reader. The subject of an argumentative essay should be an opinion that can be argued logically and supported by evidence. For example, consider the following topic: smoking cigarettes. If we write an argumentative essay on this topic we should first express an opinion that you will later logically persuade your readers to accept it. Because of the bad effects of smoking on the health of the smoker and the non-smoker, you think that the production and the sale of cigarettes should be made illegal. Your attitude towards smoking is the production and the sale of cigarettes should be made illegal. Hence, in your essay you will support this opinion with strong arguments that are based on evidence so that you can easily persuade your readers to accept this opinion, and at the same time let them reject objectively your opponent’s arguments.

1. Characteristics of Argumentative essay:1. Choose adequately the issue you will raise in your essay. It is advised to pick a well-defined, controversial issue. You have to make your readers understand what the issue is and what is at stake. After stating your thesis, you will need to discuss the issue in depth so that your reader will understand the problem fully.

2. In an argumentative essay, the writer should state his position clearly right at the beginning of his essay. This means that you should state in your thesis sentence what your position is. Avoid showing your position by using the first pronoun. For example, you do not need to say: "I believe that we should financially support the health centers." Using the first person weakens your argument. Say "Funding for the health centers is important for the poor social class in Algeria to keep a balance between the high and low social classes."

3. As the main purpose of the writer in an argumentative essay is to persuade his readers to follow his position, he has to rely on convincing arguments. In this type of essay, you should not merely assert an opinion; but rather, present an argument, and that argument must be backed up by data that persuades readers that the opinion is valid. This data consists of facts, statistics, and the testimony of others through personal interviews and questionnaires or through articles and books, and examples.

 4. Like the cause and effect essay, a reasonable tone is important in the argumentative essay. Because you are defending a position, and at the same time you want your readers accept your position; your tone should be reasonable, professional, and trustworthy.

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2. The Thesis Statement of an Argumentative Essay:

As it has been already noted, an argumentative essay main purpose is to change the reader’s mind by convincing him to agree with the writer’s point of view, or opinion. Therefore, the thesis statement of the argumentative essay; should take a side of an issues (either for, or against), and at the same time proposes an action to be taken; that is why the thesis statement of this type of essays is often expressed with the modal should.

Eg: youngsters under the age of 18 should not be allowed to have a driving license.

Practice: study the following statement, and say whether they can be accepted as argumentative thesis.

The building codes in Las Vegas, Nevada, are inadequate. Drinking alcohol does more harm.

College students should have complete freedom to choose their own courses.

The production and the sale of alcohol should be made illegal.

This university has more students than any other university in the city.

This university should have a football team.

3. Refuting and Conceding the Opposition

The writer of an argumentative essay should refute apposing arguments. Since in this type of essays we have two sides to an issue, and since the writer of the essay is representing one side which he is defending and trying to persuade his readers to accept, logically he should be against the other side and tries to prove that the opponents is wrong, or at least prove that the points he is representing are more significant than those of the other side.

To refute then means to prove that something is wrong of course by arguments. When refuting, you will study the opponents reasons, and objectively destroy them by strong arguments this will favor your side.

By conceding, however, we mean that when your opponent’s arguments are valid, you will try to concede them, or agree that they are valid, and then go to argue your points.

Study the following example:

The first paragraph sets an argument, the second paragraph both concedes valid points and refutes the main arguments.

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Paragraph 1:

One reason people over 75 should not be allowed to drive is that they are a hazard on the road. By that age, most people’s vision and hearing have deteriorated; thus, they cannot see cars, pedestrians, and traffic signs as well as they could in their youth. In addition, they have slower reaction times. This is particularly problematic because while swerve suddenly to avoid a collision. These physical and mental impairments lead to a lot of accidents. In fact, if we compare on a per-mile basis the elderly with other age groups of drivers, it turns out that the elderly are involved in 25 accidents per 100 drivers. This is second only to group aged 24 and under.

Paragraph 2: now the writer is going to refute this point and at the same time concedes the valid points.

My opponents argue that people over 75 should not be allowed to drive because they are hazard on the road. While it is true that the accident rate per mile driven is high for the elderly, the fact is that the elderly do not drive as much as those in other age groups; consequently, the actual number of accident in this age group is the lowest among all the younger age groups. Moreover, while it is also true that that their abilities to see, hear, and react are not as sharp as they were when they were younger, this does not necessarily have to make them hazardous on the road. In fact, elderly drivers can be trained to compensate for their deficiencies by taking special driver’s education courses designed for them.

Practice: the following are some points that your apponents use as an argument for letting Marijuana smoking be legalized by the government.

The government does not have the right to tell us what we can or cannot consume. It is useful as a medicine.

Many people already use it.

Now write a paragraph that refutes those points. If you need to concede a valid point, do so.

2. Organizing an Argumentative essay

There are different ways in organizing an argumentative essay, the following are the two mostly used patterns.

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Pattern 1:Paragraph one: Introduction

Introduce the issue/problem and your thesis statementParagraph two: Background information

It is optional. Some topics requires from the writer to give additional information such as defining terms, or explaining whatever helps the audience understand the issue.

Paragraph three: reason 1 You will have one reason per paragraph. 2 to 4 reasons are Typical for an argumentative essay

Paragraph four: reason 2

Paragraph five: reason 3

Paragraph six: reason 4

Paragraph seven: Refutation Refute your opponent’s most important reason.

Paragraph eight: Conclusion Here you can summarize, demand action, suggest a solution, or predict an

outcome.

Pattern 2:Paragraph one: Introduction

Introduce the issue/problem and your thesis statementParagraph two:

Same as pattern 1Paragraph three:

Opponent’s argument one with your refutation. You have to start your paragraph with a short summary of your opponent’s argument and spend most of the paragraph refuting it.

Paragraph four: Opponent’s argument 2 with your refutation.

Paragraph five: Opponent’s argument 3 with your refutation.

Paragraph six: Opponent’s argument 4 with your refutation. .

Paragraph eight: Conclusion Same as pattern 1

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3. Sample of argumentative Essay:

Read the following essay the answer the questions

Science: Who needs it?

At our school, all students are required to take a minimum of six courses in natural sciences: three in biological sciences and three in physical sciences, regardless of the student’s major. Students majoring in humanities often have to struggle to get through these demanding courses and their grade point averages usually suffer as a result. It has been suggested that the requirements be modified, reducing the number of natural science courses required so that students can take more courses directly related to their majors. As humanities major, I admit this would make college life a lot easier for me, but I still oppose the measure because natural science courses with a crucial part of our education.

Students majoring in humanities usually object to taking such science courses because they claim the courses are irrelevant to their majors.’ what good will physics do me when I am teaching Spanish?’ a friend of mine asked. It is true that physics, chemistry, biology, and the like may not have application to most careers in humanities, but this objection ignores one of the key issues of a university education. A university is not simply a training facility; it is an institution of higher learning where students are educated, not merely trained. Even the term university implies that it is a place to obtain a general knowledge base; a university education means the student has been educated in many subjects. Since a part of our universal knowledge is science, it is and logically should be a part of the university curriculum.

Humanities students might accept this argument and agree that they should take some natural science, but not as many courses as are now required. They might suggest a one-semester course in physical science, along with perhaps one semester of math for non-majors. This, they argue, would expose them sufficiently to the universe of science. If the point of a university education were merely to expose students to a variety of subjects, then I might agree. But a university education implies more than mere exposure. After all, people can be exposed to subjects by watching television. Again, the purpose of going to a university is to get an education. What does that mean? It means more than just training and exposure; it means that students learn enough to become critical thinkers in the various disciplines. It means that they should gain enough understanding of the sciences, humanities, social sciences, and the arts to be able to discuss issues in these areas intelligently and to be able to question other people’s views rather than just accept what people tell them.

One or two semesters of general science cannot sufficiently educate students in this field. What one learns in natural science courses is more than mere factual information. One

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learns to think critically, to approach problems logically, to use reasoning. And this takes time. It takes work. It takes studying different areas of science and applying the general principles in laboratory situations.

Developing a critical ability in science is important, but why? In addition to providing the student with a universe of knowledge, an understanding of science is vital in our highly technological society. We are all confronted with issues involving nuclear waste, chemical pollutants, medical advances, exploration in space and so forth. In order to make intelligent decisions-in fact, even to be involved in the decision-making process- people need to have an understanding of these issues that goes beyond mere –exposure-. Otherwise, the uneducated become mere puppets who, out of ignorance, can but nod in agreement with anyone professes expertise.

Science courses then provide us not only with knowledge that is crucial for intelligent functioning in our society, but they also provide us with the opportunity to develop our critical, logical reasoning skills. Although these courses are difficult for the non-science majors, they are a necessary part of a university education.

From: Refining Composition Skills, p: 292-293

Questions:

1) What is the issue discussed by the writer?2) What is the thesis statement?3) What are the writer’s main arguments?4) Which pattern of organization does the writer follow?5) Where does the refutation begin in the essay? What is the first point that the writer

refutes?6) Does the writer refute all possible objections to the thesis? Can you think of any

objections someone can make?7) Does the writer concede any points? Which ones?8) Is the argument convincing? Why, or why not?9) Does the conclusion logically follow?10) Make an outline of this essay?

Exercise: using the previous essay ‘Science: Who Needs It?’ as a model, choose one of the following topics, and then write an argumentative essay.

1) ‘Should all companies require on-the-job drug testing?’ do you agree, or disagree.2) ‘All people are created equal, and the goal of society should be to make sure that

everyone has equal opportunity to life.’ Do you agree, or disagree with this statement.3) ‘The production and the sale of cigarettes should be made illegal.’ Do you agree, or

disagree with this statement.

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Part Two

I. How to Write Formal Letters

1. Layout of a Formal Letter

The example letter below shows you a general layout for a formal letter. Pass your mouse over the different areas of it to find out more information

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3

4

5

6

7

1. your address

2. address to the person to whom you are writing

3. the date

4. salutation

5. the main text of your letter

6. singing off

7. your name

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2. Rules for Writing Formal Letters in English

In English there are a number of conventions that should be used when writing a formal or business letter. Furthermore, you try to write as simply and as clearly as possible, and not to make the letter longer than necessary. Remember not to use informal language like contractions.

1. Addresses:

a) Your Address: the return address should be written in the top right-hand corner of the letter.

b) The Address of the person you are writing to: the inside address should be written on the left, starting below your address.

2. Date: The date can be written on the right or the left on the line after the address you are writing to. Write the month as a word.

3. Salutation or greeting:

a) Dear Sir or Madam,If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use this. It is always advisable to try to find out a name.

b) Dear Mr Jenkins,If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.) and the surname only. If you are writing to a woman and do not know if she uses Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which is for married and single women.

4. Ending a letter:

a) Yours Faithfully (If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way).

b) Yours Sincerely (If you know the name of the person, end the letter this way).

c) Your signatureSign your name, then print it underneath the signature. If you think the person you are writing to might not know whether you are male of female, put you title in brackets after your name.

5. Content of a Formal Letter

First paragraph : it should be short and state the purpose of the letter- to make an enquiry, complain, request something, etc.

The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter should contain the relevant information behind the writing of the letter. Most letters in English are not very long, so keep

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the information to the essentials and concentrate on organising it in a clear and logical manner rather than expanding too much.

Last Paragraph The last paragraph of a formal letter should state what action you expect the recipient to take- to refund, send you information, etc.

6- Signing off

Just under the content of your letter, you have to sign off your letter to show that your letter has come to its end. You can off your letter in two ways:

a- If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way:

Yours Faithfully,

b- If you use the name of the person, end the letter this way:

Yours Sincerely,

7- Your name

Among the requirement of letter writing is to end the layout of the letter with the sender’s name. Just under your signature, write your name.

3. Examples of letters:

1) A Covering Letter

A covering letter is the one that accompanies your CV when you are applying for a job. The following is a plan of a covering letter.

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Opening Paragraph

Briefly identify yourself and the position you are applying for. Add how you found out about the vacancy.

Paragraph 2Give the reasons why you are interested in working for the company and why you wish to be considered for that particular post. State your relevant qualifications and experience, as well as your personal qualities that make you a suitable candidate.

Paragraph 3Inform them that you have enclosed your current CV and add any further information that you think could help your case.

Closing ParagraphGive your availability for interview, thank them for their consideration, restate your interest and close the letter.

Exercise: Using the previous plan, write a covering letter that will accompany your CV for the job you are applying for.

2) A Letter of Enquiry

A letter of enquiry is when you are approaching a company speculatively, that is you are making an approach without their having advertised or announced a vacancy.

Exercise: You have applied for a job in a well known company in your town; but you did not receive any answer. Using your own words write a letter of enquiry for this company. Use the following outline

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Opening Paragraph

Introduce yourself briefly and give your reason for writing. Let them know of the kind of position you are seeking, why you are interested and how you heard about them.

Paragraph 2Show why their company in particular interests you, mention your qualifications and experience along with any further details that might make them interested in seeing you.

Paragraph 3Refer to your enclosed CV and draw their attention to any particularly important points you would like them to focus on in it.

Closing ParagraphThank them, explain your availability for interview and restate your enthusiasm for their company and desire to be considered for posts that might as yet be unavailable.

Signing off

4. Abbreviations Used in Letter Writing

The following abbreviations are widely used in letters:

1. asap = as soon as possible 2. cc = carbon copy (when you send a copy of a letter to more than one person, you use

this abbreviation to let them know) 3. enc. = enclosure (when you include other papers with your letter) 4. pp = per procurationem (A Latin phrase meaning that you are signing the letter on

somebody else's behalf; if they are not there to sign it themselves, etc) 5. ps = postscript (when you want to add something after you've finished and signed it) 6. pto (informal) = please turn over (to make sure that the other person knows the letter

continues on the other side of the page) 7. RSVP = please reply

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II.Summarizing and Paraphrasing

Students are often confused between these two terms: paraphrasing and summarizing. Sometimes they think that they summarize but in fact they are paraphrasing. The two tasks are not the same, each of them requires a given steps to be followed.

1. Paraphrasing Texts

As you produce your own work, sometimes you may find that you often have reason to paraphrase. What is paraphrasing? To paraphrase is to restate the thoughts or the ideas of someone in your own words. While it is acceptable, indeed necessary, to use the ideas of others as the basis for your own analysis, it is similarly necessary to paraphrase accurately, noting your sources.

2. Summarizing Texts

A summary of a passage is shorter and more direct than a paraphrase. It states the thesis and focuses on the main points of author’s argument. A summary then is shorter than the paraphrase because it does not restate all the ideas of the author but rather its focus is on the primary point or opinion expressed in the passage.

Practice:

Here is an original passage from "Infection in the Sentence," Gilbert and Gubar (1957). You will see how this passage is paraphrased, and then summarized.

Original passage:

"Surrounded as she is by images of disease, traditions of disease, and invitations both to disease and to dis-ease, it is no wonder that the woman writer has held many mirrors up to the discomforts of her own nature. As we shall see, the notion that 'Infection in the sentence breeds' has been so central a truth for literary women that the great artistic achievements of nineteenth-century novelists and poets from Austen and Shelley to Dickinson and Barrett Browning are often both literally and figuratively concerned with disease, as if to emphasize the effort with which health and wholeness were won from the infectious 'vapors' of despair and fragmentation" (Gilbert and Gubar 57). 

1. Here is a paraphrase of this passage:

According to Gilbert and Gubar, the nineteenth-century female author was inevitably caught up in constricting images and thoughts of gender-specific illnesses, generated by society. As a result, the sentences and verses she penned

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were often dominated by images of disease and poor health, “as if to emphasize” the difficulty of maintaining “health and wholeness” in a culture which insisted upon her physical and psychological weakness (57).

2. Here is a summary of the same passage:

Gilbert and Gubar claim that the nineteenth-century female author focused on images of infection and illness because she was surrounded by these images in everyday life (57).

3. Characteristics of a paraphrase and a summary: Whereas a paraphrase preserves the logical relationships between ideas present in the

original source (no key ideas are omitted, and the meaning of the original passage is not interpreted or expanded upon); in a summary, however, the focus is only on the main idea of the passage.

A summary, like a paraphrase, should preserve the logical relationships between ideas present in the original source, and should refrain from interpretation.

When paraphrasing and summarizing, it is important to maintain the distinction between the language used by the source and your own language. Search for substitute words wherever possible. Substitute word choices or expressions ought to be accurate.

Avoid using more than three words consecutively from the original source in your paraphrase or in your summary. If then, it should be marked as a quotation.

Since the words of a summary or a paraphrase are yours, they do not have to be enclosed by quotation marks. And because the ideas are not yours, you need to cite the source from where this paraphrase or summary has been derived. Since there, both summaries and paraphrases should be documented with a parenthetical reference.

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Bibliography

T.Johnston and J.Gonzales (1987), ‘The Writers Advice Book’, Ginn Press,

Massachusetts

A.Hogue (1995), ‘first Steps to Academic Writing’, Addison Wesley Longman

A. Oshima and A.Hogue (1997), ‘Introduction to Academic Writing’, 2nd Edition,

Addison Wesley Longman

R.Small, M.K.Rutten and J.R Kozyrev, (2000), ‘Refining Composition Skills’, Heinle

and Heinle

J.F Trimmer, (1995), ‘Writing with a Purpose’, Houghton Miffin Company

Webb sites:

Guide to Different Kinds of Essays in

http://www.depts.gallaud.edu/englishworks/writing/e

Sample Essays for Advanced Students in:

http://www.swadulted.com/workshops/eslcourse

Paraphrasing and Summarizing in: http://www.lib.usm.edu/legacy/plag/paraphrasing

Let’s share our Essays in: http://www.sharingouressays.blogspot.com/

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Part two: Grammar

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ESSON ONEReported speech

I. Definition

We can report what someone has said in two different manners. When we repeat exactly the speaker’s words, we are using the first type which is called in grammar Direct speech. When we report someone’s speech with some modifications, we are using what is referred to in grammar as Indirect speech or Reported speech. The following examples are going to make things clearer: Jim “I learn English at the university.” 1) Jim says: “I learn English at the university.” 2) Jim says (that) he learns English at the university. 3) Jim said (that) he learnt English at the university.If we examine the first sentence, we remark that we have repeated the exact words uttered by Jim. When reading the sentence, we notice that it is put between quotation marks. No change has occurred in the sentence. This type of speech is called direct speech.If we study the second and the third sentence, we may notice three basic changes: the introduction of the word that, a change in the pronoun and a change in the verb tense. This type of speech is named indirect speechRemark1 The word that is not obligatory. We may say: Jim says he learns English at the university. Jim said he learnt English at the university.Remark2 The pronoun used in the direct speech (I) has become (he) in the indirect speech.Remark3 Says and said are called introductory verbs. With says in the present simple tense we have kept the same tense of the verb (I learn in the present simple remains he learns in the present simple). With said in the simple past tense we have modified the tense of the verb ( I learn in the present simple becomes he learnt in the simple past). As a conclusion we may say that when the introductory verb is in the present simple, the present perfect or the future simple, we keep the same tense of the verb in the sentence. When the introductory verb is in the simple past tense or the past perfect, we change the tense of the verb in the sentence.

II. Use

1. Use of tell and say

When we use say, we are not obliged to mention to whom we are talking, but with tell we mention the indirect object (to whom we are talking). Let’s compare say and tell in the following examples: She said that she lived in a small flat. She told me that she lived in a small flat.We say something. We do not say someone something. As it can be clarified with these examples: She said she was going to be late. (Correct)

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She said me she was going to be late. (Incorrect)We tell someone something. We do not tell something. As it can be explained in these sentences: He told me he was happy. (Correct) He told he was happy. (Incorrect)Remark4 If we add the preposition to to the verb say, we can say: He said to me that he was happy.

2. Time and tense

We often move the tense of a verb one step back in reported speech because the original words happened before the reported speech. Let’s explain the following point in the table below:ACTUAL WORDS REPORTED SPEECHPresent simple“I live in a small flat”, she said.

Past simpleShe said that she lived in a small flat

Present continuous“I am leaving on Tuesday”, she said

Past continuousShe said she was leaving on Tuesday.

Past simple - Present perfect“I learnt a lot”, he said. “Mr Jackson has left”, he said.

Past perfectHe said that he had learnt a lot.He said that Mr Jackson had left.

Will – may –can“I will help you”, she said.

Would- might- couldShe said that she would help me.

Am –is – are going to“We are going to be late”, they said.

Was –were going toThey said that they were going to be late.

Remark5 If what we report is still true , it is not necessary to change the tense of the verb in the sentence. “Diamonds are more expensive than pearls”, he said. He said that diamonds are more expensive than pearls.(correct) He said that diamonds were more expensive than pearls. (Correct)Remark6 Modals such as could, would, should, might, must, ought to ,needn’t don’t change. This can be better clarified in the following sentences: “Mary could perform the role”, he said. He said that Mary could perform the role.

3. Time and place expressions

ACTUAL WORDS REPORTED WORDSTodayNowYesterdayDays agoLast weekNext yearTomorrowHereThis

That dayThenThe day before- the previous dayDays beforeThe week before- the previous weekThe following yearThe next day-the following dayThereThat

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These Those

4. Reporting statements

When we report someone’s speech, we have to pay attention to different elements such as who is reporting the speech, and to whom he is reporting that speech. This may have an effect on the pronouns used and the tense of the verb. When reporting statements, the tense of the introductory verb is very important as well as time and place expressions. The following examples are going to clarify the point: -John:”Sandy is here.” John said that Sandy was there. -Richard: “I am going to ride my bike today.” Richard told us that he was going to ride his bike that day.

5. Reporting orders

When reporting positive orders, we use the introductory verb followed by to plus the infinitive. We can see it in the following sentences: -Peter: “Clean the black shoes.” Peter told me to clean the black shoes. -John: “Help Peter’s sister.” John ordered me to help Peter’s sister. When reporting negative orders, we use the introductory verb followed by not to plus the infinitive. We can see it in the following examples: -Father: “Don’t play football in the garden, children.” Father reminded the children not to play football in the garden. -Jim: “Don’t touch my keys.” Jim ordered me not to touch his keys.

6. Reporting requests

There are different ways to make requests. We may say-Sarah: “Please wait a minute, Tom.Sarah: “Will you wait a minute, please?Sarah: “Tom could you wait a minute, please?We can report all of these requests using to plus the infinitive:-Sarah asked Tom to wait a minute.

7. Reporting questions

When reporting auxiliary questions, we turn the question into a statement starting with if or whether as in the following example: “Do you like sports”, he said.He asked if I liked sportsHe asked whether I liked sports.Remark7 Note that when reporting auxiliary questions, we do not put be or an auxiliary before the subject.

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When reporting WH questions, we turn the question into a statement starting with the WH word as in the following example:“Where does Mary live?” he saidHe asked where Mary lived.“Why has Jane gone?” he saidHe wanted to know why Jane had gone.Remark8 We can use wonder, demand or want to know to report questions.III. Practice

Exercise 1 Complete the following with said or told1) She ……….she wasn’t feeling very well.2) Alex……..me that he would buy the tickets3) They ………..that the train was going to be late4) She …….him that she was very angry with him5) Who …………you that I was leaving?6) She……….that she had four sisters7) He………him that he could help him

Exercise 2 Report the following orders1) “Do your homework here, Ann”, he said.

2) “Don’t forget your keys”, mum told Jim.

3) “Be ready for the meeting”, said the headmaster….

4) “Don’t make noise the baby is sleeping.”Jane said.

5) “Go home Paul, now”, mother said.

6) “Don’t paint this room today.” said the boss.

Exercise 3 Turn the following statements into indirect speech.1) Mother said: “The children are calm today.”2) “Pupils are leaving their classroom noisily”, said the teacher.3) “Many animals lived in the forest years ago”, he said.4) “Mum will travel to the town next week.”, She said.5) “I have finished my homework”, Paul said.6) “A lot of visitors are going to come here in the afternoon.” he said.Exercise 4 Turn the following questions and requests into indirect speech.

1) “Do you play sports?” he asked.

2) “Where have you been last night?” he asked.

3) “Will you come tomorrow?” she said.

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4) “Could you help me, please?” he said.

5) “Is this her favourite TV programme?” she asked.

6) “Does Mary have a driving permit?” the policeman said.

Exercise 5 Turn the following into direct speech.1) She asked if they had visited that country years before.

2) I asked him where he worked.

3) They wanted to know whether I spoke English well.

4) Mum told the children to be calm during the trip.

5) She said that she was having a bath.

6) Sara told tom not to laugh.

Exercise 6 Correct any mistakes in the following1) They said me they have been waiting for a long time.

2) He told that he had had a wonderful holiday.

3) I asked him what did he do.

4) He asked me when did the film start.

5) She said last night she isn’t going to come to the party.

6) He was telling that you’re thinking to change your job.

7) I asked him was he free on Friday.

8) She said me to not go abroad.

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Lesson twoPhrasal verbs Learners often identify phrasal verbs as one of the most important and difficult features of the English language. They often fail to understand the meaning of phrasal verbs and phrasal verb expressions. They avoid using the phrasal verbs and their expressions in their writings because they lack certainty about the meaning of those verbs. They sometimes try to classify them into categories and sometimes try to lean them as individual elements of the language they occur in.I. Definition

A phrasal verb is a verb followed by a preposition or an adverb( also called a particle). In some grammar books, phrasal verbs are named two-part verbs or multi-part verbs. The particle which follows the verb changes the meaning of the phrasal verb from the original one as we can see in the following examples: The sportsman is running. (He is moving quickly)If we add a particle such as into to the verb run, we obtain a new verb with a new meaning: I run into my teacher in the market last Friday.In this case the meaning of the verb becomes I met my teacher in the market.Remark1 The context in which we use the phrasal verb also influences its meaning. The following examples are going to make things clearer: The hill dropped off near the river. (decline gradually) While doing his homework he dropped off. (fall asleep) Would you drop this off at the airport? (Stop and give something to someone)II. Types of phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs can be classified into two major groups. The first category is called intransitive phrasal verbs and the second one transitive phrasal verbs. Let’s examine each of them at a time:1- Intransitive phrasal verbs They are those verbs which are not followed by a direct

object as in the examples below:

I think I need to take my car to the mechanic because it’s acting up again. (function improperly) Her story doesn’t add up.(make sense) Jane never backs down. She always has arguments. (Stop defending her opinion) Everybody just looked on as the two men fought. (Observe as spectators) I am afraid Professor Johnson has passed on. (Die)2-Transitive phrasal verbs They are those verbs which are followed by a direct object. According to the position of the direct object, we can divide this type into three sub-categories which are respectively separable transitive phrasal verbs, inseparable transitive phrasal verbs and verbs of both positions. Let’s study them in a more detailed manner.

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a) Separable phrasal verbs In this group , the particle can be separated from the original verb so that a noun or a pronoun can occur.

She put on the hat She put the hat onHere are other examples of separable phrasal verbs.-Do you take me for an idiot? (consider)-You need to turn your essays in next week. (submit)-Did you see your sister off at the airport? (say goodbye)-My partner in crime sold me out for a reduced jail sentence. (tell on someone) b) Inseparable phrasal verbs In this group, the particle cannot be separated from the original verb; it comes directly after the verb as it is the case in the following example: She always gets around the rules. (correct) She always gets the rules around. (incorrect)Here are other examples of the inseparable phrasal verbs.-Sam backed out of the agreement at the last second. (not keep the promise)-I couldn’t do without a car in California. (manage without something)-Jenifer passed on the invitation to join us for dinner. (not accept)-We run out of milk this morning, so we need to go to the store. (not have anymore of something)-I take after my father. (resemble)c) Verbs of both positions In some transitive phrasal verbs, the particle can take both positions; it can be directly after the original verb or can be separated from the original verb. The following examples explain better this point: I looked up the number in the phonebook I looked the number up in the phonebook.Remark2 If the direct object is a pronoun, it must be put between the verb and the particle. I looked it up in the phonebook. (correct) I looked up it. (incorrect)Here are some examples of both position phrasal verbs.-You made many mistakes, so I want you to do the report over. (repeat)-I finally got my sister’s birthday present off yesterday. (send)-Would you mind taking down my messages while I’m on vacation? (write down)-The car alarm woke me up at six this morning. (awaken someone)

III. Practice

Exercise 1 Match the items on the right to the items on the leftBlow up Abandon Break up LeaveGet up DiscussGive up Consider Go away disintegrateGet into removeLook for risePut off strollSend back postpone

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Talk about returnThink over comfortTurn up educateWalk about seekExercise 2 Match items on the right to items on the left1) Ask after a) To invite someone for a date.2) Ask around b) To invite someone into your house.3) Ask for c) Invite4) Ask in d) Enquire about someone’s health5) Ask out e) To provoke a negative reaction6) Ask around f) Ask a number of people for information of helpExercise 3 Complete the first part of the phrasal verb from the following verbs (get –give- hurry- pick- stand- tidy- wake). Use each verb only once.

1) Jane and I want to ...............up smoking.2) Could you ...............me up at six o’clock.3) We must .............up or we will miss the bus.4) Can you.............me up at the station.5)I usually have to......... up at six.6) I must................ up my room today.7) In many countries, the pupils have to ..............up when the teacher enters the room.

Exercise 4 Fill in the blanks using the following words (after- around- away- down- for- into- out- over- through- up).1) While you are hiking in the forest, you need to look...........for rattlesnakes.2) If you don’t know his phone number, you can look it..........in the phonebook.3) The police are going to look .................the recent robberies in the neighbourhood.4) While he was looking..........the papers, he noticed a couple of spelling mistakes.5) If you look .......the telescope, you can see the rings around Saturn.6) Sandy is going to look............ the children while we are at the party.7) When there is an eclipse, you should look........ from the sun8) I lost my keys. Can you help me to look...............them.9) The lost child stood there in the middle of the store looking...........trying to find his parents.10) She always looks .......... on people who disagree with her.Exercise 5 Use the following verbs(believe – fill- get- look- put- switch- take- turn- throw- try) and the following prepositions(away- down- for- in- off- on- out) and form meaningful sentences.

1) Quick! .............. The bus. It’s ready to leave.2) I don’t know where my book is. I have to ............it.3) It’s dark inside. Can you ..............the light please?4)....................the form, please.5) I need some new clothes. Why don’t you.............these jeans? 6) It’s warm inside................your coat.7) This pencil is really old. You can ............it...........8) The firemen were able to ................the fire9) It’s so loud here. Can you ................the radio.10) Does your little brother ..................ghosts?

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Lesson threeTypes of verbs People often think of verbs as doing words. While many verbs are used to describe actions (e.g. cook, paint, cut),we also use verbs to express other meanings such as existence (e.g. be, become, exist), mental conditions and processes(e.g. believe, deduce, enjoy)and relationships(e.g. depend, determine). In terms of meaning the importance of the verb varies considerably. Consequently, learners need to understand various features of verbs in order to be able to use them in the appropriate manner. I. Types of verbs

Before you begin to work with any English verb, you should know that English verbs are different. They belong to distinct categories.1)Dynamic verbs- Stative verbs- Mixed verbsa) Dynamic verbsThe majority of the English verbs are dynamic verbs. They represent physical actions which you can see somebody performing. They can be used in all tenses . They show continued or progressive action on the part of the subject. They have duration; they occur over time. Some examples of these verbs are to run, to eat , to fly, to hit to play to melt… The bird flies in the sky. The policeman ran after the thief yesterday. We eat three meals during one day. She plays tennis . The snow melts in spring. When one boxer is hitting the other, brain damage can result.b) Stative verbs This second group of verbs occupies a smaller portion in the totality of the English verbs. While the first group refers to what you can see somebody doing the second represents what you cannot see somebody doing. The verbs that belong to this category are rarely used in the progressive form. This group includes:-Abstract verbs Such as to be, to want, to cost, to seem, to exist… My son wants to succeed in his studies. You seem tired. We exist to live not to survive-Possession verbs Such as to belong, to possess, to own… My friend owns two cars. I’m proud because I belong to this humble family -Emotion verbs Such as to love, to hate, to fear, to envy… Boys love practicing sports. I hate noisy, crowded places Children fear darkness.b)Mixed verbs

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This group is represented by the smallest portion of the English verbs. They can be both dynamic verbs and stative verbs with different meanings. Here are some examples: to appear, to feel, to have, to look, to see, to think, to smell… -Donna appears confused. (seems) Donna is appearing at the Jazz club. (give a performance) -I have a dollar now. (possess) I am having fun now. (experiencing fun) -I hear a nice music. (hear with my ears) I am hearing voices. (hear in my mind) -Nancy looks tired. (seems) Nancy is looking at the pictures. (observing)2)Main verbs- Auxiliary verbs- Modal verba) Main verbs The main verb is the verb which expresses the main action or the main state of being of the subject. Here are some examples This man is the boss. They play tennis very well.

b)Auxiliary verbsThe auxiliary verb is the verb which is used with the main verb to give information. The verb to be is a verb which is used with the past participle to form the passive voice(e.g. the door was opened) or with the present participle to form the progressive form aspect(e.g. I am riding my bike). To have is used with the past participle to form the perfect aspect (e.g. Peter has written the letter.). Here are other examples: The baby is crying Police are helped by the citizens to find the thief. Pupils have obtained interesting marks in their exam.

c) Modal verbs There are nine modal verbs: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should and must. They are not conjugated in the infinitive. They do not appear as participles. They do never function as main verb. Here are some examples:I can help you.It’s rainy. She could arrive late3)Regular verbs- Irregular verbsa)Regular verbsA regular verb is a verb whose conjugation obeys the typical grammatical inflections of the language it belongs to. The simplest form of regularity involves a single class and a single principal part as a set of rules to produce different forms of the verb. Let’s examine a regular verb (to talk): all regular verbs in English have five formsa) Infinitive (talk)b) Third person singular (talks)c) Past tense (talked)d) Past participle (talked)e) Gerund (present participle) (talking)b)Irregular verbs

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An irregular verb is a verb whose conjugation does not obey the typical grammatical inflections of the language it belongs to. The different forms of this verb cannot be deduced from a single form. Let’s examine an irregular verb (to think)a) Infinitive (think)b) Third person singular (thinks)c) Past tense (thought)d) Past participle (thought)e) Gerund (present participle) (thinking)4) Finite verbs – Non- finite verbsa) Finite verbsA finite verb is a verb which is inflected for person and for tense according to the rules of the language it belongs to. Finite verbs can form independent clauses and stand by their own. Here are some examples: He makes a cake She finished her work yesterday Open the doorb)Non- finite verbs A non-finite verb is a verb which is not limited by the subject and which does not obey rules of inflection according to tense, aspect, mood, number and gender. It does not serve as a main verb. Here are some examples:Made in Germany, these computers are well-known5) Transitive verbs- Intransitive verbs- Linking verbsa)Transitive verbs In syntax, a transitive verb is a verb that requires a subject and one or more objects. Those transitive verbs which need one object are called monotransitive verbs. Here are some examples: Harry sees Adam. I lifted the bag. Father punished Jim.Transitive verbs that are able to take more than one object such as a direct and an indirect object are called ditransitive verbs. Here are some examples Mary lent her book to Jane. She gave you money.b) Intransitive verbsAn intransitive verb doesn’t require an object. In more technical terms, an intransitive verb has only one argument, its subject. Here are some examples: Harry will sleep until sunrise. You complain too much. His son died last year.Verbs which can be used in a transitive and an in transitive way are called ambitransitive verbs. I am eating.(intransitive) I am eating an apple.(transitive)c) Linking verbsA linking verb is a verb which is followed by a noun or an adjective that refer to the subject of the verb.

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She looks tired. She felt embarrassed.

6) Impersonal verbs The impersonal verb is the verb that cannot take a true subject because it does not represent an action, occurrence, or state of being of any specific person, place, or thing. In English, an impersonal verb always takes an impersonal pronoun. It is the pronoun “it”. Here are some examples It rains a lot in winter. It snowed yesterday morning.7) Catenative verbs A catenative verb is a verb that can be directly followed by another verb such as the infinitive (to plus stem) or the gerund (stem plus ing).here are some examples He deserves to win the cup. She likes reading novels.

II. Practice

Exercise 1 Find the regular verb in each line1) read-feel-play-see2) listen-do-go-make3) like-write-forget-eat4)watch-be-have-meet5)put-buy-cook-teach

Exercise 2 Put in the missing form1).......... broke.............2).........-...........-forgotten3) Choose............-..............4)...........drew..................5) Buy............-..................6)............-.............-flown7) Know.............-................8)...........paid...................

Exercise 3 Is the underlined verb a main verb or an auxiliary verb 1) I will have the soup. 2) The police are investigating the incident. 3) Where does your brother work? 4) They have decided to advertise your job. 5) It is very peaceful here.Exercise 4 Decide whether each verb is stative or dynamic Read-paint- believe-smell-remember-jump-wantExercise 5 In each of the following, indicate the verb type1) The burglar disappeared with the cash.

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a- transitive b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb2) He would tell me if he thought we were in danger.a- transitive b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb3) His ability to concentrate is legendary.a- transitive b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb4) Her brother likes bananas, but she likes peaches.a- transitive b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb5) Dennis became impatient at the end.a- transitive b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb6) After the Chef completed the demonstration, she left the students to clean the kitchen.a- transitive b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verbExercise 6 In each section indicate the finite and the non-finite verb.1) Paul runs to work everyday.2) They have run away together3) Tim gave Paul a menacing look.4) Kate was watching TV when the phone rang.5) We found him smoking behind the shed.Exercise 7 Correct the mistakes in each section1) Mohammed owns two different houses. He likes to live in his house by the sea when the weather is good, but in winter he is preferring to live in the city.2) I don’t understand stative and dynamic verbs. They seem very confusing. I am hating them because they are driving me crazy.

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Lesson fourEllipsisI. Definition

Our main objective when speaking and writing is to provide the necessary information to convey what we want to express, and this involves leaving out words and phrases. This leaving out of words and phrases is called in grammar Ellipsis. Ellipsis occurs in all languages, but the kind of words we can omit varies from one language to another. Ellipsis is often used in informal speech, as in a conversation between two friends especially when the meaning is clear.II. Kinds of ellipsis

Ellipsis can be divided into two distinct kinds: Situational ellipsis and Textual ellipsis. Let’s examine each kind at a time:1) Situational ellipsis This type of ellipsis occurs mainly in speaking. From its name, we may deduce that the situation or the context of the speech plays an important role in identifying what is missing. Here is an example A: What time is it? B: Don’t know. ([I] don’t know)Answers to questions represent the clearest and simplest examples of situational ellipsis as in the following examplese.g. A: Could you help me ? B: Possibly. ( [I could] possibly [ help you])e.g. A: When are you coming back? B: Tuesday. ([We are coming back on] Tuesday)Remark1 The information which has been left out in the examples in the different sections of this lesson are between square brackets ([........]).Let’s study the following examples:e.g. A:You OK now?[Are] you OK now? B: Can’t grumble. Better than this time last year.([I]can’t grumble. [I’m]better than [I was]this time last year.) A: Your leg? ([Was the problem] your leg?) B: Stuck here with my leg .Missed all the parties, Christmas parties. ([I was] stuck here with my leg. ( I) missed all the parties,( that is the) Christmas parties.)We remark that words which have been omitted in the previous questions and answers of the conversation are mainly grammatical words such as articles, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs and be used as complement verb.Patterns of use-In informal conversations we can often leave out the subject at the beginning of what we say: “Didn’t phone yesterday” (I is omitted)-In informal conversations subject and auxiliary verb can be left out:

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“ready” ( are you is omitted) “finished”( have you)-Sometimes a determiner and the dummy subject there (is/are) can be left out: “Any tea left”( is there is omitted)- Have you and do you can be omitted in questions in ellipsis that occurs with verbs such as, see, hear, and think in questions and in replies. “Seen Matt lately?” (have you is omitted) “Think he’ll ring?” (do you is omitted)- Before questions such as Do you want....? and Would you like........? Do you and Would you can be dropped: “Want another coffee?”(Do you is omitted)- When we use ellipsis with the verbs of loving, hating, hoping, asking, and wanting, plus another verb in the infinitive form, we repeat to in the replies: A: Do you want to come with me? B: Yes, I’d love to.- To and so are used instead of the whole infinitive of the verb if the meaning is clear, particularly in fixed phrases such as hope so , love to.2) Textual ellipsisThis type of ellipsis may occur both in speaking and writing.a) After And and ButLet’s study the following examples: 1) You ought to clean your teeth and [you ought to] brush your hair. 2) Nick wanted a strawberry ice cream and Chris [wanted] a chocolate [ice cream] 3) I ordered a dozen crates, but they only brought ten [crates].What we remark from the examples above is that after and and but subjects, verbs, articles and nouns are left out if they are already specified in the preceding clause.b) Adverbial and relative clausesIn adverbial or relative clauses, the subject and to be, when it is used as an auxiliary verb, are ellipted from the sentence. Here are some examples: -When matching colours, you should take both items out of the shop and compare them in natural light. (When [you are] matching colours...) - The police are interviewing a man seen just after the robbery. (The police are interviewing a man [who was] seen........). -I happened to catch your radio programme while driving home.( while[I was] driving home.)Remark 2 The fuller versions (sentences which do not contain ellipsis) are more likely be used in more formal contexts of English than in informal conversations. They are not more or less correct than the other versions: Fine thanks. (correct) I’m fine, thanks. (correct)PracticeExercise 1 List the words which you think may be added in a more formal contextA: Did you knock on the door?B: I did. Nobody at home. (what may be added in this reply)A: Seen Mike lately? (what may be added in this question)B:Yes, I saw him last night actually.

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Exercise 2 Show how the situation helps you to find the missing wordsA: Drink?B: Lemonade.A: Big glass.?B: No, small one.Exercise 3 Rewrite the following conversation with ellipsisA: I didn’t see you yesterday.B: You probably didn’t want to see me.A: I looked for you every where.B: You didn’t look for me hard enough.Exercise 4 Choose the right answer1) Is she French? 2) Will you be ready?a) She may. a) I might.b) She may be. b) I might be.3) Is Paola ill? 4) Have you rung Liza about the party?a) She must. a) No, but Julia might. b) She must be. b) No, but Julia might.Exercise 5 Find the missing elements relying on the context and put them in the places which are indicated in the passageThere are three ways of dealing with the problem. One (.............) is to find a bland menu that children eat happily and (.............) grown-ups (..........) grudgingly. The second (.................) is to cook whatever you feel like eating and (.............) let the children fend for themselves.

Exercise 6 Complete the replies to the following questions using the verbs given.1) A: Will Joe be at the party? (hope) B: Yes.................................2) A: Are you buying those shoes? (want) B: Yes.................................before they all go in the sales.3) A: Is Winston bringing some music? (asked) B: Well,.................... him ......................4) A: Are you coming with us? (love) B: Yes, I’d................................

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Lesson five

SubstitutionI. Definition

In grammar, the term Substitution refers to the words we use (such as so, one, do, did, yes, no...) to indicate that something has been left out and identify what type of data it is. Of course, the use of such words obeys the rules of the language they occur in.The clearest and simplest examples of substitution in the English language are the words Yes and No. Both can substitute long sentences or sequences of sentences, as we can see in the following examples: -A): Have you ever thought of trying to get a job abroad? B):No.([I have never thought of trying to get a job abroad.])In the first example, the short grammatical word (no) replaces all the sentence (I have never thought of trying to get a job abroad) -A) Has your father signed your permission for the excursion? B) Yes.([He has signed the permission for the excursion.])In the second example, the short grammatical word (yes) refers to the whole sentence (He has

signed the permission for the excursion)II. Patterns of use

Let’s study how we can use substitution:1)Replacing adverbials of place and timeIn the English language, we often find in the sentences expressions of place and time. To avoid repetition we use words like here, there, and over there to replace details of place ,and words such as then, and at that time to substitute details of time. Things can become clearer with the examples below: She invited me to her house, but I wouldn’t go there. In this example, there replaces to her house A lot of rich people have already visited tropical islands, but many poor people have never been there.In this example, there refers to tropical island. She invited me last night, but I just couldn’t spare the time then.In this sentence, then replaces last night. 2)Replacing longer stretches of textIn substitution, we use the terms this and that to refer to ideas or information which are expressed over several clauses or which can’t be precisely related to a specific part of the sentence. Let’s explain this pint with the following example:

We’ve had a few unexpected problems. That /this is why I’ve called another meeting. Remark1 -We use this and that to point to or indicate real objects:

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This refers to what is near to us, as in the following example: This is where I liveThat is used to refer to what is far from us, as in the sentence: That is where father died.-We use this to precise new, key information like in: This is really what I wanted to say. -We use this to show sympathy and ownership towards something This is my own opinion.-We use that to disassociate ourselves from something in particular: That’s rubbish.2) Replacing predicates Before we start talking about the manner we use substitution to replace a predicate, let’s first say what the predicate is. It is everything that follows the subject. In order to replace the predicate, we use auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, combinations of auxiliary verbs and forms of the verb be. Here are some examples: She’d like to take a few days off work but just can’t. (modal can) Have you got money? No, I haven’t.( auxiliary have) Have you been drinking? No, I haven’t been. (combination of auxiliaries).Remark2 If the predicate contains a verb in the present simple tense or in the past simple tense, we use the auxiliaries do, does, or did. Here are some examples: Sue didn’t notice something unusual but everyone did. (notice something unusual)3)Replacing infinitive clauses ,that noun clauses and noun clauses derived from questions-We use to and not to to replace infinitive clauses as in: I invited them to come but they didn’t want to. [come]-We use so or not to to replace that noun clauses after think and hope as in the example: A: Is she coming round? B: I think so/ I don’t think so/ I hope (I think/ hope[that she isn’t coming round])-We use the question word to replace noun clauses derived from questions as in: They said they’d ring but I‘ve no idea when.[they‘ll ring]

3)Using pronouns and possessive adjectives to replace nouns and noun phrases-We use subject pronouns (I, you, he , she, it, we, they), object pronouns(me, you, him, her, it, us, them, one, ones), possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) and possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs) to avoid repetition of clear information. Here are some examples in a short passage: The Peter and Jane said they were leaving the town. [Peter and Jane] The dog swallowed its food. [of the dog] Don’t put on the red dress but the blue one. [dress]Remark3 We also use demonstratives (this, that, theses, those) and quantifiers (a few, a little, much, many, a lot, any) in substitution. He offered me some cake, but I didn’t want any. [cake] He‘s got a few books, but I’ve got a lot. [of books]4) Expressing similarity, agreement, and disagreement-We use so to express similarity with affirmative statements as in: A): My brother can stand on his head.

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B): So can the Prime Minister. [Stand on his head]-We use neither or nor followed by an auxiliary or a form of be to express similarity with negative statements as in: A): I’m not staying in. B): Neither/nor am I. [Staying in]Remark3 When we express similarity with something stated in the past simple or the simple present we use do, does or did. As in: A): I like ABBA. B): So does Liza. [she likes Abba]

A): I ate an apple. B): So did I. [ate an apple]5) Comparative structuresIn general, we leave out information in comparative structures. Paris is big but London is bigger [than Paris]We also use pronouns to avoid repetition of action. I can run faster than them.

III. Practice

Exercise 1 What do the underlined words substitute? The old man said he was going to take his cat to the vet and ask her if she could look after him while he was in hospital, but then he asked me if you could possibly look after it with yours.Exercise 2 In the following extracts, examples of substitution have been singled out. In each case explain and specify what information is impliedThis extract is from an article written by a film critic:Here’s a useful rule of thumb: never trust those (1) – usually comedians, entertainers and the like- who say, “I love people”. And here’s another (2): never trust film critics who say: “I love movies.”... What keeps a film critic going and enjoying his job is optimism. Each film, you fervently hope, will be the one (3) that makes up all the dross you saw last week.

Exercise 3 The following is part of a text from an elementary coursebook, where it is used as a source of examples of future tenses and prepositions of time. It includes several examples of substitution.(Jane and Bill are talking on Monday April 19th, at nine o’clock in the morning)Jane:Is everything all right?Bill:Yes, Ithink so. I ‘m picking up the visas on Wednesday morning and the tickets in the afternoon, and I’m getting the traveller’s cheques from the bank tomorrow. Jane:Oh, good. Don’t forget that the children are going to stay with Mother on the 22nd- you’re driving them.Bill:Oh, yes how long for?Jane:Just for two days. Back on Friday night.Bill: That isn’t long.

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Jane:Darling- you know it’s John’s birthday on the 24th.Bill: So it is. We must have him fhome for his birthday. What are we giving him?Jane:A bike.Bill: Oh yes, that’s right. When are you going to do the packing?Jane:At the weekend, at the last possible moment. You‘re going to help IhopeBill: Oh yes. Yes, of course.-Identify the following features1) Identify a substitution of a that noun clause.2) What pronouns are used to substitute John and the children?3) The word that occurs twice in the text. What does it stand for in each case?

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Bibliography1) Carter ,R ., Hugue , R .,& Mc Carthy , M .,(2006) Exploring Grammar in Context

.Cambridge, Uk:Cambridge University Press.

2) Coe , N .,Harrison , M .,&Paterson ,K .,(2007) Oxford Practice Grammar .Oxford, UK :Oxford University Press.

3) Nettle, M .,Hopkins , D .,(2003) Developing Grammar in Context .Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

4) Parrott, M., (2007) Grammar for English language Teaching. Cambridge, UK / Cambridge University Press .

5) http://a4es/.org/q/h/9901/tm-reported1.html

6) http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/types.html

7) http://www.englishpage.com/prepositions/phrasaldictionary.html

8) Htpp:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ellipsis

9) Htpp:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/substitution

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Democratic and Popular Republic of AlgeriaMinistry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Teacher Training School in Humanities – Constantine-

An LMD Distance Traing Course for Middle School Teachers Fourth Semester

Prepared by: Miss.Aida Abdessemed

&Amina Haddad

2008-2009

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Chapter One

Aspects of Connected Speech

When people communicate, they make use of language, either in its written or spoken form. When produced orally, a language may completely differ from its written form, since native speakers, when speaking in a rapid colloquial way with few gaps and without pausing, don’t always confine to the rules of grammar. The result is a fast rhythmic speech referred to as connected speech¹ which carries different processes like assimilation, elision, liaison and

juncture . Assimilation

Assimilation is a typical sound change process by which a sound is influenced by an adjacent one and so it changes to another one. It occurs mainly in rapid speech and less common in slow one. A common example of assimilation would be "don't be silly" where the /n/ and /t/ in "don't" become /m/ and /p/, where said naturally in many accents and discourse styles ("dombe silly").Some contributing factors in such observed phonemic changes are the phonological patterns of the language, the discourse styles and accent.

There are four configurations found in assimilations: the increase in phonetic similarity may be between adjacent segments, or between segments separated by one or more intervening segments; and the changes may be in reference to a preceding segment, or to a following one. Although all four occur, assimilation to an adjacent segment is more frequent than to a non-adjacent one.

If a sound changes with reference to a following segment, it is traditionally called "regressive assimilation"; changes with reference to a preceding segment are traditionally called "progressive". Many find these terms confusing, as they seem to mean the opposite of the intended meaning. Accordingly, a variety of alternative terms have arisen. Regressive assimilation is also known as right-to-left or anticipatory assimilation. Progressive assimilation is also known as left-to-right or perseveratory or preservative or lag assimilation.

Very occasionally two sounds (invariably adjacent) may influence one another in reciprocal assimilation. When such a change results in a single segment with some of the features of both components, it is known as coalescence or fusion. Some authorities distinguish between partial and complete assimilation, i.e., between

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¹ connected speech: Speech would be much easier to understand if it was spoken with a gap between every word. Babies and profoundly deaf people are often spoken to in this way, and until recently computers that can recognise speech also required this. But in natural speech there are few gaps, and we can observe many processes that result in differences between isolated words and the same words occurring in connected speech: examples are assimilation and elision. The study of connected speech also involves looking at the process of reduction in weak syllables, at rhythm and at prosodic phenomena such as intonation and stress.

²Alveolar: descriptive of sounds with a place of articulation behind the upper front teeth, against the alveolar ridge like /tdsznl/

assimilatory changes in which there remains some phonetic difference between the segments involved, and those in which all differences are obliterated. There is no theoretical advantage to such a classification, as one of the following examples will show.

Regressive ( right -to -left, anticipatory) assimilation:

This is the most common type of assimilation by far, it occurs when a sound influences one which precedes it. It is examplified by the behaviour of the‘s’ plural ending in English, which is pronounced with a voiced /z/ after a voiced consonant (e.g. dogs /dɒɡz/) but with a voiceless /s/ after voiceless consonant (e.g, cats/ k æ t s/).

Progressive (left -to -right or preservative) assimilation:

Tolerably common, it occurs when a sound influences a following sound.The most familiar case of progressive assimilation in English is that alveolar consonants (e.g, lish is that alveolar consonants (e.g, /tdzn/) when followed by non- alveolar consonants: assimilation resultes in a change of place of articulation from alveolar¹ to a different place. The example of “this shop” where the word this has the sound /s/ at the end if it is pronounced on its own(in

isolation), but when followed by /ʃ / in the word shop it often changes in rapid

speech (through assimilation) to /ʃ /, giving the pronunciation / ðɪʃʃɒ p/. Another example is football (where foot /fʊt/ and ball /bɔ:l/combine to

produce /fʊpbɔ:l/)and fruit-cake (fruit/frʊ:t/and cake /Keɪk/ =/ frʊ:kkeɪk/).

Reciprocal (Fusion or coalicence) assimilation:

In many cases, sounds appear to influence each other mutually,like in vision

Assimiliation may resulte in the neighbouring segments becoming identical, this is complete

assimilation such as in illegible ( in+ legible) and (sub+pose).

In other cases, only some features of phenomes assimilate, e.g, voicing or place of articulation

which is partial assimilation:

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Voicing: The pronunciation of absurd as apsurd or absurd.

Devoicing: bats (bat + the plura morpheme s, which is underlyingly /z/)

Place of articulation: impossible (in+ possible), incomplete (in which n represents the velar

nasal).

Common types of assimilation

Assimilation is traditionally classified into three main types:

1-Place of Articulation :

It is the most commonest and frequent type of assimilation.It refers to changes in the place of articulation of a sound (usually a consonant). A well-known case is that of English word-final alveolar consonants such as /tdsz/: if a word ending in one of these consonants and is followed by a word whose initial consonant has a different place of articulation, the word-final alveolar consonant is likely to change so that it has the same place of articulation. Thus the word ‘that’ / ð æ t/ may be followed by ‘boy’ /bɔɪ/ and become

/ð æp/ (thus ‘that boy’ ð æp bɔɪ//), or it may be followed by ‘girl’ and become / ðæk gɜːl. /

Example of common assimilation of place

/t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p/

basket maker mixed bag

best man mixed blessing

cat burglar mixed marriage

cigarette paper mixed metaphor

circuit board pocket money

coconut butter post mortem

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court martial pot plant

direct method private property

dust bowl put back

fast motion put by

first base right pair

flight plan secret police

foot brake set point

front bench set back

front man set piece

fruit machine sheet metal

Great Britain sit back

harvest moon soft porn

hatchet man split pea

hit man split personality

hot metal street piano

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hot money sweet basil

last post sweet pea

Left Bank sweet pepper

light bulb sweet potato

light music test ban

light meter test match

light middleweight test paper

market price that man

midnight blue unit price

mint bush wet blanket

private bill white bag

private member white birch

private patient white meat

private parts white paper

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/d / changes to / b / before / m / / b / or / p/

bad pain good cook

blood bank good morning

blood bath grand master

blood brother ground plan

blood poisoning head boy

blood pressure hold back

blood pudding lord mayor

broad bean mud bath

card punch mud pie

closed book Old Bailey

command module old boy

command post old man

custard pie old maid

custard powder old moon

dead beat Oxford blue

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food poisoning red bag

food processor second mate

gold plate sound barrier

gold medal stand by

gold mine united party

good man word blindness

/n / changes to / m / before / m / / b / or / p/

action planning iron man

American plan on me

brown paper one pair

brown bear open book

chicken breast open market

Common Market open prison

con man pen pal

cotton belt pin money

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cotton picker queen bee

down payment queen mother

fan belt question mark

fan mail roman mile

Foreign minister sun bath

Foreign mission sun blind

garden party tin plate

green belt town planning

green bean venetian blind

hen party virgin birth

human being wine box

in blue wine bar

iron maiden  

/t / changes to / k / before / k / or /g /

cigarette card short cut

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credit card smart card

cut glass street credibility

fat girl street cry

first class that cake

flat cap  

/d / changes to / g / before / k / or / g/

bad girl hard cash

bird call hard copy

closed game hard core

cold call hard court

cold cream highland cattle

field glasses red carpet

good cook sand castle

Grand Canyon second class

ground control second coming

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ground cover second cousin

had come slide guitar

had gone  

/n / changes to /ŋ/ before / k / or / g/

action group open court

common good roman calendar

common ground roman candle

garden cress roman catholic

golden gate tin can

golden goose tone control

human capital town clerk

in camera town crier

iron curtain  

/s / changes to /ʃ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / followed by a rounded vowel sound

bus shelter nice yacht

dress shop space shuttle

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nice shoes

/z / changes to /ʒ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / followed by a rounded vowel sound

cheese shop where's yours? these sheep

rose show

/θ/ changes to / s / before / s /

bath salts earth science

bath seat fifth set

birth certificate fourth season

both sexes fourth summer

both sides north-south divide

Manner of articulation : In this type of assimilation one sound changes the manner of its articulation to become

similar in manner to a neighbouring sound. Clear examples of this type are not easy to find; generally, they involve a change from a “stronger” consonant (one making a more substantial obstruction to the flow of air) to a “weaker” one( one which makes less obstruction to the airflow), and are typical of rapid speech. An English example could be a rapid pronunciation of “Get some of that soap”, where instead of the expected normal pronunciation, the speaker says/, with /s/ replacing /t/ in two words.Ges some of thas soup.Assimilation of voicing:

Assimilation of voice is also found but only in a limited way. It may take the form of a voiced segment becoming voiceless as a consequence of being adjacent to a voiceless segment; alternatively, a voiceless segment may become voiced. This can be explained in relation to the vibration of the vocal cords which are not something that can be switched on and off very swiftly. As a result, consonant clusters tend to be either all voiced or all voiceless. In words like cats/k æ ts/,dogs/ dɒɡz/, kissed/kɪst/ and sneezed/sn iːzd/ where the

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final consonant of the word determines wether the suffix(plural “s”and “d” being voiced or voiceless.   In the case of the suffixes for plural nouns, for the third person singular in the present simple, for regular verbs in the simple and for the genitive, the application of this rule is predictable, with only a few exceptions( e.g, child children). In other words, the rule concerning the suffixes ‘s’ and ‘z’ implies that when a verb carries a third person singular ‘s’ suffix, or a noun carries a ‘s’ plural suffix or an ‘s’ possessive suffix, that suffix will be pronounced as /s/ if the preceding consonant is voiceless(fortis) and as /z/ if the preceding consonant is voiced(lenis). However, assimilation of voicing can radically change the sound

of several other common constructions as follows :1-Have to:

 

2 -Used to: here assimilation has taken place twice, first on the /d/ and then on the /z/

Used to /ju:zd tu:/ becomes /ju:stə/

I used to live near you / aɪ ju:stə l ɪ v n ɪ ə ju /:

3 -Supposed to:

Supposed to /s əp əʊzd

tʊ:/

/s əp əʊstə/

You were supposed to leave ! /j u:w ə s ə pu st li:v/

4 -Suffixes:

/ s/Plural cats /kæts/

/z /dogs/ dɒɡz

Verbs(3rd sing) jumps/dʒʌmps/ runs /rʌnz/

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Have to /hæv tuː labiodental,

fricative, voiced/v/

becomes

/hæftə/(labiodental, fricatives, voiceless /f/ when followed by a voiceless consonant

/t/)Has to / hæz t uː/ /hæstə/

I have to go! / aɪ hæftə gəu/

Possessive ‘s’ Pat’s/pæts/ Pam’s

/pæmz/

Exercise 1 :

Identify the different assimilations in the following Coconut butter old man

Court martial good boy Command module old boy

Command post first class In camera town crier

Common Market pot plant Con man pen pal

Cold call hard court Open prison highland cattle

Field glasses red carpet Rose show Where’s yours ?

Both sexes post mortem Dress shop space shuttle Ground cover second cousin

Fast motion cold cream Custard pie fourth summer

Cotton belt pin money Down payment queen mother

Private parts white paper Had come put by

Human capital old maid Fifth sense question mark

Town clerk slide guitar

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Chapter Two

Elision

Elision is a process where one or more phonemes are ‘dropped’ within a word or phrase¹, usually in order to simplify the pronunciation. Elision is normally unintentional, but it may be deliberate.It is easy to find examples of elision, but very difficult to state rules that govern which sounds may be elided and which may not. (Elision itself is often a precursor to or occurs in conjunction with assimilation). It may occur for vowels, consonants or a whole syllable, although it is much more common for consonants. Where it occurs for vowels, we have extreme cases of vowel reduction or weakening to the point that the vowel is no longer pronounced at all, such as in words like police, correct or suppose being realised as [pli:s], [kɹɛkt] or [spəʊz]. In rare cases, such as in some realisations of the word perhaps, both consonant and vowel elision may even occur at the same time, e.g. yielding [pɹaps]. In English, this is called a contraction, such as can't from cannot . Contraction differs from elision in that contractions are set forms that have morphologized, but elision is not.

Examples of elision in English :

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comfortable:/kʌɱfɚtə

bəl/ →/kʌɱftɚbəl/

fifth: /fɪfθ/ →/fɪθ/him: /hɪm/ →/ɪm/

laboratory:/læbɔrətɔri/

→/læbrətɔri/ (American English), /ləbɔrətri/ (British English)

temperature:/tɛmpərət

ʃɚ/ →/tɛmpɚtʃɚ/, /tɛmprətʃɚ/

vegetable:/vɛdʒətəb

əl/ →/vɛdʒtəbəl/

Common cases of elision in English

H-Dropping

As we have already heard, the dropping of initial <h> is a feature that is very common in many accents of (especially English or English-influenced) English. Unstressed pronouns – as in give her/give him, [gɪvɜ:]/[gɪvɪm] or tell her/tell him, [tɛlɜ:]/[tɛlɪm] –, or forms of the auxiliary have – as in would have, [wʊdəv], should have, [ʃʊdəv], etc. – exihibit h-dropping even in the standard reference accents.

Cluster Reduction

When two or more consonants, often of a similar nature, come together, there is a tendency in English to simplify such a cluster by eliding one of them. The longer the cluster, the more of a chance there is of elision. Cluster reduction can occur in between as well as inside words and mainly involves the deletion of voiceless oral plosives where it would otherwise be more difficult to produce two plosives in a row as this would require two closure phases. If a reduction occurs inside a word, it may also lead to a reduction in the number of syllables, which become mono-syllabic, like in the following examples :

word/combination no elision elision

asked ]ɑ:skt[ ]ɑ:st[

lecture ]lɛktʃ[ ]lɛkʃ[

desktop ]dɛsk tɒp[ ]dɛs tɒp[

hard disk ]hɑ:d dɪsk[ ]hɑ: dɪsk[

kept quiet ]kɛpt kwaɪ t[ ]kɛp kwaɪ t[

kept calling ]kɛpt ko:lɪŋ[ ]kɛp ko:lɪŋ[

kept talking ]kɛpt to:kɪŋ[ ]kɛp to:kɪŋ[

at least twice ]tli:st twaɪs[ ]tli:s twaɪs[

straight towards ]stɹeɪt tʊwo:dz[ ]stɹeɪ tʊwo:dz[

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next to ]nɛkst tʊ[ ]nɛks tʊ[

want to ]wɒnt tʊ[ ]wɒn tʊ[

seemed not to notice ]si:md nɒtt n ʊtɪs[ ]si:m nɒt n ʊtɪs[

for the first time ]f ð fɜ:st taɪm[ ]f ð fɜ:s taɪm[

²The elided form of a word or phrase may become a standard alternative for the full form, if used often enough

³The omission of a word from a phrase or sentence is not elision but ellipsis or, more accurately, elliptical construction

An example of deliberate elision occurs in Latin poetry as a stylistic device

Loss of weak vowel after p, t, k:

In english a short, unstressed vowel occuring between voiceless consonants or in general after p, t, k may disappear. This is the case, for example, with the first syllable of ‘potato’

/pəteɪtəʊ/, which becomes /pteɪtəʊ/, the second syllable of ‘bicycle’ /baɪsɪkl/ which becomes / baɪskl/.

/n,l,r/ after weak vowel become syllabic:

Elision also occurs when a vowel occurs between an obstruent consonant and a sonorant one. This process leads to syllabic consonants, as in ‘tonight’/tnaɪt/ instead of /tənaɪt/. Sudden /sʌdn/ instead of /sʌdən/, ‘awful’/ɔ:fl/instead of /ɔ:fəl/ and ‘correct’/kərekt/ instead of /krekt/. In these

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examples, avowel is only heard in the second syllable in slow, careful speech.

Avoidance of a complex consonant cluster:

Elision of consonants in English happens most commonly when a speaker simplifies a complex consonant cluster: ‘acts’ becomes /æks/ rather than /ækts/, ‘twelfth night’ becomes /twelθ naɪt/ or /twelf naɪt/ rather than /twelfθ naɪt/. It seems much less likely that any of the other consonants could be left out: the /l/ and the /n/ seem to be unelidable.Consonant elision can also be defined as the delition of the second consonant in a final consonant cluster as a result of assimilation with the initial consonant in the following words(e.g, /d/ is deleted in and _mouth, and_hides, freindly,used_to) , or / ð/ in in_the, on_the).

Loss of final v in ‘of’ before consonants :

This is very commonin English, and examples of these include ‘lots of them’/lɒts ə ðəm/ and ‘waste of money’ /weɪst ə mʌnɪ/.

Exercise1 :Here is an incomplete list of words, showing for each at least two pronunciations, ranging from the stressed, careful pronunciation (on the left) to the most unstressed and casual (on the right). Complete the list providing either the careful pronunciation or the casual one. Sometimes more than one realization in casual speech is possible.The first two words are done as examples.

1. You2. Did3. He4. Him5. Them6. Our7. Of8. To9. For10. Out11. Am12. Is13. Are14. Have15. Will16. Would17. While18. Because19. how

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Chapter Three

LiaisonLiaison is a French word which refers to English word « Linking » or « joining together » sounds. In general, this is not something that speakers need to do anything active about-since we produce the phonemes that belong to the words we are using in a more or less continuous stream , and the listener recognizes them (or most of them) and recieves the message . However, phoneticians have felt it necessary in some cases to draw attention to the

way the end of one word is joined on to the beginning of the following word. In French, for example, words that start with a vowel sound get special treatment. French likes to have a consonant ‘cover’ of a vowel.For example, when a word which ends with a normally silent consonant , like t,s,d, and p, followed by a word starting with a vowel sound, this normally silent consonant will sound. The normally silent sound of ‘s’is going to

be pronounced as ‘z’ and the normally silent ‘t’ is pronounced as a /t./Examples from French :

No Liaison Liason occurs

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Next word begins with a consonant

Next word begins with a vowel

Liaison with ‘s’

Les parentsLes grands parentsDans deux minutes

Nous voyageons

Les écolesLes grands enfants

Dans un instantNous arrivons

Liaison with ‘t’

C’est plus fortIls sont gentils

Un petit garçon

C’est à vousIls sont étudiants

Un petit enfant

Table 01 : Liaison/ Linking in French language

Linking /r/ :In English, liaison also is known as ‘Linking’, or ‘joining together’ of sounds. The linking R is a phonological phenomenon of most (but not all) dialects of English.In general, this is not something that speakers need to do anything actively about. We produce phonemes that belong to the words we are using in a more or less continuous stream, and the listener recognizes them (or most of them) and recieves the message. However, phoneticians have felt it necessary in some cases to draw attention to the way the end of one word is joined on to the beginning of the following word. In English, the best-known case of liaison is the ‘linking r’ : there are many words in English (car, here, tyre) which in a rhotic accent such as General American or Scots, would be pronounced with a final/r/ but which in ¹, end in a vowel when they are produced before a pause or a consonant.When they are followed by a vowel, RP speakers pronounce /r/ at the end(e.g the car is/ ðe k ɑːr ɪz /) .

It is said that this is done to link the words without sliding the two vowels together (though it is difficult to see how such a statement could stand as an explanation of the phenomenon- lots of languages do run vowels together). Another aspect of liaison in English is the movement of a single consonant at the end of an unstressed word to the beginning of the next if that is strongly stressed : a well-known example is not at all, where the /t/ of at becomes initial (and therefore strongly aspireted) in the final syllable for many RP speakers.Rhotic Language : Descriptive of varieties of English pronunciation in which the /r/ phoneme is found in all phonological contexts. In RP, /r/ is only found before vowels (as in red, around), but never before consonants or before a pause. In rhotic accents, on the other hand, /r/ may occur before consonants (as in cart) and before a pause (as in car).While RP is non-rhotic, many accents of the British Isles are Rhotic, including those of most of the South and West of England, much of Wales and all of Scotland and Ireland. Most speakers of American English speak with a rhotic accent, but there are non-rhotic areas including the Boston area, lower class New York and the Deep South.In all non-rhotic dialects, the phoneme /r/ is ordinarily deleted at the end of a word (so spa ris pronounced the same as spa). But in a dialect that possesses liking R (like RP), if the next word begins with a vowel, the/r/ will reemerge. Thus ‘r’ in here would not be pronounced here they are, but it would be pronounced in here I am. In other words, in a dialect with linking R, [r] is retained only if it is followed by a vowel, including across word boundaries (i.e, when the vowel is the first sound of the next word).Intrusive /r /

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Intrusive /r/, or the insertion of an r-sound where historically there was not any and present day spelling does not contain an <r> .That is to say that an ‘r’ which does not exist in spelling is produced in speaking , (to add an /r / at the end of a word which ends with a vowel or glide when the next word in the sentence begins also with a vowel ).(e.g. the idea[r] of

/ðəaidiər ɒv/ or l[aw] and order /lɔ:r ən ɔ:də/). Intrusive ‘r’ also occurs within words before certain suffixes, such as draw[r]ing.linking /r/ and intrusive /r/ - both often jointly referred to as /r/-liaison.

ExercisesExercise 1 :

Transcribe the following marking linking R and intrusive R when found.1. The Irish champion does no more participate in formula A races.2. Only four eggs out of four hundred were broking during the trip.3. The prince’s divorce have been a major media event.4. I have no idea about the dispute’s cause.5. Camela and Charles got married after thirty yaers of love misfortune.6. I saw a nice film yesterday.7. The customer ordered only vodka and orange.8. Paula Abdul has been taking part in America Idole for several years.

¹ Received Pronunciation (RP) RP was for many years the accent of British English usually chosen for the purposes of description and teaching, in spite of the fact that it is only spoken by a small minority of the population; it is also known as the "public school" accent, and as "BBC pronunciation". There are clear historical reasons for the adoption of RP as the model accent: in the first half of this century virtually any English person qualified to teach in a university and write textbooks would have been educated at private schools: RP was (and to a considerable extent still is) mainly the accent of the privately educated. It would therefore have been a bizarre decision at that time to choose to teach any other accent to foreign learners. It survived as the model enter various

reasons: one was its widespread use in "prestige" broadcasting, such as news-Peter Roach

Exercice 2 :Give a narrow (allophonic) transcription of the following text, marking assimilation, elision

and linking /r/  : One thing was certain, that the white kitten had had nothing to do with it :

- it was the black kitten’s fault entirly. For the white kitten had been having Its face washed by the old cat for the last quarter of an hour (and bearing it pretty well, considering) ; so you see that it couldn’t have had any hand in

The mischief .) Lewis Carroll,Through the Looking Glass(

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Chapter Four

JunctureJuncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units morphemes, words, or clauses, i.e., pauses or any other features that mark the difference between the first word and the next one. The most obvious juncture feature is silence but in connected speech this feature is not as common as the use of various modifications to the beginnings and endings of grammatical units.It is the way one sound is closely attached to its neighbours: for example, / k / and / t / are more closely linked in the word 'acting' than in 'black tie', and / t / and / r / are more closely

linked in 'nitrate' than in 'night rate .'Confusion might result when words or utterances which do not have the same meaning are pronounced in the same way. Fortunately, there are many phonetic signals which may make differences in juncture and avoid confusion:My turn [m aɪ t ɜːn ], ‘might earn’ [ m aɪt ɜːn ] /t/ is aspirated in the first example.

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My train[m aɪ tre ɪn ] ‘might rain’[ maɪt reɪn] /r/ is voiceless in the first example following /t/ in ‘train.’

All the time after today [ɔ :l ð ə t aɪm ɑft ɑ ə t ədeɪ] /t/ in time is aspirated and « all that I’m after today[ ɔ :l ð ə t aɪm ɑft ɑ ə t ədeɪ ] /t/ in time is unaspirated .

He lies [hɪ laɪz]( clear l initial inlies) heal eyes [hɪ laɪz] (dark l final in heal) Using the symbol + to indicate this juncture, the transcription of 'car track' and 'cart rack' would be /k ɑːr +træk /

and / k ɑːt+ræk ./ There was at one time discussion of whether spaces between words should be abolished in the phonetic transcription of connected speech except where there was an observable silence; juncture symbols could have replaced spaces where there was phonetic evidence for them. Since the position of juncture (or word boundary) can cause a perceptual difference, and therefore potential misunderstanding, it is usually recommended that learners of English should practise making and recognising such differences, using pairs like 'pea stalks/peace talks' and 'great ape/grey tapeExercice : Transcribe the following pairs marking the junctual features.Singer fingerWineglass winglessHomestead hampsteadKittenish CatnipCoddling codlingTarry (adj) tarry (verb)Holiest leastMustering stringLawful chalfont

Chapter FiveWeak forms

When we talk about weak forms in the phonetics of English, this regards a series of words which have one pronunciation (strong), when isolated, and an other (weak) when not stressed within a phrase, e.g Isolated : a car / ə k ɑːr / (remember ‘ symbolizes stress)

Connected Speech : I bought a car Weak formsWeak forms are usually distinguished by a change in vowel quality from a border position on the vawel quadrilateral to a central position. The vowel in a weak for mis usually the schwa/ /. But it is also possible to identify two other vowels in English said to be ‘weak vowels’ : The front, close /ɪ/and the back, close , rounded/ u/. Weak forms appear in weak, unstressed syllables( that is, syllables which have as peak one of the vowels/ə ɪ u/ or a syllabic consonant like [r,][n,][l,]. They are prononced more quikly and at lower volume in comparison to the stressed syllables they are not also central to changes in Intonation. There is still no agreement about whether to consider contractions as weak forms or not. While some people consider contracted forms as a type of weak forms, other regard the two forms as distanct ones. What is sure is that both are characteristics of informal speech and which may be considered as

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aspects of reduced forms (in addition to assimilation, elision) usually unintentially adopted by native speakers for the purpose of simplification of speaking and comprehension processes.

There is a logical explanation behind the occurance of weak forms :They are present in words which are necessary to constract a phrase, yet at the same time do not communicate a large quantity of information ; in other words, they are not content words. For example in the following sentence : « I went to the hotel and booked a room for two nights for my father and his best freind » The most important words, those that are central to the message, can be emphasized if we eliminate the words that

are not emphasized, can we still understand the message ?Went hotel booked room two nights

father best freindPerhaps it is difficult to be certain but it is possible to predict what the missing words might be. The words which we emphasized would be the stress, while many of those which we eliminated would become weak forms, simply because they are less important in the conveniance of the message. Look at the sentence at transcription :

/aɪ went t ə ð ə ɚu’ tel ən ‘bukt ə ru :m f ə ə tu :’ n aɪts f ə m aɪ f ɑːð ər ən hɪz best frend/

You will notice that most of the unstressed words are pronounced with the sound /ə/ : prepositions such as to and for, articles, an and the, and conjunction and as well as auxilary verbs frequently have weak forms.In short, almost all words that have both strong and weak forms are function words.

Strong forms :There are some simple rules for the use of the strong forms of those weak

form words : Many weak form words have strong forms when they occur at the end of a

sentence ,e .g, the word « of » in : « I am fond of chips »/ aɪm f ɔnd əv tʃɪps /

has a weak form but in « chips are what Iam fond of », It has a strong form / tʃɪps ɑːwɔt aɪm f ɔnd ɔv/

When a weak form word is being contrasted with an other word as in « the letter’s from him not to him » / ðə lətəz fr ɔm ɪm nɔt ttu : ɪm /

Whan a weak form word is given stress for the purpose of emphasis as in « you must give me more money » / ju m ʌst gɪvmɪ mɔ : m ʌnɪ /

A very important aspect of the dynamics of English pronunciation is that many very common words have not only a strong or full pronunciation (which are used when the word is said in isolation), but also one or more weak forms which are used when the word occurs in certain contexts. Words which have weak forms are, for the most part, function words such as conjunctions (e.g. 'and', 'but', 'or'), articles (e.g. 'a', 'an', 'the'), pronouns (e.g. 'she', 'he', 'her', 'him'), prepositions (e.g. 'for', 'to', 'at') and some auxiliary and modal verbs (e.g. 'do', 'must', 'should'). Generally the strong form of such words is used when the word is being quoted (e.g.

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the word 'and' is given its strong form in the sentence "We use the word and to join clauses"), when it is being contrasted (e.g. 'for' in "There are arguments for and against") and when it is at the end of a sentence (e.g. 'from' in "Where did you get it from"). Often the pronunciation of a weak-form word is so different from its strong form that if it were heard in isolation it

would be impossible to recognize it : for example, and of can become /f/ or /v/ in of course.Common weak-form words in English 

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BibliographyBooks

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Strong form Weakform Example (weak form)a eɪ ə before consonants

ən before vowelsRead a bookEat an apple

the ð iː ð ə before consonants

ð ɪ before vowels

Shut the doorWait for the end

And ænd ənn( before t, d s, z,ʃ,t

ʃ )

Men and women are freeWe ate fish

that ð æt (always strong when

adjective)

ð ət The prize is the thing that annoys me

but b ʌ t bət It’s good but expensivehis h iːz ɪ z Take his name

your j ɔ : jə before consonants

jər before vowels

Take your timeOn your own

him h ɪm ɪm (even when final in a sentence)

Leave him alone

for f ɔ : ( r ) fə before consonants

fər before vowels

Tea for twoThanks for asking

them ðem ð əm Leave them thereus ʌs əs (even when final

in a sentence)Write us a letter

They invited all of usat æt ət( exept when final

in a sentence and in emphasis)

I will see you at lunch

from fr ɔ :m frəmI am home from work

of ɔv əv before voiced sounds

əf before voiceless sounds

The world of politicsMost of all

to t u : t u before vowelstə before consonants

Time to eatTry to stop smoking

shall ʃ æ ʃ ə, ʃl(syllabic l) We shall need to hurym ʌst m ə before

consonantsməs before vowels

You mast try hardYou must eat more

Dodoes d ʌz

d ə before consonants

d u before vowels

Why do they like it ?Why do all the cars stop ?

When does it arriveAmare

æm əmə before consonants

ər before vowels

Why am I here ?Here are the planets

The coats are in there

Was Were

Ww ɜː ( r)

w əzw ə before

consonantsw ər before vowels

He was here a minute agoThe papers were late

The questions were easy

Have Hashad

h ævh æzh æd

əv,v əzəd

I don’t think the dogs have/ had been fed this

morningwould /w u d/ w əd, əd, d She would teel him

can /-kæn/in questions, short

answers, emphatic

affirmatives/-k n(t)/ in

negations,

k ən They can wait

1-(Gimson.A.G. 1978. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English2-(O’connor.J.D.1973. Phonetics

3-(Roach.P.1992 ; Introducing Phonetics

Articles and Websites1-(Harzer .2002 . Liaison in English

http: // michael harzer. English pronunciation./ac/staff /234562 -("English, a. and n." The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED

Online. Oxford University Press. 6 September 2007 http: // dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50075365

3 -(International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Tallinn (pp. 447–450), 5. Tallinn: Academy of Sciences of

4 -(Nespor, M. (1990). On the rhythm parameter in phonology. In I. Rocca, Logical issues in language acquisition

5-(Peter Roach .2002 .A LITTLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PHONETICS http://www.personal.reading.ac.uk/~llsroach/peter /

6-( Roach, P. (1982). On the distinction between “stress-timed” and “syllable-timed” languages. In D. Crystal (Ed.),http/B44 A.D. Patel, J.R. Daniele / Cognition 87 (2003) B35–B4(

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Part Two : Listening & Speaking

Lecture 1: Economy

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Brian talks about his country’s economy

I) Listening Comprehension

Listen once to the conversation. Then answer the following questions ( A, B, and C). Listen once again to check your answer.

A) Main Points: Answer the following questions about the interview.

1 (What is helping the Canadian economy ?a) Primary industriesb) Secondary industriesc) Foreign investment

2 (What does Brian discuss ?a) Inflationb) Currenciesc) Wages

3 (What is said about Canada's resources?a) There is still a lot.b) There is not much left.c) Consumption is decreasing

4 (What resource still has a large supply?a) Oilb) Timberc) Coal

B) Phrase Match: Match the phrases on the left with the example on the right.

1 (amazingly - why2 (primary industries - very, incredibly

3 (how come - farming, mining, fishing, etc4 (consumption - difficult to understand5 (complicated - to buy, use, or deplete

C) Unscramble: Put the mixed up sentences in the correct order.

1 (now | so | dollar | Why | the | is | strong | Canadian? |

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 (resources | left | still | there | a | Are | lot | natural | of? |

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3 (are | What | the | industries | primary | your | of | economy? |

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4 (big | for | a | What | market | is | country | your? |

D) Put the PHRASES in the spaces. You may listen again to the conversation to check your answers

gone down

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decreasing quitereasons behind

as muchamazingly strong

cut them downmy understanding

informed in the spacesI think

Fanny: Hey, Brian, you know, recently I heard that the Canadian dollar is very strong.Brian: It is. It's been ________________ in the last few months.Fanny: What happened? I mean, how come?Brian: It went up. The ________________ why the Canadian dollar is strong...

Fanny: Yeah.Brian: Very good question. Without getting too complicated, ________________ is the Canadian dollar is linked to a lot of primary industries, so things like, say like, oil or mining or timber from like forests and right now I think there's a high demand for those kind of products, so because of that it's pushed the Canadian dollar up. But also I think many other currencies have ________________ a bit, like the American dollar has dropped a lot.Fanny: Really. OK.Brian: I don't follow the currency markets too closely.Fanny: OK, I see.Brian: But I think because the American dollar has gone down as well, that means that, you know, it doesn't take ________________ Canadian money to equal the American money now, so I think those are probably two of the reasons why it's been strong.Fanny: I see. I know that Canada is a country which is really rich in the natural resources, but are there still a lot of natural resources left now?

Brian: That's another good question. I thinkthat there are still quite a lot of resources.Fanny: Oh, nice.Brian: Which is, you know, is good but some of them are ________________ a bit.Fanny: I think so, because of consumption.Brian: It's too...

Fanny: Too big.Brian: Right.Fanny: Yeah.Brian: And we export a lot of our resources too, so, you know, the Unites States is always taking a lot of our resources so that's like a huge market right, but I think there's still lots of oil but maybe the... some of the trees, you know, they ________________ pretty fast and they take a long time to grow back, so you have to watch out there.Fanny: OK, I think that's a very reason forthe strong Canadian dollar.Brian: It could be but you probably should ask an economist. Maybe they can tell you a bit more ________________ than I can.Put the PHRASES in the spaces

II) Discussion: What do you think?

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A) Write the number of the question being answered in the box

Discussion1 (Is your economy strong

now?2 (What are the main

industries of your country?3 (Does your country have

primary industries?

Tia - Singapore Singapore is a small island country, so we do not really have any primary industries like forestry or farming or mining. The Singapore economy is based more on skilled professions like management and engineering. For this reason, there are many headquarters of big companies in Singapore and you can see all the tall office buildings

when you come here.

Thomas - EnglandYes, I think think people

wastetoo much and that as a whole we consume too much. There is a lot of waste in the world that we can easily stop. For one, people use too many bags when they shop. Recently, in my country, we started charging for shopping bags in some places. I think this is a good idea and a great

start.

4 (Do you think peopleconsume to much?

5 (Do you follow the newsabout the economy?

Jason - The Unites States

Things are not that good now in my country. Recently we have had a housing crisis. You may have heard about it in the news. It is called the subprime housing crisis and it refers to people getting loans they can not repay. As a result the housing market is really bad and that affects other industries like construction and real estate. I

hope things get better soon.

Neno - IndonesiaI do not follow the economic news too much, but I do check the news every day so I know when there is a big event. I never worry about it though. I think the media always makes things worse than they really are. Things go up and down. That is a part of life. I think there are

other things to worryabout than making money.

ES in the spaces

B) You are representing your country in an international economic symposium. Write a brief exposé about your country’s economy. You may explain such issues as :

Your present country’s economic position Your national currency The main sources of income The primary resources of your country’s economy Foreign investment Level of consumption Your country’s economic difficulties, if any Etc.

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___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

C) Present your exposé to your classmates. Argue for your opinions.

Lecture 2: Jessica TandyI) Pre-listening

Do you know who the woman on the pictures is? Could you tell what was she known for? Does “Driving Miss Daisy” tell you something?

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II) Listening Comprehension As you listen to the story of Jessica Tandy, answer the following questions ( try to provide answers for parts A, B, C at the same time) A) Choose one or more answers

1) Jessica Tandy Performed in - More Than 75 movies- More than 25 movies- More than 35 movies

2) The actress is best known for winning an Academy Award in 1989 for her part in- The play "The Fourposter"- The television movie "Foxfire"- The movie ''Driving Miss Daisy.

3) She was the - Smallest person to have won the Academy award. - Oldest

- Prettiest

4) Her father died when she was - Twelve years old. - Seven years old- Nine years old

5) She attended an acting school in nineteen when she was

- Eight years old- Eighteen years old- Nineteen years old

6) Pictures of Jessica Tandy do suggest that she was

- Plain - Pretty - Different

7) For her performance in the play, "A Streetcar Named Desire”, she won her first

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- Academy award- Tony award - Amy award

8) J. T. played Gertrude in

- "Hamlet- "The Three Sisters," - "Death of a Salesman."

9) When she won the Academy Award for "Driving Miss Daisy.", Tandy was

- Amazed- Surprised- Chocked

10) Jessica Tandy and Hume Cronyn were married

- For fifty-two years. - Forty two years- Twenty years

11) As she got older, Jessica Tandy suffered from

- Stage fright - Cancer- Diabetes

12) She married actor Jack Hawkins in

- 1922 - 1932- 1942

B) Phrase Match: Match the phrases on the left with the ones on the right

1) Performance - not looking pretty2) Award - play 3) Movie - prize4) Plain looking - acting 5) Stage show - film

C) Provide full answers1) Give the names of three plays Jessica Tandy perfumed in

a) --------------------------------b) ---------------------------------c) ---------------------------------

2) What were the names of Jessica Tandy’s two husbands?a) --------------------------------

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b) ---------------------------------

3) Who is the writer of “ A streetcar named desire”?-----------------------------------

4) What are four plays Jessica Tandy and Hume Cronyn appeared in together?

a) --------------------------------b) ---------------------------------c) ---------------------------------d) ---------------------------------

III) Post listening Discussion

Write a brief bibliographical account about your favourite actor / actress.

Present it to your classmates explaining the reasons for choice

Lectures 3-4-5 )From AMERICAN MOSAIC

in VOA Special English(

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Lecture 3: Ramadan in America

I) Pre-listening

Describe the two pictures below

What kind of culture do they imply? What ‘ceremony’ or ‘activity does picture one reflect?

What links can you make with picture two?

II) While listening :

Listen to part one of the record

A) Choose the appropriate answer(s) as you listen to the record.

1) The first food Muslims eat to break Ramadan in America is:- Milk- Meat - Dates

2) Ramadan is the - hardest month in Islam - Holiest - Hottest

3) Muslims fast in Ramadan because- They fear punishment- To show obedience and respect to god- They are on a special diet

4) The Koran is - Holy book in Islam - The word of Mohamed - The word of god or Allah

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B ) Main points:

1. Why is Ramadan considered as the holiest month in Islam,2. What does the Koran include according to Mohamed Adan?

3. When does Ramadan end?

4. When does Adan’s family do after eating Ramadan’s meal?

III) Post listening discussion

How would you spend Ramadan in your country, town, or village? Conduct an interview with your classmates about their daily activities during Ramadan. do they spend it in the same way Muslims in America do?

Have you ever spend Ramadan or any of the most important celebrations far from home? How would you spend one of these events in a foreign place?

Lecture 4: Alaska Purchase

I) Listening Comprehension

A) Fill in the spaces as you listen to speaker

1. Alaska is situated-----------------------------------2. America paid ------------------------------- to get Alaska

3. The Alaskan Statehood Act was approved in -----------------------

4. The name Alaska came from ----------------------------------------

B) Phrase Match

1) Purchase - icy1) Frozen land - formal agreement1) Deal - buying something1) Treaty - agreement

II) Post-listening discussion

Do you know that America has a vast territory and includes 50 states? How about your country? Choose an American state, region, town or territory. Compare and contrast it with a region of your choice in your country.

Discuss your comparison with your classmates. Provide arguments for the similarities and / or differences you might have signalled.

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Lecture 5: Wynton and Willie

I) Listening Activity

Fill in the spaces with appropriate phrases as you listen to the passage about the two famous jazz players.

Last year, two -------------------of country music and jazz -------------------for two days of concerts in New York City. Willie Nelson is a singer, ------------------- and guitarist. Wynton Marsalis is a -------------------and composer. He is also the artistic director of Jazz at -------------------. Their music was recorded for an album released this summer called -------------------Shirley Griffith has our story.

That's Willie Nelson and Wynton Marsalis -------------------the Duke Ellington song "Don't -------------------Much Anymore."

"Two Men With the Blues" was number twenty in its -------------------on Billboard magazine's Top Two Hundred album chart. That is the highest a Willie Nelson album has ever reached in its first week. And it is the highest ever for an album by Wynton Marsalis.

Here they are with Willie Nelson's song -------------------

So far, the -------------------old Nelson and -------------------old Marsalis have been too busy to go on tour together. But they plan -------------------the stage again in New York this February as part of the seventieth anniversary of Blue Note Records.

II) Post-listening discussion Jazz is a very famous music in America. In fact, it has become a universal musical

genre. Do like this kind of music? How far is it appreciated in your country, region or town? What other universal music genres are being listened too there? …

What are the local musical genres common to your country, region, town or village? What kind do you personally prefer? Why?

Compare and contrast a local musical genre with a universal or foreign one of your choice. Share your opinions with classmates.

Lecture 6 : Reef WorldI) Pre-listening Discussion

99

What is your favourite sport? Do you practice any outdoor activity? Do you leave in or have you ever visited a costal region? Have you tried to explore the underwater world? If you the occasion to do so, would you do it? Why? What does the picture below represent to you?

II) While Listening

Rebecca talks about the Great Barrier Reef and scuba diving.

A) Main Points: Answer the following questions about the interview.

1 (What does she say about the Great Barrier Reef?

a) She's been there often.b) She scuba dived there twice.c) She has been there once.

2 (How do Todd and Rebecca feel about scuba diving?

a) They both love it.b) They both dislike it.c) They disagree about it.

3 (The Great Barrier Reef is suffering from coral._______

a) breaking

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b) stealingc) bleaching

4 (What is also suffering?

a) The tourism industryb) The marine lifec) The merchant marines

B) Phrase Match: Match the phrases on the left with the example on the right.

1 .The unknown2 .Breathing apparatus

3 .I can relate4 .I can’t get past going underwater

5 .It can’t be brought back

___it will never return ___oxygen machine

___space; the jungle; the ocean ___I’ve had a similar experience

___I’m too afraid

C) Unscramble:

Put the mixed up sentences in the correct order.

1 .the Great Barrier Reef have to been you ever ?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 .like why don’t you so scuba diving?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3 .is true that the Great Barrier Reef is it being damaged?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4 .life marine still is there a lot of ?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Can you remember how Rebecca answered the above questions?

D) Bits and Pieces

Put the PHRASES in the spaces (Some will be used more than once)

that is therather than having

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you also loseprobably aboutnot being ableI was certified

so I didn’tjust being confined

everybody elseI went with my

Todd: So, Rebecca, in Australia you have the Great Barrier Reef. Now have you been to the Great Barrier Reef ?

Rebecca: Yes, I have once, _____________ two years ago. There's the main part of the Great Barrier Reef and then there's a little island, and we went to the island because I don't like scuba diving, _____________ go to the main part.

Todd: So, you don't like scuba diving. Why?

Rebecca: I think it's the unknown, under the water, and _____________ and having this breathing apparatus on you.

Todd: Right. Well, you know what, I can relate because _____________ to be a diver because all my friends were divers and I didn't enjoy it that much either.

Rebecca: Yeah. Like, it looks great underwater when you see it on TV and it would be awesome to see it, but yeah, I just can't get past the going underwater and _____________ to breathe properly .

Todd: Right. Right. Actually, I think for me was _____________ friends and they were so excited about it and then when you would go under water, you're in pairs. You have a buddy and it seemed like you were kind of in line in an amusement park or something, you know .

Rebecca: Really.

Todd: Yeah, like everybody kind of has to go around and you look around and you see all these other divers and... but I was the only person that felt this way. _____________ loves diving and the photography so. But actually, is it true the Barrier Reef is being damaged? It's actually not as beautiful as used to be?

Rebecca: Yeah. It's... The name of it is coral bleaching, and the coral is actually turning white, now _____________ the colors it has, so that's been happening for a few years I think and it's getting worse and worse .

Todd: Oh, so basically the coral is losing it's beautiful color?

Rebecca: Yeah, yeah, basically, just dies and can't be brought back.

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Todd: Well, what about, like you know, the marine life, like you know fish and stuff like that? Is that still abundant?

Rebecca: I assume that would probably go down as well once the coral starts to die off because _____________ food source and their housing for the fish so with the loss of the Great Barrier Reef _____________ all the beautiful fish and marine life down there too.

Todd: That's too bad.

elllo.org

III) Post-Listening Discussion : What do you think?A) Write the number of the question being answered in the box

1 .What do you know aboutAustralia and Australians?

2 .Have you ever been scubadiving?

3 .Rebecca and Todd didn’t like scuba diving, do you

think you would like it more than them?

Jae – ThailandIf I went scuba diving, I’m sure I would hate it. I went snorkeling once and even though I didn’t see a single fish, I was terrified. Every time I brushed against seaweed I thought I was going to be stung by a jellyfish or swallowed up by a shark. Plus, I had a really hard time with the breathing equipment. I guess I’m just a

wimp.

Mita - IndonesiaEven though I’ve never been

tothe land down under, there

are alot of Aussies that visit Indonesia. First of all, they are giant. Second, tattoos must be in fashion there because all of the Australians I have met have at least one. Third, in Indonesia we try to stay out of the sun but Aussies can’t get enough of

it. We are opposites .

4 .Do you like watching nature shows on TV? Why or

why not?

5 .Besides scuba diving, do you do any other outdoor

sports?

6 .What environmentalproblems worry you?

Andy - USAI used to watch the Discovery channel all the time but now that I have a fast internet connection those days are gone. Now, most of the time I watch videos on YouTube or chat with my friends on MySpace. Now, instead of learning about nature and science, I waste my time watching amateur videos about stupid stuff. No wonder my grades

are terrible!

Matt and Jenn - USA

Matt: Have you ever been camping?

Jenn: Only once.Matt: That’s it? Why haven’t

you gone more? You didn’t like it?

Jenn: Actually, I loved it but my

friends aren’t into it.Matt: You should go with us.

We’re planning a trip next week.

Jenn: Really? That would be

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cool.

B) Write a dialogue about one of the discussion questions. Act it out with your partner(s). Exchange opinions as you you deal with the other questions chosen by your classmates____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

C) Improve your speaking skills

You can improve your ability to talk with native English speakers if you start a conversation about a common topic. Outdoor sports is a very popular topic with native English speakers. Not everyone loves outdoor sports like scuba diving, snow boarding, mountain biking, and surfing but everyone has an opinion. It is also a great opportunity for you to share your opinions and stories about outdoor sports .

The following is a survey about some of the most common outdoor sports among native speakers. Conduct the survey with as many people as you can. Compare those sports with the ones common among the people of your country, town or village. Write a report of your results that you expose before your class. Discuss and compare your results .

Survey

Have you ever been scuba diving?❍ What is scuba diving? I’ve never heard of it.

❍ Nope, I’ve never been and I don’t want to.❍ Nope, I’ve never been but I’d love to.

❍ Yeah, I’ve been once.❍ Yeah, I’ve been a couple of times.

❍ Yeah, I’m really into it. I go all the time.

Have you ever been skiing?

Have you ever been camping?❍ What is camping? I’ve never heard of it.

❍ Nope, I’ve never been and I don’t want to.❍ Nope, I’ve never been but I’d love to.

❍ Yeah, I’ve been once.❍ Yeah, I’ve been a couple of times.

❍ Yeah, I’m really into it. I go all the time.

Have you ever been caving?

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❍ What is skiing? I’ve never heard of it.❍ Nope, I’ve never been and I don’t want to.

❍ Nope, I’ve never been but I’d love to.❍ Yeah, I’ve been once.

❍ Yeah, I’ve been a couple of times.❍ Yeah, I’m really into it. I go all the time.

Have you ever tried free running?

❍ What is free running? I’ve never heard of it.❍ Nope, I’ve never been and I don’t want to.

❍ Nope, I’ve never been but I’d love to.❍ Yeah, I’ve been once.

❍ Yeah, I’ve been a couple of times.❍ Yeah, I’m really into it. I go all the time.

Have you ever tried bungee jumping?

❍ What is bungee jumping? I’ve never heard of it.

❍ Nope, I’ve never been and I don’t want to.❍ Nope, I’ve never been but I’d love to.

❍ Yeah, I’ve been once.❍ Yeah, I’ve been a couple of times.

❍ Yeah, I’m really into it. I go all the time.

❍ What is caving? I’ve never heard of it.❍ Nope, I’ve never been and I don’t want to.

❍ Nope, I’ve never been but I’d love to.❍ Yeah, I’ve been once.

❍ Yeah, I’ve been a couple of times.❍ Yeah, I’m really into it. I go all the time.

Have you ever tried storm chasing?

❍ What is storm chasing? I’ve never heard of it.

❍ Nope, I’ve never been and I don’t want to.❍ Nope, I’ve never been but I’d love to.

❍ Yeah, I’ve been once.❍ Yeah, I’ve been a couple of times.

❍ Yeah, I’m really into it. I go all the time.

Have you ever tried skydiving?

❍ What is camping? I’ve never heard of it.❍ Nope, I’ve never been and I don’t want to.

❍ Nope, I’ve never been but I’d love to.❍ Yeah, I’ve been once.

❍ Yeah, I’ve been a couple of times.❍ Yeah, I’m really into it. I go all the time.

Bibliography:Material for the listening and speaking course has been selected from the following websites:

http://www.elllo.org/english/0851/T887-Brian-Economy.htmhttp://www.bartleby.com/85/1.htmlhttp://www.elllo.org/english/0851/T886-Diego-Tacos.htmhttp://www.elllo.org/english/0851/T876-Reb-Reef.htm

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People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Teacher Training School in humanities, Constantine

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Department of Distant Training

A distant course for middle school teachers4th semester

Prepared by: A/ Benyahia

September 2008

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Grimms’ Fairy Tales

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1. The Little Peasant

2. Hans in Luck

3. The Fisherman and His Wife

4. The four clever Brothers

5. Mother Holle

THE LITTLE PEASANT

There was a certain village wherein no one lived but really rich peasants, and just one

poor one, whom they called the little peasant. He had not even so much as a cow, and still less

money to buy one, and yet he and his wife did so wish to have one. One day he said to her:

‘Listen, I have a good idea, there is our gossip the carpenter, he shall make us a wooden calf,

and paint it brown, so that it looks like any other, and in time it will certainly get big and be a

cow.’ the woman also liked the idea, and their gossip the carpenter cut and planed the calf,

and painted it as it ought to be, and made it with its head hanging down as if it were eating.

Next morning when the cows were being driven out, the little peasant called the cow-

herd in and said: ‘Look, I have a little calf there, but it is still small and has to be carried.’ The

cow-herd said: ‘All right,’ and took it in his arms and carried it to the pasture, and set it

among the grass. The little calf always remained standing like one which was eating, and the

cow-herd said: ‘It will soon run by itself, just look how it eats already!’ At night when he was

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going to drive the herd home again, he said to the calf: ‘If you can stand there and eat your

fill, you can also go on your four legs; I don’t care to drag you home again in my arms.’ But

the little peasant stood at his door, and waited for his little calf, and when the cow-herd drove

the cows through the village, and the calf was missing, he inquired where it was. The cow-

herd answered: ‘It is still standing out there eating. It would not stop and come with us.’ But

the little peasant said: ‘Oh, but I must have my beast back again.’ Then they went back to the

meadow together, but someone had stolen the calf, and it was gone. The cow-herd said: ‘It

must have run away.’ The peasant, however, said: ‘Don’t tell me that,’ and led the cow-herd

before the mayor, who for his carelessness condemned him to give the peasant a cow for the

calf which had run away .

And now the little peasant and his wife had the cow for which they had so long wished,

and they were heartily glad, but they had no food for it, and could give it nothing to eat, so it

soon had to be killed. They salted the flesh, and the peasant went into the town and wanted to

sell the skin there, so that he might buy a new calf with the proceeds. On the way he passed

by a mill, and there sat a raven with broken wings, and out of pity he took him and wrapped

him in the skin. But as the weather grew so bad and there was a storm of rain and wind, he

could go no farther, and turned back to the mill and begged for shelter. The miller’s wife was

alone in the house, and said to the peasant: ‘Lay yourself on the straw there,’ and gave him a

slice of bread and cheese. The peasant ate it, and lay down with his skin beside him, and the

woman thought: ‘He is tired and has gone to sleep.’ In the meantime came the parson; the

miller’s wife received him well, and said: ‘My husband is out, so we will have a feast.’ The

peasant listened, and when he heard them talk about feasting he was vexed that he had been

forced to make shift with a slice of bread and cheese. Then the woman served up four

different things, roast meat, salad, cakes, and wine .

Just as they were about to sit down and eat, there was a knocking outside. The woman

said: ‘Oh, heavens! It is my husband!’ she quickly hid the roast meat inside the tiled stove, the

wine under the pillow, the salad on the bed, the cakes under it, and the parson in the closet on

the porch. Then she opened the door for her husband, and said: ‘Thank heaven, you are back

again! There is such a storm, it looks as if the world were coming to an end.’ The miller saw

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the peasant lying on the straw, and asked, ‘What is that fellow doing there?’ ‘Ah,’ said the

wife, ‘the poor knave came in the storm and rain, and begged for shelter, so I gave him a bit

of bread and cheese, and showed him where the straw was.’ The man said: ‘I have no

objection, but be quick and get me something to eat.’ The woman said: ‘But I have nothing

but bread and cheese.’ ‘I am contented with anything,’ replied the husband, ‘so far as I am

concerned, bread and cheese will do,’ and looked at the peasant and said: ‘Come and eat some

more with me.’ The peasant did not require to be invited twice, but got up and ate. After this

the miller saw the skin in which the raven was, lying on the ground, and asked: ‘What have

you there?’ The peasant answered: ‘I have a soothsayer inside it.’ ‘Can he foretell anything to

me?’ said the miller. ‘Why not?’ answered the peasant: ‘but he only says four things, and the

fifth he keeps to himself.’ The miller was curious, and said: ‘Let him foretell something for

once.’ Then the peasant pinched the raven’s head, so that he croaked and made a noise like

krr, krr. The miller said: ‘What did he say?’ The peasant answered: ‘In the first place, he says

that there is some wine hidden under the pillow.’ ‘Bless me!’ cried the miller, and went there

and found the wine. ‘Now go on,’ said he. The peasant made the raven croak again, and said:

‘In the second place, he says that there is some roast meat in the tiled stove.’ ‘Upon my

word!’ cried the miller, and went thither, and found the roast meat. The peasant made the

raven prophesy still more, and said: ‘Thirdly, he says that there is some salad on the bed.’

‘That would be a fine thing!’ cried the miller, and went there and found the salad. At last the

peasant pinched the raven once more till he croaked, and said: ‘Fourthly, he says that there are

some cakes under the bed.’ ‘That would be a fine thing!’ cried the miller, and looked there,

and found the cakes .

And now the two sat down to the table together, but the miller’s wife was frightened to

death, and went to bed and took all the keys with her. The miller would have liked much to

know the fifth, but the little peasant said: ‘First, we will quickly eat the four things, for the

fifth is something bad.’ So they ate, and after that they bargained how much the miller was to

give for the fifth prophecy, until they agreed on three hundred talers. Then the peasant once

more pinched the raven’s head till he croaked loudly. The miller asked: ‘What did he say?’

The peasant replied: ‘He says that the Devil is hiding outside there in the closet on the porch.’

The miller said: ‘The Devil must go out,’ and opened the house-door; then the woman was

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forced to give up the keys, and the peasant unlocked the closet. The parson ran out as fast as

he could, and the miller said: ‘It was true; I saw the black rascal with my own eyes.’ The

peasant, however, made off next morning by daybreak with the three hundred talers. At home

the small peasant gradually launched out; he built a beautiful house, and the peasants said:

‘The small peasant has certainly been to the place where golden snow falls, and people carry

the gold home in shovels.’ Then the small peasant was brought before the mayor, and bidden

to say from whence his wealth came. He answered: ‘I sold my cow’s skin in the town, for

three hundred talers.’ When the peasants heard that, they too wished to enjoy this great profit,

and ran home, killed all their cows, and stripped off their skins in order to sell them in the

town to the greatest advantage. The mayor, however, said: ‘But my servant must go first.’

When she came to the merchant in the town, he did not give her more than two talers for a

skin, and when the others came, he did not give them so much, and said: ‘What can I do with

all these skins ’?

Then the peasants were vexed that the small peasant should have thus outwitted them,

wanted to take vengeance on him, and accused him of this treachery before the major. The

innocent little peasant was unanimously sentenced to death, and was to be rolled into the

water, in a barrel pierced full of holes. He was led forth, and a priest was brought who was to

say a mass for his soul. The others were all obliged to retire to a distance, and when the

peasant looked at the priest, he recognized the man who had been with the miller’s wife. He

said to him: ‘I set you free from the closet, set me free from the barrel.’ At this same moment

up came, with a flock of sheep, the very shepherd whom the peasant knew had long been

wishing to be mayor, so he cried with all his might: ‘No, I will not do it; if the whole world

insists on it, I will not do it!’ The shepherd earing that, came up to him, and asked: ‘What are

you about? What is it that you will not do?’ The peasant said: ‘They want to make me mayor,

if I will but put myself in the barrel, but I will not do it.’ The shepherd said: ‘If nothing more

than that is needful in order to be mayor, I would get into the barrel at once.’ The peasant

said: ‘If you will get in, you will be mayor.’ The shepherd was willing, and got in, and the

peasant shut the top down on him; then he took the shepherd’s flock for himself, and drove it

away. The parson went to the crowd, and declared that the mass had been said. Then they

came and rolled the barrel towards the water. When the barrel began to roll, the shepherd

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cried: ‘I am quite willing to be mayor.’ They believed no otherwise than that it was the

peasant who was saying this, and answered: ‘That is what we intend, but first you shall look

about you a little down below there,’ and they rolled the barrel down into the water .

After that the peasants went home, and as they were entering the village, the small

peasant also came quietly in, driving a flock of sheep and looking quite contented. Then the

peasants were astonished, and said: ‘Peasant, from whence do you come? Have you come out

of the water?’ ‘Yes, truly,’ replied the peasant, ‘I sank deep, deep down, until at last I got to

the bottom; I pushed the bottom out of the barrel, and crept out, and there were pretty

meadows on which a number of lambs were feeding, and from thence I brought this flock

away with me.’ Said the peasants: ‘Are there any more there?’ ‘Oh, yes,’ said he, ‘more than I

could want.’ Then the peasants made up their minds that they too would fetch some sheep for

themselves, a flock apiece, but the mayor said: ‘I come first.’ So they went to the water

together, and just then there were some of the small fleecy clouds in the blue sky, which are

called little lambs, and they were reflected in the water, whereupon the peasants cried: ‘We

already see the sheep down below!’ The mayor pressed forward and said: ‘I will go down

first, and look about me, and if things promise well I’ll call you.’ So he jumped in; splash!

Went the water; it sounded as if he were calling them, and the whole crowd plunged in after

him as one man. Then the entire village was dead, and the small peasant, as sole heir, became

a rich man.

HANS IN LUCK

Some men are born to good luck: all they do or try to do comes right— all that falls to

them is so much gain—all their geese are swans—all their cards are trumps—toss them which

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way you will, they will always, like poor puss, alight upon their legs, and only move on so

much the faster. The world may very likely not always think of them as they think of

themselves, but what care they for the world? what can it know about the matter ?

One of these lucky beings was neighbour Hans. Seven long years he had worked hard

for his master. At last he said, ‘Master, my time is up; I must go home and see my poor

mother once more: so pray pay me my wages and let me go.’ And the master said, ‘You have

been a faithful and good servant, Hans, so your pay shall be handsome.’ Then he gave him a

lump of silver as big as his head .

Hans took out his pocket- handkerchief, put the piece of silver into it, threw it over his

shoulder, and jogged off on his road homewards. As he went lazily on, dragging one foot after

another, a man came in sight, trotting gaily along on a capital horse. ‘Ah!’ said Hans aloud,

‘what a fine thing it is to ride on horseback! There he sits as easy and happy as if he was at

home, in the chair by his fireside; he trips against no stones, saves shoe-leather, and gets on he

hardly knows how.’ Hans did not speak so softly but the horseman heard it all, and said,

‘Well, friend, why do you go on foot then?’ ‘Ah!’ said he, ‘I have this load to carry: to be sure

it is silver, but it is so heavy that I can’t hold up my head, and you must know it hurts my

shoulder sadly.’ ‘What do you say of making an exchange?’ said the horseman. ‘I will give

you my horse, and you shall give me the silver; which will save you a great deal of trouble in

carrying such a heavy load about with you.’ ‘With all my heart,’ said Hans: ‘but as you are so

kind to me, I must tell you one thing—you will have a weary task to draw that silver about

with you.’ However, the horseman got off, took the silver, helped Hans up, gave him the

bridle into one hand and the whip into the other, and said, ‘When you want to go very fast,

smack your lips loudly together, and cry ‘Jip ‘‘!

Hans was delighted as he sat on the horse, drew himself up, squared his elbows, turned

out his toes, cracked his whip, and rode merrily off, one minute whistling a merry tune, and

another singing, ‘No care and no sorrow, A fig for the morrow! We’ll laugh and be merry,

Sing neigh down derry ’!

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After a time he thought he should like to go a little faster, so he smacked his lips and

cried ‘Jip!’ Away went the horse full gallop; and before Hans knew what he was about, he

was thrown off, and lay on his back by the roadside. His horse would have ran off, if a

shepherd who was coming by, driving a cow, had not stopped it. Hans soon came to himself,

and got upon his legs again, sadly vexed, and said to the shepherd, ‘This riding is no joke,

when a man has the luck to get upon a beast like this that stumbles and flings him off as if it

would break his neck. However, I’m off now once for all: I like your cow now a great deal

better than this smart beast that played me this trick, and has spoiled my best coat, you see, in

this puddle; which, by the by, smells not very like a nosegay. One can walk along at one’s

leisure behind that cow—keep good company, and have milk, butter, and cheese, every day,

into the bargain. What would I give to have such a prize!’ ‘Well,’ said the shepherd, ‘if you

are so fond of her, I will change my cow for your horse; I like to do good to my neighbours,

even though I lose by it myself.’ ‘Done!’ said Hans, merrily. ‘What a noble heart that good

man has!’ thought he. Then the shepherd jumped upon the horse,

wished Hans and the cow good morning, and away he rode .

Hans brushed his coat, wiped his face and hands, rested a while, and then drove off his

cow quietly, and thought his bargain a very lucky one. ‘If I have only a piece of bread (and I

certainly shall always be able to get that), I can, whenever I like, eat my butter and cheese

with it; and when I am thirsty I can milk my cow and drink the milk: and what can I wish for

more?’ When he came to an inn, he halted, ate up all his bread, and gave away his last penny

for a glass of beer. When he had rested himself he set off again, driving his cow towards his

mother’s village. But the heat grew greater as soon as noon came on, till at last, as he found

himself on a wide heath that would take him more than an hour to cross, he began to be so hot

and parched that his tongue clave to the roof of his mouth. ‘I can find a cure for this,’ thought

he; ‘now I will milk my cow and quench my thirst’: so he tied her to the stump of a tree, and

held his leathern cap to milk into; but not a drop was to be had. Who would have thought that

this cow, which was to bring him milk and butter and cheese, was all that time utterly dry?

Hans had not thought of looking to that .

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While he was trying his luck in milking, and managing the matter very clumsily, the

uneasy beast began to think him very troublesome; and at last gave him such a kick on the

head as knocked him down; and there he lay a long while senseless. Luckily a butcher soon

came by, driving a pig in a wheelbarrow. ‘What is the matter with you, my man?’ said the

butcher, as he helped him up. Hans told him what had happened, how he was dry, and wanted

to milk his cow, but found the cow was dry too. Then the butcher gave him a flask of ale,

saying, ‘There, drink and refresh yourself; your cow will give you no milk: don’t you see she

is an old beast, good for nothing but the slaughter-house?’ ‘Alas, alas!’ said Hans, ‘who

would have thought it? What a shame to take my horse, and give me only a dry cow! If I kill

her, what will she be good for? I hate cow-beef; it is not tender enough for me. If it were a pig

now —like that fat gentleman you are driving along at his ease—one could do something with

it; it would at any rate make sausages.’ ‘Well,’ said the butcher, ‘I don’t like to say no, when

one is asked to do a kind, neighbourly thing. To please you I will change, and give you my

fine fat pig for the cow.’ ‘Heaven reward you for your kindness and self-denial!’ said Hans, as

he gave the butcher the cow; and taking the pig off the wheel-barrow, drove it away, holding

it by the string that was tied to its leg .

So on he jogged, and all seemed now to go right with him: he had met with some

misfortunes, to be sure; but he was now well repaid for all. How could it be otherwise with

such a travelling companion as he had at last got ?

The next man he met was a countryman carrying a fine white goose. The countryman

stopped to ask what was o’clock; this led to further chat; and Hans told him all his luck, how

he had so many good bargains, and how all the world went gay and smiling with him. The

countryman than began to tell his tale, and said he was going to take the goose to a

christening. ‘Feel,’ said he, ‘how heavy it is, and yet it is only eight weeks old. Whoever

roasts and eats it will find plenty of fat upon it, it has lived so well!’ ‘You’re right,’ said Hans,

as he weighed it in his hand; ‘but if you talk of fat, my pig is no trifle.’ Meantime the

countryman began to look grave, and shook his head. ‘Hark ye!’ said he, ‘my worthy friend,

you seem a good sort of fellow, so I can’t help doing you a kind turn. Your pig may get you

into a scrape. In the village I just came from, the squire has had a pig stolen out of his sty. I

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was dreadfully afraid when I saw you that you had got the squire’s pig. If you have, and they

catch you, it will be a bad job for you. The least they will do will be to throw you into the

horse-pond. Can you swim ’?

Poor Hans was sadly frightened. ‘Good man,’ cried he, ‘pray get me out of this scrape. I

know nothing of where the pig was either bred or born; but he may have been the squire’s for

aught I can tell: you know this country better than I do, take my pig and give me the goose.’ ‘I

ought to have something into the bargain,’ said the countryman; ‘give a fat goose for a pig,

indeed! ‘Tis not everyone would do so much for you as that. However, I will not be hard upon

you, as you are in trouble.’ Then he took the string in his hand, and drove off the pig by a side

path; while Hans went on the way homewards free from care. ‘After all,’ thought he, ‘that

chap is pretty well taken in. I don’t care whose pig it is, but wherever it came from it has been

a very good friend to me. I have much the best of the bargain. First there will be a capital

roast; then the fat will find me in goose-grease for six months; and then there are all the

beautiful white feathers. I will put them into my pillow, and then I am sure I shall sleep

soundly without rocking. How happy my mother will be! Talk of a pig, indeed! Give me a

fine fat goose ’.

As he came to the next village, he saw a scissor-grinder with his wheel, working and

singing, ‘O’er hill and o’er dale So happy I roam, Work light and live well, All the world is

my home; Then who so blythe, so merry as I ’?

Hans stood looking on for a while, and at last said, ‘You must be well off, master

grinder! you seem so happy at your work.’ ‘Yes,’ said the other, ‘mine is a golden trade; a

good grinder never puts his hand into his pocket without finding money in it—but where did

you get that beautiful goose?’ ‘I did not buy it, I gave a pig for it.’ ‘And where did you get the

pig?’ ‘I gave a cow for it.’ ‘And the cow?’ ‘I gave a horse for it.’ ‘And the horse?’ ‘I gave a

lump of silver as big as my head for it.’ ‘And the silver?’ ‘Oh! I worked hard for that seven

long years.’ ‘You have thriven well in the world hitherto,’ said the grinder, ‘now if you could

find money in your pocket whenever you put your hand in it, your fortune would be made.’

‘Very true: but how is that to be managed?’ ‘How? Why, you must turn grinder like myself,’

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said the other; ‘you only want a grindstone; the rest will come of itself. Here is one that is but

little the worse for wear: I would not ask more than the value of your goose for it—will you

buy?’ ‘How can you ask?’ said Hans; ‘I should be the happiest man in the world, if I could

have money whenever I put my hand in my pocket: what could I want more? there’s the

goose.’ ‘Now,’ said the grinder, as he gave him a common rough stone that lay by his side,

‘this is a most capital stone; do but work it well enough, and you can make an old nail cut

with it ’.

Hans took the stone, and went his way with a light heart: his eyes sparkled for joy, and

he said to himself, ‘Surely I must have been born in a lucky hour; everything I could want or

wish for comes of itself. People are so kind; they seem really to think I do them a favour in

letting them make me rich, and giving me good bargains’.

Meantime he began to be tired, and hungry too, for he had given away his last penny in

his joy at getting the cow .

At last he could go no farther, for the stone tired him sadly: and he dragged himself to

the side of a river, that he might take a drink of water, and rest a while. So he laid the stone

carefully by his side on the bank: but, as he stooped down to drink, he forgot it, pushed it a

little, and down it rolled, plump into the stream .

For a while he watched it sinking in the deep clear water; then sprang up and danced for

joy, and again fell upon his knees and thanked Heaven, with tears in his eyes, for its kindness

in taking away his only plague, the ugly heavy stone. ’How happy am I!’ cried he; ‘nobody

was ever so lucky as I.’ Then up he got with a light heart, free from all his troubles, and

walked on till he reached his mother’s house, and told her how very easy the road to good

luck was.

THE FISHERMAN AND HIS

WIFE

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There was once a fisherman who lived with his wife in a pigsty, close by the seaside.

The fisherman used to go out all day long a-fishing; and one day, as he sat on the shore with

his rod, looking at the sparkling waves and watching his line, all on a sudden his float was

dragged away deep into the water: and in drawing it up he pulled out a great fish. But the fish

said, ‘Pray let me live! I am not a real fish; I am an enchanted prince: put me in the water

again, and let me go!’ ‘Oh, ho!’ said the man, ‘you need not make so many words about the

matter; I will have nothing to do with a fish that can talk: so swim away, sir, as soon as you

please!’ Then he put him back into the water, and the fish darted straight down to the bottom,

and left a long streak of blood behind him on the wave .

When the fisherman went home to his wife in the pigsty, he told her how he had caught

a great fish, and how it had told him it was an enchanted prince, and how, on hearing it speak,

he had let it go again. ‘Did not you ask it for anything?’ said the wife, ‘we live very

wretchedly here, in this nasty dirty pigsty; do go back and tell the fish we want a snug little

cottage ’.

The fisherman did not much like the business: however, he went to the seashore; and

when he came back there the water looked all yellow and green. And he stood at the water’s

edge, and said :

’O man of the sea !

Hearken to me !

My wife Ilsabill

Will have her own will ,

And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee ’!

Then the fish came swimming to him, and said, ‘Well, what is her will? What does your

wife want?’ ‘Ah!’ said the fisherman, ‘she says that when I had caught you, I ought to have

asked you for something before I let you go; she does not like living any longer in the pigsty,

and wants a snug little cottage.’ ‘Go home, then,’ said the fish; ‘she is in the cottage already!’

So the man went home, and saw his wife standing at the door of a nice trim little cottage.

‘Come in, come in!’ said she; ‘is not this much better than the filthy pigsty we had?’ And

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there was a parlour, and a bedchamber, and a kitchen; and behind the cottage there was a little

garden, planted with all sorts of flowers and fruits; and there was a courtyard behind, full of

ducks and chickens. ‘Ah!’ said the fisherman, ‘how happily we shall live now!’ ‘We will try

to do so, at least,’ said his wife .

Everything went right for a week or two, and then Dame Ilsabill said, ‘Husband, there is

not near room enough for us in this cottage; the courtyard and the garden are a great deal too

small; I should like to have a large stone castle to live in: go to the fish again and tell him to

give us a castle.’ ‘Wife,’ said the fisherman, ‘I don’t like to go to him again, for perhaps he

will be angry; we ought to be easy with this pretty cottage to live in.’ ‘Nonsense!’ said the

wife; ‘he will do it very willingly, I know; go along and try ’!

The fisherman went, but his heart was very heavy: and when he came to the sea, it

looked blue and gloomy, though it was very calm; and he went close to the edge of the

waves, and said :

’O man of the sea !

Hearken to me !

My wife Ilsabill Will have her own will ,

And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee ’!

’Well, what does she want now?’ said the fish. ‘Ah!’ said the man, dolefully, ‘my wife

wants to live in a stone castle.’ ‘Go home, then,’ said the fish; ‘she is standing at the gate of it

already.’ So away went the fisherman, and found his wife standing before the gate of a great

castle. ‘See,’ said she, ‘is not this grand?’ With that they went into the castle together, and

found a great many servants there, and the rooms all richly furnished, and full of golden

chairs and tables; and behind the castle was a garden, and around it was a park half a mile

long, full of sheep, and goats, and hares, and deer; and in the courtyard were stables and cow-

houses. ‘Well,’ said the man, ‘now we will live cheerful and happy in this beautiful castle for

the rest of our lives.’ ‘Perhaps we may,’ said the wife; ‘but let us sleep upon it, before we

make up our minds to that.’ So they went to bed.

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The next morning when Dame Ilsabill awoke it was broad daylight, and she jogged the

fisherman with her elbow, and said, ‘Get up, husband, and bestir yourself, for we must be

king of all the land.’ ‘Wife, wife,’ said the man, ‘why should we wish to be the king? I will

not be king.’ ‘Then I will,’ said she. ‘But, wife,’ said the fisherman, ‘how can you be king—

the fish cannot make you a king?’ ‘Husband,’ said she, ‘say no more about it, but go and try! I

will be king.’ So the man went away quite sorrowful to think that his wife should want to be

king. This time the sea looked a dark grey colour, and was overspread with curling waves and

the ridges of foam as he cried out:

’O man of the sea !

Hearken to me !

My wife Ilsabill

Will have her own will ,

And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee ’!

’Well, what would she have now?’ said the fish. ‘Alas!’ said the poor man, ‘my wife

wants to be king.’ ‘Go home,’ said the fish; ‘she is king already ’.

Then the fisherman went home; and as he came close to the palace he saw a troop of

soldiers, and heard the sound of drums and trumpets. And when he went in he saw his wife

sitting on a throne of gold and diamonds, with a golden crown upon her head; and on each

side of her stood six fair maidens, each a head taller than the other. ‘Well, wife,’ said the

fisherman, ‘are you king?’ ‘Yes,’ said she, ‘I am king.’ And when he had looked at her for a

long time, he said, ‘Ah, wife! what a fine thing it is to be king! Now we shall never have

anything more to wish for as long as we live.’ ‘I don’t know how that may be,’ said she;

‘never is a long time. I am king, it is true; but I begin to be tired of that, and I think I should

like to be emperor.’ ‘Alas, wife! why should you wish to be emperor?’ said the fisherman.

‘Husband,’ said she, ‘go to the fish! I say I will be emperor.’ ‘Ah, wife!’ replied the

fisherman, ‘the fish cannot make an emperor, I am sure, and I should not like to ask him for

such a thing.’ ‘I am king,’ said Ilsabill, ‘and you are my slave; so go at once ’!

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So the fisherman was forced to go; and he muttered as he went along, ‘This will come to

no good, it is too much to ask; the fish will be tired at last, and then we shall be sorry for what

we have done.’ He soon came to the seashore; and the water was quite black and muddy, and

a mighty whirlwind blew over the waves and rolled them about, but he went as near as he

could to the water’s brink, and said :

’O man of the sea !

Hearken to me !

My wife Ilsabill

Will have her own will ,

And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee ’!

’What would she have now?’ said the fish. ‘Ah!’ said the fisherman, ‘she wants to be

emperor.’ ‘Go home,’ said the fish; ‘she is emperor already ’.

So he went home again; and as he came near he saw his wife Ilsabill sitting on a very

lofty throne made of solid gold, with a great crown on her head full two yards high; and on

each side of her stood her guards and attendants in a row, each one smaller than the other,

from the tallest giant down to a little dwarf no bigger than my finger. And before her stood

princes, and dukes, and earls: and the fisherman went up to her and said, ‘Wife, are you

emperor?’ ‘Yes,’ said she, ‘I am emperor.’ ‘Ah!’ said the man, as he gazed upon her, ‘what a

fine thing it is to be emperor!’ ‘Husband,’ said she, ‘why should we stop at being emperor? I

will be pope next.’ ‘O wife, wife!’ said he, ‘how can you be pope? there is but one pope at a

time in Christendom.’ ‘Husband,’ said she, ‘I will be pope this very day.’ ‘But,’ replied the

husband, ‘the fish cannot make you pope.’ ‘What nonsense!’ said she; ‘if he can make an

emperor, he can make a pope: go and try him ’.

So the fisherman went. But when he came to the shore the wind was raging and the sea

was tossed up and down in boiling waves, and the ships were in trouble, and rolled fearfully

upon the tops of the billows. In the middle of the heavens there was a little piece of blue sky,

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but towards the south all was red, as if a dreadful storm was rising. At this sight the fisherman

was dreadfully frightened, and he trembled so that his knees knocked together: but still he

went down near to the shore, and said:

’O man of the sea!

Hearken to me!

My wife Ilsabill

Will have her own will ,

And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee ’!

’What does she want now?’ said the fish. ‘Ah!’ said the fisherman, ‘my wife wants to be

pope.’ ‘Go home,’ said the fish; ‘she is pope already ’.

Then the fisherman went home, and found Ilsabill sitting on a throne that was two miles

high. And she had three great crowns on her head, and around her stood all the pomp and

power of the Church. And on each side of her were two rows of burning lights, of all sizes,

the greatest as large as the highest and biggest tower in the world, and the least no larger than

a small rushlight. ‘Wife,’ said the fisherman, as he looked at all this greatness, ‘are you

pope?’ ‘Yes,’ said she, ‘I am pope.’ ‘Well, wife,’ replied he, ‘it is a grand thing to be pope;

and now you must be easy, for you can be nothing greater.’ ‘I will think about that,’ said the

wife. Then they went to bed: but Dame Ilsabill could not sleep all night for thinking what she

should be next. At last, as she was dropping asleep, morning broke, and the sun rose. ‘Ha!’

thought she, as she woke up and looked at it through the window, ‘after all I cannot prevent

the sun rising.’ At this thought she was very angry, and wakened her husband, and said,

‘Husband, go to the fish and tell him I must be lord of the sun and moon.’ The fisherman was

half asleep, but the thought frightened him so much that he started and fell out of bed. ‘Alas,

wife!’ said he, ‘cannot you be easy with being pope?’ ‘No,’ said she, ‘I am very uneasy as

long as the sun and moon rise without my leave. Go to the fish at once ’!

Then the man went shivering with fear; and as he was going down to the shore a

dreadful storm arose, so that the trees and the very rocks shook. And all the heavens became

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black with stormy clouds, and the lightnings played, and the thunders rolled; and you might

have seen in the sea great black waves, swelling up like mountains with crowns of white foam

upon their heads. And the fisherman crept towards the sea, and cried out, as well as he could :

’O man of the sea !

Hearken to me!

My wife Ilsabill

Will have her own will ,

And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee’!

’What does she want now?’ said the fish. ‘Ah!’ said he, ‘she wants to be lord of the sun

and moon.’ ‘Go home,’ said the fish, ‘to your pigsty again ’.

And there they live to this very day.

THE FOUR CLEVER

BROTHERS

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’Dear children,’ said a poor man to his four sons, ‘I have nothing to give you; you must

go out into the wide world and try your luck. Begin by learning some craft or another, and see

how you can get on.’ So the four brothers took their walking-sticks in their hands, and their

little bundles on their shoulders, and after bidding their father goodbye, went all out at the

gate together. When they had got on some way they came to four crossways, each leading to a

different country. Then the eldest said, ‘Here we must part; but this day four years we will

come back to this spot, and in the meantime each must try what he can do for himself’.

So each brother went his way; and as the eldest was hastening on a man met him, and

asked him where he was going, and what he wanted. ‘I am going to try my luck in the world,

and should like to begin by learning some art or trade,’ answered he. ‘Then,’ said the man,

‘go with me, and I will teach you to become the cunningest thief that ever was.’ ‘No,’ said the

other, ‘that is not an honest calling, and what can one look to earn by it in the end but the

gallows?’ ‘Oh!’ said the man, ‘you need not fear the gallows; for I will only teach you to steal

what will be fair game: I meddle with nothing but what no one else can get or care anything

about, and where no one can find you out.’ So the young man agreed to follow his trade, and

he soon showed himself so clever, that nothing could escape him that he had once set his

mind upon .

The second brother also met a man, who, when he found out what he was setting out

upon, asked him what craft he meant to follow. ‘I do not know yet,’ said he. ‘Then come with

me, and be a star-gazer. It is a noble art, for nothing can be hidden from you, when once you

understand the stars.’ The plan pleased him much, and he soon became such a skilful star-

gazer, that when he had served out his time, and wanted to leave his master, he gave him a

glass, and said, ‘With this you can see all that is passing in the sky and on earth, and nothing

can be hidden from you ’.

The third brother met a huntsman, who took him with him, and taught him so well all

that belonged to hunting, that he became very clever in the craft of the woods; and when he

left his master he gave him a bow, and said, ‘Whatever you shoot at with this bow you will be

sure to hit ’.

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The youngest brother likewise met a man who asked him what he wished to do. ‘Would

not you like,’ said he,‘to be a tailor?’ ‘Oh, no!’ said the young man; ‘sitting cross-legged from

morning to night, working backwards and forwards with a needle and goose, will never suit

me.’ ‘Oh!’ answered the man, ‘that is not my sort of tailoring; come with me, and you will

learn quite another kind of craft from that.’ Not knowing what better to do, he came into the

plan, and learnt tailoring from the beginning; and when he left his master, he gave him a

needle, and said, ‘You can sew anything with this, be it as soft as an egg or as hard as steel;

and the joint will be so fine that no seam will be seen ’.

After the space of four years, at the time agreed upon, the four brothers met at the four

cross-roads; and having welcomed each other, set off towards their father’s home, where they

told him all that had happened to them, and how each had learned some craft .

Then, one day, as they were sitting before the house under a very high tree, the father

said, ‘I should like to try what each of you can do in this way.’ So he looked up, and said to

the second son, ‘At the top of this tree there is a haffinch’s nest; tell me how many eggs there

are in it.’ The star-gazer took his glass, looked up, and said, ‘Five.’ ‘Now,’ said the father to

the eldest son, ‘take away the eggs without letting the bird that is sitting upon them and

hatching them know anything of what you are doing.’ So the cunning thief climbed up the

tree, and brought away to his father the five eggs from under the bird; and it never saw or felt

what he was doing, but kept sitting on at its ease. Then the father took the eggs, and put one

on each corner of the table, and the fifth in the middle, and said to the huntsman, ‘Cut all the

eggs in two pieces at one shot.’ The huntsman took up his bow, and at one shot struck all the

five eggs as his father wished .

’Now comes your turn,’ said he to the young tailor; ‘sew the eggs and the young birds in

them together again, so neatly that the shot shall have done them no harm.’ Then the tailor

took his needle, and sewed the eggs as he was told; and when he had done, the thief was sent

to take them back to the nest, and put them under the bird without its knowing it. Then she

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went on sitting, and hatched them: and in a few days they crawled out, and had only a little

red streak across their necks, where the tailor had sewn them together .

’Well done, sons!’ said the old man; ‘you have made good use of your time, and learnt

something worth the knowing; but I am sure I do not know which ought to have the prize. Oh,

that a time might soon come for you to turn your skill to some account’!

Not long after this there was a great bustle in the country; for the king’s daughter had

been carried off by a mighty dragon, and the king mourned over his loss day and night, and

made it known that whoever brought her back to him should have her for a wife. Then the

four brothers said to each other, ‘Here is a chance for us; let us try what we can do.’ And they

agreed to see whether they could not set the princess free. ‘I will soon find out where she is,

however,’ said the star-gazer, as he looked through his glass; and he soon cried out, ‘I see her

afar off, sitting upon a rock in the sea, and I can spy the dragon close by, guarding her.’ Then

he went to the king, and asked for a ship for himself and his brothers; and they sailed together

over the sea, till they came to the right place. There they found the princess sitting, as the star-

gazer had said, on the rock; and the dragon was lying asleep, with his head upon her lap. ‘I

dare not shoot at him,’ said the huntsman, ‘for I should kill the beautiful young lady also.’

‘Then I will try my skill,’ said the thief, and went and stole her away from under the dragon,

so quietly and gently that the beast did not know it, but went on snoring .

Then away they hastened with her full of joy in their boat towards the ship; but soon

came the dragon roaring behind them through the air; for he awoke and missed the princess.

But when he got over the boat, and wanted to pounce upon them and carry off the princess,

the huntsman took up his bow and shot him straight through the heart so that he fell down

dead. They were still not safe; for he was such a great beast that in his fall he overset the boat,

and they had to swim in the open sea upon a few planks. So the tailor took his needle, and

with a few large stitches put some of the planks together; and he sat down upon these, and

sailed about and gathered up all pieces of the boat; and then tacked them together so quickly

that the boat was soon ready, and they then reached the ship and got home safe .

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When they had brought home the princess to her father, there was great rejoicing; and he

said to the four brothers, ‘One of you shall marry her, but you must settle amongst yourselves

which it is to be.’ Then there arose a quarrel between them; and the star-gazer said, ‘If I had

not found the princess out, all your skill would have been of no use; therefore she ought to be

mine.’ ‘Your seeing her would have been of no use,’ said the thief, ‘if I had not taken her

away from the dragon; therefore she ought to be mine.’ ‘No, she is mine,’ said the huntsman;

‘for if I had not killed the dragon, he would, after all, have torn you and the princess into

pieces.’ ‘And if I had not sewn the boat together again,’ said the tailor, ‘you would all have

been drowned, therefore she is mine.’ Then the king put in a word, and said, ‘Each of you is

right; and as all cannot have the young lady, the best way is for neither of you to have her: for

the truth is, there is somebody she likes a great deal better. But to make up for your loss, I will

give each of you, as a reward for his skill, half a kingdom.’ So the brothers agreed that this

plan would be much better than either quarrelling or marrying a lady who had no mind to

have them. And the king then gave to each half a kingdom, as he had said; and they lived very

happily the rest of their days, and took good care of their father; and somebody took better

care of the young lady, than to let either the dragon or one of the craftsmen have her again.

MOTHER HOLLE

Once upon a time there was a widow who had two daughters; one of them was beautiful

and industrious, the other ugly and lazy. The mother, however, loved the ugly and lazy one

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best, because she was her own daughter, and so the other, who was only her stepdaughter, was

made to do all the work of the house, and was quite the Cinderella of the family. Her

stepmother sent her out every day to sit by the well in the high road, there to spin until she

made her fingers bleed. Now it chanced one day that some blood fell on to the spindle, and as

the girl stopped over the well to wash it off, the spindle suddenly sprang out of her hand and

fell into the well. She ran home crying to tell of her misfortune, but her stepmother spoke

harshly to her, and after giving her a violent scolding, said unkindly, ‘As you have let the

spindle fall into the well you may go yourself and fetch it out’.

The girl went back to the well not knowing what to do, and at last in her distress she

jumped into the water after the spindle .

She remembered nothing more until she awoke and found herself in a beautiful

meadow, full of sunshine, and with countless flowers blooming in every direction.

She walked over the meadow, and presently she came upon a baker’s oven full of bread,

and the loaves cried out to her, ‘Take us out, take us out, or alas! we shall be burnt to a cinder;

we were baked through long ago.’ So she took the bread-shovel and drew them all out.

She went on a little farther, till she came to a free full of apples. ‘Shake me, shake me, I

pray,’ cried the tree; ‘my apples, one and all, are ripe.’ So she shook the tree, and the apples

came falling down upon her like rain; but she continued shaking until there was not a single

apple left upon it. Then she carefully gathered the apples together in a heap and walked on

again.

The next thing she came to was a little house, and there she saw an old woman looking out,

with such large teeth, that she was terrified, and turned to run away. But the old woman called

after her, ‘What are you afraid of, dear child? Stay with me; if you will do the work of my

house properly for me, I will make you very happy. You must be very careful, however, to

make my bed in the right way, for I wish you always to shake it thoroughly, so that the

feathers fly about; then they say, down there in the world, that it is snowing; for I am Mother

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Holle.’ The old woman spoke so kindly, that the girl summoned up courage and agreed to

enter into her service.

She took care to do everything according to the old woman’s bidding and every time she

made the bed she shook it with all her might, so that the feathers flew about like so many

snowflakes. The old woman was as good as her word: she never spoke angrily to her, and

gave her roast and boiled meats every day.

So she stayed on with Mother Holle for some time, and then she began to grow nhappy.

She could not at first tell why she felt sad, but she became conscious at last of great longing to

go home; then she knew she was homesick, although she was a thousand times better off with

Mother Holle than with her mother and sister. After waiting awhile, she went to Mother Holle

and said, ‘I am so homesick, that I cannot stay with you any longer, for although I am so

happy here, I must return to my own people’.

Then Mother Holle said, ‘I am pleased that you should want to go back to your own

people, and as you have served me so well and faithfully, I will take you home myself’.

Thereupon she led the girl by the hand up to a broad gateway. The gate was opened, and

as the girl passed through, a shower of gold fell upon her, and the gold clung to her, so that

she was covered with it from head to foot.

’That is a reward for your industry,’ said Mother Holle, and as she spoke she handed her

the spindle which she had dropped into the well.

The gate was then closed, and the girl found herself back in the old world close to her

mother’s house. As she entered the courtyard, the cock who was perched on the well, called

out:

’Cock-a-doodle-doo!

Your golden daughter’s come back to you’.

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Then she went in to her mother and sister, and as she was so richly covered with gold,

they gave her a warm welcome. She related to them all that had happened, and when the

mother heard how she had come by her great riches, she thought she should like her ugly, lazy

daughter to go and try her fortune. So she made the sister go and sit by the well and spin, and

the girl pricked her finger and thrust her hand into a thorn-bush, so that she might drop some

blood on to the spindle; then she threw it into the well, and jumped in herself.

Like her sister she awoke in the beautiful meadow, and walked over it till she came to

the oven. ‘Take us out, take us out, or alas! we shall be burnt to a cinder; we were baked

through long ago,’ cried the loaves as before. But the lazy girl answered, ‘Do you think I am

going to dirty my hands for you?’ and walked on.

Presently she came to the apple-tree. ‘Shake me, shake me, I pray; my apples, one and

all, are ripe,’ it cried. But she only answered, ‘A nice thing to ask me to do, one of the apples

might fall on my head,’ and passed on.

At last she came to Mother Holle’s house, and as she had heard all about the large teeth

from her sister, she was not afraid of them, and engaged herself without delay to the old

woman.

The first day she was very obedient and industrious, and exerted herself to please

Mother Holle, for she thought of the gold she should get in return. The next day, however, she

began to dawdle over her work, and the third day she was more idle still; then she began to lie

in bed in the mornings and refused to get up. Worse still, she neglected to make the old

woman’s bed properly, and forgot to shake it so that the feathers might fly about. So Mother

Holle very soon got tired of her, and told her she might go. The lazy girl was delighted at this,

and thought to herself, ‘The gold will soon be mine.’ Mother Holle led her, as she had led her

sister, to the broad gateway; but as she was passing through, instead of the shower of gold, a

great bucketful of pitch came pouring over her.

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’That is in return for your services,’ said the old woman, and she shut the gate.

So the lazy girl had to go home covered with pitch, and the cock on the well called out as she

saw her:

’Cock-a-doodle-doo!

Your dirty daughter’s come back to you’.

But, try what she would, she could not get the pitch off and it stuck to her as long as she

lived.

List of references

a. Margaret Baudoin et. al. (1994). Reder’s Choice. 3rd.ed. The University of Michigan

Press.

b. Jean-Luc Bordron et.al. (2003) Going Places 2de. Les éditions Didier, Paris.

c. Jean-Luc Bordron et.al. (2005) Going Places Tle. Les éditions Didier, Paris.

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d. The Brothers Grimm. Grimms' Fairy Tales. Planet PDF.

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République Démocratique Populaire Algérienne Ministère de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche scientifique

Ecole Normale Supérieure des Lettres et Sciences Humaines Constantine

Distant ِCours

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LMD S4

Prepared by Soulef Boulmerka

Chargée de cours ENS Constantine

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2008-2009

Linguistics

Preview

Dear Student,

This course introduces an important field in linguistics which is sociolinguitics . It deals with the realtionships between language and society.It also provides examples of the different linguistic variation : dialect, diglossia, pidgin, and the relation between language variation and ethnicity, nationalism, social status, social solidarity, sex,...etc

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I.SOCIOLINGUISTICS

I.1. Sociolinguistics and LinguisticsIn general terms, sociolinguistics may be defined as the study of language in relation to society. It has become a thriving area within linguistics since 1960s, and the father of sociolinguistics is claimed to be William Labov .

)William Labov (born December 4, 1927) is a professor in the linguistics department of the University of Pennsylvania. He is widely regarded as the founder of the discipline of variationist sociolinguistics and pursues research in sociolinguistics,

language change, and dialectology.(

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Sociolinguistics studies issues like accents, dialects, language change, age, gender, etchnicity, social context, pidgins and creoles, language planning,code-switching and code-mixing etc. (Bloomer&Trott:1988).

I.2. SOME USEFUL DEFINITIONS

I.2.1. Definition of Society

A society is a grouping of individuals, which is characterized by common interests and may have distinctive culture and institutions. In a society, members can be from a different ethnic group. A "Society" may refer to a particular people, such as the Nuer (The Nuer are a confederation of tribes located in Southern Sudan and western Ethiopia. Collectively, the Nuer form one of the largest ethnic groups in East Africa. They are a pastoral peoplewho rely on cattle for almost every aspect of their daily lives) to nation state, such as Switzerland, or to a broader cultural group, such as a Western society. Society can also refer to an organized group of people associated together for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purpose.

I.2.2.Definition of Social class

It refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures.

Anthropologists, historians and sociologists identify class as universal, although what determines class varies widely from one society to another. Even within a society, different people or groups may have very different ideas about what makes one "high" or "low" in the hierarchy. The most basic class distinction between the two groups is between the powerful and the powerless. Social classes with more power usually subordinate classes with less power, while attempting to cement their own power positions in society. Social classes with a great deal of power are usually viewed as elites, at least within their own societies.

In the simplest societies, power is closely linked to the ability to assert one's status through physical strength; thus age, gender, and physical health are often common delineators of class in rudimentary tribes.

As societies expand and become more complex, economic power replaces physical power as the defender of the class status quo, so that one's class is determined largely by:

-Occupation ( profession) ,education ( teaching and learnng specific skills) , qualifications (professional certification, trade certification, or professional designation (often called simply certification or qualification) that assure that the person is qualified to perform a job or task.

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-income:personal, household and per capita

wealth or net worth, including the ownership of land, property, means of production… ,

Those who can attain a position of power in a society will often adopt distinctive lifestyles to emphasize their prestige and to further rank themselves within the powerful class. Often the adoption of these stylistic traits are as important as one's wealth in determining class status, at least at the higher levels:

-costume and grooming

-manners and cultural refinement. For example, there is a notion of high and low classes with a distinction between bourgeois tastes and sensitivities and the working class tastes and sensitivities .

-political standing vis-à-vis the church, government, and/or social clubs, as well as the use of honorary titles

-reputation of honor or disgrace

-language : the distinction between elaborate code, which is seen as a criterion for "upper-class", and the restricted code, which is associated with "lower classes "

Finally, fluid notions such as race can have widely varying degrees of influence on class standing. Having characteristics of a particular ethnic group may improve one's class status in many societies. However, what is considered "racially superior" in one society can often be exactly the opposite in another.

I.2.3. Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a more or less discrete group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves.Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specialized jargon distinct social groups like high school students , or even tight-knit groups like families and friends. In addition, online and other mediated communities, such as many internet forums , often constitute speech communities. Members of speech communities will often develop slang or jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities.

I.3 Varieties of Language

Dear student. Before we review various aspects of language variation in more detail, I want to make sure you have got some basic terms and concepts down:

I.3.1. SOME IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

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1-Language variety: This is a general term that may be used at a number of levels. So, we can use the term to distinguish between English and French, but we can also use the term to distinguish between two varieties of English, such as New York City English vs. Appalachian English

2-Internal Variation: the property of languages having different ways of expressing the same meaning. Importantly, this refers to within language, not across language, differences. An example of internal variation in English is "GIVE" vs. "GIVES".

3-Dialect: This is a complex and often misunderstood concept. For linguists, a dialect is the collection of attributes (phonetic, phonological, syntactic, morphological, semantic) that make one group of speakers noticeably different from another group of speakers of the same language.

I .3.2 COMMON SOURCES OF MISUNDERSTANDING

1- DIALECT is NOT a negative term for linguists. Very often, for example, we hear people refer to non-standard varieties of English as "dialects", usually to say something bad about the non-standard variety (and thus about the people who speak it). But, the term dialect refers to ANY variety of a language. Thus, by definition, we all speak a dialect of our native language.

2- DIALECT is NOT synonymous with accent. Accent is only a part of dialectal variation.

Non-linguists often think accents define a dialect (or that accents alone identify people as non-native or foreign language speakers). Also, non-linguists tend to think that it's always the "other" people that have "an accent". So, what is "accent"?

3- ACCENT: This term refers to phonological variation, i.e. variation in pronunciation Thus, if we talk about a Southern Accent, we're talking about a generalized property of English pronunciation in the Southern part of the US. But, Southern dialects have more than particular phonological properties .A person is said to have an Oxford accent when we find in his speech certain phonological characteristics related to English spoken in that town. The term accent is also used to refer to some ,foreign, non –native features in the speech of a person- usually a foreigner speaking a second language. Accent is thus about pronunciation, while dialect is a broader term encompassing syntactic, morphological, and semantic properties as well.

A final note on accent. WE ALL HAVE ONE! There is no such thing as a person who speaks without an accent.

In sum, a dialect is a particular variety of a language, and we all have a dialect. Accent refers to the phonology of a given dialect. Since we all have a dialect, we all have an accent.

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-A language, say English, is really a collection of dialects.

-A dialect is a particular variety of a language that differs noticeably from the variety or varieties of the same language spoken by another group or groups of people .

-Dialects themselves are collections of idiolects (and thus so are languages) .

I.3.3. Standard and Non-Standard Dialects

A standard dialect (also known as a standardized dialect or "standard language") is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a "correct" spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated with a language. For example, Standard British EnglishBritish English (BrE, BE, en-GB) is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere in the Anglophone world. British English encompasses the varieties of English used within the UK, including those in England; Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. Some may also use the term more widely, to include other forms such as Hiberno-English (spoken in Ireland.

In daily circumstances, most Britons — the majority of whom speak English as either a first or a second language — consider that they just speak "English", rather than "British English" specifically; the term "British English" is used only when necessary to distinguish it from other forms of English

Standard British English and Standard Indian English may all be said to be standard dialects of the English language.

A nonstandard dialect, like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional support.

I.3.4. Regional Dialect

A regional dialect is not a distinct language but a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a country. Some regional dialects have been given traditional names which mark them out as being significantly different from standard varieties spoken in the same place. Some examples are 'Hillbilly English' (from the Appalachians in the USA) and 'Geordie' (from Newcastle upon Tyne in the UK). For example the differences between American and British English are on many levels: Pronunciation –e.g. Am E / Kar/ and Br E / ka/ for car ; Lexis-e.g.AmE gas and BRE petrol; morphology – AmE dove and BrE dived as the past form of dive ; and syntax – e.g. AmE I don’t have a car and BrE I have not a car.

I.3.5. Minority Dialect

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Sometimes members of a particular minority ethnic group have their own variety which they use as a marker of identity, usually alongside a standard variety. This is called a minority dialect. Examples are African American Vernacular English in the USA, London Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in Australia.

I.3.6. Indigenized variety

Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as second languages in ex-colonies with multilingual populations. The differences from the standard variety may be linked to English proficiency, or may be part of a range of varieties used to express identity. For example, 'Singlish' (spoken in Singapore) is a variety very different from standard English, and there are many other varieties of English used in India.

I.3.7. Social Varieties

Another kind of language variation is linked to the different social classes in the society( speech community). Members within the same speech community have differences in their linguistic behaviour determined by the social group or social class they belong to. Factors such religion ,cultural background education, profession place of residence , financial wealth and others ( see social class above ???? ) determine people’s social position and differentiation end thus the way they speak.

I.3.8 Variation According to the Use of Language

1-Registers (or diatypes): the specialised vocabulary and/or grammar of certain activities or professions ( professional language) .A register is a subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, an English speaker may adhere more closely to prescribed grammar , pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal (e.g. "walking", not "walkin'") and refrain from using the word "ain't " when speaking in a formal setting, but the same person could violate all of these prescriptions in an informal setting.

The term was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956, and brought into general currency in the 1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to distinguish between variations in language according to the user (defined by variables such as social background, geography, sex and age), and variations according to use, "in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and chooses between them at different times" (Halliday et al, 1964). The focus is on the way language is used in particular situations, such as legalese or motherese, (Baby talk, motherese, parentese or child-directed speech is a non-standard form of speech used by adults in talking to toddlers and infants. It is usually delivered with a "cooing" pattern of intonation different from that of normal adult speech: high in pitch, with many glissando variations that are more pronounced than those of normal speech. Baby talk is also characterized by the shortening and simplifying of words ) and the language of a biology research lab.

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Halliday (1964) identifies three variables that determine register: field (the subject matter of the discourse), tenor (the participants and their relationships) and mode (the channel of communication, e.g. spoken or written). Any or all of the elements of language may vary in different registers — vocabulary , syntax, phonology, morphology, pragmatic rules or different paralinguistic features such as pitch, volume and intonation in spoken English, or size and speed of sign production in a sign language. Registers often also have non-linguistic prescriptions such as appropriate dress codes, body language, and proximity of speakers to one another

2-Stylistics is the study of varieties of language whose properties position that language in context. For example, the language of advertising, politics, religion, individual authors, etc., or the language of a period in time, all belong in a particular situation. In other words, they all have ‘place’.

Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception of meaning , critical discourse analysis and literary criticism.

Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and people’s dialects , descriptive language, the use of grammar , such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers, etc.

I.3.9. Other Examples of Language Varieties

1-Idiolect: An idiolect is simply the technical term we use to refer to the variety of language spoken by each individual speaker of the language. Just as there is variation among groups of speakers of a language, there is variation from speaker to speaker. No two speakers of a language speak identically. Each speaks her or his own particular variety of that language. Each thus speaks her or his own idiolect .

2-Idiom is a term neutral to the dialect–language distinction and is used to refer to the studied communicative system (that could be called either a dialect or a language) when its status with respect to this distinction is irrelevant (thus it is a synonym to language the more

general sense) ;

3-sociolects: varieties spoken by socially defined speech communities . It is associated with a particular social class

4-Standard language :standardized for education and public performance.

5-Ethnolects: for an ethnic group

6-Ecolect: an idiolect adopted by a household

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Note:Varieties such as dialects, idiolects, and sociolects can be distinguished not only by their vocabulary, but also by differences in grammar, phonology and prosody.

I.4. Varieties in Contact ( Mixture of Varieties)

Whenever two languages or two language varieties exist in the same speech community side by side, many important matters related to their functions ,their relation to each other, to their seperation or mixture evolve; which involve the topics of diglossia, bilingualism, code switching, pidgins and creoles.

I.4.1. Diglossia

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diglossia is a situation where, in a given society, there are two (often) closely-related languages, one of high prestige, which is generally used by the government and in formal texts, and one of low prestige, which is usually the spoken vernacular tongue. (Vernacular refers to the native language of a country or locality. it is used to describe local languages as opposed to linguae francae( lingua franca is any language widely used beyond the population of its native speakers ), official standards or global languages. It is sometimes applied to nonstandard dialects of a global language.For instance: in Western Europe up until the 17th century, most scholarly work was written in Latin, so works written in a native language (such as Italian or German) were said to be in the vernacular) The high-prestige language tends to be the more formalised, and its forms and vocabulary often 'filter down' into the vernacular, though often in a Fergusson in 1959 who gave it the folowing defintion ” diglossia is a relatively stable language situation in which,in addition to the primary dialects of the language ( which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified ( often grammatically more complex) variety , the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learnrd largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes, but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation”

There are few cases of the diglossic situation in the world. We may find it in Switzerland ( standard German and Swiss German), in Haiti ( Standard French and Haitian creole). The best example of diglossia is the linguistic situation in the Arab world. In each Arab- speaking community, there are two varieties of Arabic in use:Standard Arabic and a spoken colloquial.In each diglossic situation there is a High variety ( Standard Arabic)and a Low variety (Spoken colloquial).

I.4.2 Bilingualism and Multigualism

The term bilingualism( sometimes also referred to as multigualism) can refer to phenomena regarding an individual speaker who uses two or more languages, a community of speakers where two or more languages are used, or between speakers of different languages.

Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers(monoglottism from(Greek monos, "alone, solitary", + glotta, "tongue, language") or, more commonly, monolingualism or unilingualism is the condition of being able to speak only a single language

I.4. 2.1. Multilingualism within an Individual

A multilingual person, in the broadest definition, is anyone who can communicate in more than one language, be it active (through speaking and writing) or passive (through listening and reading). More specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved, respectively.

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Multilingualism could be rigidly defined as being native-like in two or more languages. It could also be loosely defined as being less than native-like but still able to communicate in two or more languages.

Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). First languages (sometimes also referred to as mother tongue) are acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two first languages since birth are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals one language usually dominates over the other. This kind of bilingualism is most likely to occur when a child is raised by bilingual parents in a predominantly monolingual environment.

I.4.3. Distinction between Bilingualism and Diglossia

It is important to note that "diglossia" and "bilingualism/multilingualism" refer to different, although similar, sociolinguistic situations. Diglossia is the term usually applied to the sociolinguistic situation in much of the Arabic-speaking world. In these countries, there are two FORMS OF THE SAME LANGUAGE (conventionally called "High" and "Low") that are used in different situations. The "High" form (called "Modern Standard Arabic") is normally used in FORMAL situations, such as writing, political speeches, university lectures, television news, etc. The "Low" form (referred to as "dialects," ) is used in INFORMAL situations, such as conversations, etc. It is useful to think of the language situation as it applies to Arabic as being on a continuum. At one end of this continuum is the "High" form, i.e., Modern Standard Arabic, and at the other lies the "Low" form, i.e., the various dialects. A person's place on this continuum would most likely be somewhere between these two poles, for it is unlikely that they would use pure Modern Standard or a colloquial in a given setting. The choice on which form, or code, to use would depend on many factors, including speaker, conversation, topic, and setting.On the other hand, bilingualism is the term more conventionally used to describe the sociolinguistic situation in Belgium and Switzerland (multilingualism for Switzerland's 4 languages). The key difference is that in a bilingual situation certain INDIVIDUALS (communities, etc.) will use Language A, while other INDIVIDUALS (communities, etc.) will use Language B, but EVERYONE will use the SAME LANGUAGE for all situations -- writing, job interviews, dinner table chats, etc. That's the IDEAL. In practice, it gets much messier, and it is best to think of these terms as representing ends of a continuum--actual societies fit somewhere along connecting these two poles. In the American Southwest, for instance, Spanish and English coexist in a situation of bilingualism, but there are some important diglossic elements: in many cases English is used for high-prestige, formal contexts of speech, while Spanish is used primarily in the home, in conversations among good friends, etc. Spanish thus becomes the "Low" form and English the "High" form.

I.4.4. Code Switching (Code Mixing)

Speakers of more than one language (e.g., bilinguals) are known for their ability to

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code-switch or mix their languages during communication. This phenomenon occurs when bilinguals substitute a word or phrase from one language with a phrase or word from another language. To illustrate, consider the sentence, (1) I want a motorcycle VERDE. In this sentence, the English word “green” is replaced with its Spanish equivalent. A noteworthy aspect of sentence (1) above is that the Spanish adjective “verde” follows a grammatical rule that is observed by most bilingual speakers that code-switch. Thus, according to the specific grammatical rule-governing sentence (1) above, sentence (2) I want a VERDE motorcycle would be incorrect because language switching can occur between an adjective and a noun, only if the adjective is placed according to the rules of the language of the adjective. In this case, the adjective is in Spanish; therefore, the adjective must follow the Spanish grammatical rule that states that the noun must precede the adjective.Traditionally, code-switching has been viewed as a strategy to compensate for diminished language proficiency. The premise behind this theory is that bilinguals code-switch because they do not know either language completely. This argument is also known as semi-lingualism, which underscores the notion that bilinguals “almost” speak both languages correctly. However, one concern with this account is that the notion of language proficiency is not clearly defined. It is not clear whether reading and writing language skills should take precedence over spoken language. This reliance on reading and writing is problematic because most bilinguals receive their formal education in one language, whereas a majority of their social interactions take place in the other language. So, when their reading and writing abilities are tested in both languages, the language in which bilinguals received more formal education will usually fare better.Recent developments in psycholinguistic research has focused on how code-switching is a natural product of the interaction of the bilingual’s two languages. Early researchers viewed code-switching as evidence that the bilinguals’ two languages were organized in separate and distinct mental dictionaries. For example, a general finding throughout the literature is that bilinguals take longer to read and comprehend sentences containing code-switched words as compared to monolingual sentences. Apparently, this time consuming process is due to a “mental switch mechanism” that determines which of the bilingual’s two mental dictionaries are “on” or “off” during the course of language comprehension. This mental switch is responsible for selecting the appropriate mental dictionary to be employed during the comprehension of a sentence. Thus, for a Spanish-English bilingual speaking English, the English linguistic system is turned on, whereas the Spanish linguistic system remains off. However, if during the course of comprehending a sentence, a Spanish code-switched word is encountered, the mental switch must disable the English linguistic system, and enable the Spanish linguistic system .

Another current view suggests that language dominance (i.e., which language is used more frequently) plays an important role in code-switching. For example, Spanish-English bilinguals report more linguistic interference (code-switching) when they communicate in Spanish, their first-language, and little or no code-switching when they communicate in English, their second-language. In other words, these bilinguals code-switch more when they communicate in Spanish than when they use English. Empirical research supports these observations. Psycholinguistic evidence also suggests that bilinguals retrieve English code-switched words faster when they listen to Spanish sentences, whereas they are slower to retrieve Spanish code-switched words as they listen to English sentences. More interestingly, evidence also shows that code-switched words are actually retrieved faster than monolingual

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words, but only if the code-switched word is in English, and the language of communication is Spanish. These results suggest a reliance on the bilingual’s second-language as opposed to their first-language. How are these results explained? The general idea behind this view is that after a certain level of fluency and frequent use of the second-language, a language shift occurs in which the second-language behaves as if it were the bilingual’s first-language. In other words, the second-language becomes more readily accessible and bilinguals come to rely on it more. Thus, regardless of which language the bilingual learned first, the more active (dominant) language determines which mental dictionary is going to be accessed faster. This argument is reasonable since most bilinguals in the US, whose first-language is Spanish, obtain their formal education in English. Likewise, many of their everyday interactions involve the second-language. As a result, words and concepts in English, the second-language, become more accessible than words in Spanish, the first-language. Thus, code-switching is not the same for both languages. Rather, it depends on language dominance .

In short, code-switching may be indicative of difficulties in retrieval (access) affected by a combination of closely-related factors such as language use (i.e., how often the first-language is used) and word frequency (i.e., how much a particular word is used in the language). Finally, the notion that people code-switch as a strategy in order to be better understood and to enhance the listeners’ comprehension is another plausible alternative.

I.4.5 .Borrowing

There is a difference between code-switching and borrowing though on the surface they seem to include the use of “foreign words” in a conversation that is conducted in another language .The difference lies in the existence and the use of one or more language system in the mind of the speaker. Borrowing usually occurs when the speaker is unable to find or ignores an appropriate equivalent for the borrowed word in the first language. The borrowed elements are usually single words and are modified so as to conform to the first language rules. In code switching, however, speakers switch codes not because they do not know an item/s in one of the codes; rather they do for necessary social considerations. Code switching occurs completely i.e. in phonetics, morphology, grammar and vocabulary. There is no adjustment or change to the rules of the other code.

I.4.6. Pidgin

Pidgin is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to communicate but don't share a common language. The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one particular language (called the 'lexifier'). An early 'pre-pidgin' is quite restricted in use and variable in structure. But the later 'stable pidgin' develops its own grammatical rules which are quite different from those of the lexifier.

Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as a second language and used for communication among people who speak different languages. (Nigerian Pidgin)

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I.4.6.1. Reasons for the Development of Pidgins       In the nineteenth century, when slaves from Africa were brought over to North America

to work on the plantations, they were separated from the people of their community and mixed with people of various other communities, therefore they were unable to communicate with each other. The strategy behind this was so they couldn't come up with a plot to escape back to their land. Therefore, in order to finally communicate with their peers on the plantations, and with their bosses, they needed to form a language in which they could communicate. Pidgins also arose because of colonization. Prominent languages such as French, Spanish, Portuguese, English, and Dutch were the languages of the colonizers. They travelled, and set up ports in coastal towns where shipping and trading routes were accessible.

The superstrate ( lexifier) language from the Papua New Guinea Creole example above is English. The other minority languages that contribute to the pidgin are called the substrate languages.

I.4.7. CREOLE

When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a creole. Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rules. Unlike a pidgin, however, a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any other language in its full range of functions. Examples are Gullah, Jamaican Creole and Hawaii” Creole English.

Note that the words 'pidgin' and 'creole' are technical terms used by linguists, and not necessarily by speakers of the language. For example, speakers of Jamaican Creole call their language 'Patwa' (from patois) and speakers of Hawaii Creole English call theirs 'Pidgin.'

I.5. Language and Social Interaction

I.5.1. Speech Functions

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One particular side of the relation between language and society is that of the use of language in the interaction between individuals in a community. This social interaction requires some necessary functions and rules reflected in the ways people use speech.

Speech has functions. We speak to communicate some information. This informative or referential function is one of the basic functions of speech. We may also use speech to report feelings and attitudes. This is its expressive function . We may speak to cause or prevent overt actions ; this is the directive function. These three functions are the basic ones though identifying just these three is an oversimplification. Several other uses of language deserve mention. The phatic function refers to the expressions of sympathy like " how are you? “ and” fantastic” as well as “street –corner” and “elevator talk” conversations”.The poetic function of speech refers to the use of aesthetic features, such as poems ,rhymes , etc…The metalinguistic function refers to the use of language

I.5.2. Solidarity and Power

The type of relationship the speaker has with the addressee determines the choice of one linguistic form than another. Among the social relationships between the speaker and the interlocutors can be defined in terms of power and solidarity.

Power refers to the unequal relation between people –one of them being superior, the other a subordinate. e.g. teacher-pupil- father-son-officer- soldier. Solidarity on the other hand, concerns the extent of the social distance between people- how close they are, how intimate they are, how much they share in social characteristics. The variety in social relations determines the choice of language and linguistic forms. For example a teacher usually tends to use the imperative with his pupils, whereas people of equal status will use the declarative and the interrogative and strangers will tend to use polite formula.

I.5.3. Forms of Address

The type of relationship the speaker has with the addressee determines again the form of address in speech situations. A person can be addressed by different titles ( Mr or Dr,or Pr Brown) or by his first name John. Again the concepts of power and solidarity discussed above interfere. Mr or Dr Brown is used when there is low solidarity between the speaker and the addressee i.e. when the addressee is superior. In case there is high solidarity between the speaker and Mr Brown , then the first name John is used. In French “tu” is used in situations of high solidarity and “vous” is used in between strangers and cases of low solidarity.

I.5.4. Language and Social Inequality

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In the view of modern linguistics all languages are equal. There is no language that is better, more beautiful or more expressive and cultured than another. There is no bad or ugly language. All languages are complex and serve the communicative needs of their communities. However, many people do not agree with this view and attribute judgments to one language /s or language variety.

In this section, some issues of social inequality will be discussed.

I.5.4.1. Minority Languages

A minority language is a language spoken by a minority of the population of a country usually ethnic distinct groups (minorities). Such people are termed "linguistic minorities".For example , in Algeria , beside Arabic, there is Berber, and in Iraq there are Kurdish, Turkish, and one or two dialects of Syriac beside Arabic.

The social status of these languages is different from that of the language of the majority which is usually the official language and is a tool for for social, politiacl, and economic advantage.

Historically, minority languages have been overlooked, and since language is emblematic for national and ethnic identity, most of their native speakers were kept at their low satus socially and politically. For political reasons , govenments have intervened in the affais of their linguistic minorities by discourging the leaning and the teaching of such languages and even sometimes the use of these languages.

Nowdays, humanistic attitudes have gained position . Govenments now encourage these minority languages in education especially when they do not represent , as symbols of national unity, any political threat to these governments .

I.5.5. Elaborated and Restricted Codes

Another linguistic disadvantage concerns the deficiency of the language of the lower social classes. Basil Bernstein in 1971 makes a significant contribution to the study of Communication with his sociolinguistic theory of language codes. As an educator, he was interested in accounting for the relatively poor performance of working-class students in language based subjects, when they were achieving scores as high as their middle-class counterparts on mathematical topics. In his theory, Bernstein makes a direct correlation between societal class and language. Within the broader category of language codes are elaborated and restricted codes. These two codes (varieties) are different as far as the contexts they are used in are concerned. They also differ linguistically.

The elaborated code is characterised by the use of syntactically complex sentences and subordinate clauses, a high proportion of adjectives and adverbs, frequent use of the pronoun I and complex use of prepositions and conjunctions Elaborated codes have a longer, more

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complicated sentence structure that utilizes uncommon words and thoughts. In the elaborate code there is no padding or filler, only complete, well laid out thoughts that require no previous knowledge on the part of the listener, i.e., necessary details will be provided. The restricted code is, however, distinguished by the employment of short and simple sentences, which may not be formed, few conjunctions, and little subordination. The use of adjectives and adverbs is limited. The restricted code is less formal with shorter phrases interjected into the middle or end of a thought to confirm understanding. For example, “you know,” “you know what I mean,“ “right?” and  “don’t you think?”

Bernstein makes a correlation between social class and the use of either elaborated or restricted code. He reports that in the working class you are likely to find the use of the restricted code, whereas in the middle class you find the use of both the restricted and elaborated codes. His research argues that the working class have access only to restricted codes, the ones they learned in the socialization process, where “both the values and role systems reinforce restricted codes”.  However, the middle class, being more geographically, socially and culturally mobile has access to both the restricted codes and elaborate codes. According to Bernstein (1971), a working class person communicates in restricted code as a result of the conditions in which they were raised and the socialization process. The same is true for the middle class person with the exception that they were exposed to the elaborate code as well. Both groups use restricted code at some point, for as Atherton (2002) points out, “Everyone uses restricted code communication some of the time. It would be a very peculiar and cold family which did not have its own language.” 

I.5.6 Language and Sex

Language mirrors the structure of the speech community and reflects the social and cultural values that exist in that community. Among the latter is sexism. Language itself is not sexist, but the speech community distinguishes between its members according to whether they are males or females, and gives them different social roles which are going to be reflected in the language of that community. In the following two sections how sexist social attitudes are reflected in language and the ways men and women use language will be discussed.

I.5.6.1.Sexism in Language

Human civilisation has given unequal status to men and women which can be observed easily in human language. Sexism in language is the use of language which devalues members of one sex, almost invariably women, and thus fosters gender inequality.

It discriminates against women by rendering them invisible or trivializing them at the same time that it perpetuates notions of male supremacy. For example English has manly courage and masculine charm, but feminine hands and women tears. Some nouns that refer to professions reflect the distribution of roles that has been, historically prevalent. Rector, chancellor, worker and doctor, and similar terms, are interpreted to refer to a man because these were professions that only men did. Similarly, typist and nurse are interpreted to refer to a woman.

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The following table shows the differentiation patterns in English as a result of the sexism in the society and the increasingly more neutral terms that replacing the old sexist ones.

Current Usage Alternative man human being, human, person, individual mankind, men human beings, humans,

humankind,humanity, people, human human species, society,

men and women workers, wage earners

working men, workmen

man on the street average person, ordinary person, the common tao

forefather ancestor

layman layperson,nonspecialist, non professionalmanhood adulthood, maturity

to a man everyone, unanimously, without exception one man show one person show solo exhibit founding fathers founders

manpower human resources, staff, personnel,labor force

brotherhood of man the family of humanity, the unity of people or of humankind human solidarity

early man early people, early men and women, early human beings

statemanship diplomacy

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man-made manufactured, synthetic, artificial

old masters classic art/artists

masterful domineering, very skillful

I.5.6.2. Man Language and Woman Language

Study of human societies has indicated that the speech of women differs from that of men. These differences are seen at all linguistic levels. At the level of vocabulary for example, women do not use some taboo words that only males use. These words are sexual vocabulary, swear words, words referring to body function, etc…Research has also revealed that in Norwich , a town in England, women pronounce words like walking , cooking , singing, etc with the standard variant of the variable ing more than men. In English women also use some colour words that are not used by men such beige, mauve and lavender.

Women and men are treated differently by the society, which involves different behavioural patterns from them since they play different roles in it. Women and men know these social differences and behave accordingly so as not to be socially inept.

Bibliography- Berstein’s ,B. (1964). Elaborated and restricted codes. In Grumperz and

Hymes ( ed). The Ethnography of Communication. Special issue of American Anthropologist.

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- Downes, W. (1984) Language and Society. Fontana.

- Ferguson,C.(1959). Diglossia. .Word.15:325-40

- Fisluman J ( 1971) Sociolinguistics.: Newbury House.

- Fromkin,J and R Rodman ( 1993) . An Introduction to Language.Holt, Rinchart and Winston.

- Holmes, J (1992) An Introduction to Sociolinguistics,: Longman.

- Hudson, R.( 1980) Sociolinguistics. C.U.P

- Lyons , John( 1981) Language and Linguistics .C.U.P

- Lyons ,John ( 1987) New Horizons in Linguistics, Vols 1&2 .Penguin

- Trudgill, P ( 1974) Sociolinguistics. Penguin

- Wardhaugh, R ( 1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. ( 2 nd edition)

Blackwell.

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People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

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Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Teacher Training School of Constantine

Intended as a distance training course for Middle School Teachers

Fourth Semester

Designed by Soraya Mezhoud

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Lesson One

Language teaching methods and approaches

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1 .Basic definitions

'Technique', 'method' and 'approach' are terms which recur so often in the field of language teaching that they need to be defined in order to draw a distinction between them.

1.1 .Technique

This is what actually goes on in the classroom as an implementation of a method, which in turn is an application of an approach. A technique refers to all the activities used by the teacher and performed by the pupils in the classroom. For example, audio-visual aids such as language labs, tape recorders, television set, slides, video recorders are techniques which are used to achieve an immediate objective. Some techniques are used with a variety of methods such as imitation and repetition. Others, however, are specific to a given method.

1.2 .Method

This is the application of the principles underlying a particular approach. A method consists of the use of a certain number of techniques in a systematic way in order to achieve the aim of language teaching. A method includes the lesson plan, the syllabus, the textbook, other teaching materials and the number of teaching periods. It also includes decisions made about language teaching outside the classroom. All these components must be in harmony with the basic principles of the selected approach.

A method is procedural in the sense that it shows accurately how a language should be taught as it deals with the practical side of foreign language instruction. A method is more general than a technique and more specific than an approach.

1.3 .Approach

This term is relatively new compared to the term 'method'. An approach refers to the principles or assumptions underlying the process of language teaching and learning. It is also a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of the language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. It is also considered a theory of applied linguistics, which seeks to explain the phenomenon of language learning in terms which assit the learner to achieve his goal.

Technique, method and approach are interdependent. They are arranged in the form of a hierarchy in which 'approach' is placed at the top followed by 'method' and then 'technique .'

2 .Teaching methods and approaches

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In language teaching, there are constant changes and developments of teaching methods and approaches. This can be attributed to the different focuses on different types of language skills either written or oral, to the realisation that a given method or approach carries certain limitations which render it unable to meet the needs of the learners for real communication or to the development of the need for communication especially after the Second World War. Each new method or approach is built on the limitations of the preceding one. The following are the most common language teaching methods and approaches and their shortcomings .

2.1 .The Grammar-Translation Method / Approach

This method was originally used to teach classical languages, such as Latin and Greek, which were not taught for everyday communication. But gradually, it was generalised to teach modern languages such as French and English. It dominated the English language teaching field in Algeria in the 1960's at all educational levels. This method is a way of studying a language through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by an application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences into and out of the target language .

The method was based on a prescription of the whole grammar of the language according to the criterion of what is right and what is wrong in order to enable the learners to master the general rules governing the written form of the language and to translate from and into the foreign language.

Shortcomings

This approach has been criticised on many grounds:

a) This approach was not based on any explicit psycholinguistic or sociolinguistic theory. Therefore, it did not concern itself with how learners learn the language or how they actually use it. Its main concern was purely linguistic .

b) Practical mastery of the language being learned or actual use of it were totally ignored .

c) The learners in that approach were completely passive.

d) As the classroom technique consisted of giving definitions, rules, explanations and exceptions in the mother tongue, the time necessary for practicing the foreign language is greatly reduced.

e) The technique of giving definitions and rules is very boring and of little benefit to the learners .

f) The method is a continuous process of memorisation of lists of unusable grammar rules, vocabulary and of attempts to produce perfect translations of literary extracts. Therefore, the

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focus is on form rather than meaning. Very often students cannot concentrate on the message as they are obliged to read word by word.

g) Although translation from time to time is helpful, it becomes harmful when it is taken as a method of learning a language. The learner is thus implicitly admitting that he does not intend to learn the foreign language or that it is impossible for him to learn it, since the only way for him to undertand it is through translation.

h) As for the use of literary works by great authors for teaching a foreign language, it is agreed on that one should be able to understand, speak and read adequately the language before one starts to read and appreciate literature written in that language.

2.2 .The Direct Method

This method was developed in order to overcome the shortcomings of the Grammar-Translation Method which was unhelpful to those who wanted to learn a foreign language for communication. This method became popular during the early years of the Twentieth Century. It is called 'Direct' because the teaching of the foreign language was done without any resort to the mother tongue. It is based on the assumption that one should learn a foreign language as one would learn one's mother tongue. This method was used in Algeria in the 1970's through the textbooks Andy In Algeria, Learn English With Us. 3éme AM (1977) and Madjid In England, Learn English With Us. 4éme AM (1977). The main assumptions underlying this method are:

a) Grammatical rules are not taught explicitly but are rather acquired unconsciously through intensive listening and imitation. So memorisation of conjugations and rules of grammar is rejected as priority is given to speech and oral skills.

b) Translation is considered a useles activity in foreign language learning. Thus dramatisation, demonstration and pointing at objects are used for teaching the meaning of difficult words.

c) As the focus is put on speech and oral skills, reading and writing are postponed for months until firm grounds in listening and speaknig are secured. However, advanced learners can read literary texts for pleasure and comprehension and not for grammatical analysis .

d) Pupils are also introduced to the foreign culture inductively.

Many techniques and procedures are used for the sake of making this method more effective such as question and answer exchanges between teacher and learners, vocabulary teaching through demonstration, objects and pictures, and the 'mim-mem' technique which consisted of the students imitating selected foreign language sentences, short dialogues, expressions and songs, and then memorising them.

Shortcomings

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a) In this method all the language activities are related to the classroom context, and not to real life situations. Therefore, learners are not prepared to use the foreign language for communication as the teachers do not think of them using it outside the confines of the classroom

b) It is time consuming because it is not easy to explain the meanings of the difficult words through pointing at objects and dramatisation, especially in the case of abstract words.c) It requires a highly competent teacher who is very fluent in the foreign language and a great number of class hours as most of the work is done in the classroom.

2.3 .The Aural- Oral Approach (The Audio Lingual Method)

After the Second World War, there emerged a wide-world interest in foreign languages and an urgent need for international communication. As there was a general feeling of discontent with the traditional methods, namely the Grammar-Translation Method and the Direct Method whose validity and adaquacy, especially for teaching the spoken form of language, were questioned, the necessity of developing a new teaching method which would cater for these shortcomings was felt .

Developments in the fields of linguistics as well as experimentation in Educational Technology and Psychology gave rise to the Aural-Oral Approach which was a reaction to the Grammar Translation Method and a modification of the Direct Method. The Aural-Oral Approach was used in Algeria through Succes With English Coursebouk I 1970 and Succes With English Coursebouk II 1971 .

The theory on which the approach is based implies the acquisition of oral language skills through oral practice based on repetition and learning by analogy. The Aural-Oral Approach is based on the belief that language is essentially acquired through habits and that responses must be drilled until they become natural and automatic. This reflects a behaviourist view of language learning influenced by the psychologist Skinner.

The method aims at developing listening and speaking first as the foundation on which to build the skills of reading and writing. This means that before the learners are taught how to read and write the language structures, they should first be brought to proficiency in oral and aural use of these structures. The following are the assumptions on which this method is based:

Langauge is speech not writing Lnaguge is a set of habits. This principle means that language is acquired by imitation and

practice. Habits are established by stimulus, response and reinforcement. Teach the language, not about the language. This means that we must teach the pupils a

set of habits, not a set of rules to enable them to talk in the language not to talk about the language.

A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say, we should deal with language as it is and not prescribe what other people say.

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Shortcomings

a)This method encouraged successful responses and manipulation of language and disregarded meaning. So, pupils especially at the early stages of language instruction have to repeat incomprehensible material to make the production of speech automatic and habitual. In this way the method fails to prepare the learner to use the foreign language for meaningful communication.

b) Mechanical drills and repetition can be effective in the early stages of language instruction or for the teaching of certain aspects of language, but they are not necessarily conducive to real communication.

c) The focus on mechanical repetition through the use of oral drills leads also to a complete negligence of creative use of language and cognition.

d) Too much emphasis is put on speech at the expense of other language skills. However, there is no reason why all language skills should not be taught simultaneoulsy instead of being introduced in a certain order, i.e., listening, speaking, reading and writing.

2.4 .The Situational Approach

This approach emerged and dominated the language teaching field in Britain during the 1940's, 1950's and 1960's. It includes aspects of the Direct Method and of the emerging field of language pedagogy. This method was used in Algeria through L.G. Alexander's Practice and Progress (1967). This textbook was used for the three secondary school years.

The characteristics of the Situational Approach are summarized as follows: The spoken language is primary. All language material is practiced orally before being presented in written form (reading and

writing are taught only after an oral base in lexical and grammatical forms has been established.

Only the target language should be used in the classroom. Efforts are made to ensure that the most general and useful lexical items are presented. Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex. New items (lexical and grammatical) are introduced and practiced situationally (e.g. at the

post-office, at the bank, at the dinner table…)

Another important feature of this method is the presentation of sentences in association with actions, mime, realia and visual aids (like the Direct Method). So the structres of the language are presented and practiced by the use of physical demonstration of notions and objects. Utterances are illustrated by simulation of actions, pictures and other real objects.

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In this method, the teacher occupies a central role, for he takes on the responsibility for varying drills and tasks and choosing the appropriate situations to practice structures. Moreover, he acts as a model to be imitated by the pupils who are required to listen and repeat. Active verbal interaction between the teacher and the pupils is of vital importance in

this method. In fact language learning is seen to be the direct result of this interaction .

Shortcomings

a) The situations that are created are pedagogic, bearing little resemblance to natural language use.

b) Learners are not shown how the use of a sructure in a particular situation can be generalized to another situation.

c) The situations are not graded, but selected at random to serve the purpose of the structures on which they are based .

d) It is not possible to enumerate all the situations that the learners are likely to meet in reality.

2.5 .The Communicative Approach

It is generally referred to as the Functional-Notional Approach. It emerged in the early 1970's as a result of the work of the Council of Europe experts. The approach was primarly designed to meet the needs of adult learners, tourists or people engaged in academic, cultural, technical or economic activities. However, it can be traced back to the work of Chomsky in the 1960's when he advanced the two notions of 'competence' and 'performance' as a reaction to the prevalent audio-lingual method and its view on language learning. These two concepts were later developed by Hymes into a 'communicative competence' which refers to the psychological, cultural and social rules which discipline the use of speech.

The new concept of 'communicative competence' has been expanded by many writers. They have proposed seven categories of communicative functions which are requesting and giving information, expressing thought processes, expressing opinions, moral discipline and evaluation, modifying people's bahaviour, expressing personal feelings and intracting socially. Under each of these categories there are many notions. Other categories have also been

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identified to facilitate interaction between speakers from the first lesson of leanrning the foreign language.

Principles and characteristics

The basic principles underlying the communicative approach are as follows:a) Language aquisition is seen as a creative process, not as habit formation. The idea of language learning by a stimulus response process is rejected.

b) Communicative competence implies knowledge of the grammatical system of the language as well as performance. Such competence includes both the usage and use of the language. Therefore, the approach does not deny the importance of mastring grammatical forms, so long as they are taught as a means of carrying out meaningful communication. That is, grammar is taught as a language tool rather than a language aim.

c) Unlike the audio-lingual method, the communicative approach gives priority to the semantic content of language learning. That is, pupils learn the grammatical form through meaning, and not the other way round.

d) One aspect of communication is the interaction between speakers. This approach provides communicative functions (uses) and notions (semantic themes and language items). These functions reflect more closely real life use of the language as they are usually connected with real life situations and with pupils' needs and interests.

e) The approach sets realistic learning tasks and activities that create situations in which questions must be asked, information recorded, knowledge exchanged, emotions and attitudes expressed, in which the student plays the roles of both participant and observer.

f) Such procedures and techniques will help pupils, who become the centre of the learning process, to develop their communicative competence as they provide them with the potential ability and motivation to discover the answers for themselves in groups, pairs and individually.

g) Since the primary aim of the approach is to prepare learners for meaningful communication, errors are tolerated.

h) The teacher is no more the centre of the classroom activities. Instead, the focus is shifted to the pupils and their interests, abilities and everyday life concens. In other words, communicative methodology is learner- centered.

Shortcomings

In spite of the merits which characterize the Comunicative Approach, it has been subjected to many criticisms such as the following:

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a) The approach relies extensively on the Functional-Notional syllabus which places heavy demmands on the pupils. This is especially true at the first stages because of their lack of speaking rules and cultural insights.

b) The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not systematically graded like the structures of the language. This creates some confusion and makes it difficult to teach the functions properly.

c) A major principle underlying the communicative approach is its emphasis on pupils' needs and interests. This implies that every teacher should modify the syllabus to correspond to the needs of his pupils. This is not possible to implement as it requires the teacher to write a separate syllabus for each pupil in the class. Such a goal is very ambitious and impossible to realise.

d) A major requirement for the successful application of the approach is the availability of a classroom that can allow for group work activities or for pupil-pupil interaction and for teaching aids and materials. Such a classroom is desirable but unfortunately not available in most schools .

2.6 .The Eclectic Method

In spite of the prolifiration of the theories of language teaching, no language teacher applies exclusively any of the known teaching theories. Teachers often incorporate features of different approaches in their particular methodology. Thus their teaching may be based on the comminicative theory, but supplimented with a grading of words and grammatical forms and structures so that the pupils can develop gradually and simultaneously both their communicative competence and knowledge of the language system.

The eclectic method is therefore a framework involving procedures and techniques drawn from various methods. It is useful in practical situations in the classroom. It is not based on a specific theory or discipline but there are some assumptions underlying it:

a) Each one of the well known methods has its own features. There is no one method which is comprehensive enough to meet the requirements of effective teaching and learning. All methods have some strenghts and some weaknesses. Experienced teachers are very snestive to the limitations of different methods, so they reject the weak points of each approach and retain only those aspects that are applicable in the particular situations in which they find themselves.

b) The frequent shifts of methodology have made teachers feel that it is better to have a combination of elements from all of them. Methods may suplement one another especially when there is no one method which can fulfil all language goals and programme objectives.A major principle of eclecticism is that the teaching process should serve the pupils, not a particular method. Hence teachers should choose the techniques or procedures that best fit the pupils' needs and the teaching-learning situation .

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3 .Humanistic approaches

The period from the 1950s to the 1980s has often been referred to as "The Age of Methods," during which a number of quite detailed prescriptions for language teaching were proposed. Situational Language Teaching evolved in the United Kingdom while a parallel method, Audio-Lingualism, emerged in the United States. In the middle-methods period, a variety of methods were proclaimed as successors to the then prevailing Situational Language Teaching and Audio-Lingual methods. These alternatives were promoted under such titles as Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning, and Total Physical Response. They are frequently described as Humanistic Approaches because their designers are primarily concerned with the students' affect and with removing the psychological barriers to learning .

3.1 .The Silent Way

The Silent Way is an approach to language teaching designed to enable students to become independent, autonomous and responsible learners. It is part of a more general pedagogical approach to teaching and learning created by Caleb Gattegno. It is constructivist in nature, leading students to develop their own conceptual models of all the aspects of the language. The best way of achieving this is to help students to be experimental learners. The Silent Way allows this.

The main objective of a teacher using the Silent Way is to optimize the way students exchange their time for experience. This Gattegno considered to be the basic principle behind all education: "Living a life is changing time into experience.

3.1.1. Origin of the Silent Way

The approach is called the Silent Way because the teacher remains mainly silent, to give students the space they need to learn to talk. In this approach, it is assumed that the students' previous experience of learning from their mother tongue will contribute to learning the new foreign language. The acquisition of the mother tongue brings awareness of what language is and this is retained in second language learning. The awareness of what language is includes the use of non-verbal components of language such as intonation, melody, breathing, inflection, the convention of writing, and the combinations of letters for different sounds. Rods, pictures, objects or situations are aids used for linking sounds and meanings in the Silent Way.

3.1.2 .Materials

The materials usually associated with Silent Way are in fact a set of tools which allow teachers to apply Gattegno's theory of learning and his pedagogical theory -the subordination of teaching to learning- in the field of foreign language teaching. The tools invented by Caleb

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Gattegno are not the only possible set of tools for teachers working in this field. Others can and indeed have been invented by teachers doing research in this area.

A. Sound / color chart: This is a wall chart on which can be seen a certain number of rectangles of different colours printed on a black background. Each colour represents a phoneme of the language being studied. By using a pointer to touch a series of rectangles, the teacher, without saying anything himself, can get the students to produce any utterance in the language if they know the correspondence between the colours and the sounds, even if they do not know the language.

B. Fidel: This is an expanded version of the Sound/Colour chart. It groups together all the possible spellings for each colour, thus for each phoneme.

C. A set of colored Cuisenaire rods: For low level language classes, the teacher may use Cuisenaire rods. The rods allow the teacher to construct non ambiguous situations which are directly perceptible by all. They are easy to manipulate and can be used symbolically. A green rod standing on the table can also be Mr. Green. They lend themselves as well to the construction of plans of houses and furniture, towns and cities, stations… - However, the most important aspect of using the rods is certainly the fact that when a situation is created in front of the students, they know what the language to be used will mean before the words are actually produced.

D. Word charts: These are charts of the same dimensions as the Sound/Colour chart and the Fidel on which are printed the functional words of the language, written in colour. Obviously, the colours are systematized, so that any one colour always represents the same phoneme, whether it is on the Sound/Colour chart, the Fidel or the word charts. Since the words are printed in colour, it is only necessary for someone to point to a word for the (other) students to be able to read it, say it and write it.

E. A set of 10 wall pictures: These are designed to expand vocabulary for low level groups.

F. The pointer: This is one of the most important instruments in the teacher's arsenal because it allows teaching to be based consciously and deliberately on the mental powers of the students. It allows the teacher to link colours, graphemes or words together whilst maintaining the ephemeral quality of the language. It is the students' mental activity which maintains the different elements present within them and allows them to restitute what is being worked on as a phonetic or linguistic unit having meaning.

Thus, each of the tools associated with Silent Way plays its part in allowing the teacher to subordinate his teaching to the students' learning. The tools correspond to the theory and stem directly from it.

3.1.3 .The Teacher's Silence

Firstly, the teacher’s silence is a constant reminder that, in this approach, the teacher’s role is not to transmit knowledge but to create situations in which the students can build linguistic

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know-hows: pronunciation, syntax, morphology... all the aspects that constitute being able to speak a language.

Secondly, the teacher’s silence forces him to reflect constantly on his own clarity, and this changes the preparation of his class completely. The teacher always has to try to find strictly non-ambiguous means of presenting each situation.

Thirdly, the teacher's silence allows him to keep his students in direct contact with the unknown. It is the teacher's silence which allows the lesson to become an improvisation played between the students and himself jointly as they advance. For the class to take place at all, the teacher has to stay with the students wherever they happen to be, following them in their exploration and working on their errors and mistakes as they are produced.

3.2 .Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia is one of the teaching methods developed by Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov based on the study of Suggestology. The method has been used in different fields of studies but mostly in the field of foreign languages learning. Lozanov claimed that by using this method one can teach languages approximately three to five times as quickly as conventional methods.

The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is often called “desuggestopedia.” The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy.”

3.2.1 .Purpose and Theory

The intended purpose of Suggestopedia was to enhance learning by lowering the affective filter of learners. Lozanov claims that “suggestopedia is a system for liberation,” the liberation from the “preliminary negative concept regarding the difficulties in the process of learning” that is established throughout their life in the society. Desuggestopedia focuses more on liberation as Lozanov describes “desuggestive learning” as “free, without a mildest pressure, liberation of previously suggested programs to restrict intelligence and spontaneous acquisition of knowledge, skills and habits.” The method implements this by working not only on the conscious level of human mind but also on the subconscious level, the mind’s reserves. Since it works on the reserves in human mind and brain, which are said to have unlimited capacities, one can teach through this method more than other methods can teach in the same amount of time.

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3.2.2 .In Practice

Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital factors to make sure that "the students feel comfortable and confident", and various techniques, including art and music, are used by the trained teachers. The lesson of Suggestopedia consisted of three phases at first: deciphering, concert session (memorization séance), and elaboration.

A. Deciphering: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content.

B. Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads the text at a normal speed, sometimes intoning some words, and the students follow. In the passive session, the students relax and listen to the teacher reading the text calmly. Music (“Pre-Classical”) is played background.

C. Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and games.

Then it has developed into four phases as lots of experiments were done: introduction, concert session, elaboration, and production.

A. Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in “a playful manner” instead of analyzing lexis and grammar of the text in a directive manner.

B. Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads with intoning as selected music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular moments. The passive session is done more calmly.

C. Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while “the teacher acts more like a consultant

D. Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or correction.

3.2.3 .Teachers

Teachers should not act directive although this method is teacher-controlled rather than students-controlled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students, participating in the activities such as games and songs “naturally” and “genuinely.” In the concert session, they should fully include classical art into their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers use, the factors such as “communication in the spirit of love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying ‘techniques’” etc. are crucial. The teachers need not only to know the techniques and theoretical information but also to understand the theory and to acquire the practical methodology completely because if they implement those techniques without complete understandings and acquisition, they could not provide learners with successful results, or

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even could give a negative impact on their learning. Therefore the teacher has to be trained in the course that is taught by the certified trainers.

Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.

1. Covering a huge bulk of learning material.

2. Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way; global-partial – partial-global, and global in the part – part in the global, related to the golden proportion.

3. As a professional, on the one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should be highly prestigious, reliable and credible.

4. The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent of expectancy in positive results (because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of teacher training course).

5. The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings) and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, a classical type of arts and pleasure.

3.2.4 .Side Effects

Lozanov claims that the effect of the method is not only in language learning. There seem to be confirmed favorable side effects on health, the social and psychological relations, and the subsequent success in other subjects.

3.3. Total Physical Response3.3. Total Physical Response

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method developed by Dr. James J. Asher, a professor of psychology at San José State University, to aid learning second languages. The method relies on the assumption that when learning a second or foreign language, that language is internalized through a process of codebreaking similar to first language development and that the process allows for a long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to production. Students respond to commands that require physical movement.

3.3.1 .Theoretical assumption

According to Asher, TPR is based on the assumption that the human brain has a biological program for acquiring any natural language on earth - including the sign language of the deaf. The process is visible when we observe how infants internalize their first language.

It looks to the way that children learn their native language. Communication between parents and their children combines both verbal and physical aspects. The child responds physically

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to the speech of their parent. The responses of the child are in turn positively reinforced by the speech of the parent. For many months the child absorbs the language without being able to speak. It is during this period that the internalization and codebreaking occurs. After this stage the child is able to reproduce the language spontaneously. With TPR the language teacher tries to mimic this process in class.

3.3.2 .Classroom usage

In the classroom the teacher and students take on roles similar to that of the parent and child respectively. Students must respond physically to the words of the teacher. The activity may be a simple game or may involve more complex grammar and more detailed scenarios.

TPR can be used to practice and teach various things. It is well suited to teaching classroom language and other vocabulary connected with actions. It can be used to teach imperatives and various tenses and aspects. It is also useful for story-telling.

Because of its participatory approach, TPR may also be a useful alternative teaching strategy for students with dyslexia or related learning disabilities, who typically experience difficulty learning foreign languages with traditional classroom instruction.

3.3.3. Advantages

According to its proponents, it has a number of advantages: Students will enjoy getting up out of their chairs and moving around. Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher. TPR is aptitude-free, working well with a mixed ability class, and with students having various disabilities. It is good for kinæsthetic learners who need to be active in the class. Class size need not be a problem, and it works effectively for children and adults.

3.3.4. Disadvantages

However, it is recognized that TPR is most useful for beginners, though it can be used at higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher. It does not give students the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way. It can be a challenge for shy students.

3.4. Community Language Learning

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Community Language Learning (also called Counseling Language Learning) was created by Charles A Curran, a Jesuit priest and professor of psychology, and Paul La Forge. Inspired by the humanistic psychology of Carl Rogers, it aimed to remove the anxiety from learning by changing the relationship between the teacher and student. In CLL, the “teacher” – who is known not as the teacher but as the “knower”, the one who knows the language – is seen as being in the same relationship to the student as the counsellor is to a client : the client has a “problem” (in this case not knowing the language) which is currently creating confusion and causing problems. The counsellor’s role is not to tell the client what to do, but to helphimor her explore and resolve the problem while retaining personal autonomy.

3.4.1 .Lesson progression

The approach (at least in the beginning stages) is based around a set technique, within which the students are free to determine content. A typical CLL lesson using this technique would have the following stages:

Stage One – Investment: The students sit in a circle with a tape recorder in the middle. The knower is outside the circle. The first student who wants to say something calls the knower over, and quietly says what he/she wants to say in his/her own language. The knower repeats this in English, using a non-threatening and encouraging tone of voice. The student has the chance to repeat and practise the utterance, with help if necessary from the knower, before finally recording it on the tape. Another student who wishes to reply then repeats the process. This continues until a full conversation has been recorded .

Stage Two – Analysis: Between one session and the next (or possibly immediately, on the board) the knower transcribes the complete conversation, and the students then listen again to the tape while following the transcript. They then have the chance to ask for any explanation they want, and if they wish, to ask for practice activities on specific points.

Stage Three – Reflection: The students then have the chance to reflect on the whole experience, and to decide how useful it was, if they could have done things differently and so on. Again, the knower’s job is not to tell them where they went wrong but to help them discover for themselves how they could have made the session maximally useful.

3.4.2 .Stages of development

The learner is seen as passing through five psychological stages as learning progresses, which Curran likens to progressing from childhood to adulthood:

1 .Birth: the learners know nothing of the target language, and are completely dependent on the knower for everything they want to say.

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2 .Self: the learners start to get an idea of how the language works and to use it for themselves, but still seek the knower’s help. They may, for instance tell the knower what they want to say directly in the target language, looking to the knower only for confirmation or

correction.

3 .Separate Existence: they start to use the language without referring to the knower, and may even be resentful of his/her attempts to help.

4 .Adolescence: learners continue to express themselves independently, but may be aware of gaps in their knowledge, and start to turn back to the knower.

5 .Independence: learners can continue their learning independently. They no longer need the knower, and may start to act as counsellors for less advanced students.

Lesson TwoLesson TwoThe Competency-Based Approach

1 .Definitions

Competency: It is a 'know-how-to-act' process is the result of the integration of a set of resources: capacities, skills and knowledge, which are efficiently used in similar situations.

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A competency acquired in school is valuable only if it enables the learner to solve problem situations outside the classroom.

It is the outcome of a learning which is meaningful to the learner and which is directly related to his motivation.

Capacity: It is a 'know-how-to-do' process which integrates intellectual, mental, strategic, socio-affective and psychological skills as well as knowledge (content of different disciplines).Skill: It is a 'know-how-to-do' process which integrates knowledge of the contents of different disciplines. There are intellectual, mental, strategic, socio-affective and psychological skills.Knowledge: It is a content such as data, facts, concepts , rules, laws, strategies and principles related to each discipline.

2 .Reasons for adopting a competency-based approach

The adoption of a competency-based approach is based on world-wide research that highlights the importance of the links between learning and context of use, thus help the learners make learning meaningful.

Since the emphasis is on the learner's social and personal development, the aim of this approach is to make him reinvest his knowledge when performing tasks at school level as well as at social and professional level.

The programme based on that approach has been conceived with the purpose of ensuring viable (workable, feasible) learning.

3 .Objectives

Although the competency-based approach is a novelty, its objectives are not new. Actually, educationalists have always been interested in developing general 'know-how'

processes and in fixing knowledge acquired in class. This approach enables the learner to develop his capacity to think and act according to a vision of the world that he will construct

gradually.

4 .View of learning

Centered on the development of competencies, learning is favoured in complex and meaningful situations.

The programme determines learning that will call upon intellectual procedures and attitudes such as respect for differences, co-operation and team work.

Communication in this programme is a priority that takes into consideration the latest developments in the field of second/foreign language teaching, the Communicative Approach and cognitive psychology.

This programme is learner-centered and focuses on the construction of the learner's knowledge. It aims at developing competences that are as essential for the learner of the new century. These competences are the ability to interact orally, the ability to process oral and written texts and the ability to write texts.

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5 .Pedagogical implications

1- Making school acquisition viable and sustainable: The school must help the learner give sense to knowledge acquired in class and teach him how to make beneficial and relevant use of it.

2- Developing the teaching process of the learner: The emphasis put on the development of competencies makes it impossible to focus exclusively on acquiring disciplinary knowledge. It also enhances the development of thinking processes necessary for assimilating them and using them in real life.

3- Presenting learning contents in relation to the needs of the learners: The learner must grasp the usefulness of the resources he develops in relation to the problems he meets in everyday life. This approach makes it possible to link the development of personal resources and the meaningful situations which call for these resources.

4- Choosing a personalized pedagogy: To facilitate the development of the learner's competences, it will be necessary to rely on the resources he already possesses: intellectual, social and affective that have to be exploited, developed and enriched. To achieve this aim, various pedagogical approaches will be preferred, keeping individual differences in mind

6 .Characteristics of the approach

6.1. It is action-oriented in that it directs language learning to the acquisition of know-how capacities in the form of functions and skills. These will allow the learner to become an effective /competent language user in real-life situations outside the classroom.

6.2. It is a problem solving approach in that it places learners in situations that check/test their capacity to overcome obstacles and problems. Languages are learned more effectively and lastingly when they are used to solve problems through hypothesis testing. Problems make the learners think and they learn by thinking. They word their thinking in English while solving the problems.

6.3. It is social-constructivist in that it regards learning as occurring through social interaction with other people. In other words leaning is not conceived of as the transmission of predetermined knowledge and know-how to be reproduced in-vitro (i.e. only within the pages of the copybook or the walls of the classroom), but as a creative use of newly-constructed knowledge through the process of social interaction with other learners.

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6.4. Finally and most importantly, the Competency-Based Approach is a cognitive approach. It is indebted to Bloom’s taxonomy (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives). Bloom has claimed that all educational objectives can be classified as ‘cognitive’ (related to information) and ‘affective’ (related to attitudes, values and emotions) or ‘psychomotor’ (related to bodily movements). He said that cognitive objectives form a hierarchy by which the learner must achieve lower order objectives before s/he can achieve higher ones.

Higher order

Evaluation 6

Learner sets a value on the new information

Synthesis 5

Learner builds new knowledge from diverse elements

Analysis 4

Learner analyses information by separating information into parts for better understanding

Application 3

Learner applies knowledge to new situations

Comprehension 2

Learner understands information

Knowledge 1

Learner recalls knowledge

Lower orderBloom’s hierarchical model of cognitive thinking is illustrated in the importance that the Competency –Based Approach gives to the mobilization of knowledge and skills, their gradual integration at higher levels (from level 1 to level 2 in the table above), their application to new situations of learning or use, the generation of new knowledge and skills and finally the evaluation of the process and product of thinking. This is the ideal route towards the acquisition of the competency of know-how-to-act. For instance, a learner will need to know a principle before s/he can apply it. S/he should be able to cut it into smaller fragments and relate it to other principles (analysis) before s/he can summarize it and draw conclusions, and thus evaluate it.

The affective domain is equally important in the achievement of competency. Bloom organizes the learner’s affections in a hierarchical order illustrated in the table below:

Higher order

Internalizing values Learner makes hi/her own consistent systemOrganization Learner organizes infromation

Valuing Learner attaches values to particular objects and behavioursResponding Learner participates actively in classroom activities

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Receiving Learner shows willingness to attend to classroom activities

Lower order

The importance the affective domain appears more clearly in the adoption of the pedagogy of the project. The realization of the project together with the psychomotor domain lead to the

internalization of such values as autonomy, creativity, initiative and responsibility .

7 .Comparing and contrasting CBA to previous approachesCBA Previous approaches

Learners are active partners in the learning process; they are responsible and productive.

Learners deduce meaning

Learners research information for project outside the classroom.

Most interaction is learner to learner through pair and small group work

Learners have greater responsibility in deciding what they will do and how they will do it.

Assessment is shared between teacher and learner. That is, there is more self- and peer-assessment. That assessment is for the product/the result and for the process: how that result was obtained.

Learners acquire skills to use and apply knowledge about language, not only language skills but also social skills, research skills, critical thinking and decision making skills, computer skills.

The teacher is a fountain of knowledge who spoonfeeds the learners.

The teacher gives little opportunity to learners to determine meaning.

Use of English is restricted to classroom interaction between teacher and learners.

Most interaction is teacher to learner and vice-versa.

The teacher decides what learners will do and how they will do it.

The teacher is the one who assesses and that assessment focuses on the product; what learners produce

Learners learn about language; they acquire knowledge about language, but not skills to use it.

8 .What is project work, and how does it fit in the Competency-Based ApproachOne of the most distinctive features of the competency-Based Approach is integration of project work as part of learning strategy. This approach seeks to make the attainment of objectives visible, i.e., concrete through the realization of projects in selected domains of instruction. In fact, fixing specific learning competencies will remain a far reaching dream (as

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in the case of the traditional objective-based approaches) if the outcome is not visible and measurable .

Project work makes learning more meaningful. It also makes co-operative learning a concrete reality and opens up entirely new avenues for action, interaction and the construction of new knowledge. In short, it is only through carrying out project work that the basic principles of the Competency-Based Approach can be made concrete.

9 .The advantages of doing projects

Projects encourage cooperation and sharing They promote learner independence Project is topic-based It involves research/questionnaire They lead to a presentation They involve different skills They may be very creative and include artwork They cater for different learning styles and personalities They require the use of all language skills

BibliographyBibliography1.1. Arab, (ed.) ; (2005) Arab, (ed.) ; (2005) At The Crossroads, Secondary Education; First Year, Algiers.At The Crossroads, Secondary Education; First Year, Algiers. The The

National Authority for School Publications.National Authority for School Publications.2.2. Celce-Murcia. M, (1991) Celce-Murcia. M, (1991) Teaching English as a second or Foreign LanguageTeaching English as a second or Foreign Language. Boston,. Boston,

Heinle and Heinle Publishers.Heinle and Heinle Publishers.3.3. El-Keilani. N, T.Mutawa (1989) El-Keilani. N, T.Mutawa (1989) Methods of Teaching English to Arab Pupils.Methods of Teaching English to Arab Pupils. Longman Longman

Group. U.K. Limited.Group. U.K. Limited.4.4. Gueddouj, C (2004) Introducing the Competency-Based Approach, GSD SummerGueddouj, C (2004) Introducing the Competency-Based Approach, GSD Summer

University, Ain Timouchent.University, Ain Timouchent.

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5.5. Harmer, J. (2001) Harmer, J. (2001) The Practice of English Language TeachingThe Practice of English Language Teaching ; England, Pearson ; England, Pearson Education Limited.Education Limited.

6.6. Hayane, O. Hayane, O. L’enseignement de la Langue Anglaise en Algérie depuis 1962L’enseignement de la Langue Anglaise en Algérie depuis 1962 . . Office desOffice des Publications Universitaires.Publications Universitaires.

7.7. Mackey, R. (1965) Mackey, R. (1965) Language Teaching AnalysisLanguage Teaching Analysis. London .Longman. London .Longman8.8. Richards. J. C, T.S. Rogers (1989) Richards. J. C, T.S. Rogers (1989) Approaches and Methods In Langauge Teaching: AApproaches and Methods In Langauge Teaching: A

Description and Analysis.Description and Analysis. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press.9.9. Rivers, W.M. (1971) Rivers, W.M. (1971) Teaching Foreign Language SkillsTeaching Foreign Language Skills. University of Chicago Press.. University of Chicago Press.10.10. Wilkins. D (1979) Wilkins. D (1979) Notional syllabuses.Notional syllabuses. Oxford University Press. Oxford University Press.

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People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ecole Normale Supérieure Lettres et Sciences Humaines – Constantine

Department of Distance Training

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A Distance Training Course

Semester Four

Compiled by: Amina. HADDAD

Academic Year: 2007 - 2008

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Introduction to educational psychology

Psychology has been defined as the scientific study of animal and human behaviour and covers all kinds of pursuits from making dogs salivate at the sound of a bell to a study of the growth of then intelligent behaviour in humans. The term behaviour on the one hand includes

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all those aspects of human activity which we can observe. It also involves personal experience which can only be studied by asking individuals to express their feelings and thoughts .

The study of animal and human behaviour can take different forms. As such, a set of broad disciplines emerged within the science of psychology which focused on particular areas of interest. Physiological psychology, for instance, studies the animals and humans body structures and their influence on behaviour. That is to say, it is concerned with the biological basis of behaviour. On the other hand, social psychology, which involves the study of social institutions and their impact on the behaviour of individuals, concentrates on the external factors which influence man. It studies how people’s thoughts, feelings and actions are affected by other people. Another broad filed of psychological interest, developmental psychology, deals with the physical, emotional, and intellectual characteristics and development of youngsters from the prenatal stage onwards. In other words, it considers how people grow and change throughout their life span.

Out of these interconnected areas, a number of applied fields developed which draw on the findings of physiological, social and developmental psychology such as clinical psychology (which is concerned with the diagnosis, study and treatment of abnormal behaviour and which provides useful criteria for defining the attributes of normal mental life), occupational psychology ( or the study of such problems as vocational development and job satisfaction), industrial psychology (the study of machine simulation of human functions such as appear in ‘George’ the automatic pilot in aircraft) and educational psychology.

Definition of educational psychology

Educational psychology has been defined in many different ways. An academic definition would put forward that educational psychology is the study of learners, learning and teaching. For students who are or expect to be teachers, however, it is more than this. It is the accumulated knowledge, wisdom, and seat-of-the-pants theory that every teacher should to intelligently solve the daily problems of teaching. Psychological education cannot teachers tell teachers what to do, but it can give them the principles to use in making a good decision.

It is also seen as the application of psychology to education by focusing on the development, evaluation and application theories and principles of learning and instruction that enhance lifelong learning. In other words, educational psychology has attempted to apply the findings of physiological, social and child development to lead to a better understanding of learning processes. It seeks to discover, by studying the mental physical and emotional behaviour of children and adults, the factors which influence the quality and quantity of learning. Ideally, it offers to replace ‘common sense’ or trial and error notions of learning and teaching with a variety of hypotheses regarding learning environments derived from systematic studies of individuals in those environments. As such, the application of psychology in education provides means of appraising individual children’s (learners’) similarities and differences when attempting to create more efficient learning environments for them.

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Today, educational psychology is a distinct discipline from other branches of psychology with its own theories, research problems and techniques. Its primary goal is the understanding and improvement of education.

Chapter One: Adolescence

Part One: Aspects of Adolescent Development

I- The physical development

Adolescents experience a growth spurt which involves rapid growth of bones and muscles. This begins in girls around the ages of 9-12 and in boys around the ages of 11-14. Sexual maturation (puberty) also begins at this time.

Puberty is a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation. It is not a single, sudden event, but rather it is a gradual process. It is hard to pinpoint the beginning and end of puberty, however menarche (first menstruation) for girls, or the first few whiskers for boys can mark its appearance.

Puberty is characterized by the onset of hormonal activity which is under the influence of the central nervous system, especially the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, both of which are located at the base of the brain. Puberty can be broken into three major time periods or phases. These are:

This is the time before age thirteen in boys and before eleven in girls. Its duration for boys is approximately a year and a quarter, and for girls it is slightly shorter.

Pre pubertal

This period contains the most noticeable growth spurt. It occurs between ages thirteen and fifteen for males and between eleven and fourteen in females.

Pubertal

Lasts for a year and a half in girls and is somewhat shorter in the case of boys.

Post pubertal

Table 01: Phases of puberty

During puberty, most adolescents will experience:

Oilier skin and some acne. Increased sweating especially under arms. Growth of pubic and underarm hair, and facial and chest hair in boys.

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Changes in body proportions: The different parts of the body grow at different rates and reach their maximum development at different times.

Masturbation and fantasies about sexual intimacy. In boys, enlargement of testicles, erection, first ejaculation, wet dreams, deepening

voice. In girls, breast budding, increased vaginal lubrication and the beginning of menstrual

cycle.

The table below displays approximately the age at which of the above changes take place in both boys girls.

(Ages are averages – Much individual variation occurs )

MALESFEMALES

Hormone increases- 10 yearsIncreased hormone, Productio/enlargement of internal sex organs- 9 years

Pubic hair/ penis growth – 12 yearsBreast " budding " – 10 years

First ejaculation – 13 yearsPubic hair growth – 11 years

Weight spurt begins – 13 yearsWeight spurt begins – 11 years

Height spurt begins – 14 yerasHeight spurt begins – 12 years

Voice lowers- the voice becomes gradually deeper with the growth of larynx- 15 years

Menarche ( 1 st menstruation ) -12 years

Facial hair appears – 16 yearsFirst Ovulation – 13 years

Full adult height – 21 yearsFinal pubic hair growth / full breast growth-15/16

Full adult height- 18 years

Table 02: Major Physical changes during Puberty

The physical changes of early adolescence often lead to:

New responses from others

In response to these physical changes, young adolescents begin to be treated in a new way by those around them. They may no longer be seen as just children, but as sexual beings to be protected or targeted. They face society's expectations for how young men women “should” behave.

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New concern with physical appearance and body image:

Along with physical changes, there are psychological changes teenagers go through during puberty. One of major developmental tasks of adolescents is to accept their changed body as a symbol of their changed self. Adolescents must adjust to the normal physical changes that accompany puberty and they need to accept their size and shape as the physique they will generally have for the remainder of their life.

Both adolescent boys and girls are known to spend hours concerned with their physical appearance want to “fit in” with their peers yet achieve their own unique style as well. Because of these physical changes, there is a drastic increase in the young persons, preoccupation with their body. Many adolescents, in fact, experience dissatisfaction with their changing bodies. For example, shortness in boys and tallness in girls may cause genuine concern.

Obesity is also commonly a sensitive issue in adolescents of either sex. Weight gain which is a natural part of puberty can be distressing in a culture that glorifies being thin. In response, some adolescents begin to diet obsessively. In the USA, for example, statistics reveal that about 20 % of all females aged 12-18 engage in unhealthy dieting behaviours. Some of these adolescents develop eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia. Acne, another affliction common during puberty, almost universally causes emotional difficulties, because acne is readily visible , it often serves as a focus for displaced guilt or concerns about sexuality or " dirtiness " as though it somehow betrays one's secret thoughts and activities.

Because adolescents tend to experience anxiety in unusually intense ways, it is important for parents, teachers, and other adults to be responsive to the concerns of teens and to reassure them that in the end- all will be okay!

II. The Cognitive development

II. 1. Overview of Piaget's theory of cognitive development

Jean Piaget (1836-1980) , the Swiss biologist, psychologist and theorist was one of the most outstanding researchers in the area of developmental psychology, and his view of how children's minds work and develop has been enormously influential, particularly in educational theory. Initially, Piaget was a developmental biologist who devoted his life to closely observing and recording the intellectual abilities of infants, children and adolescents. He was mainly interested in the biological influences on "how we do" abstract symbolic reasoning ".

While working on an IQ (intelligence coefficient) test, Piaget noticed that young children's answers were different from older children. This suggested that the younger ones were not dumber but, instead, answered the questions differently than their older peers because they thought differently. His particular explanation was based on the role of maturation in children's increasing capacity to understand their world: they cannot undertake

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certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so. Thus, he proposes that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly, but rather through stages. There are two major aspects in Piaget's theory: the process of coming to know and the stages we move through as we gradually acquire this ability.

II. 1. a. The Process of Cognitive Development: The Assimilation – Accommodation Model

For Piaget, there are two essential processes which underlie all learning, adaptation to the environment and organization of experience by means of action, memory, perception and other kinds of mental activities. As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment which he calls intelligence. Intelligence for him is a matter of action upon the world. Children do not acquire concepts through passive observation, adult teaching, external reinforces, or the proper use of language. They acquire, or in Piaget's terms “construct”, such concepts through their own actions.

Behaviour, adaptation to the environment, is controlled through mental organisation called schemes that the individual uses to represent the world and designate action .This adaptation is driven by a biological to obtain balance between schemes and the environment.

Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes operating at birth that he called “reflexes" and innate tendencies to exercise these reflexes and to organize their actions. It is a way to respond to the environment in a need to adapt to the environment in order to survive. In other animals, these reflexes control bahaviour throughout life. However, in human beings as the infant uses these reflexes to adapt to the environment, these reflexes are quickly with replaced with constructed schemes.

Once developed, the schemes of action are applied to every new object, and every new situation. The process of incorporating new objects or experiences into existing schemes is called by Piaget assimilation. The clatter refers to the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures. Put differently, it is the process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit the organism's tendency to alter aspects of the environment to make them fit into its current structures. This process might be described as one of «interpretation «. The intellectual system interprets new events by fitting them into what it already understands.

At the same time, the system itself changes as a function of the new experience with it must cope. Such alterations of the organism to fit with the environment constitute the second component of the adaptation process. So, complementary to the process of assimilation is the process of seeking new successful modes of behaviour when the environment does not respond to the schemes already learned by the child. The process of modifying schemes to solve problems arising from new experiences within the environment, or the one of changing cognitive structures to accept something from the environment is called accommodation.

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Both of these processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life vas the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner. As schemes throughout life as the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner. As schemes become more increasingly complex (responsible for more complex behaviours), they are termed structures. As one's structures become more complex, they are organized in a hierarchical manner.

II. 1. b. Stages of intellectual development in children and adolescents

The stages of intellectual development formulated by Piaget appear to be related to major developments in brain growth. The human brain is not fully developed until late adolescence or in the case of males sometimes early adulthood.

Characteristic BehaviourDevelopmental stage & Approximate Age

Sensory Motor Stage (0-24 months : Infancy)

During this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because it is based on physical interactions experiences. The infant recognizes himself as an agent of action and begins to act intentionally (eg, he pulls a string to set mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make noise). Object permanence is also achieved during this period; he realizes that objects continue to exist even when on longer present to sense. The stage may be further divided into sub- stages:

- Simple reflex activity such as grasping, sucking.Reflexive Stage (0-2 months)

- Reflexive behaviours occur in stereotyped repetition such as opening and closing fingers repetitively.

Primary Circular Reactions ( 2-4 months)

- Repetition of change actions to reproduce interesting consequences such as kicking one's feet to more a mobile suspended over the crib.

Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)

- Responses become coordinated into more complex sequences.

- Actions take on an " intentional" character such as the infant reaches behind

Coordination of Secondary Reactions

- A screen to obtain a hidden object ( object permanence )(12-18 months )

- Discovery of new to produce the same consequence or obtain the same goal such as the infant may pull a pillow toward him in an attempt to get a toy resting on it.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)

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- Evidence of internal representational system.

- Symbolizing the problem-solving sequence before actually responding.

- Deferred imitation .Development of some symbolic abilities(language)

Invention of new Means Through Mental Combination (18-24 months)

The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years: Toddler and Early Childhood)

In this period, which has tow sub-stages, intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures and memory and imagination are developed. However, thinking is done in non logical, nonreversible manner. The preoperational child is egocentric (has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others) and classifies objects by a single feature. This stage includes tow phases:

- Increased use of verbal representation, but speech is egocentric.

- The beginnings of symbolic rather than simple motor play.

- Transductive reasoning.

- Can think about something without the object being present by use of language.

Preoperational Phase (2-4 years)

- Speech becomes more social, less egocentric.

- The child has an intuitive grasp of logical concepts in some areas.

- However, there is still a tendency to focus attention on one aspect of an object while ignoring others.

- Concepts formed are crude and irreversible.

- Easy to believe in magical increase, decrease, disappearance.

- Reality not firm.

- Perceptions dominate judgment.

- In moral-ethical realm, the child is not able to show principles underlying best behaviour.

- Rules of a game not develop, only uses simple do's and don'ts imposed by authority.

Intuitive Phase (4-7 years)

Stage of Concrete Operations (7-11 years: Elementary and early adolescence)

Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible).

During this stage, the child is able to:

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- Comprehend the principles of seven types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume.

- Perform multiple classification tasks ( classifies objects according to several features)

- Evidence for organized, logical thought.

- Order objects in a logical sequence.

- Less transductive and less egocentric thought.

- Perform concrete problem-solving.

- Some reversibility now possible (quantities moved can be restored such as arithmetic: 3+4=7 and 7-4= 3 etc.)

- Class logic-finding bases to sort unlike objects into logical groups where previously it was on superficial perceived attribute such as color. Categorical labels such as "number" or animal" now available.

Stage of Formal Operations (11-15 years: Adolescence and adulthood)

Intelligence is demonstrated though the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in this period, there is a return to egocentric. The formal stage individual is concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problem.

- Thought becomes more abstract, incorporating the principles of logic.

- The ability to generate abstract propositions, multiple hypotheses and their possible outcomes is evident.

- Thinking becomes less tied to concrete reality.

- Formal logical systems can be acquired. Can handle proportions, algebraic manipulation, other purely abstract processes. If a+b = x then x = a-b. if ma/ca = IQ = 1.00 then Ma = CA.

- Propositional logic, as – if – then steps. Can use aids such as axioms to transcend human limits on comprehension.

Table 03: Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

II. 2- The cognitive changes during adolescence

In his theoretical framework, Piaget placed adolescents in the cognitive stage he called formal operational thought. In between ages 11 and 15 Piaget believed that thought became more abstract than a child, more idealistic, and more logical. This dramatic shift in thinking from concrete to abstract thinking gives adolescents a whole new set of mental tools. Indeed, most adults recognize that teens have better thinking skills than children. These advances in thinking can be divided into several areas:

Developing advanced reasoning skills: Advanced reasoning skills include the ability to think about multiple options and possibilities. It includes a more logical thought

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process and the ability to think about things hypothetically. It involves asking and answering the question, " what if…..?.

Developing abstract thinking skill: Abstract thinking means thinking about things that cannot be seen, heard, or touched . Examples include things like faith, trust, beliefs and spirituality.

Developing the ability to thinking in a process known as "meta-cognition": Meta-cognition allows individuals to think about how they feel and what they are thinking. It involves being able to think about how one is perceived by others. It can also be used to develop strategies, also known as mnemonic devices, for improving learning.

II. 3. The Behavioural and Psychological Changes

Thanks to these skills, most adolescents will be able to analyze situations logically in terms of cause and effect. They can appreciate hypothetical situations. This gives them the ability to think about the future, evaluate alternatives, and set personal goal. The adolescents can rely on an internal power of judgment instead of having to rely systematically on experience. They can engage in introspection and mature decision –making.

As a result of their growing cognitive abilities, most developing adolescents will exhibit some behaviours at home, school, etc. For example, they:

Become more independent. Take on increased responsibilities, such as summer jobs, or household chores. Shift their school focus from play-centered activities to academics. Begin to consider future careers and occupations. Look to peers and media for information and advice. Begin to develop a social conscience: become concerned about social issues such as

racism, human rights and poverty. Develop a sense of values and ethical behaviour: recognise the value of traits such as

honesty, helpfulness, caring for others. Teens demonstrate a heightened level of self-consciousness. Teens tend to believe that

everyone is as concerned with their thoughts and behaviours as they are. This leads teens to believe that they have an "imaginary audience" of people who are always watching them.

Adolescents tend to believe that no one else has ever experienced similar feelings and emotions. They may become overly dramatic in describing things that are upsetting to them. They may say things like “you’ll never understand”, or "my life is ruined!"

Teens tend to exhibit the "it can't happen to me" syndrome also known as a "personal fable". This belief causes teens to take unnecessary risks like driving (“I won't crash this car” ) , or smoking (“I can't possibly get cancer” ) .

III- The Moral Development of Adolescents

III. 1. Definition

Any attempt for a definition of moral development must take into consideration the fact that:

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a. Moral development is not something neither easily defined nor measured since both "moral" and “development" are complex concepts. In, Mc Farland (1971) proposes that moral development means at least:

1. An increasing individual capacity to recognize different interests and claims in a human situation.

2. To weigh these up in some rationale and not purely selfish manner.

3. And to act in accordance with the decision that meets these requirements most closely.

b. As all development is influenced by certain circumstances, moral development depends on :

1. Socially and culturally inherited moral principles which differ from one society to another.

2. A socially and culturally transmitted code of rationality which provides a means of sustaining and revising them.

3. And various educational measures to uphold practical allegiance to the principles, and the social and legal sanction against their infringement.

In this way, all societies try to make it moral, even if the specific content of their moral codes may differ, or their success in obtaining conformity to them may vary. This means that many of the problems of adolescents' moral development are problems about the characteristics of society's current ideals, the merits and demerits of these ideals, and the relative effectiveness of various patterns of moral education or social and legal sanction.

II. 2. Moral development during adolescence

It is not easy at all to study moral behaviour in a way that allows valid psychological generalization, but there are some classic studies that provide some insights into the issue. Hartshorne and may (1928) 2 tested a large number of youth between 11and 16 with various paper-and pencil test of honesty which gave them opportunities of cheating without, as they were mistakenly led to believe, being found out. It was concluded that resistance to the temptation of dishonesty was determined more by the situation than by the individual's general character. Moreover, honesty did not seem to vary with age but with intelligent. It seems that the more intelligent pupils may either have less need to cheat or do shrewdly suspect the likelihood of being found out.

In another study carried out on a sample of 300 English people aged 12 to 16, (1968) proposes that intelligence is important in respect of general level of moral judgment, but that social class differences are slight.

To find out whether moral judgment could be improved by training, Bradburn (1964) concludes after a comparative investigation that both the teacher and a certain atmosphere within the school can have a certain effect on improving moral development. Teachers who use praise and encouragement help the moral development of their learners; teachers who punish all time hinder learners' moral development while the forbidding one hinders it.

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In another study, the Eppels ( 1966) attempted to analyse adolescents' moral attitudes and opinions using tests on 250 working boys and girls, aged between 15 and 18. Examples of these tests are:

- Sentence completion ( If I had may way….; It's wrong to……; ect), investigating attitudes to (a) personal relations, (b) concepts of justice, (c) responsibility, (d) goals and aspirations, and (e) authority and independence.

- Moral beliefs- inviting free comment on statements like, A person who has stolen only a few times is not really dishonest; or, when you accept a job you should complete it regardless of what makes it difficult to do so.

- An essay on “The person I would like to be like"

The Eppels concluded that the young felt that adults had a false and hostile stereotype of the young. Results show that youth have serious concerns with moral problems and that adults may influence adolescents' moral development by examples not by prescriptions, and only if they show a very high tolerance of frustration, not expecting dramatic victories.

To conclude:

We still are not sure about how moral rules are transmitted on to children and youth, whether

By conditioning.

Reward and punishment.

Verbal authority.

Imitation.

Suggestion.

Learning" by experience "

Or rational instruction .

III.3. Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development:

L. Kohlberg (1927-1987) is a stage theorist and constructivist whose work began with Piaget's research as a foundation. He used Piaget's theories of cognitive development in order to describe the process of moral development. Kohlberg described three levels of moral development, with each level containing two stages. A brief overview of three levels and their stages is provided below.

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality (characteristic of children through approximately age 9)

At this level, children respond primarily and social requirements to avoid punishment and receive rewards. The stages are:

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Stage 1: Punishment-obedience Orientation

The physical consequences of an action determine whether it is good or bad. Children follow rules essentially to avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

Actions are considered to be "right" if they are instrumental in satisfying a child's own needs or involve an exchange (two people doing things for one another)

Level 2: Conventional Morality (characteristic of individuals from approximately age 9 to 20 years old)

Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation

The young person believes that the right action is that which is likely to please or impress others.

Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

At this stage, young people see fixed rules as something that are established and obeyed to maintain the social order.

Level 3: Post conventional morality (usually reached after age 20 and by a relatively small percentage of adults)

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

Rules are seen as necessary to maintain the social order and as something that should be based on mutual agreement rather than blind obedience to authority.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

Moral decisions should be made in terms of universally applicable ethical principles, and these should reflect fundamental principles of fairness and justice.

IV. The Social Development of Adolescence

IV. 1. Definition of Socialisation

The term is generally used to describe the process during which an individual acquires the knowledge, values, facility with language, social skills and social skills and social sensibility that enables him or to become integrated into and behave adaptively within a society. This conception of applies to persons of all ages because socialization is a life-long

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experience. However, the term is dominantly used in respect to the child's (and youth) becomes inculcated with the society's values and with his own social roles.

Socialisation is also be commonly identified as the process by which the mature members of a society, such as parents and teachers, influence the beliefs and behaviours of children, enabling them to fully participate in and contribute to the society.

VI. 2. Major Socialising Agents

Socialisation involves all the influences people have on one another through the whole life span .Five major groups are known to be the shapers development throughout the human life span. These are 1) the family in which we are children (family of our origin), 2) the family in which we are spouses and parents, 3) our peers,4) the school we attend , and 5) our places of work. Other shapers of development can be the schools our children attend, the families our children from, the mass-media, etc.

So, social development is the adolescents' growth in confidence, independence, and positive feelings about themselves but also the way they interact with others. Thus, social development takes place in the context of all their relationships, particularly with their peers, families and teachers. Another key feature of adolescents' social development is work.

VI. 2. a. Peers/ The peer group

One of the greatest social changes for adolescents is the new importance of their peers. During childhood, the family is the center of child's life. During adolescence, the peer group often begins to replace the family as the teen's primary social focus.

Peer group are often established because of distinctions in dress, appearance, attitudes, hobbies, interests, and other characteristics that may appear profound or trivial to outsiders. Teens spend much more time with their peers during adolescence, with popularity being a strong motivation for many of them. Young adolescents are very concerned with being accepted by a peer group and pressure is strong during this age. Cliques become visible, groups and crowds become gradually more heterogeneous and heterosexual, and dating becomes important. Youth organizations can have an important influence on adolescents which could be negative or positive.

Those adolescents who, for various reasons, find themselves without a peer group may develop intense feelings of being different and alienated, Although these feelings often have little permanent effect, they may worsen any potential for dysfunctional or antisocial behaviour. At the other extreme, the peer group assumes too much importance for some adolescents. Gang membership and behaviour are more common when the home and social environments are unable to counterbalance the often dysfunctional demands of the peer. The peer group can have two kinds of influence:

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a. Negative influence can be seen through smoking, drinking alcohol, stealing, driving, engaging in sexual intercourses or anything negative that the individual does not want to do, but does it just because their "group" is doing it.

b. Positive role of peer group: Peer group assume an importance to adolescents because they provide validation for the adolescent's tentative choices and support in stressful situations.

It gives some relief from family and the other "generations" of the family which put a pressure on the youth.

Allows adolescents to gain independence from their families. By identifying with peers, adolescents start to develop moral judgment and

values, and to explore how they differ from their parents (6) . It allows discussion and action on an equal footing while there is authority at home and no (or little) discussion or action is permitted within it.

Young (early) adolescents (9-13) are very concerned with being accepted by a peer group. This great desire to belong can influence some to engage in activities that they normally would not consider. Group identity often overrides personal identity. Through adolescence the individual is not necessarily their own individual, but an individual with the identity of their group. By middle adolescence, the intensity of involvement with a peer group gradually gives way to more intimate friendships and romances.

Late Adolescence (17-19)

Middle Adolescence (14-16)

Early Adolescence (9-13)

Social group

Serious intimate relationships begin to develop.

Peer groups gradually give way to one-on-one friendships and romances.

Peer group tends to be gender –mixed.

Dating begins.

Less conformity and more tolerance of individual differences.

Center of social world shifts from family to friends.

Peer group tends to be same-sex.

Strong desire to conform to and be accepted by a peer group.

Peers

Family influence in balance with peer influence.

Increasing conflict between adolescents and their parents.

Family closeness most important protective factor against high-risk behavior.

Family

Table 4: Some Key Features of Adolescent Social Development (American Psychological Association, 2002)

VI. 2. b. Family

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The structure and role the family may play on individuals' socialisation differ from one culture to another. Speaking about the family types, in many societies and cultures the family complexity increases as one moves from a «nuclear" family to a “joint” or a "stem" family structure. This implies that both the number of social roles a person has to learn, and the complexity of the accommodation he has to make, increase across the three structures. For example, the «joint " and " stem " family, but not the " nuclear " one, provide care for the older generation.

The issue of the generation boundaries, which evokes the clarity of the expectation, obligations and behaviours of the members of each generation such as grandparents, parents and grandchildren, is a critical one in all three family structures. If the boundaries are firm within a family, each individual can carry on his tasks competently and with few intrusions from other family members. When the boundaries are not firm, however, role confusion may result. Generational boundaries would be put under pressure whenever several generations reside in the same household with no clear cultural norms concerning their behaviours.

In addition, the family structure in modern area has been significantly altered in many societies, particularly the western ones, a fact which may has significantly the family's relationship, influence and role with youth. Speaking about the American context, for instance, about 72 % of women with school-aged children are employed, 25 % of children live in single-parents homes and a not less important number of homes has both parents work. In addition, divorce rate is the highest in the world (7).

Generally , adolescent's new desire for independence leads to increasing conflicts between adolescents and their parents. This is the major characteristic of most teenagers, especially during early adolescence. However, minor conflicts and bickering are considered to be normal as teens and their parents adjust to their changing relationship by the middle and late adolescence. In fact, there is a greater transfer of control within the family from the parents to the adolescent, but there is still the boundary of co-regulation . Adolescents begin to push for autonomy and responsibility which can puzzle and anger parents, and often causes some conflict. This push for autonomy by the adolescent is a process, though they continue to keep some strong attachments to their parents. The best change then, is a gradual one wherein the parent relinquishes control step by step, and retains a secure attachments or connectedness to the teen, which will promote more competent relationships for the adolescent later in life.

So though the relationship between adolescents and their parents is changed by the adolescent's social development, the shift in the adolescent's social world from family to peers does not lessen the importance of the family in the adolescent's life. Family closeness has been confirmed as the most important protective factor against certain high-risk behaviours such as smoking, alcohol and drug use, and early initiation if sexual intercourse. Indeed, the family represents the social and emotional anchor; it is a socializing agent that gives the youth social evidence.

VI. 2. c. Teachers

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With new social issues (changes in family structures, high rate of divorce, the power of the peer relationship…), teachers today are dealing with issues that once stayed outside the walls of the school. The first task of teachers is to educate learners experiencing crucial issues of physical and social development.

Teachers are sometimes the best source of help for students facing emotional, interpersonal problems. When teenagers have chaotic and unpredictable home lives, they need a caring, firm structure but not punitively; respect learners and show genuine concern. The teacher may be available to talk about personal problems without requiring that their learners do so.

VI. 2. d. Community characteristics

The characteristics of an adolescent's community can also have a great impact on his or her social development. Communities include features such as:

Neighborhood socioeconomic status. Support networks for families in low socioeconomic status neighborhoods. School. Religious organizations The media. People who live in the community.

VI. 2. e. Work

Freud (1856-1939) once summed up the function of man as to love (physically) and to work. Men and women make families, but they must also make a living to feed their families and make regular activity not only to fill their life between youth and age but also to give themselves social identity and significance.

At one point of the development of individuals, the youth face transition from the dependency of childhood to the independence of adulthood. This transition may be symbolized by the shift from school to work; a transition that is faced at different ages, and in different ways by different ways by different classes of adolescents.

i. Early school leavers

The great proportion who leave school as soon as they can are suddenly switched at 16, sometimes earlier, from the specialized and protected world of school to the different-demanding world of young adult employment in industry, commerce, etc. They enter the world of work before they have really completed adolescents' development. They might be further handicapped by shorter education and fewer vocational guideposts.

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ii. Late school leavers

Other youth take up employment at 18 while college and university students first earn a permanent living between 21 and 26. There are problems about what might be considered the protracted adolescence of students, but they have advantages of prolonged education and well-marked routes to specific and desirable careers which are not enjoyed by those entering work at 16.

iii. What do adolescents think of work / education?

Carter (1962; quoted in Mc Farland, 1972) studied a sample of 200 Shefield boys and girls who left school for work at the age of 15. Several interviews with those people revealed that school did not mean much to most of them, but whether it did or did not, all were glad to enter the larger world of work. Even after a year's experience of the realities of employment, they still valued their work for the status and income it gave them. The possible child-orientation of schools was not a virtue but a defect for those people who saw themselves as youths or young adults, not children. So, they were glad to escape from school authoritarianism, punishment or ridicule for mistakes, and exaltation of the "beautiful and spiritual" world described by school in a world that was really ugly and materialistic. Actual work was better than vague talk about purpose in life. But it was not work itself that mattered but the status it conferred. Getting on with work mates and having a supervisor who was human, fair and tolerant were equally important.

Wilmott (1969; ibid) studied a group (246) of adolescent boys aged between 14 and 20 living in east London. The boys criticized school for its remoteness from their lives, or the impracticality of its offerings, or the lack of specific vocational relevance. Schools were sometimes felt to demand too much, or to offer too little, or to be alien from the local community.

The Government Social Survey made a study of young School Leavers (1968; ibid) for the School Council (1966). Pupils, parents and teachers from 149 schools in England and Wales were interviewed about what they expected from school. Early School Leavers and parents put a great emphasis on career objectives and money management while teachers put relatively more stress on personality development. However, most of the parents, pupils and teachers agreed on the fact that developing independence, learning about right and wrong, behaving confidently, making the most of oneself and speaking well were all important.

To Conclude:

The significance of adult status, a reasonably satisfying job, the peer group and the family stand out clearly as important aspects of the social and emotional development of adolescents. The family is a social and emotional anchor. The peer group gives relief from the family's older generation pressures and allows discussions and action on an equal footing. A job may give personal satisfactions of its own, but also raises one's status in the family and among peers and gives more money for enjoyment and self-development through leisure activities.

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Part Two: Approaches to Adolescence1

I. Biological Views of Adolescence

A strictly biological view of adolescence would emphasize this period as one of physical and sexual maturation during which important growth changes take place in the individual's body. Any biological definition would outline in detail these physical, sexual and physiological changes; their reasons (when known); and their consequences. The biological view would also emphasize biogenetic factors as the primary cause of any behavioral and psychological change in the adolescent. According to this approach, growth and behaviour are under the control of internal maturational forces, leaving little room for environmental

1 The present chapter presents readings extracted from H.S.N.Mc Farland, Psychological Theory and Educational Practice, Human Development, Learning and Measurement, Routelidge and Kegan, Paul, London, 1971

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influences. Development occurs in an almost inevitable, universal pattern regardless of any sociocultural environment.

I. 1. Hall and Recapitulation Theory

One of the most influential exponents of a biological theory was G. Stanly Hall (1846-1924), the first Ph. D in the United States and the founder of the child-study movement in North America. He was the first to advance a psychology of adolescence in his two-volume treatise on the subject.

According to Hall, during its development each human organism relieves each of the stages that occurred in the human evolutionary development. He outlined the major stages:

a. infancy (first four years), during which the child reenacts the animal stage of development;

b. childhood (five to seven) which corresponds to the cave-dwelling and the hunting-fishing epoch of human history (because this is a time the child plays hide and seek, cowboys and Indians, and uses toy weapons);

c. youth (eight to twelve), the pre-adolescence stage of development during which the child recapitulates the life of savagery, but is predisposed to learn, to read, write, draw, manipulate numbers, and to learn languages, manual training, music and other subjects through routine practice and discipline;

d. and puberty (thirteen to twenty four), the period of adolescence.

Hall described adolescence as the period corresponding to the time when the human race was in a turbulent, transitional stage; a time of great " storm and stress". Like some theorists today, Hall said that puberty is a time of great upset, emotional maladjustment, and instability in which the adolescent's mood oscillate between energy and indifference, gaiety and depression, or egotism and bashfulness. The end of adolescence marks a new birth in which higher, more completely human traits are born, a time corresponding to modern civilization.

Hall's views exerted a marked influence upon the study of adolescence for many years. Because the theory held that development was controlled from within, parents were cautioned not to interfere but to let the child pass from one stage to the other. Such a view was comforting to parents who found their children difficult at one stage; they always had the hope that the next stage would be better. One difficulty was the serious, abnormal disturbances at adolescence were sometimes accepted as normal.

Hall's view of adolescence has since been severely criticized on a number of points,

a. His biological, genetic explanation of behaviour allows no room for the role of environment

b. He felt that behaviour at each stage is universal, unchangeable, and predisposed by biological drives, a tenet since refused by cultural anthropologists;

c. He felt parents must be permissive and tolerate socially unacceptable behaviour during the various stages of development; and

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d. He overemphasized adolescence as an inevitable period of "storm and stress ", a point that also has been refuted by demonstrations that adolescence in some cultures is not at all stormy.

In spite of criticism of his theory, hall's influence is still felt in some circles today.

I. 2. Arnold Gesell: Spiral Growth Patterns

Gesell (1880-1961) is known for observations of human development from birth to adolescence that he and his staff made at the Yale Clinic of Child Development and later at the Gesell Institute of Child Development. His best known books are Infant and Child in the Culture of Today, The first five years of life, The Child from five to ten, and Youth: The years from ten to sixteen.

Gesell was interested mainly in the behavioural manifestations of development and personality. He observed the actions and behaviour of children and youth at different ages and constructed descriptive summaries of growth gradients grouped in stages and cycles of development. In his summary he described what he felt were the norms of behaviour in their chronological sequence. A few of the characteristics of adolescents from ten to sixteen years of age, as described by Gesell, are summarized below.

The Ten-Year-Old:

In a state of equilibrium and balance. Recognizes authority, accepts life as it comes, Is confident and obedient, Fond of home and friends of same sex. Joins groups and organizations, Has strong sense of fairness. Careless in appearance. Near and of childhood.

The Eleven-Year-Old :

Marks dawn of adolescence, beginning of biological changes that cause physiological changes: moodiness,

impulsiveness, anger, enthusiasm, negativism, quarreling with siblings, and rebellion against parents.

The Twelve-Year-Old :

Much of turbulence of eleven-year-old has disappeared . Becomes more reasonable, tolerant, positive, companionable, sociable and

enthusiastic, trying to grow up, Be more independent from parents.

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Influenced more by peers, aware of appearance, Wants to wear what crowd wears. Antagonism toward opposite sex fading, plays kissing games and parties.

The Thirteen-Year-Old

Becomes introspective, reflective, sensitive to criticism, overly conscientious, more critical of parents.

Body changes affect posture, motor coordination, voice, facial expressions. Mood fluctuates from despair to self-acceptance. Fewer but closer friends.

The Fourteen-Year-Old

Introversion now replaced by extroversion, characterized by energy, exuberance, a degree of self-assurance, sociability, interest in

own and other personalities. Bases friendship on similar interests and personality traits. Frequent identification with heroes.

The Fifteen-Year-Old

Large individual differences, difficult to describe. Rising spirit of independence, desire for freedom, increased tensions, and conflicts

with parents and school personal can lead to defiance, behaviour problems, delinquency.

Some perfectionist tendencies, beginning of self-control.

The Sixteen-Year-Old

Prototype of pre-adult, self –aware, more independent, self –confident, more balanced and integrated personality, more self-control, thoughts more oriented toward future.

Cheerful, friendly, outgoing , and well-adjusted. Boy-girl companionship on a nonromantic basis.

Several explanations, implication and criticisms need to be added for an understanding of Gesell's theory. It is essentially a biologically oriented theory, for maturation is mediated by genes and biology that determine the order of appearance of behavioural traits and developmental trends. Gesell once said of young children that there is no evidence that practice and exercise can hasten the actual appearance of activities like climbing and tower building because the time of appearance is fundamentally determined by the ripeness of neural structures. Thus, abilities and skill appear without the influence of special training or practice.

This concept implies a sort of biological determinism that prevents parents and teachers from doing any thing to influence development. Because maturation is regarded as a natural ripening process, it is assumed that time alone will solve the minor problems that arise in

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raising children. Difficulties and deviations will be outgrown, so parents are advised against emotional methods of discipline and are encouraged to combine self-regulation with development guidance. This means the school curriculum should be founded on a psychology of development rather than a psychology of learning, with the laws of learning reformulated in terms of the biology and physiology of development. Thus, teachers should take their cues from children, from the maturational level that determines the suitability of a particular kind of learning. For example, because fifteen-year-olds crave independence and rebel against school, many want to leave school and home and are susceptible to peer-group influences; for these Gesell suggests participation in community experiences to integrate the need for independence with growth in knowledge.

Gesell did try to allow for individual differences, accepting that each child is born unique, with his or her own "genetic factors of individual constitution and innate maturation sequences". Furthermore, Gesell accepted what he called " acculturation " , the influence of the environment of the home, school and total culture, but he emphasized that " acculturation can never transcend maturation" because maturation is of primary importance. In spite of accepting individual differences and the influence of environment on individual development, he nevertheless considered many of the principles, trends and sequences to be universal among humans. This concept partly contradicts the findings of cultural anthropology and social educational psychology which emphasize significant, culturally determined individual differences.

Gesell did not see adolescence as necessarily turbulent, erratic and troublesome as did Hall. Rather, he considered it a ripening process, a transitional period between childhood and adulthood with many differences, reversals, and contradictions from year to year, or even within the same year. He tried to emphasize that changes are gradual and overlap from one level to the next, but his description often indicates profound and sudden changes from age to the next. Thus, twelve-year-olds enjoy a short period of interest in girls and participate in kissing games even though they weren't at all interested at age eleven and won't be at thirteen

Gesell did emphasize that development is not only upward, but also spiral, characterized by both upward and downward gradient that cause some repetition at different ages. Thus, freckles are evident at both sixteen and twelve. Both the eleven and fifteen year old are rebellious and quarrelsome, whereas the twelve and sixteen year old are fairly stable. Children may develop along a particular course until they reach a certain level. Then, they revert to earlier forms of behaviour before they are able to surpass their previous performance.

One of the chief criticisms of Gesell's work is the sample he studied. He drew his conclusions from a selected population segment in one geographic area of the United States from boys and girls of favorable socioeconomic status, of a high to superior level of school population in New Haven, Connecticut. He contended that such a homogeneous sample would not lead to false generalizations because he was seeking basic human sequences and directions of development that were related to biological and maturational factors common to all children. However, even when only physical factors are considered, children differ so greatly in the level and timing of growth that it is difficult to establish norms for any age

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level. To do so is to make parents feel that if their children do not fit the so-called norm, then something is wrong with them.

II. Sociopsychonalytical views of adolescence: Erik Erikson’s Ego Identity

Erikson (b 1902) modified Freud's theory of psychosexual development as a result of findings of modern sociopsychology and anthropology and described eight tasks of human development. The confrontation with each task produces conflicts, with two possible outcomes. If the conflict during that stage is successfully resolved, a positive quality is built into the personality and further development takes place. If the conflict persists or is unsatisfactory resolved, the ego is damaged because a negative quality is incorporated into it. Therefore, according to Erikson, the overall task of the individual is to acquire a positive ego identity as he or she moves from one stage to the next.

II. 1. Stages of human development

Infancy: achieving trust versus mistrust (birth- 12 year) Early childhood: achieving autonomy versus shame and doubt (2-3) Play age: achieving initiative versus guilt (4-5) School age: achieving industry versus inferiority (6-11) Adolescence : achieving identity versus identity diffusion (12-18) 6- Young adult: achieving intimacy versus isolation. Adulthood: achieving generality versus stagnation (mature age) Mature age: achieving ego integrity versus disgust, despair (old age)

II. 2. Development during Adolescence

Because this chapter is concerned only with adolescence period, discussion will be limited to the adolescence task of establishing ego identity. Erikson emphasizes several aspects of this process. Identity formation neither begins nor ends with adolescence. It is a lifelong process, largely unconscious to the individual. Its roots go back in childhood to the experience of mutuality between the mothering adult and the mothered children. As children reach out to their first love objects, they begin to find self-realization coupled with mutual recognition. Their identity formations continue through a process of selection and assimilation of childhood identifications which in turn depend upon parental, peer, and society's identification of them as important persons. The community both molds and gives recognition to newly emerging individuals. The individual in the multiplicity of successive and tentative identifications begins early to build up expectations of what it will be like to be older and what it will feel like to have been younger- expectations which become part of an identity as they are, step by step, verified in decisive experiences of psychological fitness.

II. 3. Tasks of identity formation during adolescence

Erikson emphasizes that adolescence is a normative crisis, a normal phase of increased conflict, characterized by a fluctuation of ego strength. The experimenting individual becomes

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the victim of an identity consciousness that is the basis for the self – consciousness of youth. It is during this time that the individual must establish a sense of personal identity and avoid the dangers of role diffusion and identity diffusion. To establish identity requires individual effort in evaluating personal assets and liabilities and in learning how to use these in working to achieve a clearer concept of who one is and what one wants to be and become. Erikson feels that during adolescence there must be an integration of all converging identity elements and a resolution of conflict that he divided into seven major parts. The seven parts of the conflict are:

II. 3. a. Temporal Perspective Versus Time Confusion

This means gaining a sense of time and of continuity of life so that one can coordinate the past and the future and gain some concepts of how long it takes to achieve one's life plans. It means learning to estimate and allocate one's time. Research has shown that a true sense of time does not develop until relatively late adolescence – around fifteen or sixteen.

II. 3. b. Self- Certainty Vs Self-Consciousness

This means developing self-confidence based upon past experiences so that one believes in oneself and feels that one has a reasonable chance of accomplishing future aims. To do this adolescents go through a period of increasing self- awareness, especially in relation to their physical self-image and social relationships. When development follows a relatively normal course, individuals acquire confidence in themselves and their abilities . They begin to anticipate and welcome growing up. They develop confidence in their ability to cope in the present and in anticipation of future success.

II. 3. c. Role Experimentation Vs Role Fixation

Adolescents have an opportunity to try out the different roles they play in society. They can experiment with many different personality characteristics, with a variety of ways of talking and acting, with different ideas, philosophies, or with different types of relationships. Identity comes through opportunities for such experimentation. Those who have adopted too much inner restraint and guilt, who have lost initiative, or who prematurely experience role fixation never really find out who they are.

II. 3. d. Apprenticeship Vs Work Analysis

Similarly, the adolescent has an opportunity to explore and try out different occupations before deciding on a vocation. Once entered, one's job plays a large part in determining identity. Furthermore, a negative self- image in the form of inferiority feelings (developed during stages prior to adolescence) can prevent one form of mastering the necessary energy to succeed at school or on the job. Erikson is quite critical of the schools for the mutilation of spontaneity and the destruction of the joy of learning and the pleasure of creating. Other authors have emphasized the importance of socioeconomic and family background and sex role socialization in influencing achievement motivation.

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II. 3. e. Sexual Polarization Vs Bisexual Confusion

Adolescents continue to attempt to define what it means to be "male" and "female". Erikson feels it is important that adolescents develop a clear identification with one sex or the other for future heterosexual intimacy and as a basis of firm identity. Furthermore, he emphasizes that for a community to function properly, men and women must be willing to assume their "proper roles"; sexual polarization, then is necessary. Much of present-day analysis ( and some criticism) of Erikson relates to his emphasis on the need for sexual polarization.

II. 3. f. Leadership And Followership Vs Authority Confusion

As adolescents expand their social horizons through education, work, apprenticeship, social groups, and new friends and contacts, they begin to learn to take leadership responsibilities as well as how to follow others. But at the same time they discover there are competing claims on their allegiance. The state, employer, sweetheart, parents and friends all make demands with the result that adolescents experience confusion in relation to authority. To whom should they listen? Whom should they follow? To whom should they give their primary allegiance? Sorting out the answers requires an experience of personal values and priorities.

II. 3. g. Ideological Commitment Vs Confusion of Values

This conflict is closely related to all the others because construction of an ideology guides other aspects of behaviour. Erikson refers to this struggle as the "search for fidelity". Erikson emphasizes that individual need something to believe in, to join, to follow, something to which to relate and devote oneself.

If the individual is able to resolve the seven conflicts, a firm identity emerges. The crisis is past when he or she no longer has to question at every moment his or her own identity, when he or she has subordinated childhood identity and found a new self-identification.

Erikson acknowledges that finding an acceptable identity is much more difficult during a period of rapid social change because the older generation is no longer able to provide adequate role models for the younger generation. Under these circumstances, adolescents may reject parental models and turn to their peers to discover who they are. Peer example, influence and opinion become all important. Adolescents go through a period of compulsive group conformity as a means of testing group expectations and how they themselves fit in. The peer group, the clique, and the gang help individuals find their own identities in a social context for they provide role models and direct feedback about themselves.

One interesting aspect of Erikson's theory is his concept of adolescence as psychosocial moratorium, a societally sanctioned intermediary period between childhood and adulthood during which the individual through free role experimentation may find a niche in some section of society.

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Adolescence vary in different societies , but that near the end of adolescence a failure to establish identity results in deep suffering for the adolescent because of a diffusion of roles. Such role diffusion may be responsible for the appearance of previously latent psychological disturbances. Erikson comments: "many late adolescents, if faced with continuing diffusion, would rather be nobody or somebody bad, or indeed dead….than be not quite somebody".

Erikson emphasizes that whereas the identity crisis is most pronounced in adolescence, a redefinition of one's ego-identity may also take place at other periods of life: when individuals leave home, get their first job, marry, become parents, get divorced, change occupations, become unemployed, become seriously ill, are widowed, or retire. The extent to which individuals are able to cope with these other changes in identity is determined partly by the success with which they have first mastered the adolescent identity crisis.

Since Erikson first introduced his theory, numerous research studies have validated, further clarified, or questioned his ideas. The following are some of the highlights of this research.

Identity has many components. It includes physical, sexual, social, vocational, moral, ideological, and psychological characteristics that make up the total self. Thus, individuals may be identified by their physical appearance and traits; by their gender as well as their sex roles; by their social characteristics, social relationships, and membership in groups; by their vocations and work; by their religious and political affiliations and ideologies; and by the characteristics of their psychological adjustment and extent of their personality synthesis. Identity may be described in terms of the total concept of the self. It is personal because it is a sense of " I-ness" , but it is also social for it includes "we-ness", or one's collective identity.

The individual who has developed a positive ego identity is one: " Who is confident of his/her sexual identity, who ahs acquired a sense of basic trust and industry, well-adjusted psychologically, has a more integrated personality, uses defenses in adapting positive manner, and perceives physical, moral, personal, family and social self more positively. The adolescent who has achieved an identity is also more self-acceptant and more perceptive of his/her acts . If one plots these measures on a clinical profile, it is readily evident that the high-identity adolescent appears to a more adaptive and a better-adjusted individual psychologically."

Adolescents who have a positive identity have developed a sense of being all right accepting themselves. Furthermore, identity development is associated with development intimacy. Adolescents are attracted to those with identity statuses similar to themselves. Identity achievement also helps in developing committed relationships: intimacy alters identity-it helps people grow.

Those with low identities seem to reject their physical selves and are confused about their sexual identities and sex roles . They are less acceptant of themselves and their behavior. They perceive themselves as undesirable persons of low moral worth, and are dissatisfies with their moral values and ideologies. The low identity adolescent

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may have conflict over vocational orientation may exhibit general anxiety or neurotic tendencies and lack of personality integration.

III. Sociological Views of Adolescence

In studying adolescence, the sociologist focuses on the social environment as the determinant of the adolescent development. The sociologist recognizes the existence of biological intrapersonal psychological processes, but chooses to study the interaction between the adolescent and society.

III. 1. Allison Davis: Socialized Anxiety

Allison Davis defines socialization as the process by which individuals learn and adopt the ways, beliefs, values, and norms of their culture and make them part of their personalities. Davis sees the process of maturation during adolescence as the process of becoming socialized.

According to Davis, each society defines the goals, values, and behaviors it desires of its members. Socially acceptable behaviour is rewarded; unacceptable behaviour is punished. Repeated punishment for unacceptable behaviour induces what Davis calls "socialized anxiety" which becomes the negative motivation for socialization to take place. Once socialized anxiety has been induced in children, they seek to show behaviour that minimizes it. If socialized anxiety is too strong, it can have an inhibiting or disorganizing effect. If socialized anxiety is too weak, the attainment of maturation is not likely either; therefore, it is important that a correct amount is present.

Davis emphasizes that middle class and working (lower) class cultures expect different things of their adolescents. Middle class cultures emphasize prestige, social position, success, status, and morality. These expectations give rise to some socialized anxiety in their adolescents than that is evident in lower class adolescent. The socialized anxiety that is generated in turn motivates the middle class youngster to strive even more for socially desirable goals.

Lower class cultures do not put so much emphasis on long-term goal, success, status, and postponement of short-tem pleasures like sex expression. Low socioeconomic status adolescents do not develop the kind of socialized anxiety that motivates them to succeed, according to middle class standards. They see no point in postponing many sexual or recreational pleasures for they do not expect to receive the rewards of middle class culture anyhow.

Davis views are important because they emphasize that society influences what adolescents are, what their problems are, and what they become. The sociological view alone, however, does not explain why youth from even the poorest families sometimes succeed according to middle class standards. Davis view must be considered alongside the view of other disciplines.

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III. 2. Albert Bandura And Richards H. Waters: "Social Learning Theory"

Social learning theory is concerned with the relationship between social and environmental factors and their influence on behaviour. Because Bandura (b. 1925) and Walters (1915-19687) have been more concerned with the application of that theory to adolescence than have other social learning theorists, the major focus here will be on their work.

Modeling

Bandura and Walters emphasise that children learn through observing the behaviour of others and imitating their pattern. This process of observing and imitating is referred to as modeling. Modeling then becomes a socialization process by which habitual response-patterns develop. As children grow they imitate different models from their social environment. Young children imitate the language, gestures, mannerisms, habits, and basic attitudes and values of parents. School-age children may imitate some speech patterns or mannerisms of teachers and repeat a teacher's ideas about social or political problems in dinner conversations at home. As children grow older entertainment, heroes and peers become increasingly important as models, especially in influencing verbal expressions, hairstyles, clothing, music, food preferences, and basic social values. Imitation is important in learning such complex social behaviours as self-control, altruism, aggression, or sexual behaviour, or in learning such motor skills as handwriting, driving a car, or operating a machine.

Aggression

Bandura shows also that when children watched unusually aggressive behaviour in a real-life model or a model in a film or cartoon, many of children's responses were accurate imitations of the aggressive acts of the real-life model or the person in the film. The cartoon model elicited less precise imitation. Walters found similar results among high school students, young women, and male hospital attendants. This research has led to much concern about the effects on children and adolescents from watching aggressive behaviour on television screens: "exposure to filmed aggression heightens aggressive actions"

Family role

Bandura and Welters showed that a number of factors in the home situation contribute to effective socialization. One is early dependency of children on parents, so that children desire approval and affection. If dependency behaviour is punished or frustrated by a lack of affectional nurturance or by parental rejection, socialization is delayed or disrupted; hostility or aggressive behavior may develop; and children experience less guilt and lack the capacity to control aggressive feelings when aroused. In studies of adolescent aggression, Bandura and Walters showed that aggressive boys were less dependent on their fathers, more rejected by their fathers, and their fathers spent less time with them than did the fathers of less aggressive boys.

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Another home factor that contributes to socialization is the exertion of socialization pressure in front of demands, restrictions, and limitations. In other words, discipline. The parents of less aggressive sons limited the amount of aggression they would tolerate, used more reasoning as a disciplinary method, and had higher expectations of the boys than did the parents of aggressive sons. Aggressive sons were encouraged to show aggression outside the home toward other children to stand up for their rights, to use their fists. The fathers of aggressive boys seemed to get vicarious enjoyment from their sons' aggressive acts and were more permissive of their sons' sexual behaviour. As a result these boys had greater sexual experience then did other boys.

The parents of aggressive boys were also more punitive when the aggressive behaviour was directed toward them. They used mores physical discipline, isolation, deprivation of privileges, and less reasoning. The more the boys were punished physically at home for aggressive behaviour, the more aggressive they became. Thus, they learned aggression by modeling the behaviour of the punishing parent.

Reinforcement

Most social learning theorists emphasize the role of reinforcement including vicarious reinforcement and self-enforcement. Vicarious reinforcement consists of the positive or negative consequences that one observes in others experience. Observing that others are rewarded for aggressive behaviour increases the possibility that the observer will also show aggression. For instance, children who watched a movie of Rocky the Villain and saw that Rocky's aggression was rewarded were two times more likely to show aggressive behaviour than a control group. When they observed Rocky being punished for aggression, they could describe the aggression but did not perform it. It has also been observed that self-reinforcement was as effective as external reinforcement in influencing behaviour. Once the performance of a desired response pattern, such as shooting and making basket with a basketball, acquired a positive value, adolescents could administer their own reinforcement by producing the baskets and feeling good afterward. Adolescents who set reasonable goal levels of performance and reach that level feel proud and satisfied internally, and become decreasingly dependent on parents, teachers, and bosses to give them rewards.

Bandura questions the stage-theory assumption that adolescence is inevitably a period of "storm and stress, tension, rebellion" . He feels that the description of turmoil, anxiety, sexual tensions, compulsive conformity, and acute identity crises applies to the actual behaviour of only "the deviant ten percent of the adolescent population ". Current research tends to prove Bandura correct; data indicate that "the rate of emotional disturbance for adolescents does not differ significantly from the population at large".

Bandura feels that well-adjusted youths are more numerous than is commonly assumed, and that they are the products of a warm, supportive preadolescence in which firmness and socialization pressure in childhood slowly gave way to increasingly more freedom during adolescence. According to Bandura, when marked changes occur in adolescence, they are due to sudden changes in social training, family structure, peer-group expectation, or other environmental factors, not to hormonal or other biological changes. Adolescence is not a

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separate stage; human development is continuous from infancy to adulthood. The same principles of learning that explain child development are applicable also to adolescent development; only the models and the environmental influences change. External stimulus conditions, rather than hidden, subconscious, internal dynamics, control normal as well as deviant behavior.

The work of social learning theorists is of great importance in explaining human behaviour. It is especially important in emphasizing that what adults do and the role models they represent are far more important in influencing adolescent behaviour than what they say. Teachers and parents can best encourage human decency, altruism, moral values, and social conscience by exhibiting these virtues themselves.

IV. Anthropological Views of Adolescence

Introduction: Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict

Margaret Mead (1901-1978) made an empirical field study of a number of cultures, showing contrasts between them and casting new light on the role of culture in personality development and socialization. She is best known for two books that are relevant to the study of adolescent development: Coming of Age in Samoa and Growing Up in new Guinea. The former is particularly important, for it is devoted entirely to adolescence.

Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) is best known for her book Patterns of Culture. Her theory of development is expounded from a cultural anthropological view point in the article "Continuities and Discontinuities in Cultural Conditioning ".

The theories of these and other cultural anthropologists emphasize the importance of the social environment in determining the personality development of the child. And because social institutions, economic patterns, habits, mores, rituals, and religious beliefs vary from society to society, culture is relative. The kinds of influences that mold the child depend on the culture in which the child grows up.

The later writings of Mead and others have undergone some modification: they show some recognition of universal aspects of development (incest taboos, for example) and more acknowledgment of the biological role in human development. Today extreme positions are generally disregarded by both geneticists and anthropologists. They agree that a composite view that acknowledges both biogenetic factors and environmental forces comes closest to the truth.

IV. 1. Cultural Continuity Vs Discontinuity

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Anthropologists challenge the basic truths of all age and stage theories of child and adolescent development. Mead discovered, for example, that Samoan children follow a relatively continuous growth pattern, with no abrupt changes from one age to the other. They are not expected to behave one way as children, another way as adolescents and yet another way as adults. They never have to change abruptly their ways of thinking or acting. They do not have to unlearn as adults what they learned as children. So adolescence does not represent an abrupt change or transition from one pattern of behaviour to another.

This principle of continuity of cultural conditioning may be illustrated with three examples suggested by Benedict and Mead:

First , the responsible roles of children in primitive societies are contrasted with the no responsible roles of children in Western culture. Children in primitive societies learn responsibility quite early. Play and work often involve the same activity. For example, By "playing" with a bow and arrow, a boy learns to hunt. His adult hunting "work" is a continuation of his youthful hunting "play". In contrast, children in Western culture must assume drastically different roles as they grow up. They shift from no responsible play to responsible work and must do it rather suddenly.

Second, the submissive role of children in Western culture is contrasted with the dominant role of children in primitive society. Children in Western culture must drop their childhood submission and adopt its opposite, dominance, as they become adults. Mead showed that the Samoan child is not taught submission as a child and then suddenly expected to become dominant upon reaching adulthood. On the contrary, the six- or seven-year- old Samoan girl dominates her younger siblings and in turn is dominated by older ones. The older she gets, the more she dominates and disciplines others and the fewer there are to dominate her; the parents never try to dominate her. When she becomes an adult, she does not experience the dominance-submission conflict of the adolescent in Western society.

Third, the similarity of sex roles of children and adults in primitive cultures is contrasted with the dissimilar sex roles of children and adults in Western culture. Mead indicates that the Samoan girl experiences no real discontinuity of sex roles as she as she passes from childhood to adulthood. She has the opportunity to experiment and become familiar with sex with almost no taboos (except against incest). Therefore, by the time adulthood is reached. She is able to assume a sexual role in marriage very easily. By contrast, in Western culture infant sexuality is denied and adolescent sexuality is expressed; sex is considered evil and dangerous. When adolescents mature sexually, they must unlearn these earlier attitudes and taboos and become sexually responsive adults.

IV. 2. Strom and Stress Vs Cultural Conditioning

In showing the continuity of development of children in some cultures in contrast to the discontinuity of development of children in Western culture, anthropologists and some psychologists cast doubt upon the universality of ages and stages of growth of children in all

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cultures. Only those societies that emphasize discontinuity of behaviour (one type of behaviour as a child, another as an adult) are those described as "age-grade societies".

Anthropologists challenge the inevitability of the storm and stress of adolescence by minimizing the disturbance of physical changes and by emphasizing the interpretation given to those changes. Menstruation is a case in point. One tribe may teach that the menstruating girl is danger to the tribe ( she may scare the game or dry up the well); another tribe may consider her condition a blessing (she could increase the food supply or the priest could obtain a blessing by touching her). A girl taught that menstruation is a positive good will react and act differently from a girl who is taught that it is a "curse". Therefore, the stress and strains and strains of pubescent physical changes may be the result of certain cultural interpretations of those changes and not due to any inherent biological tendencies.

Iv. 3. Cross-cultural Views on Parent – Adolescent Relation

Anthropologists describe many conditions in Western culture that create a generation gap, but they deny the inevitability of gap. Rapidity of social change, pluralistic value systems, and modern technology make the world appear too complex and too unpredictable to adolescents to provide them with a stable frame of reference. Further-more, early physiological puberty and the need for prolonged education allow many years for the development and assimilation of a peer-group culture in which adolescent values, customs, and mores may be in conflict with those in the adult world. Mead thinks that close family ties should be loosened to give adolescents more freedom to make their own choices and live their own lives by requiring less conformity and less dependency and by tolerating individual differences within the family. She feels that adolescent-parent conflict and tension can be minimized.

Mead feels also that youths can be accepted into adult society at younger ages. Gainful employment, even part time, would promote greater financial independence. Parenthood should be postponed, but not necessarily sex or marriage. Adolescents should be given a greater voice in the social and political life of the community.

V. A Social Cognition View of Adolescence

V. 1. Social Cognition

Social cognition can be defined as "how people think about other people and about themselves," or how people come to know their social world .It is concerned with the processes by which children and adolescents conceptualise and learn to understand others: their thoughts, their emotions, their social behavior, and their general point of view. Implied in the concept of social cognition is an ability to make inferences about other people's capabilities, attributes, expectations, and potential reactions.

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The question arises as to whether social knowledge and physical knowledge are gained in the same way. Certainly, much of both are acquired through observation, trial and error, exploration, direct first-hand experience, and discovery. But gaining social knowledge is more difficult. Physical knowledge is objective and factual. Social knowledge may be quite arbitrary, determined by a specific social situation, as by social, cultural, and even sub-cultural definitions, requirements, and expectations.

What is the relationship between other cognitive abilities, such as intellectual problem-solving skills, or moral problem-solving skills, and social problem-solving skills? The person who has superior intellectual problem-solving skills does not necessarily have superior social problem-solving skills. An intellectually superior person may be socially inept, indicating that cognitive abilities involved in interpersonal relationships are not the same as those measured by a conventional IQ test. Social problem-solving skills may be learned or taught, separate from intellectual abilities. There is some evidence, however, that persons who show superior ability in moral reasoning also show superior ability in social cognition.

V.2. Robert Selman: Role Taking

Social cognition cannot be perceived as one uniform, theoretical construct. There are actually a variety of mini-theories and constructions. One of the most useful is that of Robert Selman who has advanced a stage theory of social cognition outlining predictable stages in social-role taking. He describes his role-taking concept as a form of social cognition intermediate between logical and moral thought. To Selman social role taking is the ability to understand the self and others as subjects, to react to others as like the self, and to react to the self's behaviour from the other's point of view. Such an ability involves self-knowledge, perspective, empathy, moral reasoning, and interpersonal problem solving, and increases with age into adolescence and into adulthood. Selman identifies five stages or developmental levels of social-role taking. They are:

Stage 0: Egocentric undifferentiated stage of social perspective taking (age 3 to6).

At the egocentric undifferentiated stage of social perspective taking, children cannot make a clear distinction between their own interpretation of a social situation and another point of view. Nor can they understand that their own perception may not be the correct or true perspective. The child at this stage does not distinguish clearly between the physical and psychological attributes of another person. This confusion between subjective psychological and objective physical characteristics leads to difficulties in differentiating feeling from behaviour, and it also interferes with the ability to distinguish intentional and intentional behaviour. While children understand that each person can have different feeling, they do not yet have the ability to determine how the thoughts and feelings of others might differ from their own. Thus, a girl may give her mother jelly beans for her birthday, not just because she herself likes jelly beans, or because she thinks her mother might like jelly beans, but because she views jelly beans as "things that are liked ", without differentiating between her own point of view and those of others.

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Stage 1: Differential or subjective perspective-taking stage, or the social–informational role-taking stage (approximately age 5 to 9)

Children at this stage begin to realise that another person can have cognitive or social perspectives different from their own. One's subjective experiences are differentiated from the experiences of others; however, the judgment of another person is still based on physical observations. An awareness develops that others can interpret the same social situation differently. Children understand that another person may feel or think differently because that person is in a different social situation or has access to different information. However, children are still unable to evaluate accurately what the other person's perspective looks like. In other words, they cannot maintain their own perspective and simultaneously assume the perspective of another.

Stage 2, self-reflective thinking of reciprocal perspective taking (age 7 to 12).

The preadolescent at stage 2 realises not only that other people have their own social perspective because they think or feel differently, but in addition, the preadolescent also becomes aware that the other person thinks about his or her thinking and can take the subject's role. Thus, the change from stage1 to stage 2 is the ability to mentally leave oneself and to take the perspective of another individual. Individuals can now become capable of making inferences about the perspectives of others; they can reflect about their own behaviour and their own motivation as seen from the perspective of another person.

This ability introduces an awareness that no single individual's social perspective is necessarily correct or valid in an absolute sense. Another person's point of view may be as correct as one's own. However, the mutual role-taking ability that develops is only a two-way reciprocity; it is sequential but not yet simultaneous or mutual. The preadolescent thinks only within a two-person frame –“I think- you think” and cannot take a more general third person perspective.

Stage 3: The third person or mutual perspective taking stage (age 10 to 15)

The third-person perspective allows the adolescent to abstractly step outside an interpersonal interaction and simultaneously and mutually coordinate and consider the perspectives (and their interaction) of self and others. The emerging concept of mutual role-taking implies that adolescents can step outside of their own perspective and outside the partner's perspective and assume the perspective of a neutral third person. Furthermore, the ability to distinguish between one's own point of view and a more generalised perspective that might be taken by an "average" member of the group emerges. Friendship now is viewed not as a process of reciprocal back-scratching but as a series of interactions over an extended period of time. Conflicts are seen as emerging possibly from different personality characteristics.

Stage 4: In –depth and social perspective-taking stage (adolescence to adulthood).

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There are two distinguishing features of adolescents' conception of other people. First, they become aware that motives, actions, thoughts, and feelings are shaped by psychological factors. This notion of psychological determinants now included the idea of the unconscious processes, although adolescents may not express this awareness in psychological terminology, Second, they begin to appreciate the fact that a personality is a system of traits, beliefs, values, and attitudes with its own developmental history.

During adolescence the individual may move to still higher and more abstract level of interpersonal perspective-a societal perspective. The adolescent can conceptualize that each person can consider the shared point of view of the "generalized other" – that is, the social system-which, in turn makes possible the accurate communication with an understanding of other people. Further, the idea of law and morality as a social system depends on the concept of consensual group perspective. At this level, the adolescent can abstract multiple mutual (generalized other) perspectives to a social, legal, or moral perspective in which all can share

The progression through these five stages is assessed, analyzed, and described primarily in terms of four social domains as follows:

1. Individual concepts2. Friendship concepts3. Peer group concepts4. Parent-child concepts

Under each of these four social domains there are between four and seven issues, or subtopics, or a total of twenty-two that make up the practical concepts for assessing cognition. The following table shows the issues or subtopics under reach domain.

Parent Child relationsPeer groupFriendshipIndividual1- formation:Motives having children and why children need parents

1- formation:Why (motives) and how (mechanisms) groups are formed; the ideal member

1- formation:Why (motives) and how (mechanisms) friend-ships are made; the ideal friend

1- subjectivity: covert properties of persons (thoughts, feelings, motives); conflicts between thoughts or feelings within the person

2- love and emotionalties:Between parents and children

2- cohesion-loyalty:Group unity

2- closeness:Types of friendship, ideal friendship, intimacy

2- self-awareness:Awareness of the self's ability to observe its own thoughts and actions.

3- obedience:Why children do as their parents tell them

3- conformity: range and rationale

3- trust: Doing things for friends;

3- personality:Stable or predictive character traits (a

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reciprocityshy person, etc)

4- punishment:The function of punishment from the parents and the child's

4- rules-norms: types of rules, and reasons for them

4- jealousy: feelings about intrusions into new or established friendships

4- personality change:How and why people change (growing up, etc )

5- conflict resolution:Optimal ways for parents and children to resolve their differences

5- decision-making:Setting goals, resolving problems, working together.

5- conflict resolution: How friends resolve problems

6- leadership: qualities and function to the group

6- termination: How friendships break up 7- termination:

Why groups break up or members are excluded

Table: Issues of interpersonal understanding related to concepts of the individual, close friendships, peer-group organizations, and parent-child relations. (Selman,1980; cited in Mc Farland, 1971)

Chapter Two: Motivation and learning

I. Definition of motivation

Any definition and discussion is complicated since this concept is composed of many different and overlapping factors such as interest, curiosity, need or desire to achieve … More than this, the term motivation seems to be meaningful only in relation to a particular action, i.e., it only makes sense when we talk about being motivated to do something.

Motivation is a hypothetical concept used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of goal-oriented behaviour. In other words, motivation is an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behaviour. As such when we study of motivation, we focus on how and why people initiate actions directed toward specific goals, how intensively they are

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involved in the activity, how persistent they are in their attempts to achieve these goals, and what they are thinking and feeling along the way.

When analysing the reasons why people choose to act in certain ways, it becomes clear that these reasons for our actions fall into different types. Sometimes we do something because the act of doing it is enjoyable in itself. At other times, we engage in an activity not because we are particularly interested in the activity itself, but because performing it will help us to obtain something else that we want. Consequently, some explanations of motivation rely on internal, personal factors such as needs, interests and curiosity. Other explanations relay on external, environmental factors such as rewards, punishment, social pressure and so on. This difference in explanations had led to a classic distinction in motivation between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

I.1. Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue our personal interests and exercise capabilities. It is motivation to do something when we do not have to. When we are intrinsically motivated, we do not need incentives or punishments because the activity itself is rewarding. When the experience of doing something generates interest and enjoyment, and the reason for performing the activity lies within the activity itself, then the motivation is likely to be intrinsic.

I. 2. Extrinsic motivation

When the only reason for performing an act is to gain something outside the activity itself, such as pleasing the teacher, passing an exam, obtaining financial reward or any other reason that has very little to do with the task itself, the motivation is likely to be extrinsic. Here, we are not interested in the activity itself; we care only about what it will gain us.

Psychologists argue that it is impossible to say that a behaviour is either intrinsically or extrinsically motivated just by looking at it. The essential difference between the two types of motivation is the person’s reason for acting, that is, whether the locus of causality for the action (the location of the cause) is internal or external-inside or outside the person. One can detect these kinds of motivation by asking the question: Would I do this even if no reward or punishment followed? We can illustrate this when considering different actions that we perform in our day-to-day lives, such going to work, reading newspapers, driving within a speed limit, listening to music, studying, etc. When asking and answering the above question about such actions, one may deduce that some of these actions are intrinsically motivating while some others are extrinsically motivating.

In reality, however, this distinction is not that clear-cut. Some of our actions may be prompted by a mixture of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation reasons.

II. Approaches to motivation

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Motivation is a vast and complicated subject that generated many theories. Some theories were developed through work with animals in laboratories. Others are based on research with humans in situations that used games and puzzles. Some theories grow out of the work done in clinical or industrial psychology. In general, most of theory and research on human motivation have been developed by psychologists within one of three major theoretical frameworks: behaviourism, cognitive psychology and humanism.

II. 1. Behavioural Approaches to Motivation

The behaviouristic theories see that all our actions have their roots in our efforts to satisfy organic need, such as food, water, air, pain avoidance, etc. Indeed, the behaviouristic point of view begins with the fact that infants are born with primary biological drives such as hunger that motivate behaviour. Certain behaviour patterns become established through basic conditioning processes because they are associated with the satisfaction of primary drives. Through this satisfaction, these behaviour patterns eventually acquire motivating powers of their own and begin to function as secondary drives ( such as dependence, social affiliation or aggression), so that behaviour that satisfies these secondary drives is reinforced and thus repeated. Children who get attention and social reward for clowning, for example, are likely to become “class clowns”, even though better alternatives may be available to them. Different reinforcement histories will lead to different interests and ultimately to different abilities. A person who is consistently rewarded for playing piano, for instance, and develops a strong interest in doing so will, in time, outperform others with similar talent that is not comparably reinforced.

In education, according to the behavioural view, an understanding of leaner’s motivation begins with a careful analysis of the incentives and rewards present in the classroom. A reward is an attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a particular behaviour. A learner may get bonus points for his homework, for instance. An incentive is an object or an event that encourages or discourages behaviour. The promise of bonus points, for instance, was an incentive to the learner who did his homework. Actually receiving the points was a reward.

If we are consistently reinforced for certain behaviours, we may develop habits or tendencies to act in certain ways. For example, if a learner is repeatedly rewarded with affection, money praise or privileges for his scoring ration in basketball, but receives little recognition for studying, he will probably work longer and harder in his sports class, perfecting his basketball than on understanding mathematics or English.

II.2. Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

Cognitive theories of motivation emphasise that how people think about what is happening to them is as important a determinant of subsequent behaviour as the objective reality of what takes place. Our reaction to test score, for example, is based in part on what we have come to expect due to our pas performance and on our perceptions of how hard we worked, how fair the test was, and so on.

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An essential claim of the cognitive view is that people do not respond to external events or physical conditions like hunger, but rather to their interpretations of these events. Within the cognitive perspective, people are seen as active and curious, searching for information to solve personally relevant problems. Consequently, the cognitive theories emphasise intrinsic motivation.

Cognitive theorists believe that behaviour is determined by our thinking, not simply by whether we have been rewarded or punished for the behaviour in the past. In other words, the factor that is of central importance is that of choice; that is, people have choice over the way they behave and therefore, have control over their actions. To make an informed choice, we need to be aware of the outcomes of what we decide to do. This enables us to set goals for ourselves, and we then act in certain ways in order to achieve these goals. As such, from a cognitive point of view, motivation is concerned with such issues as why people decide to act in certain ways and what factors influence the choices they make. It also involves decisions as to the amount of effort people are prepared to expend in attempting to achieve their goals. The role of the teacher thus becomes one of helping and enabling learners to make suitable decisions.

In short, cognitive view of motivation centres around individuals making decisions about their own actions as opposed to being at the mercy of external factors over which they have no control.

Attribution theory

Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory is an outstanding cognitive theory. According to the attribution theory, we try to make sense of our behaviour and the behaviour of others by searching for explanations and causes. For example, to understand our success and failure, especially unexpected ones, we all ask “Why?” A learner asks “Why did fail in my exam?” or “Why did I do so well in this test?” They may attribute their success and failure to ability, effort, mood, knowledge, luck, help, interest, clarity of instructions, the interference of others, unfair policies, and so on. To understand the others’ success or failure, we also make attributions- for instance, that the others are smart, lucky or work hard. Attribution theories of motivation describe how the individual’s explanations, justifications, and excuses about self and others influence motivation.

II.3. Humanistic Approaches to Motivation

In the 1940’s proponents of the humanistic psychology argued that the predominant schools then like the behaviourist one did not adequately explain why people act as they do. Humanistic explanations of motivation emphasise such intrinsic sources of motivation sa the person’s needs for ‘self-actualisation”, “self-determination”, etc. so, from the humanistic perspective, to motivate means to encourage people’s inner resources – their sense of competence, self-esteem, autonomy, and self-actualisation. Abraham Maslow’s theory is a very influential humanistic explanation of motivation

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Maslow’s Hierarchy

Maslow suggested in 1970 that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lower-level needs for survival and safety to higher-level needs for intellectual achievement and finally self-actualisation. Self-actualisation is Maslow’s term for self-fulfilment, the realisation of personal potential. Each of the lower needs must be met before the next higher need can be addressed. Maslow claims that unless lower needs are satisfied, higher needs may not even be appreciated, let alone motivate behaviour.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is arranged in the following order of priority

1. Physiological ( or survival) needs (sleep, thirst)

2. Safety needs (freedom from danger, anxiety, or psychological threat)

3. Love ( or belonging) needs (acceptance from parents, teachers and peers)

4. Esteem needs ( mastery experiences, confidence in one’s ability)

5. Needs for self-actualisation ( creative self-expression, attempt to satisfy one’s curiosity)

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Maslow called the four lower-level needs (for survival, safety, belonging, and then self-esteem) deficiency needs. When these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He labelled the other higher-level needs (intellectual achievement, aesthetic appreciation, and finally the realisation of personal potential) being needs. When they are met,

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a person’s motivation does not cease; instead, it increases to seek further fulfilment. Unlike the deficiency needs, these being needs can never be completely filled.

The implications of Maslow’s theory to education are more than obvious. A learner who comes to class hungry or tired is unlikely to become engrossed in academic activities. Similarly, a learner who has suffered humiliating failure will not become autonomous learner until he is convinced that the teacher will support his efforts and that he will make errors without blame or shame. In addition, it seems clear that the well-rested, psychologically secure learner, for example, may seek to master academic skills and even generate questions to pursue independently, but the exhausted learner will have little energy for such activity.

II. 4. Sociocultural Approaches to Motivation

Sociocultural views of motivation emphasise participation in communities of practice. People engage in activities to maintain their identities and their interpersonal relations within the community. Consequently, learners are motivated to learn if they are members of a classroom or school community that values learning. Just as we learn to speak and dress and conduct ourselves in restaurants, parties or shopping malls by being socialised – watching and learning from more capable members of our culture- we also learn to be students by watching and learning from members of our community. In other words, we learn by the company we keep.

The concept of identity is central to sociocultural views of motivation. When we see ourselves as football players, writers, journalists, engineers, or psychologists we have an identity within a group. Part of our socialisation is moving from legitimate peripheral participation to central participation in that group. Legitimate peripheral participation means that beginners are genuinely involved in the work of the group, even if their abilities are undeveloped and their contributions are small. The novice weaver learns to dye wool before spinning and weaving, and the novice teacher learns to tutor a learner before working with a group. The identities of the novice and the expert are bound up in their participation in the community. They are motivated to learn the values and practices of the community to keep their community as community members.

III. Motivation to learn in school

III. 1. Definition

Teachers are concerned about developing a particular kind of motivation, motivation to learn. Brophy, in 1988, describes learner’s motivation as his tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to derive the intended academic benefits from them. Motivation to learn involves more than wanting or intending to learn. It includes the quality of the learner’s mental efforts. For example, reading the text 10 times may indicate persistence, but motivation to learn involves more thoughtful, active study strategies such as summarising, elaborating the basic ideas, outlining in your words, and so on. So, motivation to learn involves taking academic work seriously, trying to get the most from it, and applying appropriate learning strategies in the process.

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III. 2. Factors that influence learners’ motivation to learn

Carol Ames (1990, 1992) identifies six areas where teachers make decisions that can influence learners’ motivation to learn: the nature of the task learners are asked to do, the autonomy they are allowed in working, how they are recognised for their accomplishments, grouping practices, evaluation procedures and the scheduling of time in the classroom.

III. 2. a. Tasks for learning

The academic tasks that teachers set affect learners’ motivation. When learners encounter tasks that are related to their interests, stimulate their curiosity, or are related to real-life situations, the learners are more likely to be motivated to learn. Tasks can be interesting or boring, and they have different values for learners.

Tasks can have three kinds of value. Attainment value is the importance of doing well on the task. It is tied to the needs of the learner (for example, the need to be competent, well-liked, etc) and the meaning of success to that person. For instance, if someone has a strong need to appear smart and believes that a high grade on test shows you are smart, then the test has a high attainment value for him. The second kind of values is intrinsic or interest value which refers to the enjoyment one gets from the activity itself. Some people like the experience of learning. Others enjoy hard physical effort or the challenge of solving puzzles. Finally, tasks have utility value; that is they help us achieve a short or long-term goal.

III. 2. b. Supporting Autonomy

The second area where teachers can interfere involves how much choice and autonomy learners are allowed. Choice in schools is not the norm. Children and adolescents spend literally thousands of hours in schools where other people decide what will happen and where “raised hands are sometimes ignored, questions to teachers are fairly frequently brushed aside, and permission to go somewhere else to do something else is quite routinely refused”. So, what can teachers do to support choice without creating chaos?

Like totally unguided discovery or aimless discussions, unstructured or unguided choices can be counterproductive for learning. The alternative is bounded choice; that is, giving learners a range of options that set valuable tasks for them but also allow them to follow personal interests. The balance must be just right so that students are not bewildered by too much choice or bored by too little

III. 2. c. Recognizing Accomplishment

Recognition and reward in the classroom will support motivation to learn if recognition is for personal progress rather than competitive victories. Praise and rewards should focus on learners’ growing competence. At times, praise can have paradoxical effects when learners use the teacher’s praise or criticism as cues about their capabilities.

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III. 2. d. Grouping

Motivation can be greatly influenced by the ways we are related to other people who are also involved in accomplishing a particular goal. And the ways learners relate to their peers are influenced by the goal structure of the activities and tasks created by the teacher. There are three such structures: cooperative, competitive, and individualistic. With cooperative goal structures, learners believe that their goal is attainable only if other learners will also reach the goal. In activities that have competitive goal structures however, learners believe they will reach their goal if and only if other learners do not reach the goal. Finally, there are tasks that have individualistic goal structure in which the learners believe that their attempt to reach the goal is not related to other learners’ attempt to reach the goal. When a task involves complex learning and problem-solving skills, cooperation leads to higher achievement than competition, especially for learners with lower abilities.

III. 2. e. Evaluation

The greater the emphasis on competitive evaluation and grading, the more learners will focus on performance goals rather than mastery. And low-achievement learners who have little hope to of either performing well or mastering the task may want to get it over with. How can teachers prevent learners from simply focusing on the grade or doing the work “just to get finished”? The most obvious answer is to de-emphasise grades and emphasise learning in the class. Learners need to understand the value of the work. Instead of saying: “You will need to know this for the test”, tell your learners how the information will be useful in solving problems they may want to solve. In short, the more competitive the grading, the more learners set performance goals and focus on “looking competent”. When the focus is on performing rather than learning, learners see the goal of classroom tasks as simply finishing, especially if the work is difficult.

III. 2. f. Time

In order to foster motivation to learn, teachers should flexible in their use of time in the classroom. More experienced teachers know that that here is too much work and not enough time in the school day. Learners who are forced to move faster or slower than they should or who are interrupted as they become involved in a project are not likely to develop persistence for learning.

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Chapter Three: Teachers and Teaching

Introduction

Any study of the teacher starts with raising questions like: Who are teachers? Has their background and personality to do with the fate of their profession? Are they trained? How are they trained? Has this training an effect on their abilities and attitudes?

I. Effective Teaching

I. 1. Definition of teaching

According to the Cambridge International Dictionary of English, teaching is defined as “the process of giving knowledge, instruction or training to someone”. Generally speaking, teaching is frequently defined as the process of arranging conditions under which the leaner changes his ways consciously in the direction of his own goals. It is often regarded as an art rather than a science.

I. 2. Characteristics of good teaching

What makes a good teacher? Is it warmth, humour and the ability to care about people? Is planning, hard work and self-discipline, what about leadership , enthusiasm, a contagious love of learning, and speaking abilities, most people would agree that all of these qualities are needed to make someone a good teacher. But these qualities are not enough.

Expert teachers have elaborate systems knowledge for understanding problems in teaching. For example when, a beginning teacher is faced with learners’ wrong answers on a particular test ( like a history or language test), all the wrong answers may seem about the same – wrong. For expert teachers, however, wrong answers are part of a rich system of knowledge that could include how to recognize several types of wrong answers, the misunderstanding or lack of information behind each mistake, the way to re-teach and correct the misunderstanding…. But what should teachers know that allow them to be successful? Indeed, teachers need to possess a minimum professional knowledge and the ability to ba aware of their own thinking. Consequently, they know:

Knowledge of the academic subject they teach

The old joke which says “Q: What do you need to teach a horse? A: more than the horse!” makes obvious the first thing a teacher must have is knowledge or skills that the learner does not have. However, although knowledge of the subject matter is necessary, it is not enough. Knowledge of how to transmit information and skills is at least as important as knowledge of the information and the skills themselves. Every one may remember teachers who were brilliant and thoroughly knowledgeable in their fields but who could not teach. For effective teachers, subject matter is not a question of being a “walking encyclopedia”. Effective teachers not only know their subjects, but they can also transmit their knowledge to learners.

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Mastering the teaching skills

The link between what the teacher wants learners to learn and learners’ actual learning is called instruction or pedagogy. Effective instruction is not a simple matter of one person with more knowledge transmitting that knowledge to another. Rather, effective instruction demands the use of many strategies. Indeed, the teachers needs to possess a set of strategies that apply to all subjects; motivating learners, managing the classroom, assessing prior knowledge, communicating ideas effectively, taking into account the characteristics of the learners, assessing learning outcomes and reviewing information must be attended to at all levels, in or out of schools. They apply as much to the training odf astraunots as to the teaching of reading. How these tasks are accomplished, however, differs widely according to ages of the learners, the objectives of instruction and other factors.

In addition to the above important elements of effective teaching, systematic research has identified further areas of professional knowledge. In fact, effective or ‘good’ teachers also know:

The curriculum materials and programmes appropriate for their subject and grade level

Subject-specific knowledge for teaching special ways of teaching certain learners and particular concepts, such as the best way to explain negative numbers to low ability learners in mathematics.The characteristics and cultural backgrounds of learners

The settings in which learners learn- pairs, small groups, teams, classes, schools, and the community

The goals and the purposes of teaching

I. 3. A constructivist view of teaching

Brown and McInryre (1992; cited in Williams and Burden, 2000) report a study of the opinions of 75 learners in a comprehensive school in the UK, aged 12-13 years as to what made a good teacher. Then categories as representing elements of good teaching:

Creating a relaxed and enjoyable atmosphere in the classroom

Retaining control in the classroom

Presenting work in an interesting and motivating way

Providing conditions so learners understand the work

Making clear what learners are to do and achieve

Judging what can be expected of a learner

Helping learners with difficulties

Encouraging learners to raise their expectations of themselves

Developing personal, mature relationships with pupils

Demonstrating personal talent or knowledge.

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However, although the writers could identify such elements of what they called professional ‘craft’ knowledge among teachers, they could draw no simple conclusions or generalizations about how this highly complex knowledge could be transformed into guidelines for action. As a matter of fact, teachers come in all shapes and sizes, with a wide range of personalities, beliefs and ways of working,. They also come from different backgrounds and belong to different cultures. It would be logical to expect them to work in different ways that suit their personalities.

As a result, it seems fruitless to attempt to shape oneself into the model of a good teacher. An inner exploration of oneself appears rather than a search for the outward characteristics of the perfect teacher appears to be the radical solution. Such a vision of teaching is provided by the constructivist approach to teaching.

In a constructivist perspective, teaching is not seen as the passing of a parcel of objective knowledge, but as an attempt to share what the teacher himself finds meaningful. The differences between teachers, therefore, are not simply a question of whether they are good or bad, competent or incompetent because every teacher is unique. Teachers do not just act as gateways for knowledge; they represent and even embody the curriculum. They convey not just what they know but their position towards it. At the same time, teachers experience engagement with their learners out of which further constructions emerge. Both the teacher and the learners reshape their ways of understanding, their knowledge structures and the meanings that they attribute to events and ideas as a result of this interactive process. They also continually reconstruct their views of each other.

I. 4. Teachers as reflective practitioners

If teachers are to be effective in whatever approach they decide to take, they need to act consistently in accordance with their expressed beliefs though this does not frequently occur in any profession (not just the teaching one). In an attempt to improve teachers’ self-awareness, many educational theorists advocate for the notion of critical reflection. The intention is to enable teachers to become reflective practitioners. A reflective practitioner is one who subjects his everyday professional practice to ongoing critical reflection and makes clear his own particular world view by means of such consideration.

Reflective teachers are thoughtful and inventive. They think back over situations to analyse what they did and why and to consider how they might improve learning for their learners. Critical reflection can be fostered by asking a number of guiding questions:

What do my practices say about my assumptions, values and beliefs about teaching,

Where did these ideas come from,

What social practices are exposed in these ideas,

What views of power do they embody,

Whose interest seems to be served by my practices,

What is that acts to constrain my views of what is possible in teaching,

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I. 5. Teachers as decision makers

The common belief today is that there is no formula for good teaching. Teaching involves planning and preparation and then dozens of decisions every hour. Indeed, though there are no simple answers to successful teaching, the theoretical principles and research findings (particularly in educational psychology) provide a basis for planning and implementing instruction. However, teaches have to act as independent decision makers and apply these general concepts and principles in relation to their learners and educational objectives.

Effective instructors know that the method of instruction used affects learning, so they apply principles drawn from the study of learning, motivation, development and teaching to tailor their approach the situation. Planning is probably the first step in decision taking. A teaching plan is a guide of action, a set of decisions, and a small theory about how to produce learning. Another example of decision making is the one about teaching strategies. Very often teachers need to make decisions with minimal knowledge (“will my students integrate ideas better if I require them to prepare for a formal exam or if I assign a take-home exam on this new topic that I am teaching for the first time,”).

However, teachers do not always make decisions independently. Many decisions are influenced by the behaviour of previous teachers or parents, learners’ peers, and school policies. Some instructional decisions are not made in a conscious, deliberate way, often because teachers simply do not see a problem. One teacher may see a learner as a pleasant, capable, hard working whereas another teacher may realise that this learner is anxious and excessively dependent on teachers, performing capably because he or she is a compulsive worker and socially withdrawn, seldom engaging with peers. If teachers are unaware of such problems, the decisions they will have to handle about that learner will be less than optimal.

II. Classroom management

One of the main tasks of a teacher is how to create social and physical environments for learning; classroom management, then, is a crucial concern to any teacher who seeks to achieve effective teaching. The very nature of classes, teaching and learners makes good management a critical ingredient for success. But is classroom management easily achived? What are the special managerial demands of classes and the needs of learners of different ages?

II. 1. The need for organisation

Classrooms are by nature multidimensional, full of simultaneous activities, fast-paced and immediate, unpredictable public and affected by the history of learners’ and teachers’ actions. The teacher (manager) must deal with all these elements every day.

Productive classroom activity requires learners’ cooperation. Even if some learners do not participate, they must allow others to do so. Gaining learners’ cooperation means much

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more than dealing effectively with misbehaviour. It means planning activities, having materials ready, making appropriate behavioural and academic demands on learners, giving clear signals, accomplishing transitions smoothly, foreseeing problems and stopping them before they start, selecting and sequencing activities so that flow and interest are maintained…

Obviously maintaining cooperation is different for each age group. Young learners are learning how to “go to school” and need to learn the general procedures of school. Others need to know the specifics required for working in different subjects. Working with adolescents requires teachers to understand the power of adolescent peer group.

II .2 The Goals of classroom management

Classroom management refers to the techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behaviour problem. The aim of classroom management is to maintain positive, productive learning environment. There are at least three main reasons for working hard to manage classrooms:

1. More time for learning: Many minutes of the class time are lost each day through interruptions, disruptions, late starts, and rough transitions. Thus one important goal of classroom management is to expand the sheer number of minutes available on learning. This sometimes called allocated time. However, simply making more time for learning will not automatically lead to achievement. To be valuable, time must be used effectively. Basically, learners learn more what they practise and think about. Time spent actively involved in specific learning tasks is often called engaged time, or sometimes time on task. Still, engaged time does not guarantee learning. Learners might be struggling with material that is too difficult or using the wrong learning strategies. When they are working with a high rate of success – really learning and understanding- we call the time spent academic learning time.

2. Access to learning: A second goal of class management is to increase academic learning time by keeping learners actively engaged in worthwhile, appropriate learning activities. In order to participate successfully in a given activity, learners must understand the participation structure- the rules defining who can talk, what they can talk about and when, to whom, and how long they can talk. To reach the second goal of classroom management – giving all learners access to learning- the teacher must make sure that every one knows how to participate in class activity. The key is awareness.

3. Encourage self-management, self-control and responsibility by explaining the procedures that describe how activities are to be accomplished in classrooms, though they are seldom written. These procedures involve descriptions of how materials and assignments be distributed and collected, under what conditions learners can leave the room, how the grades will be determined, etc. in addition to procedures, there are rules that specify expected and forbidden actions in the class. the rules

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II .3. Maintaining a good environment for learning

Effective teachers maintain their management system by preventing problems and keeping learners engaged in productive learning activities. How do they achieve this? Several strategies may be applied ( some of them have already been discussed when describing strategies to raise and keep learners motivation)

II.3.a. Engaging learners:

The format of the class affects learner involvement. In general, as teacher supervision increases, learners’ engaged time also increases. When the tasks provides continuous cues for the learners about what to do next, involvement will be greater. Activites with clear steps are likely to be more absorbing because one stp leads naturally to the next. Making work requirement clear and specific, providing needed materials and monitoring activities all add to engagement.

II.3.b. Preventing misbehaviour

The ideal way to manage problems is to prevent them in the first place. To do so teachers must take individual differences into account, maintain learners’ motivation and reinforce positive behaviour. Jacob Kounin describes areas where successful problem preventers are skilled

Withiness: The teacher must communicate to learners that he is aware of everything that is happening in the classroom, that he is not missing anything. “With-it” teachers seem to have eyes in their heads. They avoid becoming absorbed or interacting with only a few learners because this encourages the class to wander. They are always scanning the room, making eye contact with individual learners so that the latter would know they are being monitored.

Overlapping: Keeping track and supervising several activities at the same time

Maintaining group focus: Keeping as many learners as possible involved in appropriate class activities and avoid narrowing in on just one or two learners.

Movement management: Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate ( and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety.

II.3.c. Dealing with discipline problems

Being an effective teacher does not mean publicly correcting every minor infraction of the rules. Researchers have identified seven levels of intervention in misbehaviour

make eye contact with, or move closer, to the offender

try verbal hints such as “name dropping” ( simply insert the learner’s name into the lecture)

ask the learner if he is aware of the negative effect of the actions

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if they are not performing a class activity, remind him of the procedure and have him follow it correctly.

In a calm, unhostile way, ask the learner to state the correct rule or procedure and then to follow it

Tell the learner in a clear assertive, and unhostile way to stop the misbehaviour

Offer a choice – stop the behaviour or meet privately to work out the consequences, for instance.

III.Educational Objectives: Bloom’s Taxonomy

III. 1. Introduction

One of the basic questions facing educators has always been "Where do we begin in seeking to improve human thinking?" (Houghton, 2004). Fortunately we do not have to begin from scratch in searching for answers to this complicated question. Some scholars believe that the best way to begin is in defining the nature of thinking. Indeed, before we can make it better, we need to know more of what it is.

In 1780, Abigail Adams stated, "Learning is not attained by chance; it must be sought for with ardor and attended to with diligence" ( quotationspage.com, 2005). Learning, teaching, identifying educational goals, and thinking are all complicated concepts interwoven in an intricate web. Bloom was arduous, diligent, and patient while seeking to demystify these concepts and untangle this web. He made "the improvement of student learning" the central focus of his life's work.

III. 2. The Three Types of LearningFollowing the 1948 Convention of the American Psychological Association, Benjamin Bloom took a lead in formulating a classification of "the goals of the educational process". Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning. This became a taxonomy including three

overlapping domains; the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge) Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude) Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviours can be thought of as "the goals of the training process." That is, after the training session, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.

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This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behaviour to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

III. 2. a. Cognitive

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories sometimes referred to as levels, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behaviour to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before

the next one can take place .

Category Example and Key Words

Knowledge: Recall data or information.

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules.

Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.

Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation,

interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own

words .

Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in oneís own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.

Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives Examples, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.

Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee’s vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test.

Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.

Analysis: Separates material or Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers

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concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. 

information from a department and selects the required tasks for training.

Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.

Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome.

Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.

Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.

Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

III. 2. b. Affective

This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. In other words, the Affective domain consisted of behaviours corresponding to: attitudes of awareness, interest, attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in interactions with others, and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are appropriate to the test situation and the field of study. This domain relates to emotions, attitudes, appreciations, and values, such as enjoying, conserving, respecting, and supporting. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behaviour

to the most complex :

Category Example and Key Words

Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.

Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.

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Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon.  Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). 

Examples:  Participates in class discussions.  Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them.

Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.

Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behaviour. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner’s overt behaviour and are often identifiable. 

Examples:  Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about.

Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system.  The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. 

Examples:  Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behaviour. Accepts responsibility for one’s behaviour. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self.

Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.

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Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behaviour. The behaviour is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).

Examples:  Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving.  Displays a professional commitment to ethical  practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behaviour in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look.

Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

III. 2. c. Psychomotor

The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behaviour to the most complex:

Although not part of the original work by Bloom, others went on to complete the definition of psychomotor taxonomies. For example, Harrow (1972) proposed these six levels: Reflex (objectives not usually written at this "low" level), Fundamental movements - applicable mostly to young children (crawl, run, jump, reach, change direction), Perceptual abilities (catch, write, balance, distinguish, manipulate), Physical abilities (stop, increase, move quickly, change, react), Skilled movements (play, hit, swim, dive, use), and Non-discursive communication (express, create, mime, design, interpret).

Category Example and Key Words

Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity.  This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.

Examples:  Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.

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Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.

Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person’s response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).

Examples:  Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process.  Recognize

one’s abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This

subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the "Responding to phenomena" subdivision of the

Affective domain .

Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.

Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.

Examples:  Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift.

Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds

Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. 

Examples:  Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car.

Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will

Examples:  Manoeuvres a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.

Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker,

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produce. better, more accurate, etc.

Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.

Examples:  Responds effectively to unexpected experiences.  Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task).

Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem.  Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.

Examples:  Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine.

Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

III.2. d. Other Psychomotor Domains

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions:

Dave's 1975: Imitation: Observing and patterning behavior after someone else.

Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art. Manipulation: Being able to perform certain actions by following

instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.

Precision: Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be "just right."

Articulation: Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.

Naturalization: Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

Harrow's 1972: Reflex movements - Reactions that are not learned. Fundamental movements - Basic movements such as walking, or

grasping.

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Perception - Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.

Physical abilities - Stamina that must be developed for further development such as strength and agility.

Skilled movements - Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting.

No discursive communication - Effective body language, such as gestures and facial expressions.

Bibliography

1) Brown, H. Douglas, Language Learning and Teaching, Prentice Hall inc, 1987.

2) Child, Denis Psychology and the Teacher, second edition, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,

1980.

3) W. N. Denbar, J. Jenkins, and J. Teylor, General Psychology, 1984

4) Dobson, C. B., Hardy, M., Heys S. , Humphreys , A. and P. Humphreys

Understanding Psychology, 1982.

5) Feldman, Robertm S., Undertanding Psychology (4th edition), McGraw-Hill Inc,1990.

6) Good, Thomas L. and Jere E. Brophy ,Educational Psychology: A Realistic Approach,

4th edition, Longman, 1995.

7) .Mc Farland, H.S.N., Psychological Theory and Educational Practice. Human

Development, Learning and Measurement, Routelidge and kegan Paul, London 1971

8) McDonough, Steven H., Psychology in Language Teaching, 2nd edition, English

Language Book Society, Allen & Unwin, , LOndon, 1986

9) Slavin, Robert, Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, 7th edition, Pearson

Education, Inc, 2003

10) Stones, e and S. Morris, Teaching Practice: Problems and Perspectives. A reappraisal

of the practical professional element in teacher preparation, Mathuen & Co Ltd,

London, 1972

11) Williams, Marion and Robert L. Burden, Psychology for Language Teachers,

Cambridge University Press, 1997 ( 3rd printing 2000)

12) Woolfolk, Anita, Educational Psychology, 9th edition, 2004, Pearson Education

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13) Zimbardo, Philip G., Psychology and Life , Scott Foresman and Company, Glenview,

Illinois. 1979

Online resources

1)1) Learning Domains or Bloom's Taxonomy. Online available at: Learning Domains or Bloom's Taxonomy. Online available at:

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html

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République Algérienne Démocratique et PopulaireMinistère de l'Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique

Ecole Normale Supérieure des Lettres et Sciences HumainesConstantine

Cours d’enseignement à distanceLMD

U E. Droit3eme AnnéeSemestre IV

GENERALITES EN SCIENCES JURIDIQUES

Elaboré par Mr A. ZOUITEN

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2008-2009

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CHAPITRE I : LES DIFFERENTS SENS DU MOT DROIT

L’origine étymologique du vocable « droit » est à rechercher dans la civilisation grecque (-100 à -800 ans A-JC). Il est dérivé du terme KANUN qui était utilisé pour exprimer l’allégorie (l’image, ou le symbole) de la règle de conduite.

Le vocable « droit » renvoie donc, depuis son origine, à une idée de rectitude, c’est-à-dire de droiture dans la conduite en société ; il est utilisé comme norme ou critère de mesure de l’écart que prennent les gens vis-à-vis des règles qu’ils ont voulues, pour la régulation de leurs rapports à l’intérieur du groupement dans lequel ils vivent. Leurs comportements s’écartent du droit lorsqu’ils ne sont pas conformes à la règle posée par le droit.

I : DEFINITION :

Le droit est un ensemble de normes hiérarchisées, générales et impersonnelles, procédant de la loi, de la coutume, de la jurisprudence et dans une certaine mesure de la doctrine des auteurs, qui a pour vocation de régir la vie sociale et dont l’autorité est garantie par la puissance publique détentrice du pouvoir légitime.

Pour que l’on puisse parler de droit, il faut qu’il existe une société organisée qui ne soit pas une simple communauté d’individus, mais une entité ayant une existence autonome par rapport à celle de chacun de ses membres et ayant pour fonction la promotion d’objectifs partagés par tous : l’institution incarnant la collectivité dans son ensemble prend la forme de l’Etat qui détient, selon la célèbre formule du sociologue Max Weber « le monopole de la contrainte légitime ».ce modèle vaut quelle que soit la forme de l’Etat et s’applique aussi bien aux cités du monde antique qu’aux démocraties du monde contemporain.

De ce qui précède, le droit constitue un phénomène éminemment social. Il correspond au fait que la société établit des règles destinées à régir son fonctionnement et par voie de conséquence, à organiser les relations des personnes qui la composent. Cela permet de comprendre que pour le juriste, le mot droit comporte deux définitions distinctes, mais complémentaires.

En premier lieu, il est un ensemble de règles destinées à la vie en société et qui s’applique à toutes les personnes qui forment le corps social. Cela explique que les règles sont formulées de manière générale et impersonnelle : la règle concerne chacun et ne désigne personne en particulier. A titre d’exemple : la règle posée par l’art.124 du code civil algérien

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(C.C.A.) : « Tout fait quelconque de l’Homme qui cause à autrui un dommage, oblige celui par la faute duquel il est arrivé à le réparer ». Ce texte édicte le principe qui a vocation à s’appliquer à tous et non à quelqu’un de précis.

En tant qu’il désigne un ensemble de règles générales et impersonnelles, le mot droit correspond à ce que l’on appelle le droit objectif. Cette formule signifie qu’on envisage la règle de droit en elle-même et par elle-même abstraction faite de son application aux personnes qui y sont soumises.

Cependant, l’essence des règles de droit est d’organiser la vie en société et de régir des personnes qu’on appelle des sujets de droit.

De cela découle une seconde compréhension du mot droit qui évoque l’application de la règle de droit. Dans ce second sens, il est envisagé de façon concrète et particulière en désignant les droits subjectifs. Ils correspondent aux prérogatives individuelles que les personnes prennent du corps de règles qui constitue le droit objectif.

Pour reprendre l’exemple de l’art.124 du code civil algérien cité plus haut, c’est le droit pour celui qui subi un dommage par la faute d’un tiers de lui en réclamer réparation. De même, lorsque nous évoquons notre propriété d’une chose, c’est le droit subjectif que nous évoquons.

Un droit subjectif peut être absolu ou relatif :

Les droits absolus s'appliquent à l'égard de tout tiers (ex. : droit de propriété, droit à la vie). On dit qu'ils s'appliquent erga omnes donc opposable à tous.

Les droits relatifs s'appliquent à l'égard d'un ou plusieurs tiers déterminés (ex. : droits découlant d'un contrat).

Ces deux significations du mot droit ne sont pas opposées l’une à l’autre, elles sont complémentaires, car les derniers (droits subjectifs) sont souvent prévus par le premier (droit objectif) et ils le mettent souvent en œuvre.

II : LES CARACTERES GENERAUX DE LA REGLE DE DROIT 

De ce qui a précédé nous pouvons avancer l’idée que le droit s’exprime par une unité de valeur qui est la règle de droit .Elle se distingue par des caractères généraux et impersonnels qui sont aussi les caractères de droit. La nécessité sociale du droit, son impersonnalité et son abstraction et enfin, sa coercition (contrainte). A- : LE DROIT COMME FAIT DE SOCIETE

Toute règle de droit est créée pour organiser les rapports des individus dans la société .Il serait inimaginable de concevoir l’existence de règles juridiques en dehors d’un groupement humain hétérogène dans sa composante et dans les aspirations et les intérêts de ses membres. Les litiges apparaissent aussitôt entre les membres de ce groupement sur la liberté de chacun d’entre eux ou sur leur droit ou leur devoir .Il n’y aurait point besoin de règle ou de droit dans un espace habité par un seul homme, ce dernier aurait une liberté totale d’action puisque

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personne ne peut lui contester cette liberté .Mais l’homme étant par définition « un animal social »il ne peut vivre en autarcie.

En société l’homme rentre en relation avec ses semblables, de cette relation découle une compétition voir des conflits qui peuvent remettre en cause la cohésion sociale .Pour prévenir la société de ces dangers il était nécessaire de mettre en place des règles pour régir les comportements des individus en limitant leur liberté absolue. Il est de la nature de ces règles d’interdire certains actes comme le vol, le meurtre etc.… ou d’inciter à accomplir d’autres actes positifs comme l’assistance à personnes en danger ou le paiement des impôts etc.…

En plus de la nécessité sociale, la règle de droit représente un système de valeur.Ce dernier vise à organiser la société dans son ensemble et les relations qui s’établissent entre les personnes qui la compose dans un but de cohésion sociale afin d’assurer la quiétude dans la vie des gens. Seulement ce droit ne représente pas à lui seul tout les systèmes de valeurs: Il en est d’autre qui lui sont concurrents et qui se traduisent dans la morale et la religion. La règle morale tend à la perfection de la personne et à l’épanouissement de la conscience .La règle religieuse veille au salut de l’être humain dans sa rencontre avec Dieu son créateur .Ses perspectives sont assurément différentes de celles dans laquelle se place la règle de droit qui est ni une règle de salut ni règle de rencontre mais un facteur d’ordre un régulateur de la vie en société.

B- CARACTERE GENERAL ET IMPERSONNEL DE LA REGLE DE DROIT

La règle de droit concerne chacun et ne désigne personne en particulier, on dit d’elle qu’elle a un caractère général et impersonnel .Celui ci est dans la nature de la notion même des règles : c’est à dire toute prescription qui prétend à s’appliquer à un groupe d’individu, une règle qui ne visera qu’une personne déterminée ne serait rien d’autre qu’une décision individuelle, c’est le cas notamment des décret ou arrêtés portant nomination d’un fonctionnaire.

La règle de droit est impersonnelle et générale lorsqu’elle concerne une situation plus ou moins définie .C’est le cas à titre d’exemple de la majorité que fixe l’article 40 du Code Civil qui dispose : « toute personne majeure jouissant de ses facultés mentales et n’ayant pas été interdite, est pleinement capable pour l’exercice de ses droits civils. La majorité est fixée à19 ans révolus. ». Toute personne appartenant à la société que la règle de droit régit, a vocation à se voir appliquer cette règle dès lors qu’elle se trouve dans la situation visée. La règle ne s’épuise pas en tranchant un cas, tout au contraire sa vocation et de s’appliquer à une série de cas qui se répète dans le temps, la règle de droit implique une certaine permanence.

La généralité de la règle de droit se manifeste aussi dans le fait que, souvent, la règle ne s’applique qu’à une catégorie limité de personne : les salariés (droit de travail), les propriétaires pour certaine dispositions du droit civil, les locataires pour d’autre dispositions du droit civil, les conducteurs d’automobiles pour le code de la route, les agriculteurs, les investisseurs…etc.

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La règle n’en conserve pas moins sa généralité en ce qu’elle a vocation à s’appliquer sur toute personne appartenant à la catégorie considérée, et toute personne qui entre dans cette catégorie s’y trouve automatiquement soumise.Aussi la règle de droit est toujours impersonnelle dans sa formation et générale dans son application.

C- LA REGLE DE DROIT EST UNE MESURE COERCITIVE Il est dans la nature des règles de comporter une sanction, c’est une condition de leur respect, si non de leur existence ; mais selon les règles, la sanction varie.La caractéristique décisive de la règle de droit consiste en se qu’elle est rendue obligatoire et sanctionné par l’Etat.

Toute règle morale, religieuse ou autre peut devenir juridique : il lui suffit pour cela d’être rendue obligatoire et assortie de sanctions, et sanctionnée par l’Etat. C’est cette consécration par l’Etat qui en fait une règle de droit.

En règle générale la sanction de l’autorité publique qui s’attache à la règle de droit veut dire qu’il est possible d’en exiger l’exécution, au besoin en recourant à un organe de la justice institué par l’Etat.Les sanctions de l’inobservation de la règle de droit sont variées et hiérarchisées en fonction de leur gravité et du dommage qui en résulte .Une gamme très diversifiée de sanctions est organisée par le droit .De façon sommaire, il est possible de regrouper les sanctions de la règle de droit autour de trois idées : Exécution -Réparation- Punition. On observera que ces trois thèmes ne sont pas exclusifs l’un de l’autre, car il existe des sanctions qui cumulent à la fois l’exécution de la règle et la réparation des conséquences de sa violation initiale .Cette palette de sanction peut concerner les trois types fondamentaux de contentieux: le contentieux civil, le contentieux pénal et le contentieux administratif.

L’exécution est inhérente au caractère obligatoire de la règle de droit, cependant il faut remarquer que cette exécution exige parfois une cœrcition .L’application de la règle de droit par le juge qui tranche le procès en est la parfaite illustration. Lorsque ce dernier ordonne la saisie des biens du débiteur qui ne veut pas payer sa dette le créancier fait saisir et vendre ses biens pour se payer sur le produit de cette vente.

Les sanctions réparatrices sont assez fréquentes et nous en distinguons deux sortes : la nullité d’abord. C’est la sanction la plus fréquente de la violation de la règle de droit à l’occasion d’un acte juridique c’est à dire un acte de volonté qui est créateur d’un fait de droit comme par exemple un acte de vente .L’acte conclu en violation de la règle est annulé c’est à dire que non seulement il disparaît pour l’avenir mais encore, tout les effets qu’il a pu déjà produire sont effacés .Ainsi si une vente a été consentie par une personne privée de sa capacité de conclure un tel contrat (mineur par exemple )ce contrat peut être annulé ce qui aura pour effet de restituer au vendeur la propriété de la chose vendue et de conférer à l’acheteur le droit d’obtenir le remboursement du prix.

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En bref, la nullité a pour résultat de faire comme si l’acte contraire à la règle de droit n’avait jamais existé. Les dommages –intérêts en suite, c’est la sanction la plus habituelle de la responsabilité civile, lorsqu’une personne cause un dommage à autrui dans des conditions qui engage sa responsabilité, parce qu’elle a commis une faute par exemple, elle est tenue de réparer ce dommage le plus souvent en payant à la victime des dommages intérêts c’est à dire une somme d’argent d’un montant égal au dommage causé.

Les sanctions punitives relève principalement du droit pénal, ce sont les peines qui sanctionnent les actes de délinquance, contravention, délits ou crimes pour aller des plus simples aux plus graves. Ces peines sont diverses dans leurs nature (amende, emprisonnement et réclusion mais aussi privation du permis de conduire interdiction d’exercer certaines activités …etc.) mais aussi dans leurs gravité : la durée de la privation de liberté et le montant de l’amende augmente avec la gravité de l’infraction commise. La notion de peine n’est pas exclusivement réservée au domaine pénal nous pouvons la retrouver dans certaine situations relevant du droit civil, ou même du droit administratif.

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CHAPITRE II : LA PERSONNALITÉ JURIDIQUE

L'aptitude à la mise en œuvre des règles de droit est reconnue par principe aux êtres humains. Ce principe oppose nettement les êtres humains, personnes physiques, aux choses : alors que les premiers sont les animateurs de la vie juridique, les secondes n'en sont que l'objet. .Toutefois, les êtres humains ne sont pas les seuls à être admis à avoir une activité juridique. Le droit reconnaît la même aptitude à certains groupements de personnes ou de biens qui sont des personnes distinctes et autonomes : ce sont les personnes morales.

A- LA DUALITE DES SUJETS DE DROIT

1- : LES PERSONNES PHYSIQUES

La personnalité se définit comme l'aptitude à participer à la vie juridique, en bénéficiant de droits subjectifs et en animant les situations juridiques. Ainsi, définie, elle est reconnue à tous les êtres humains sans exception. Il y a là pourtant une conquête relativement récente du droit puisque, l'esclavage n'a été aboli que tardivement en France en 1848 et dans d'autres pays, bien au-delà, en 1888 au Brésil, et en 1965 en Arabie Saoudite.De plus, la mort civile, qui était une sanction accompagnant certaines condamnations pénales, en vertu de laquelle, celui qui en était frappé ne pouvait plus acquérir de droits, n'a été abolie qu'en 1854. Aujourd'hui, la reconnaissance de la personnalité juridique des êtres humains est donc absolue et se confond avec l'existence de la personne.Il convient de distinguer soigneusement la personnalité de la capacité juridique. Tandis que la première affirme une aptitude générale à participer à la vie juridique, la seconde précise pour chacun, les conditions de cette participation. Ainsi, la pleine capacité civile reconnue en principe à tous les majeurs saints d'esprit, habilite ceux-ci à acquérir et à exercer tous les droits civils. Au contraire, les incapacités apportent des limitations de portée variable à la jouissance ou à l'exercice des droits.Les incapacités de jouissance correspondent à la privation d’une personne d'un droit. Elle ne peut ni l'accomplir seule, ni par personne interposée. Les incapacités de jouissance sont nécessairement spéciales, c'est-à-dire, limitées à certains actes, car leur généralisation aboutirait à dénier la personnalité juridique que la loi accorde à tout le monde. Le plus souvent, il s'agit d'une sanction prise contre cette personne, comme par exemple, le tuteur d'un incapable n'a pas le droit d'acquérir les biens de son pupille.

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Au contraire, les incapacités d'exercice sont plus fréquentes. Dans ce cas, l'incapable possède les mêmes droits que tout autre individu, mais il ne peut les exercer seul. Leur accomplissement nécessite la représentation ou l'assistance de l'incapable par une autre personne. L'incapacité est alors une mesure qui consiste à protéger les intérêts de l'incapable contre les effets de ses propres actes.

Le régime applicable à l'incapable varie selon qu'il doit être représenté ou assisté pour l'accomplissement des actes de la vie juridique.La représentation légale ou administration légale de la personne complètement ou partiellement incapable du fait de son jeune âge, de sa démence, de son imbécillité ou de sa prodigalité se réalise par les régimes prévus par les articles 81à 135 de la loi n° 84-11 du 9 juin1984, modifiée et complétée portant code de la famille. Il s'agit des régimes de la tutelle, de l'interdiction, du disparu et de l'absent, du recueil légal ou kafala. Dans ces régimes de représentation, l'incapacité est générale. Le tuteur agit au lieu et place de l'incapable. Tel est le cas des majeurs placés sous ce régime en regard de l'altération de leurs facultés mentales.La curatelle est un régime dans lequel l'incapable est assisté par une personne qui agit avec lui et le conseille. L'incapable peut contracter, mais le curateur doit au préalable l'y autoriser.

a- : Le commencement de la personnalité

Le commencement de la personnalité juridique des personnes physiques débute avec la naissance d'un individu vivant et viable. Il y a donc un lien direct entre la personnalité et la vie. Le problème du commencement de la vie et donc de la personnalité peut être résolu de deux manières : soit on considère que la vie ne débute qu'a la naissance, soit on s'attache à l'enclenchement du processus vital et l'on considère que le commencement de la vie coïncide avec la conception.D'une manière générale, le droit algérien, inspiré du droit français, lie la personnalité à la naissance. La jurisprudence française a depuis longtemps, admis le principe que l'enfant conçu est réputé né dés lors qu'il y a va de son intérêt. II résulte de ceci qu'un enfant né viable et peu importe qu'il décède peu après la naissance, peut recueillir des droits pendant la durée de la gestation. C'est le cas notamment lorsque pendant celle-ci, une succession est ouverte et au regard de laquelle il a qualité d'héritier. Le droit algérien a adopté la même logique puisque l'article Ï34 de la loi 84-11du 9 juin 1984 portant code de la famille code de la famille a disposé dans ce sens :

« L'enfant simplement conçu n'a vocation héréditaire que s'il naît vivant et viable au moment de l'ouverture de la succession. Est réputé naît vivant tout enfant qui vagit ou donne un signe apparent de vie. »La personnalité est donc liée à la naissance. Il en résulte que l'embryon, un foetus ne se voit pas reconnaître là qualité de sujet de droit, de personne. L'interruption volontaire de grossesse est tout a fait licite en France, cela corrobore l'affirmation précédente.

b- : La fin de la personnalité

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La fin de la personnalité coïncide avec la fin de la vie, mais aussi, par la disparition ou l'absence. La fin de la personnalité par le décès, à la lumière des progrès de la science médicale, notamment la thanatologie (science de la mort), est devenue complexe à cerner. Le critère de la mort est devenu relativement difficile à établir : arrêt cardiaque et respiratoire et c'est la première situation. Dans ce cas, le cadavre est froid, le constat de la mort peut être établi si les trois critères cliniques suivants sont simultanément présents : absence totale de conscience et d'activité motrice spontanée, abolition de tous les réflexes du tronc cérébral et enfin, absence totale de ventilation spontanée. Le code de la santé publique français pose tous ces préalables avant tout prélèvement d'organes.La seconde solution, concerne la mort cérébrale avec maintien sous respiration artificielle : dans ce cas, le décès est cliniquement constaté à la suite de l'arrêt respiratoire et pour le prouver, il faut que la personne soit soumise à deux encéphalogrammes et que ces derniers soient plats. La loi algérienne n° 90-17 du 31 juillet 1990 modifiant et complétant la loi n°85-05 du 16 février 1985 relative à la protection et à la promotion de la santé, sur cette question de la constatation du décès en vue du prélèvement d'organes, n'est pas aussi précise que la loi française. En effet, l'article 164 modifié dispose que : « Le prélèvement de tissus et d'organes sur les personnes décédées aux fins de transplantation, ne peut se faire qu'après constatation médicale et légale du décès par la commission médicale visée à l'article 167 de la présente loi et selon des critères scientifiques définis par le ministère chargé de la santé publique. »En plus du décès, la fin de la personnalité peut se constater par la disparition dans des cas de guerre ou de circonstances exceptionnelles telles, les naufrages ou les tremblements de terre etc. Une telle disparition peut donner lieu à déclaration judiciaire du décès du disparu. L'article 113 du code de la famille prévoit une période d'attente de quatre ans pour le temps de guerre et les circonstances exceptionnelles. Pour le temps de paix, il habilite le juge à fixer une période d'attente passé un délai de quatre ans. Ce jugement marque la fin de la personnalité du disparu.La fin de la personnalité peut également s'effectuer par l'absence. L'article 110 du code la famille assimile au disparu l'absent et le définit comme la personne qui est empêché durant une année par des raisons de force majeure de rentrer à son domicile ou de reprendre la gestion de ses affaires. Un jugement déclaratif d'absence peut être établi. Il marque la fin de la personnalité juridique de la personne considérée

2- LES PERSONNES MORALES

On désigne sous l'appellation de personnes morales, des groupements très variés de personnes (Etat, communes, sociétés, associations, ordres professionnels ou syndicats etc.) ou de biens (Fondations qui sont des affectations de biens à des fins déterminées), qui ont vocation à une activité autonome distincte de celle des personnes qui les composent. Il a été beaucoup débattu de la question de savoir si la personnalité morale est un artifice juridique, une fiction ou si elle est au contraire, la traduction d'une réalité dans la vie juridique.La théorie de la fiction part du postulat que seul l'être humain peut être investi de droits; il est seul à avoir la qualité de personne juridique.La théorie de la réalité juge qu'il est tout à fait naturel que des groupements constitués pour la défense d'un intérêt collectif et dotés de structures propres à permettre l'expression d'une volonté collective représentative de cet intérêt. La théorie de la réalité a été consacrée par le droit positif puisque la personnalité morale appartient en principe à tout groupement pourvu

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d'une expression collective pour la défense d'intérêts licites, dignes d'être juridiquement reconnus et protégés.

B - : LES ATTRIBUTS DE LA PERSONNALITE JURIDIQUE

Les sujets de droit ou personnes juridiques doivent être individualisés. Quatre éléments distincts concourent à cette individualisation : la nationalité, le nom, le domicile et le patrimoine.

1- La nationalité

La nationalité correspond à un souci d'identification des personnes dans la communauté internationale. Elle se définit comme « l'appartenance juridique et politique d'une personne à la population constitutive d'un Etat.».

Sa conséquence principale est de faire accéder la personne physique considérée au statut, droits, libertés et devoirs que réserve l'Etat concerné à ses nationaux. La question de la nationalité se pose tout autant pour les personnes morales.En règle générale, celle-ci dépend de la localisation de son siège social, c'est-à-dire de son principal établissement où se trouvent les organes de gestion de la personne morale.

2- Le nom

Le nom patronymique ou nom de famille individualise une famille et les membres de celle-ci par rapport aux autres familles. Le prénom quant à lui individualise une personne au sein même de sa famille. C'est une institution de police, car il est un élément d'ordre public. Le nom est souvent acquis par voie de filiation, comme il peut l'être par voie d'attribution de l'autorité publique dans le cas de filiation inconnue. Le nom ainsi attribué est immuable et obligatoire, ce qui signifie que nul ne peut le modifier dans le cadre de ses activités juridiques. Il est par conséquent incessible et imprescriptible. Le nom patronymique est un droit de la personnalité qui confère à son titulaire le droit de se défendre contre les usurpations de son nom De plus le principe d'immutabilité du nom n'est pas absolu, chacun peut demander à changer son nom, à condition de justifier d'un intérêt légitime Alors que le nom patronymique est modifié par décret, le prénom peut être modifié par un jugement du tribunal Les personnes morales sont également individualisées par une dénomination, le titre pour les associations, la raison sociale ou dénomination commerciale pour les sociétés

3- Le domicile

Tout comme le nom, le domicile représente lui aussi une institution de police civile. Il convient de le distinguer de la notion voisine de résidence. Cette dernière désigne le lieu où une personne vit habituellement. Le domicile marque le lieu de rattachement géographique de la personne au regard de la loi. Il est un point essentiel de centralisation de l'activité juridique de la personne, ce dont témoigne à titre d'exemple, le principe posé en matière de procédure civile, de la compétence territoriale du tribunal du domicile du défendeur. Au domicile des personnes physiques correspond le siège des personnes morales.

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4- Le patrimoine

Le patrimoine est un ensemble de droits et d'obligations d'une personne qui comporte des éléments d'actif et des éléments de passif pour former une universalité juridique. Le patrimoine est lié à la personnalité des son titulaire. Le patrimoine ne renferme que des rapports de droits pécuniaires, les droits extrapatrimoniaux tels que les droits personnels restent en dehors du patrimoine. Le patrimoine est lié à la personne car c'est le reflet de l'individu sur le terrain économique. Seules les personnes physiques et morales peuvent avoir un patrimoine. Ce dernier reste lié à la personne tant que dure la personnalité. Enfin, une personne ne peut pas avoir plus d'un patrimoine- la règle de l’unicité du patrimoine- un individu peut bien diviser son activité entre activité civile et activité commerciale par exemple, il n'aura pas pour autant plusieurs patrimoines.

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CHAPITRE III : LA SPÉCIALISATION DES REGLES DE DROIT 

Parce qu’elle vise à organiser la société, la règle de droit ne doit pas se limiter à l’énoncé de quelques règles vagues et générales. La loi doit prendre en considération le particularisme des différentes situations de la vie sociale pour les soumettre à des règles adéquates : le mariage et les sociétés commerciales ne peuvent être soumises au même règles de droit.

De plus et sous l’influence de facteur multiples,tels que le progrès des sciences et des techniques,la complexité croissante de l’économie,l’avènement du dirigisme étatique…etc., la diversification naturelle de la règle de droit s’est considérablement accrue au XX siècle pour déboucher sur une véritable spécialisation du droit .Celle ci se manifeste tout d’abord par une distinction que l’on présente souvent comme fondamentale entre le droit privé et le droit publique ensuite ,elle se traduit par une multitude de droit spéciaux qui apparaissent comme des subdivisions internes du droit.

A- LA DISTINCTION DROIT PRIVE DROIT PUBLIC 

La distinction droit privé droit public constitue selon beaucoup d’auteurs la grande division du droit .Elle évoque l’opposition de la collectivité à l’individu, le droit privé envisageant celui-ci tandis que le droit public prendrait en charge celle la .Pour rendre compte de la distinction il faut recourir à la différence d’objet et de finalité qui distingue les deux droits.

La différence d’objet se manifeste par le fait que le droit privé règlemente les rapports économiques ou autres qui s’établissent entre particulier, qu’il s’agisse de mariage, de contrat de vente, de prêt, d’héritage ou d’acquisition de nom ou de nationalité …etc. Au contraire de tout cela le droit public vise à organiser l’Etat et les collectivités publiques qui en dépendent et à régir leurs actions entre elles et leurs actions avec les particuliers .Cependant il n’est pas rare que l’activité de ces collectivités soit soumise à des règles de droit privé.

La différence de finalité est caractérisée par le fait que le droit public recherche à la fois la satisfaction de l’intérêt général et en même temps l’exercice de la puissance publique. Ce critère tiré de la puissance publique est décisif dans le droit publique .Il est le droit propre à

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l’Etat et aux collectivités publiques agissant en tant que puissance publique (PP), comme tel elles sont investies d’un pouvoir de commandement prééminent qu’il est soustrait aux règles applicables aux particuliers .

L’idée de Puissance Publique explique les différences indéniables qui opposent le droit publique et le droit privé ainsi, l’administration est autorisée à exercer directement ces droits par le biais d’un pouvoir d’action d’office qui est une prérogative exorbitante du droit commun, alors que les particuliers ne sont admis à exécuter leurs droit que sous contrôle et l’autorisation du juge.

B- LES SUBDIVISIONS DU DROIT :

La classification des branches de droit se manifeste dans une trentaine de disciplines, chacune d’elle est entendue comme un ensemble cohérent et autonome de règles adaptées à un secteur déterminé d’activité. Nous attacherons une importance particulière au droit civil dans la sphère du droit privé et au droit administratif dans la sphère du droit public, au regard du poids et de l’impact de ces deux disciplines dans leur domaine respectif.

B.1. Les subdivisions du droit public :

Les disciplines qui peuvent être attachées au droit public sont nombreuses. Les plus importantes entre elles sont constituées par le droit international public (D.I.P.), le droit constitutionnel et le droit administratif.

B.1.1. Le droit international public :

L’Etat entretient nécessairement des relations extérieures, pour celles-ci il existe un cas particulier de règles que l’on désigne par l’appellation de droit international public (D.I.P.). Celui-ci réunit l’ensemble des règles qui gouvernent les rapports inter étatiques dans le cadre de conventions et traités internationaux, ainsi que celles qui définissent l’organisation, le fonctionnement et les compétences des organisations internationales. Parmi celles-ci l’Organisation des Nations-Unis (O.N.U.), occupe une place prépondérante. La réalité de cette branche du droit public est parfois contestée, cela tient à l’effectivité de la règle du droit international et en particulier sa sanction dont on a vu qu’elle est le critère décisif du droit et qui dans ce domaine est très problématique.

B.1.2. Le droit constitutionnel :

Il réunit les règles relatives à l’Etat et au pouvoir politique. Il s’agit de l’ensemble des règles qui président à l’organisation politique de l’Etat et son fonctionnement. La substance propre du droit constitutionnel se trouve dans la constitution et les différents textes qui s’y attachent, en plus de la délimitation des différents pouvoirs de l’Etat, législatif, exécutif, judiciaire. La constitution définit également les libertés publiques et individuelles des citoyens, telles les libertés de réunions, la presse, circulation, etc.

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B.1.3.LE DROIT ADMINISTRATIF:

Il regroupe les diverses règles qui définissent et organisent les administrations et les services publics, ainsi que celles qui précisent les modes de fonctionnement et celles qui régissent leurs rapports avec les particuliers. Le droit administratif est fondamentalement le droit de la puissance publique. Le droit administratif est le droit de l’organisation et de l’action administratives. Examinons ces deux points :

L’ORGANISATION ADMINISTRATIVE

L’administration agit par l’intermédiaire de personnes publiques. Leur compétence est parfois générale et s’étend à tout le territoire : c’est le cas de l’Etat, dont les services publics ont des ramifications dans tout le pays. Leur compétence est parfois générale, mais limitée à une portion du territoire seulement à l’image des wilayas et des communes. Parfois, leur compétence est limitée à une entité bien déterminée où la compétence est spécialisée  ; c’est le cas des établissements publics tels que les universités, les hôpitaux, etc.

A- Les rapports entre les personnes publiques :

Ces derniers sont organisés en droit administratif par les notions de centralisation et de décentralisation qui sont les fondements de l’organisation administrative de l’Etat.

La centralisation consiste à confier à l’Etat l’exécution de toutes les tâches sur tout le territoire national. Toutes les activités administratives sont exercées exclusivement par les organes de l’Etat.

La décentralisation consiste à confier aux autorités locales la satisfaction des besoins qui leur sont propres. Les activités administratives sont exercées par des organes locaux bénéficiant d’une large autonomie.

1- La centralisation :

C’est le système d’organisation qui rattache les services publics à un même centre, à un centre unique : l’Etat.

a- Conséquences :

 Envers l’Etat, il assure son omnipotence, concentre sous une même direction tous les moyens d’action et d’exécution. Envers les collectivités locales, celles-ci n’ont pas d’existence juridique autonome reconnue et elles constituent, tout au plus, de simples découpages administratifs.

b- Modalités :

La centralisation dans sa forme la plus absolue n’existe pas, car un Etat même autoritaire, ne peut supprimer les collectivités locales traditionnelles, et leurs organes dirigeants seront

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toujours dans les mains de l’Etat. De plus, même dans un système très centralisé, on ne peut pas tout décider à partir de la capitale ; il est nécessaire d’avoir des agents ayant un pouvoir de décision et permettant de mieux tenir compte des nécessités locales. C’est le système de la décentralisation, mais les agents restent soumis à l’autorité des organes centraux dont ils sont les représentants (walis).

c- Valeurs :

Les partisans de la centralisation estiment qu’elle assure la cohésion de l’Etat, en éliminant les particularismes dangereux. Elle renforce l’égalité des individus devant l’Etat. Ses adversaires pensent que le système est trop rigide, qu’il encombre les organes centraux qui ne peuvent statuer rapidement, il ne faciliterait pas l’adaptation des décisions aux circonstances locales, enfin il ne favoriserait pas la participation démocratique des citoyens.

2- La décentralisation :

C’est le système d’organisation par lequel l’Etat permet à d’autres personnes morales que lui d’assurer la gestion de certains services publics.

a- Types :

On distingue la décentralisation territoriale, reconnaissance de la personnalité juridique à des collectivités géographiquement délimitées, de la décentralisation par services, attribution de la personnalité morale à certains services nettement individualisés.

b- Eléments :

Existence d’affaires propres à la collectivité décentralisée ;

Existence d’autorités propres, émanations directes de la collectivité, souvent élues par elle ;

Existence d’un contrôle, la décentralisation ne signifie pas souveraineté et indépendance, mais seulement un certain contrôle ; le contrôle de tutelle ;

c- Valeurs :

Les partisans de la décentralisation font valoir son aspect libéral et démocratique par la participation des citoyens à la gestion de leurs affaires, la meilleure connaissance et prise en charge des intérêts locaux.

Les adversaires de la décentralisation font valoir l’argument de l’atteinte à la cohésion de l’Etat, la prévalence des intérêts locaux sur l’intérêt général.

B- Les contrôles administratifs :

1- Le contrôle hiérarchique :

La hiérarchie est une organisation du personnel dans laquelle chaque agent se trouve subordonné à un autre, à l’exception de l’un d’entre eux qui exerce son autorité sur tous les autres, soit directement, soit en passant par des agents intermédiaires. Le contrôle hiérarchique est le corollaire de la centralisation.

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Le contrôle sur les personnes :

Le supérieur hiérarchique affecte les agents à leurs postes, répartit les tâches, leur indique par des circulaires ou instructions des ordres de services, la conduite à tenir chacun dans son poste, comme il exerce le pouvoir disciplinaire en infligeant des sanctions, le cas échéant, ou en proposant des promotions pour les agents qui viendraient à le mériter.

Le contrôle sur les actes :

Le supérieur hiérarchique peut approuver l’acte, l’annuler, le suspendre ou le réformer. Ce contrôle porte aussi bien sur les éléments de régularité juridique de l’acte que sur son opportunité.

Il s’exerce d’office en l’absence de tout texte l’instituant. Il peut être mis en œuvre spontanément ou sur demande des particuliers (recours hiérarchique)

Toutefois, l’application stricte des règles de compétence et la théorie des droits acquis limitent parfois la possibilité du contrôle hiérarchique.

2- Le contrôle de tutelle :

C’est l’ensemble des pouvoirs de contrôle accordés par la loi à une autorité supérieure sur les agents des collectivités décentralisées et sur leurs actes, dans un but de protection de l’intérêt général.

a- Caractères généraux :

Le pouvoir de tutelle est un pouvoir de contrôle, comme le contrôle hiérarchique, mais il s’en distingue en ce qu’il porte sur les organes ou les actes d’une autre personne morale. De même il n’existe que par la force de la loi, c’est-à-dire lorsqu’un texte le prévoit expressément. Il ne comporte pas le pouvoir de donner des directives ou des instructions. Enfin, il implique en faveur des personnes qui y sont soumises la possibilité d’un recours par le moyen du recours pour excès de pouvoir (R.E.P.).

Le pouvoir de tutelle s’exerce dans l’intérêt général, car à la différence de la tutelle du droit civil qui vise à protéger les intérêts de la personne sous tutelle, en droit administratif elle tend à protéger les intérêts généraux principalement et accessoirement ceux de la personne morale contrôlée. La tutelle du droit civil est organisée sur la base de la représentation juridique, la tutelle administrative ne constitue qu’un contrôle généralement a posteriori des actes de la personne morale.

b- Mécanismes :

Sur les personnes, le contrôle ne porte pas le plus souvent sur leur désignation, mais sur l’exercice de leurs fonctions. Il est moins rigoureux que le contrôle hiérarchique. La différence est d’avantage de degré que de nature. Il s’exerce par exemple sur les assemblées élues (APC, APW), sur les membres de ces assemblées (démission d’office des assemblées, et sur les autorités individuelles, comme la suppression ou la révocation du président d’APC).

Sur les actes, le contrôle de tutelle s’exerce par le biais de procédés très variés. Le pouvoir de substitution d’action, lorsque l’autorité s’abstient d’accomplir un acte rentrant dans ses compétences, le pouvoir d’approbation, après décision des autorités sous tutelle, le pouvoir

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d’autorisation, avant décision des autorité sous tutelle, le pouvoir d’annulation de la décision déjà prise, et enfin le pouvoir de suppression de la décision.

Tous ces contrôles n’existent que lorsqu’un texte les prévoit explicitement et strictement dans la limite de cas prévus par les textes : par exemple, il est impossible d’annuler une décision lorsque le texte ne prévoit qu’un pouvoir de suspension.

L’ACTION ADMINISTRATIVE :

Elle vise à la satisfaction des besoins d’intérêt général. Aussi le droit lui a donné des moyens d’action exorbitants que l’on ne retrouve pas dans le droit privé. Ceux-ci vont s’exercer essentiellement par deux procédés : l’acte administratif unilatéral (AAU) et le contrat administratif. Si dans la langue courante, le terme d’acte sert à désigner de simples agissements matériels, dans le langage juridique il désigne une décision créatrice par elle-même d’un effet de droit. Il a pour objet de provoquer une modification de l’ordonnancement juridique. Un paiement est un acte matériel, mais il a pour conséquences d’éteindre une dette, il produit un effet de droit, c’est donc un acte juridique.

1- L’acte administratif unilatéral :

L’acte administratif unilatéral (A.A.U) ou décision exécutoire est l’expression juridique d’une volonté unique exercée par l’autorité investie d’un service public, en vue de produire des effets de droit vis-à-vis des administrés.

L’A.A.U. est un acte d’autorité et de contrainte.

Il est l’expression du pouvoir : il permet le commandement inévitable dans toute société, même si elle se veut démocratique. C’est l’expression d’une relation d’autorité et de contrainte entre l’administration et les administrés. L’administration a le privilège de poser seule et d’imposer une règle de conduite qui prend la forme d’une décision exécutoire, c’est-à-dire « une déclaration de volonté en vue de produire un effet de droit, émise par une autorité administrative dans une forme qui entraîne l’exécution d’office. » selon Maurice Hauriou.

Le privilège de la décision exécutoire est une règle fondamentale du droit public, ceci a pour conséquences d’une part de dispenser l’administration de s’adresser au juge pour obtenir des administrés qu’ils obéissent à ses prescriptions, c’est le privilège du préalable ; d’autre part, face à la résistance des administrés, l’administration dispose de moyens de contrainte, c’est le privilège de l’exécution forcée.

Un acte accompli pour les besoins du service public :

Dire que l’acte administratif émane du pouvoir exécutif, c’est-à-dire des organes investis du pouvoir de réglementer, ne suffit pas à expliquer le phénomène de l’A.A.U. D’une part, parce que tous les actes produits par les autorités administratives ne sont pas tous des A.A.U, ensuite parce que l’acte administratif peut également provenir d’organes publics extérieurs à l’administration proprement dite : c’est le cas des assemblées parlementaires (décision à l’égard des agents), c’est le cas également des juridictions (notation et promotion des magistrats) et surtout, c’est l’élément le plus original, ils

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peuvent émaner d’organes de droit privé parce qu’ils sont investis d’une mission de service public. Ainsi constituent, des A.A.U pris pour l’exécution d’un service public :

- Les règlements : tout règlement pris pour l’organisation ou l’exécution du service est un acte administratif (arrêté du ministre de la santé réglementant les visites) ;

- Les actes individuels : tout acte individuel pris pour l’exécution du service public constitue un acte administratif et cela en l’absence d’une autorisation législative ou administrative. Les prérogatives de puissance publique (P.P.P.) permettent de reconnaître qu’un organisme est investi d’un service public telle que la reconnaissance du droit d’expropriation ou le droit de réquisition. Les caisses d’assurances sociales qui sont des personnes morales du droit privé se voient confier la gestion d’un service public. Les ordres de médecins [arrêt BOUGUEN (1943)] se sont vus confier l’organisation et le contrôle de l’exercice de la profession médicale (mission de service public), et disposent de ce fait de P.P.P. ils peuvent être conduits à prendre des actes administratifs.

- Pour ce qui est des circulaires, on doit distinguer les circulaires réglementaires des circulaires interprétatives, par exemple ; la réglementation défendant aux élèves d’un lycée de venir en classe dans une tenue déterminée, ou celle imposant aux personnels médical et paramédical le port de la blouse, sont des mesures d’ordre intérieur et constituent des circulaires interprétatives. Cependant, le juge français a pris une décision qui contredit cet esprit à travers l’affaire C.E. (conseil d’Etat) le 02/11/1992, l’affaire dite KHEROUAA (le foulard islamique). Le C.E. se déclare compétent pour contrôler la légalité du règlement intérieur du collège interdisant le port de tout signe distinctif d’ordre religieux, politique, etc.

2- Le contrat administratif :

C’est un contrat dans lequel l’administration est d’une manière ou d’une autre, partie prenante. Il est soumis à des règles spéciales du droit administratif et relève de la compétence de la juridiction administrative. Les principaux types de contrats passés par l’administration sont la concession de service public, le marché de travaux publics, les marchés de fournitures et de services, le contrat d’emprunt public. Cependant, l’administration peut passer également des contrats qui relèvent du droit privé, et la compétence sera celle du juge ordinaire.

Selon la théorie administrativiste, œuvre de la jurisprudence du conseil d’Etat, deux critères permettent de distinguer le contrat administratif. Les clauses exorbitantes et le service public qui peuvent intervenir alternativement ou cumulativement. En Algérie, la qualification du contrat est basée sur le critère organique uniquement. De ce fait, la qualification du contrat sert de critère de compétence entre la juridiction administrative et la juridiction ordinaire. L’art.1 du code des marchés publics en donne une définition complète : « les marchés publics sont des contrats écrits, passés dans les conditions prévues au présent code, par l’Etat, les wilayas, les communes et les établissements publics, en vue de la réalisation de travaux, fournitures ou services. ». Il y a donc dans cette définition un cumul des différents critères : le critère formel (la forme écrite), le

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critère organique (parties au contrats) et le critère matériel (l’objet du contrat). Cependant, le critère organique est l’élément nécessaire pour qualifier le contrat de marché public.

En matière contentieuse, le critère organique est consacré par l’art.7 du code de procédure civile, puisque celui-ci prévoit que tout contrat où est partie l’Etat, la wilaya, la commune ou toute autre établissement public à caractère administratif (E.P.A.) relève du juge statuant en matière administrative.

2.1 L’exécution des contrats administratifs :

L’administration va bénéficier de certaines prérogatives qui trouvent leur fondement dans les nécessités de services publics, mais en contre partie le contractant bénéficie de garanties financières quelque soit l’usage que l’administration aura fait de ses prérogatives. 

Les prérogatives de l’administration : elle bénéficie du pouvoir de contrôle et de direction des opérations d’exécution du marché public, tout comme elle a le pouvoir de modifier unilatéralement le contrat, à condition cependant que les nécessités du service public l’exigent. De même, l’administration a un pouvoir de sanction, en cas de faute dans l’exécution à condition qu’il y ait une mise en demeure préalable de reprise des travaux mal exécutés.

Ce pouvoir existe de plein droit et de façon unilatérale, l’administration a un droit de résiliation unilatérale et discrétionnaire, le cocontractant ayant seulement droit à une indemnisation. Pour ce qui est des droits du cocontractant  il a droit au paiement du prix et au rétablissement de l’équilibre financier du contrat au cas où il menacerait d’être rompu.

2.2 Les modes de passation du contrat administratif :

Il y a principalement trois modes de passation du contrat administratif. Pour ce dernier, l’administration n’est plus libre de choisir ses cocontractants. Les restrictions qui sont imposées varieront suivant que l’on voudra tenir compte avant tout des intérêts financiers de l’Etat : recours à l’adjudication, lorsque le marché est confié au plus apte ou alors recours à des modes laissant d’avantage à des libertés à l’administration, par exemple ; le gré à gré.

L’adjudication :

L’administration ouvre la soumission à tous les intéressés (ouverte), ou à certaines entreprises seulement (restreinte). La soumission se fait sous enveloppe cachetée, le bureau d’adjudication en séance publique doit proclamer adjudicataire celui qui a proposé le prix le plus bas.

L’appel d’offre :

Cette procédure fait aussi appel à la concurrence, mais l’administration peut être libre de choisir son cocontractant. Les soumissionnaires doivent présenter des garanties techniques et financières suffisantes.

Le gré à gré :

Appelé également entente directe ou marché négocié ; dans ce cas l’administration comme un particulier discute librement et choisit qui elle veut en matière de concession de services publics ou de fournitures. Elle a toujours la liberté de choix, cependant le seuil financier est toujours fixé par avance. Il est de six millions de dinars algériens (6.000.000 D.A.)

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B.1.4. Les disciplines du droit détaché du droit administratif :

L’ensemble constitué par les finances publiques et le droit fiscal réunit les règles qui régissent les dépenses et les recettes des collectivités publiques, ce qui inclut notamment l’organisation du budget de l’Etat et les règles qui président à la mise en œuvre des impôts destinés à l’alimenter.

Les libertés publiques définissent les différents droits de l’individu dans la société et en particulier les droits de l’Homme, et les modalités de leur protection de la liberté de l’opinion, liberté de circulation, etc. Le droit de la construction regroupe les règles de l’urbanisme entendu comme celle qui organise l’utilisation et l’occupation de l’espace conformément aux exigences générales.

B.2. Les subdivisions du droit privé :

De même qu’il a été procédé lors de l’examen des disciplines du droit public, nous pouvons dire que le droit privé n’englobe que deux disciplines strictement privées, le droit civil et le droit commercial, toutes les autres ne seraient que des disciplines soit détachées du droit civil, soit mixtes.

B.2.1. LE DROIT CIVIL :

Il a été, et pour longtemps, et il continue à être, le droit commun de tout le droit privé, c’est-à-dire la discipline de référence pour l’ensemble des disciplines du droit privé. Lorsqu’il n’existerait aucune règle spéciale devant être appliquée à une situation précise de droit privé, c’est aux règles, principes et techniques du droit civil qu’il convient de se référer pour trancher le litige, alors même que ces deux derniers relèvent normalement du droit commercial ou d’une autre discipline du droit privé. Cette fonction particulière du droit civil s’explique par le fait qu’il est la branche la plus antérieure du droit, ce qui rend particulièrement fiable les mécanismes qu’il met en œuvre. Son ancienneté tient à son objet même : l’individu envisagé dans ses rapports les plus fondamentaux.

Le droit civil est la branche du droit qui englobe l'ensemble des règles juridiques gouvernant les rapports des particuliers entre eux ou avec des personnes morales de droit privé.Le droit civil constitue le droit commun du droit privé, c'est-à-dire qu'il a vocation à s'appliquer à tous les rapports de droit privé dés lors que ceux-ci ne sont pas régis par des dispositions particulières d'une autre branche du droit privé tel que le droit commercial, le droit du travail, le droit rural qui en sont dérivés et qui y demeurent plus ou moins subordonnés.Le droit civil est formulé dans le code civil dont les articles énoncent des règles concernant notamment le respect de la vie privée et du corps humain, la nationalité, les actes de l'état civil, le mariage, le divorce, la filiation, l'autorité parentale, la minorité et la majorité, la tutelle et l'émancipation, la propriété des immeubles et des meubles, les successions, donations et testaments, les contrats et autres obligations etc.La date la plus importante dans l'histoire du droit civil français est celle de la promulgation en1804 du code civil, dit code napoléon1.'Avant d'être ainsi unifiées, les règles de droit civil étaient multiples et différentes selon les régions. La révolution française, en réalisant l'unité politique de la France et en créant de nouvelles institutions judiciaires, tenta de codifier le

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droit civil avec Cambacérès qui réforma certaines matières dans un esprit individualiste, libéral et égalitaire, en particulier le droit de la propriété et le droit des contrats. Les systèmes juridiques des pays d'Afrique du nord et du proche orient sont fortement influencés par le code civil français, même si certaines matières telles que le droit de la famille et le droit de la propriété s'inscrivent dans la tradition islamique.

L’OBJET DU DROIT CIVIL

Le droit civil, de façon très générale, régit l'activité juridique civile des personnes physiques et morales. A cet égard, il envisage deux domaines nettement distincts : la famille et l'activité économique. Le droit civil économique a pour objet les biens au sens strict du terme et les obligations qui sont des moyens techniques qui permettent de manipuler ces biens. Elles constituent un vecteur de création d'un rapport juridique entre deux personnes ou plus. L'existence de ce rapport oblige à quelque chose l'une des personnes vis-à-vis de l'autre.

I - LE DROIT DES BIENS

La substance de ce qu'il est d'usage d'appeler le droit des biens est constituée par l'ensemble des droits réels principaux qui tournent autour des notions de propriété et de possession. Le droit de propriété est un droit réel dans la mesure où il porte sur un objet, par opposition au droit personnel, qui est attaché à une personne pouvant exiger d'une autre l'accomplissement d'une prestation. Il constitue un rapport de droit entre une personne et une chose, rapport en vertu duquel, cette personne peut jouir et disposer de cette chose. La possession s'entend au contraire, d'un rapport de fait entre une personne et une chose. Elle est l'exercice d'un pouvoir de fait exercé sur une chose avec l'intention de s'en affirmer le maître. C'est une situation de fait où le possesseur a la maîtrise de la chose et se comporte comme un propriétaire.Traditionnellement, la doctrine et la jurisprudence considèrent que deux éléments, un élément matériel et un élément psychologique, doivent être réunis pour qu'il y ait possession.L'élément matériel, ou corpus, s'analyse comme le pouvoir de fait sur la chose qui se traduit par l'exercice d'actes matériels, tels que la perception des loyers, l'habitation d'une maison.L'élément psychologique, ou animus, représente l'élément intentionnel qui fait que le possesseur s'affirme comme propriétaire, à la différence d'un locataire ou d'un emprunteur qui jouit du bien tout en sachant qu'ils ne le possèdent pas.La possession est prise en considération par la loi qui y attache différents effets dont l'acquisition du droit à la propriété. Celle-ci peut s'opérer sous réserve des conditions posées par la loi : continue, paisible, publique et non équivoque. En matière de meubles, le possesseur de bonne foi devient immédiatement propriétaire conformément à l'adage « possession vaut titre ». En matière d'immeubles, l'usucapion (prescription acquisitive) est admise de 10 à 20 ans selon les cas et pour le possesseur de mauvaise foi au bout de 30 ans.

II LE DROIT DES OBLIGATIONS

On désigne sous l'appellation de droit des obligations, l'ensemble des règles qui gouvernent la création, les effets et le régime des obligations (transmission, modification extinction).Ces règles peuvent s'appliquer à tous les contrats et à toutes les responsabilités.

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A- Les obligations contractuelles.

La responsabilité contractuelle est celle qui incombe à un débiteur contractuel lorsque celui-ci, en n'exécutant pas son obligation ou en l'exécutant mal, cause un dommage à son cocontractant. Elle n'a vocation à intervenir que dans les rapports entre les contractants eux-mêmes.L'affirmation d'une telle responsabilité a pour effet de contraindre le responsable à réparer le dommage qu'il a causé, réparation qui prend le plus souvent la forme d'une condamnation à des dommages-intérêts, c'est-à-dire d'une obligation de payer une somme d'argent afin de compenser le dommage subi. Cette condamnation suppose que soient démontrés et prouvés par le demandeur à la fois le préjudice qu'il a subi et la faute commise par le débiteur laquelle constitue le préjudice.

Il y a lieu de distinguer entre deux sortes d'obligations. Les obligations de moyens se caractérisent par le fait que le débiteur s'est engagé à faire tous les efforts pour procure au créancier une prestation déterminée mais sans garantir celle- ci : c'est le cas notamment du médecin qui s'engage à soigner non à guérir, c'est également le cas de l'avocat qui s'engage à défendre du mieux qu'il peut les intérêts de son client, non à le faire gagner son procès. Au contraire, les obligations de résultat supposent l'engagement du débiteur de procurer un résultat défini. Le transporteur de voyageurs s'engage à mener ceux-ci à l'endroit convenu.

B- Les obligations extracontractuelles.

La responsabilité civile vise à la réparation des dommages causés de manière illégitime par une personne à une autre personne. Par opposition à la responsabilité contractuelle, on parle de responsabilité délictuelle. Celle-ci recouvre trois régimes différents de responsabilité : responsabilité du fait personnel, responsabilité du fait d'autrui et responsabilité du fait des choses.La responsabilité du fait personnel (article 124 à 133 du code civil algérien), système traditionnel de la responsabilité civile, repose sur une faute commise par un responsable. Cette faute intentionnelle (délit) ou in intentionnelle (quasi-délit) doit être prouvée par la victime qui doit également établir le dommage qu'elle a subi et le lien de causalité existant entre la faute et le dommage.La responsabilité du fait d'autrui (article 134 à 137 du code civil), consiste dans l'affirmation de la responsabilité d'une personne au regard d'un dommage causé par une autre personne. Rentre dans cette catégorie, la responsabilité des parents des dommages causés par leurs enfants mineurs habitants avec eux, la responsabilité des enseignants, éducateurs et les artisans pour les dommages causés par leurs élèves et apprentis pendant le temps qu'ils sont sous leur surveillance. Toutefois, la responsabilité civile de l'Etat est substituée à celle des enseignants et éducateurs.De même, le commettant est responsable du dommage causé par son préposé lorsque cet acte a été accompli dans l'exercice de ses fonctions.La responsabilité du fait des choses (article 138 à 140 du code civil algérien), consiste dans l'affirmation de la responsabilité d'une personne au regard d'un dommage causé par le fait de choses que l'on a sous sa garde, telle la responsabilité du fait des animaux et la responsabilité du fait des bâtiments. Le gardien, c'est-à-dire celui qui a les pouvoirs d'usage, de contrôle et de direction de la chose, par exemple, le chasseur à l'égard de son fusil, le gérant de café à l'égard

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des chaises et tables disposées sur la terrasse, est présumé responsable des dommages causés par la chose qu'il a sous sa garde.

C- LES SURETES

Le droit de créance est fragile et la valeur effective de ce droit dépend de la solvabilité du débiteur, c'est-à-dire de l'existence d'un solde positif des comptes actif et passif de son patrimoine, à la mesure de la créance au moment ou celle-ci est exécutée.Les sûretés sont des garanties destinées à assures l'exécution future d'une obligation. Elles permettent au créancier de se prémunir contre l'insolvabilité du débiteur. Elles se divisent en deux catégories distinctes : sûretés personnelles et sûretés réelles.Les sûretés personnelles reposent sur un mécanisme de multiplication des débiteurs. Au lieu de pouvoir réclamer le paiement à celui-là qui s'est endetté, le créancier pourra s'adresser aussi à d'autres personnes. La sûreté personnelle type est représentée par le cautionnement qui se définit comme un contrat par lequel un tiers appelé caution promet à un créancier de le payer si le débiteur n'exécute pas son obligation.Les sûretés réelles, appelées également droits réels accessoires, mettent en œuvre une technique différente qui consiste dans l'affectation d'un ou plusieurs biens, mobiliers ou immobiliers, au paiement de la dette garantie, comme c'est le cas de l'hypothèque en matière immobilière, qui est définie selon les termes de l'article 882 du code civil algérien comme un « contrat par lequel le créancier acquiert sur un immeuble affecté au paiement de sa créance, un droit réel qui lui permet de se faire rembourser par préférence aux créanciers inférieurs en rang, sur le prix de cet immeuble en quelque main qu'il passe ». C'est également le cas du gage qui est une sûreté réelle portant sur les biens meubles, organisée par les articles 969 et suivants du code civil.

Le recours à ces droits réels accessoires permet de conférer à la créance garantie la sécurité propre aux droits réels.

B.2.2. Le droit commercial :

Il est constitué par l’ensemble des règles qui organisent les différentes opérations accomplies pour l’exercice du commerce, ainsi que celles relatives à l’acquisition de la qualité de commerçant. Cet objet ainsi largement défini inclut aussi bien les sociétés commerciales constituées pour la réalisation d’opérations commerciales qu’aux moyens employés pour l’exercice du commerce, tels que le fond de commerce et les locaux commerciaux. Il a aussi vocation à s’appliquer exceptionnellement à des non commerçants ; cela se produit lorsqu’une personne qui n’a pas les qualités de commerçant participe à un acte que la loi répute commercial à l’égard de tous ; c’est le cas de la signature par exemple d’une lettre de change.

B.2.3. Les branches du droit détaché du droit civil :

On se bornera à évoquer les plus importantes d’entre elles. Le droit rural ou droit agraire est issu du droit civil. Il réunit l’ensemble des règles qui organisent l’espace foncier agricole et celle qui concerne l’exploitation agricole et les différentes activités rentrant dans la définition de celles-ci, le droit des assurances qui se rattachent au droit civil dans le domaine des contrats et des mécanismes d’assurance. De même que sur la notion de responsabilité se

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rattache également au droit commercial pour ce qu’il est des formes d’exploitation de l’entreprise d’assurance, mais il présente également des aspects du droit public du fait du contrôle étroit qu’exerce l’Etat sur cette activité.

Le droit du transport terrestre, maritime et aérien est une branche du droit spécifiquement dérivée du droit commercial, en raison de la réglementation administrative qu’il affecte, comporte des éléments du droit public, parfois essentiels.

B.3. Les disciplines mixtes :

La notion de discipline mixte résulte du constat de la distinction droit public, droit privé n’est pas une subdivision absolue du droit. Constitue un droit mixte, toute branche de droit qui réalise une combinaison de règles relevant pour les unes du droit public, et pour les autres du droit privé. Cela étant, il est habituel de rattacher chaque discipline mixte à l’un ou à l’autre des pôles dominants du droit.

B.3.1. Droit pénal :

L’un des plus importants des droits mixtes est sans contester le droit pénal, également appelé droit criminel. C’est un droit de répression qui pour principal objet de définir les comportements constitutifs d’infraction et de fixer les sanctions applicables à leurs auteurs.

B.3.2. Le droit procédural :

C’est le droit de la procédure civile, de la procédure pénale et de la procédure administrative. Ces trois branches ont pour objet commun de définir les différents organes de la justice en déterminant l’organisation et la compétence des différents tribunaux, d’une part et de régler le déroulement des procès.

B.3.3. Le droit social :

L’appellation du droit social regroupe deux branches distinctes : le droit du travail, et la sécurité sociale ; le premier recouvre l’ensemble des règles qui définissent les conditions des travailleurs salariés, celles qui gouvernent les contrats de travail et les prestations qui en concrétisent l’exécution et celles qui définissent le cadre de l’exercice de l’action collective et concertée des travailleurs (réglementation des syndicats, conventions collectives et droits de grève). La seconde, le droit de la sécurité sociale, réunit l’ensemble des règles qui sont destinées à garantir les travailleurs contre les différents risques sociaux et professionnels, tels que les maladies professionnelles, la vieillesse, les accidents du travail, etc.

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CHAPITRE IV : LES SOURCES DU DROIT

Toute règle de droit contient deux éléments distincts : le premier représente le corps de la règle ou sa matière, le second, représente l’esprit de la règle et la forme qui lui donne un caractère officiel. L'expression sources du droit renvoie à toutes les données morales, économiques, sociales, politiques à l'origine du droit. Les sources du droit donnent naissance à la règle juridique. Les sources matérielles de la règle de droit sont celles qui lui donnent sa matière. Elles proviennent pour l’essentiel du besoin de stabilité et d’ordre que revendiquent les nations et les sociétés. Ce besoin d’ordre représente la première source matérielle du droit.A titre d’exemple, les dispositions de la loi sur la protection du consommateur ont pour source matérielle le besoin de protection de la société des agissements néfastes de certains opérateurs économiques, et de ce fait, empêcher qu’ils ne proposent à la vente des produits pouvant occasionner des dommages à ceux qui les consommeraient.Tout comme la source matérielle d’une règle de droit peut provenir également des antécédents historiques et civilisationnels d’une société donnée. A titre d’exemple, le droit algérien nous donne une illustration parfaite de cette idée. Ainsi, les législations positives que nous retrouvons en droit algérien sont pour l’essentiel héritées du droit français, du seul fait que l’Algérie a été et pour longtemps, une colonie française. De là, noue considérons que le droit français est une source matérielle et historique du droit algérien. De l’autre côté, et par son appartenance civilisationnelle au monde musulman, le droit civil des personnes en Algérie ou ce qu’il est communément appelé le statut personnel est très largement inspiré des préceptes de la loi coranique. Là également, nous pouvons dire que le droit musulman est une source matérielle du droit algérien.A côté de ces sources matérielles, nous retrouvons d’autres sources appelées sources formelles ou officielles. Ces dernières donnent à la règle de droit sa force d’application vis à vis des personnes auxquelles elle est destinée. Sans cela, la règle de droit ne serait qu’une matière sans forme. Le recours aux sources formelles est rendu obligatoire par le fait que l’Etat donne à la règle de droit une effectivité et elles constituent l’aspect extérieur de la volonté de l’Etat de rendre obligatoire l’application de certaines normes juridiques. Les

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sources formelles sont des procédés par lesquels le droit s'exprime. Ainsi il y a la loi, la coutume etc.

A- : LES SOURCES FORMELLES DU DROIT

1 – La Loi : La Loi est la source première, la source principale du droit dans beaucoup de nations au monde. Elle l’est également en Algérie. C’est le mode normal de création de la règle de droit. Le législateur algérien a, dans ce contexte, posé le principe de la graduation des sources en droit algérien en disposant ce qui suit dans l’article 1er du code civil Algérien : «  La loi régit toutes les matières auxquelles se rapporte la lettre ou l’esprit de l’une de ses dispositions. En l’absence d’une disposition légale, le juge se prononce selon les principes du droit musulman et, à défaut, selon la coutume.Le cas échéant, il a recours au droit naturel et aux règles de l’équité. »

Le terme de Loi est assez large et peut recouvrir des textes de nature diverse. Au sens large, le terme « loi » englobe tous les textes émanant du pouvoir législatif et réglementaire. Au sens strict la loi émane du pouvoir législatif conformément à l’article 122 de la Constitution algérienne du 28 novembre 1996, modifiée par la loi n°02-03 du 10 avril 2002 « Le parlement légifère dans les domaines que lui attribue la Constitution…» : c’est la loi ordinaire. Son domaine d’application est limité par la Constitution. Certaines matières sont ainsi de son domaine exclusif, les autres étant du domaine du décret.

La notion générale de loi englobe différentes sortes de textes ordonnés selon une hiérarchie rigoureuse. La loi stricto sensu est l’œuvre du parlement alors que le règlement est l’œuvre du pouvoir exécutif. Cette distinction fait l’objet de l’article 122 et 125 de la Constitution.

Cette dernière oppose également les lois ordinaires des lois organiques dans l’article 123, et les cas où le chef de l’exécutif peut légiférer par voie d’ordonnance, dans l’article 124.

Article 122 : Le Parlement légifère dans les domaines que lui attribue la Constitution, ainsi que dans les domaines suivants :

1- les droits et devoirs fondamentaux des personnes ; notamment le régime des libertés publiques, la sauvegarde des libertés individuelles et les obligations des citoyens;

2- les règles générales relatives au statut personnel et au droit de la famille; et notamment au mariage, au divorce, à la filiation, à la capacité et aux successions;

3- les conditions d’établissement des personnes ;

4- la législation de base concernant la nationalité ;

5- les règles générales relatives à la condition des étrangers ;

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6-les règles relatives à l’organisation judiciaire et à la création de juridictions;

7- les règles générales de droit pénal et de la procédure pénale; et notamment la détermination des crimes et délits, l’institution des peines correspondantes de toute nature, l’amnistie, l’extradition et le régime pénitentiaire ;

8 - les règles générales de la procédure civile et des voies d’exécution ;

9 - le régime des obligations civiles, commerciales et de la propriété ;

10-le découpage territorial du pays ;

11-l’adoption du plan national ;

12-le vote du budget de l’Etat ;

13 - la création, l’assiette et le taux des impôts, contributions, taxes et droits de toute nature ;

14 - le régime douanier ;

15 - le règlement d’émission de la monnaie et le régime des banques, du crédit et des assurances ;

16 - les règles générales relatives à l’enseignement et à la recherche scientifique ;

17 - les règles générales relatives à la santé publique et à la population ;

18 - les règles générales relatives au droit du travail, à la sécurité sociale et à l’exercice du droit syndical ;

19 - les règles générales relatives à l’environnement, au cadre de vie et à       l’aménagement du territoire ;

20 - les règles générales relatives à la protection de la faune et de la flore ;

21 - la protection et la sauvegarde du patrimoine culturel et historique ;

22 - le régime général des forêts et des terres pastorales ;

23 - le régime général de l’eau ;

24 - le régime général des mines et des hydrocarbures ;

25 - le régime foncier ;

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26 - les garanties fondamentales accordées aux fonctionnaires et le statut général de la Fonction Publique ;

27 - les règles générales relatives à la Défense Nationale et à l’utilisation des forces armées par les autorités civiles ;

28 - les règles de transfert de propriété du secteur public au secteur privé ;

29 - la création de catégories d’établissements ;

30 - la création de décorations, distinctions et titres honorifiques d’Etat.

Art. 123 - Outre les domaines réservés par la Constitution à la loi organique, relèvent également de la loi organique les matières suivantes:

l'organisation et le fonctionnement des pouvoirs publics; le régime électoral; la loi relative aux partis politiques; la loi relative à l'information; les statuts de la magistrature et l'organisation judiciaire; la loi cadre relative aux lois de finances; la loi relative à la sécurité nationale.

La loi organique est adoptée à la majorité absolue des députés et à la majorité des trois quarts (3/4) des membres du Conseil de la Nation. Elle est soumise à un contrôle de conformité par le Conseil Constitutionnel avant sa promulgation.

Art. 124 - En cas de vacance de l'Assemblée Populaire Nationale ou dans les périodes d'inter-session du Parlement, le Président de la République peut légiférer par ordonnance. Le Président de la République soumet les textes qu'il a pris à l'approbation de chacune des chambres du Parlement, à sa prochaine session. Sont caduques les ordonnances non adoptées par le Parlement. En cas d'état d'exception défini à l'article 93 de la Constitution, le Président de la République peut légiférer par ordonnances. Les ordonnances sont prises en Conseil des Ministres.

Art. 125 - Les matières, autres que celles réservées à la loi, relèvent du pouvoir réglementaire du Président de la République. L'application des lois relève du domaine réglementaire du Chef du Gouvernement.

2- : La coutume

La coutume est un pratique devenue une règle non écrite en raison de son emploi constant. Bien que le système juridique algérien, à l’instar du système français, repose essentiellement sur la loi, il reconnaît pourtant une place à la coutume en tant que source du droit. Même si elle n'est pas une source de droit directe, puisque ces pays s’intègrent dans un système

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juridique codifié, il est nécessaire d'accorder une valeur juridique à la coutume, de façon à donner au droit une souplesse.

Au contraire, les pays de common law ou loi commune (Grande-Bretagne, Canada, États-Unis, Nouvelle-Zélande) accordent une place prépondérante à la coutume en tant que source du droit, leur droit n'étant pas formellement codifié. Les juges sont en effet tenus par la règle du précédent, et non par des dispositions qui seraient contenues dans un code. Le droit international est également largement coutumier, et de nombreuses conventions internationales, notamment en droit diplomatique, se bornent à reprendre dans leurs dispositions des règles d'origine coutumière.

La coutume et l'usage sont dans le langage courant utilisés comme synonymes. Or la coutume a un caractère plus contraignant que les usages que l'on observe dans la vie sociale.

La coutume est constituée de deux éléments : l'un matériel, l'autre psychologique. L'élément matériel de la coutume est lié par la répétition constante d'un fait ou d'une tradition ; l'élément psychologique consiste en la croyance chez les personnes que leur comportement obéit non à un usage, mais à une règle de droit. L'usage ne se caractérise pas par cette conviction collective et, à ce titre, représente une source de droit encore moins directe que la coutume. C'est donc cet élément psychologique qui transforme un simple usage en une coutume ayant force obligatoire.

En conséquence, les deux termes doivent être distingués en droit. Les usages reconnus en droit sont généralement très circonscrits à une profession ou à une place (ports, régions). Les usages ont une existence conventionnelle, c'est-à-dire que c'est la pratique qui les a créés. Il se peut, dans certains cas, que l'usage soit reconnu comme ayant une force juridique devant les tribunaux, notamment en matière maritime ou portuaire. Ainsi, lorsque l'usage est particulièrement bien connu et appliqué par les membres d'une profession, le tribunal doit le prendre en compte.

Il existe trois types de règles coutumières généralement reconnues en droit : les coutumes contraires à la loi (coutumes contra legem), les coutumes auxquelles renvoie la loi (coutumes secundum legem) et les coutumes qui continuent de s'appliquer dans des domaines qui ne sont pas réglementés par la loi (coutumes praeter legem).

On parle de coutume contra legem lorsqu'une règle, issue d'un usage général et prolongé, est en opposition avec une disposition légale ou réglementaire. Or dans un système de droit codifié et donc écrit, comme c’est le cas du droit algérien ou du droit français, la reconnaissance d'une coutume contraire à la loi est particulièrement remarquable. Par exemple, le droit commercial reconnaît la possibilité pour la personne ayant prêté de l'argent à un groupe de personnes de réclamer à une seule d'entre elles la totalité de la somme prêtée, ce qui est une coutume contraire aux dispositions prévues par le Code civil, qui ne retient pas l’idée de présomption de solidarité des créanciers ou débiteurs.

Lorsqu'elle comble les lacunes de la loi qui n'est pas encore intervenue dans certains domaines, la coutume praeter legem est considérée comme une source autonome du droit.

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Ainsi en était-il de la coutume selon laquelle la femme mariée devait porter le nom de son mari.

De manière plus singulière, le droit constitutionnel reconnaît l'existence de certaines règles coutumières, comme celle par exemple qui autorise les parlementaires à poser des questions écrites aux ministres, qui doivent obligatoirement y répondre, lors des débats à l'Assemblée nationale populaire.

Enfin, la coutume secundum legem a trait à la coutume à laquelle renvoient de nombreux textes de lois, et notamment le Code civil. Cette latitude qui est concédée par le législateur est destinée à adapter les règles établies aux diversités locales. C'est notamment à cet effet qu'il autorise le juge à interpréter un contrat ambigu en fonction des usages locaux.

B- LES SOURCES INTERPRETATIVES DU DROIT

En plus des sources matérielles dont nous avons parlé précédemment et les sources formelles que nous venons d’exposer, existe également d’autres sources du droit appelées pour certaines des sources supplétives et les autres des sources interprétatives.

Les sources supplétives sont des sources, comme leur nom l’indique d’ailleurs assez clairement, qui peuvent suppléer c'est-à-dire remplacer les sources formelles au cas où ces dernières venaient à manquer. Les dispositions de l’article 1er du code civil algérien organisent cette situation et prévoient qu’en l’absence d’une disposition légale, le juge se prononce selon les principes du droit musulman et, à défaut, selon la coutume. A défaut, il a recours au droit naturel et aux règles de l’équité. De cela, nous devons comprendre que le juge algérien devra avant toute chose appliquer la loi, en seconde position et en l’absence d’une loi, il devra faire application du droit musulman qui constitue de ce fait une source matérielle et supplétive du droit algérien. A défaut de l’une comme de l’autre, il pourra recourir à la coutume, mais également aux règles du droit naturel et de l’équité qui sont des principes supérieurs de justice issus de la perception d’un équilibre idéal de la nature qui s’impose à l’homme.Les sources interprétatives du droit sont des sources secondaires qui tiennent essentiellement à la jurisprudence des arrêts et décisions rendus par les juridictions et les travaux réalisés par la doctrine. Les règles de droit sont interprétées par les tribunaux, interprétations qui à leur tour forment une source importante pour s’adapter aux évolutions de la société.

1- : La jurisprudence

La jurisprudence regroupe l’ensemble des solutions données par les tribunaux sur un point de droit précis. Pour qu’un ensemble de décisions fasse « jurisprudence » il faut rassembler deux conditions :

- la répétition : c’est le fait de prendre une décision identique, d’interpréter la loi dans le même sens par un certain nombre de tribunaux différents et sur un même point de droit.- la hiérarchie : la solution juridique donnée par la Cour Suprême du fait de sa position au sommet de la hiérarchie des tribunaux et par le mécanisme des renvois lui confère une autorité particulière.

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La jurisprudence est donc une source du droit en ce qu’elle interprète les lois pour les adapter aux situations concrètes. Elle comble également les lacunes éventuelles des lois, celles ci ne pouvant envisager toutes les situations litigieuses. Elle n’a toutefois pas le caractère obligatoire qu’à une règle de droit, un tribunal n’étant jamais lié par une décision d’un autre tribunal.

2- : La doctrine

C’est l’ensemble des travaux de réflexion et d’études des juristes, soit sur la jurisprudence soit sur des faits de société susceptibles de faire évoluer le droit. Ces travaux débouchent sur de nouvelles interprétations, de nouvelles solutions envisageables et peuvent dans une certaine mesure influencer les magistrats ou le législateur.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE

Jean- Luc AUBERT : Introduction au droit 8éme édition. Armand Colin. Paris 2001.

Jean-Paul Pastorel : Droit Administratif 4éme édition Mémentos. Gualino éditeur 1999.

Alex Weil : Droit civil Troisième édition . Dalloz . Paris 1973.

Raymond Legeais : Clefs pour le droit . éditions seghers. Paris 1973.

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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE ET POPULAIRE

Ministère de l’enseignement Supérieur et de la recherche scientifique

Ecole Normale Supérieur des Lettres et Sciences Humaines Constantine

LMD(S4)

CIVILISATION AND LITERATURE

Prepared by

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Kheribet Souheila & Lebbal Farida

2008-2009

Part one : CIVILISATION

Content   :

British imperialism in America

1-The Founding of the American Colonies..……………………………3

2-The Drafting of the American Constitution………………………….16

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Course 01

British Imperialism

Introduction

Age of Imperialism

The British Imperialism means the policy followed in Britain in the 20th century of forming and maintaining that great empire through subjugating territories and establishing colonies. Thus, the British Empire is a group of territories united by allegiance to the British crown .

At the peak of its history, the British Empire comprised twenty percent of the world and consisted of more than 400 million people. If Britain could establish such an empire, it was due to the power of the British navy. It dates back to the 16th century (during the rule of Queen Elizabeth I) under the command of the brilliant navigator Francis Drake. At the beginning, the objective of the British expansion was purely economic. British first real venture was the attempt to establish the Roanoke colony in America by Sir Walter Raleigh.

History of the British Empire:

Everything started when the Spanish explorer, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World. The British interest was realized after defeating the mighty Spanish Armada. Britain, then, became the mistress of the sea and started to establish its colonies in the New World. In fact, the motives behind the British colonization of the New World were of

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religious values. The first venture to the Eastern coast of what is nowadays the United States of America, was the one done by the Pilgrim fathers from the Plymouth colony . These latter landed in the Massachusetts bay in 1620. They wanted to escape Roman Catholic persecution in England and seeking for religious freedom. As a result, thirteen colonies were founded. What was noticed about those colonies is that they enjoyed total freedom in America. Because of internal problems in England, the king could not interfere in colonial affairs. Hence, colonial governments were allowed to elect assemblies to form the legislative body and an

executive .

During the Ten Years republic, Oliver Cromwell, pursued an anti-Spanish diplomacy. In 1655, Jamaica was conquered. It was the first British colony taken by force. In South America, Tobacco and cotton crops attracted a large labour force provided by slaves from Africa. Meanwhile, the republic passed the Navigation Acts of 1651, which outlined that imported goods should be carried in British ships .

The old colonial system was more regulated at the Stuarts restoration in 1660. In 1670, the date corresponding to the date of the Treaty of Madrid, Spain recognized the officiallity of the English possessions. The sugar economy expanded and the African Royal Company was formed in 1672 bringing Africans to the Caribbean .

Concerning North America, British colonies expanded down the coast line. In 1664, New Amsterdam was taken by force from the Dutch to be called New York. Pennsylvania was created by William Penn in 1681 under a royal grant. When king James II succeeded to the throne, the American colonies were brought under closer royal control

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The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colours of Imperial British Dominions in maps

In Asia, however, the British Empire started in India after the formation of the East Indian Company, during the Mughal dynasty. Coming back to America, and after the Glorious revolution of 1688, further British expansion was achieved. The Hudson Bay Company was created as a new commercial presence based on fur trade. This led to the emergence of a new conflict with New France based in St Lawrence Valley. The result was King William War. Between 1721 and 1742, sir Robert Walpole adopted a policy of laisser faire inside and outside the kingdom.

Following the French and Indian war, British forces could capture St Lawrence Valley as well as Quebec in the North. In 1763, the treaty of Paris was signed according to which France gave up almost all its important territories in North America to the British. The Seven Years War reinforced the British position of Britain as a real imperialistic power.

On the other hands, the English knew very well that a big empire needs a lot of money. That’s why the parliament decided that the needed funds should be afforded by American colonies. Hence, many acts were passed: the sugar Act, the Stamp Act, the

Coercive Acts …,

These acts, among too many others, led to the American Revolution, which ended with the victory of the Americans. With the American colonies independence from the British crown, ended the first British Empire centred in North America. Nevertheless, this does not mean the end of the British presence in the New world. For, if the British crown, lost its 13 colonies, it reinforced its presence in Canada.

Concerning the British imperialism in India, it was reinforced, as it has already mentioned above, because of the establishment of the British Indian Company. As a result, Britain took control of all India. Yet, in 1858, the Hindu soldiers heard that the British soldiers used the fat of cows to grease their arms. Those animals were very sacred in the Buddhist Indian religion. They considered that act as an offence. Subsequently, the rebellion started. The British tried to convince the Indians that they were just interested in trade but in vain. By the 20th century, all India was freed from British control.

In South Africa, the great trek started in the 1830’. The British were defeated by the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free states in 1902. Also, the British occupied Egypt in order to preserve control over the Suez Canal. Hong Kong however was taken from China following what is commonly called the Opium Wars .

The British Empire was also growing in different other Parts in the world. Britain occupied African courtiers like the Buchuana land in 1880 and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in 1884, in addition to Australia and New Zealand.

British Imperialism

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Case of study: The United States of America

The history of the United States of America has a very romantic value in the eyes of most Americans. In fact, it started with first waves of immigration, which is, according to them, the chief means that contributed to the creation of their dear nation, the United States of America, and to the completion of what they qualify to be their “Manifest Destiny”. In fact, although till now, many people, belonging to different parts of the world, long to immigrate to the United States and thousands of them go there yearly, U.S.A immigration started more than two centuries ago. It goes back to the days of the Mayflower immigrants or, may be earlier, to the Roanoke immigrants, who mysteriously disappeared.

In fact, it is commonly agreed about that the first people who immigrated to the New World and established what came to be known as the United States of America were the Europeans, and more precisely the Spanish and the Portuguese. For, it is believed that the first European countries who were interested in the discovery of the New World were Spain and Portugal. Everything started in the fifteenth century, when these two strong unified nations declared the beginnings of their expansion. Their objective was to end up Italian control over trade with the East (Japan, China and India), whose centre was Venice. The Italians used to transport different types of goods like spices, carpets, sugar and even gold through Asia to the Persian Gulf area, where, these same goods would be transported by Arab merchants via Baghdad to the Egyptian seaports to be shipped to Italian ports.

Thus, Spain and Portugal started to think about a solution, and by the way finding a new and short route to Asia. Exploiting these favourable circumstances, the Italian navigator, Christopher Columbus decided to test his theory (which was totally ignored and neglected in his home country), that stipulates that since the world is round , there must be an other route to the Indies he set sailed West through the Western hemisphere. And that’s what happened. After being sponsored by Spain and Portugal, and more precisely by Queen Isabella of Spain, the sailor started his voyage in three small ships: the Penta, the Ninia and the Santa Maria. In October, 1942, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World, which he mistook for the East Indies. Probably, this was the reason why he called the Native Americans the Indians .

Columbus had never realized that he discovered a new world about which no body had any idea. It was until the declaration of Americus Vespucius (after whom the New World was named, America), that it was confirmed that what Columbus discovered had nothing to do with the East Indies, but rather it was a new continent.

With this new discovery, Spain has become the most powerful and developed nation in Europe. The Proof of that was their subduing and enslavement of great civilizations in the new World like the one the Incas in South America and the Aztec in Central America. Also, they exploited the natural resources of that virgin land to the development of their own country. Indeed, Spain had become the richest and wealthiest nation in Europe. It established its first permanent settlement in North America near a fort called St Augustine, in nowadays state of Florida.

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All these circumstances contributed a lot in luring other European countries to follow the same path as Spain, especially France and England, whose internal problems (between Catholics and Protestants) prevented her from entering that lucrative enterprise. It was until the rule of Queen Elizabeth I (who ended up with all the existing problems in the kingdom) that the English nation was ready to enter that imperialistic race. Hence, due to brave sailors like Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh and via piracy, that the English were able to destroy the mighty Spanish Armada. This maritime victory made of England the new mistress and absolute possessor of the sea .

England then started a process of expansion by encouraging it people, and sometimes forcing, them to immigrate to the New World in order to establish English colonies there, a process of expansion which would result two centuries later in the United States of America. The basic reasons that pushed England to encourage such immigration were of different types. First of all, the kingdom at that time was characterized by hard times, either economically or socially speaking. So England found it very favourable to send its people, especially judged to be a nuisance for the health of the country, to fill up the emptiness and wilderness of the newly discovered nation. Besides, the English noticed that establishing royal colonies in America would be so beneficial for them especially after discovering never-ending genders of natural resources and raw materials (like fisheries, sugar, timber, that the kingdom needed for its industrialization .

Economically speaking, North America was seen as the best place in the world where the English may open new and independent markets for its manufactured goods. Furthermore, England considered North America as a missionary field for it protestant field against Catholicism. Also, the New World is seen as a the place where the excess of population would thrown off to avoid any further problem in the kingdom. In addition to that, we may add that among the basic causes that pushed the English to declare its process of expansion in the new world were the hard times that characterized the British society in the 16th century

like poverty, unemployment, wars, political and religious persecution…

In addition to that, there are many driving that pushed the English people to immigrate to the new world such as hoping to find gold there, because there some rumours that circulated in England that assured the existence of many mines of gold. Besides, most of the English chivalric aristocracy had a certain tendency and love of adventure. A good illustration of that was Sir Walter Raleigh, who went to the new world, established the colony of Virginia, which he dedicated to Queen Elizabeth I of England, after whom he name (Virginia after the virgin Queen Elizabeth I because she was unmarried), and of whom he was probably in love.

Hence, and because of what all has been said before, the first English settlements were created like the Jamestown settlement which was established in 1606. This happened after James I of England chartered the Virginia Company of London. In fact, every body considred that settlement as a business enterprise. After this first settlement, the crown started the process of what was commonly called: the settlement of New England. Chief among the first

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colonies of New England that was established at that time was the Plymouth colony, created in 1620by a group of separatists (English people who believed that the Church of England was so corrupted that is why they decided to create their own church). 102 men, largely known as the pilgrims set sailed on board of the Mayflower. They landed in North America on November 1620, and decided to settle in the Plymouth. The colonists of the Plymouth could not survive the wilderness of the New World. It is reported that some of them even resorted to cannibalism. Fortunately, their leader, John Smith was clever enough to think to ask for help from the Indians, who kindly supplied them with essential foodstuffs.

In 1630, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded by puritans, more precisely by the Congregationalists ( English people who believed that the Church of England was so corrupted and needed to be purified from within). This colony was so pious and respected the protestant values very much to the extent that they banished anyone who did not respect the norms of that colony. Hence, those exiled people gathered themselves and founded the colony of Providence (Rhode Island) in 1635. Its leader, Roger Williams game more religious freedom to the settlers of that colony. He believed that al the immigrants escaped from England and came to the new world in order to find religious freedom not to be more harassed and persecuted.

The colony of Connecticut was founded by Massachusetts’ settlers in 1636, who were looking for fertile lands, whereas New haven was established in 1639 by Massachusetts’ settlers under the leadership John Devonport and Theophilus Easton. They wanted an ideal bible community. Concerning Maryland, it is believed to be the first catholic colony established in North America. It was founded by George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore on the proprietary principle. In fact, the king of England granted to the Calverts this land because they served him faithfully and at the same time, they could not remain in England because of their religion: Catholicism.

The immigration to New England continued when the English established what they called the Royal colonies. These latter include New Amsterdam, which became New York in 1674. This colony was taken from the Dutch to become a royal colony named after the Duke of York (later king James II). Besides, Pennsylvania is also believed to be a proprietary colony since it was founded by William Penn, who was given that land in return of a debt contracted by the king from William Penn’s father. It served as a refuge for the Quakers persecuted in England. Also, each of New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Georgia were considered as royal colonies. All the already stated colonies were seen as the first thirteen colonies established in the New World by immigrants coming from Europe in general and England in particular .

Those thirteen colonies, which strung out along the eastern seaboard of what is nowadays the United States of America declared their independence from the mother country in 1776, fought a revolutionary was and won it in 1781. After that they drafted the constitution which stipulated that all the colonies should be united under one federal government composed of two houses the Senate in which representation was equal, and a House of representatives in which the representation was proportioned according to the population. Here, the Americans noticed that the continent was so large and that it needs to

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filled up. As a solution, the Americans started to migrate Westward beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Consequently, people started to establish new colonies or states, which were soon given statehood as soon as they possessed some conditions settled by the federal paper. Hence, states like California, Texas, and New Mexico among too many others were added to the union. Louisiana, however, was purchased from the French at the Price of $ 13 million.

A detailed explanation of the founding of the first thirteen colonies

It is said that ‘The history of the original 13 colonies is a tangled tale indeed. There are many ways to view the events and, in hind sight, it is easy to think you understand. But no one knew where they were headed at the time and it could have ended up very different’.

1-Virginia

The foundation of the colony of Virginia was primarily based on George Weymouth's accounts of voyages to the New England area in 1606. In fact, two private companies were formed to seek a patent for colonization on the Atlantic Coast. One of these companies was called the London Company and it was given the southern Virginia territory. The other company was called the Plymouth Company and its patent was for northern Virginia. Both companies quickly sought to exercise their patents but the London Company was the first to actually place colonists on the shore. In 1607, 105 London Company sponsored settlers arrived from England to begin the story that we all remember from our school days. Since they were there representing England and its King, James I, they settled in an encampment they called Jamestown on a river they named the James River.

The first year was devastating for the colonists, with only 32 colonists surviving the winter and only then because Native Americans living in the area came to their aid with food. After a supply ship arrived the next year they had additional provisions but many more colonists to feed as well. Once again, over the winter, most of the colonists died of starvation and from hostile encounters with their neighbors. As winter came to a close, ships arrived, and most of them were ready to leave. But as they were leaving, Lord Thomas de la Warr (Delaware is named after him) arrived from England with new supplies and more settlers. He refused to let the survivors return to England. Slowly, as they reached agreements with the local Native American tribes and they learned how to grow some of their own crops, the colony began to prosper.

Most of those original Jamestown settlers were after profit, mainly riches in the form of gold and other precious metals. They had not given enough thought to the perils that they would face in this unknown land. One of the settlers, however, was familiar with hardship and was committed to Jamestown's survival. Capt. John Smith was a soldier and adventurer. He had fought in France and Hungary, been captured and escaped. Although his personality caused him some initial problems with the other colonists (he arrived in Jamestown in chains after alienating the leaders of the expedition) he eventually made contact with the local Native American chieftain Powhatan, who provided the colonists with much of their food in that first year. Capt. Smith was eventually even appointed leader of the colony.

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One of Powhatan's children, a daughter called Pocahontas, visited the colonists in the early years and even brought food and other provisions to them. Several years later in an attempt to obtain bargaining advantage over Powhatan the colonists kidnapped Pocahontas and she stayed with them in Jamestown. A colonist, John Rolfe (who incidentally was the first of the colonists to cultivate commercial quality tobacco and start the Colony on its way towards profitability) eventually married her and took her to England. She died as they were preparing to return to Virginia.

In 1619 a group of 20 African slaves arrived in Jamestown on a Dutch ship. Grouped with the Southern Colonies, Virginia started out as a corporate colony (granted by Royal charter to a Company of investors who have governing rights) but in 1624 became a Royal colony (subject to the governing authority of the granting Royalty). In 1676 the village of Jamestown was nearly destroyed during "Bacon's Rebellion." Whereas, In 1788 Virginia was the tenth state to ratify the Constitution and recommended the Bill of Rights be added.

2-Massachussetts

In 1607, about the same time as the Jamestown colonization, a group of English colonists attempted to establish a colony in the Northern Virginia territory. The colony was located in present day Maine and was named Popham. It lasted for approximately a year before the discouraged settlers returned to England.

http://www.timepage.org/images/NewEngColonies.gifThe Pilgrims were the first English colonists to permanently settle in New England in what we now know as Massachusetts. On Sept. 16, 1620 the ship "Mayflower" set off from Plymouth, England on it journey to the New World. There were 102 passengers on the Mayflower including 41 Christian Puritan Separatists known collectively as the Leiden group. After spending many years in Holland exiled from the English Church, the Puritans were seeking a new life of religious freedom in America. All 102 of the passengers were referred to as the "Pilgrims" after they arrived. The group had obtained a Patent from the London Virginia Company which indentured them into service for the Company for seven years after they arrived and settled. To prepare for their life in America, they had sought advice from people who had already visited the New World. Among their advisors was Captain John Smith who, earlier, had helped found Jamestown for the Virginia Company. It took sixty six days to reach New England and the journey was very hard for these non-seafarers. When they arrived they anchored off the tip of Cape Cod, in an area now known as Massachusetts, and before they even set foot on shore they wrote, and all the men signed, an agreement called the "Mayflower Compact" that would set the rules to guide them through the early, hard times of establishing a new community. The Compact, which was signed on November 21, 1620 (modern date, see note below.), served as the official Constitution of the Plymouth Colony for many years.

For nearly a month they explored, by foot and in boats, the area around Cape Cod using the maps they had obtained in England. During their exploration they had a few minor

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encounters with the local natives. Finally, on December 21, they decided on a location near Plymouth Harbor which they named Plymouth. Nearly half of the colonists and crew died from illnesses that first winter as they struggled to build their town. The following spring they were visited by a local Wampanoag native named Samoset who, surprisingly, spoke some broken English. Eventually he introduced the settlers to another native named Squanto who's village had occupied the area before the Pilgrims arrived. Squanto had been kidnapped by English explorers and while he was in Europe the rest of his people had all been killed by diseases brought by European explorers. Squanto spoke English very well and he stayed with the Pilgrims and taught them many valuable skills that enabled them to survive in their new country. He also played a very big part in bringing the Pilgrims and the local native population together, leading, eventually to a long, but restless, peace.

Not long after the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth (1628) the Puritans came to Massachusetts and settled Naumkeag (later called Salem). John Winthrop, carrying the Massachusetts Bay Charter, arrived in 1630 and founded Boston. Maine was annexed to Massachusetts in 1652 and later the Plymouth Colony was too.

The relationship between the Native tribes and the colonists in New England was always strained but generally didn't result in much bloodshed. In 1637 colonists,with the cooperation of several local tribes, mounted a devastating attack on a tribe known as the Pequots and then, in 1675, the long accord that had existed between the New England colonists and the local native tribes came apart in a bloody war known as King Phillip's War after the leader of the Wampanoag tribe, Metacomet, who was also known by his English nickname "King Phillip". Metacomet was the son of Massasoit the Wampanoag leader who had originally greeted the Plymouth settlers.

Massachusetts was a New England colony which started out as a Corporate colony but became a Royal colony in 1691. In 1788 Massachusetts was the sixth state to ratify the Constitution.

3- New Hampshire

In 1623 two groups of English settlers, sent by Captain John Mason, arrived in what is now called New Hampshire (after John Masons home County of Hampshire) and established a fishing village near the mouth of the Piscataqua River. New Hampshire would remain an English colony throughout the colonial period even though, at various times, it came under Massachusetts jurisdiction.

In 1638, John Wheelwright, banished from Boston for defending his sister-in-law Anne Hutchinson, founded a settlement called Exeter in New Hampshire. In 1639 the settlers signed the "Exeter Compact" patterned after the "Mayflower Compact". One of the New England Colonies, New Hampshire started out as a Proprietary colony but it became a Royal colony in 1679. In 1719 Scots-Irish settlers from Londonderry, Ireland were sent to form a "Scottish" settlement in New Hampshire named for their town of origin. In 1788 New Hampshire was the ninth state to ratify the Constitution after which it was officially adopted.

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4-New Jersey

Along with their holdings in New York, New Jersey was originally settled in 1623 by the Dutch as New Netherlands. In 1664, after obtaining control of Dutch holdings lying between Virginia and New England, the Duke of York made a proprietary grant to Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley, of the land between the Hudson and the Delaware River. These men intended to profit from real estate sales. The new grant was named New Jersey for Carteret, who was governor of the Isle of Jersey.

In fact, it is commonly agreed about that this Middle Colony, New Jersey, started out as a Proprietary colony but in 1702 it was granted a Royal charter. New Jersey, in 1787, was the third state to ratify the Constitution.

5-New York

Although the Dutch West India Company explored and began to settle the New York area as early as 1614, the principal occupation of the area did not occur until 1624 when Dutch settlers arrived at Governors Island and then spread to other areas in the region. In 1626, Peter Minuit arrived on Manhattan Island and, with other Dutch settlers, bought the island from the local Indians for 60 guilders ($24.) worth of goods. The settlement and fort on the island became known as New Amsterdam which eventually became the City of New York. The Dutch holdings in the area were collectively called New Netherlands and included areas of what is now New Jersey. New Amsterdam was granted self government and incorporated by the Dutch in 1653.

In 1664, after King Charles II decided to reclaim the territory between Virginia and New England, Peter Stuyvesant surrendered to English forces and New Amsterdam was given to the King's brother, the Duke of York, and renamed New York. The Dutch continued to struggle with the British for control of New Netherlands off and on until 1674 when the British finally obtained full control. New York originally started out as a Proprietary colony (granted by Royalty to one or more proprietors who had full governing rights) but in 1685 became a Royal colony. In 1788 New York became the eleventh state to ratify the Constitution.

6-Maryland

In 1632 Charles I granted a Maryland Charter to Lord Baltimore (George Calvert, Baron of Baltimore, who, with his family were faithful Catholics devoted to the king. He granted them this colony as a price for their faithfulness and fidelity). Lord Baltimore wanted very much to see the Colony become a reality and his son Cecil saw to it that the new Colony was settled. In 1633 the first group of settlers set sail for Maryland to establish a colony of

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freemen led by Leonard Calvert, Cecil Calvert's younger brother. This colony was one of the Southern Colonies that started as a Proprietary colony. Maryland was the seventh state to ratify the Constitution in 1788.

7-Rhode Island

While scattered Europeans began to settle the area as early as 1620, the first permanent settlement wasn't established until 1636. In 1635 Roger Williams was driven from Salem, Massachusetts for espousing religious and political freedom. After spending the winter with the Indians he finally bought land from the Narragansett Indians and settled in what is

now called Providence. The new colony became a haven for those seeking religious freedom .

In 1638, Anne Hutchinson, having been banned from Massachusetts, helped found Portsmouth, Rhode Island. A New England Colony, Rhode Island was established as a corporate colony and received a Royal "Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations" in 1663. Among other unique guarantees, the Charter established complete religious freedom in Rhode Island, which was unusual at the time, and later formed the basis for similar provisions in the U.S. Constitution. Although Rhode Island was one of the first colonies to embrace autonomy from the British and espouse Revolutionary ideals, it was the last of the 13 colonies to ratify the Federal Constitution and became a State in 1790.

8-Connecticut

Dutch traders had established a permanent settlement near Hartford as early as 1633. Soon English settlers began to arrive in the area from Massachusetts. In 1636, after being driven from Massachusetts, Clergyman Thomas Hooker and his followers arrived in Hartford and declared freedom from all save Divine Authority. In 1639 the "Fundamental Orders" were enacted to govern the colony. In 1662 Connecticut finally obtained a Royal Charter under John Winthrop Jr. One of the New England Colonies, Connecticut was also a Corporate colony. In 1788 Connecticut was the fifth state to ratify the Constitution.

9-Delaware

In 1631, the first settlement was attempted in Delaware by Dutch traders led by Captain David Pietersen de Vries. By 1632 the party had been killed in a dispute with the local natives.

In 1638, Peter Minuet, now in the service of the Swedish, led a group of Swedish settlers to the Delaware River area under a grant from the New Sweden Company. It was these Swedish settlers that brought the log cabin design to America.

In 1655 the Dutch gained control of the land from the Swedish. In 1664 the English obtained Delaware after defeating the Dutch. The Dutch briefly recaptured Delaware in 1673 but in 1674 the English finally took control. In 1682 Delaware was awarded to William Penn

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but his control didn't last and Delaware became independent in 1701 and elected its own assembly in 1704 .

At the beginning, Delaware was a Proprietary colony and was the first state to ratify the Constitution and become a State in 1787.

10- North Carolina

North Carolina's outer banks were the scene of the first British colonizing efforts in North America. Both attempts, in the late 1500's, to form a colony on Roanoke Island (see above ) did not succeed.

http://www.timepage.org/images/Carolinas&Georgia.gifVirginia colonists began to settle the North Carolina region in 1653 to provide a buffer for the southern frontier. In 1691 Albermarle, the northern Carolina region was officially recognized by the English crown. This is the first time the "North Carolina" designation was used.

One of the Southern Colonies, North Carolina started out as a Proprietary colony but obtained a Royal charter in 1729 from Charles II. After agreeing to the first 12 amendments, in 1789, North Carolina became the 12th state to ratify the new Constitution.

11- South Carolina

South Carolina was the site of the first European settlement in North America. In 1526 San Miguel de Gualdape was established by settlers from Hispanolia who initially landed in South Carolina but ended up moving to an area of the Carolina region that would eventually become Georgia. The party returned to Hispanolia after suffering many deaths due to fever the first year .

In 1663 King Charles II created the colony of Carolina (named for King Charles II) by granting the territory, of what is now roughly North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia, to loyal supporters. This colonial charter was challenged by many Virginians who had settled in Albermarle Sound and resented their inclusion in the Carolina Charter. Charleston (originally Charles Town after the King) was founded in 1670 by a group of 200 colonists from English Barbados. The leader of the colonists was Sir John Yeamans, a powerful plantation owner on Barbados.

South Carolina was a southern colony that started out as a Proprietary colony but also became a Royal colony in 1719. In 1788 South Carolina was the eighth state to ratify the Constitution.

12- Pennsylvania

As early as 1647, a settlement occurred on what is now Pennsylvania soil by Swedish, Dutch and English settlers in the Delaware River region. In 1681 however, Pennsylvania's colonial status was sealed when approximately the present state of Pennsylvania was granted

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to William Penn, a member of the Society of Friends (Quakers), to offset a debt owed to Penn's father. In 1682 the city plan for Philadelphia was laid out. In 1682 the "Frame of Government" for Pennsylvania was put into effect. In 1683 the first German settlers arrived in Pennsylvania and formed Germantown near Philadelphia.

This colony, Pennsylvania, was a Proprietary colony and in 1763, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two young British astronomers commissioned to establish a borderline between Maryland and Pennsylvania, worked for more than four years to settle a century-old boundary dispute between the Calverts of Maryland and the Penns of Pennsylvania by establishing the Mason-Dixon Line. In 1787 Pennsylvania was the second state to ratify the Constitution.

13-Georgia

There were a few Spanish settlements along the coast, north of Florida, in the 16th and early 17th century but what is now Georgia was originally just the southern portion of the Carolina grant. Hoping to provide a second chance for adventurous members of the English under class, King George II, in 1732, granted Georgia to James Edward Oglethorpe, an English general. In addition to its lofty social goals the new Colony was also intended to provide additional protection for its northern colonial partners. Prior to Oglethorpe and his party settling the area in 1733, Fort King George was the only English occupation in the area. The Fort, which was established in 1721, was the Southern-most post in the Colonies and was situated to provide a buffer against Spanish and French intrusion from the South.

In 1738, General Oglethorpe brought a large military contingent to Georgia and the following year his troops provided a strong showing against the Spanish in King George's War (the War of Austrian Succession in Europe). General Oglethorpe led his men into St. Augustine and although they were not able to obtain a victory there, when the Spanish sailed into Georgia seeking retaliation two years later, he and his soldiers were able to drive the Spanish back to Florida for, what turned out to be, the last time .

One of the Southern Colonies, Georgia started out as a Proprietary colony but eventually became a Royal colony in 1752. In 1788 Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the Constitution.

The following table resumes all the most important detail related to each colony:

COLONY NAME

YEAR FOUNDED

FOUNDED BYBECAME ROYAL COLONY

Virginia 1607 London Company 1624

Massachusetts 1620 Puritans 1691

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New Hampshire 1623 John Wheelwright 1679

Maryland 1634 Lord Baltimore N/A

Connecticut c. 1635 Thomas Hooker N/A

Rhode Island 1636 Roger Williams N/A

Delaware 1638Peter Minuit and New Sweden Company

N/A

North Carolina 1653 Virginians 1729

South Carolina 1663Eight Nobles with a Royal Charter from Charles II

1729

New Jersey 1664Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret

1702

New York 1664 Duke of York 1685

Pennsylvania 1682 William Penn N/A

Georgia 1732 James Edward Oglethorpe 1752

Course 02

The Drafting of the American constitution

Introduction

The Constitution of the United States of America is the basic element of the American government. Also, it is considered to be the Supreme and most eminent law of the whole nation. For, it played a very elementary role in guiding the evolution of governmental institutions and in providing the basis rules for political stability, economic growth and social progress.

In fact, it is commonly agreed about that the American Constitution is the oldest written constitution in force in any nation of the world. Its basic principles are the model of many other constitutions in the world. It owes its remarkable longevity and it lasting influence to two equally significant criteria: simplicity and flexibility. It was originally designed to provide a framework for governing thirteen weak and disparate former colonies. These basic elements upon which the American constitution was based were so soundly conceived that they allowed to the Constitution to serve the needs of more than 210 million people in 50 states .

Politically speaking, the word government has many definitions and explanations. It may be regarded as the fact of exercising authority over a state, or a system of ruling. Also, it may be considered as a political administration, or simply a political organization. In the

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United States of America, however, the government has a particular meaning, more precisely, a meaning of a historical value. Probably this is due to the difficulties and obstacles that the founding fathers faced and to which they resisted to achieve the creation of a chef- d’oevre, that is commonly called nowadays the American Federal Government.

As it has already mentioned, to become the widely known and famous American Government, this latter witnessed different changes and modifications throughout the American history, and of which it constitutes the major part. In fact, it goes back to the days of the American Revolution, when the thirteen colonies decided to unite themselves under the Articles of Confederation to stop the British harassment and exploitation of the New World. Nevertheless, those articles proved to be inefficacious and their weaknesses were apparent to everybody. That is why 55delegates coming from the thirteen colonies met in Philadelphia for the sake of revising the so called Articles of Confederation. The Constitutional or Federal Convention convened on May 25, 1787, in Independence Hall, where the Declaration of Independence had been adopted eleven years earlier on July 4, 1776. As It has already mentioned above, although the delegates had been authorized only to amend the Articles of Confederation, they pushed the articles aside and proceeded to construct a charter for a wholly new, more centralized form of government. The new document, the Constitution, was completed on September, 17, 1787, and was officially adopted on March 4, 1789.

However, before putting this federal paper into practice, there was a great deal of controversy and speculation among the delegation, embodied mainly in the Virginia and New Jersey plans of union. The former provided for a bicameral government with a proportional representation in both houses, whereas the latter stipulated that the government would be a unicameral institution with equal representation. Hence, the major problem that faced the delegation was about representation in the government. In fact, the larger states argued in favour of proportional representation in the legislature i.e. each state should have voting power according to its population. The smaller states, fearing domination by the larger ones insisted for an equal representation for all states.

After long debates, the delegates reached a compromise, which they qualified to be great. This so called Great compromise ended the rift between large and small states since it outlined that the new Federal government would be composed of tow houses in which the representation would be equal in one house and proportional in the other house. In the Senate (the upper house), every state would have two seats (equal representation). In the House of Representatives, however, the number of seats would depend on population (proportional representation). Also, the latter house was given the power to originate all legislation dealing with the federal budget and revenues. Besides, they agreed that the federal government should constitute of three main branches: the executive, the legislative and the Judiciary.

Although the United States Constitution has changed in many aspects since it was first adopted, its basic principles remain the same now as in 1789, and they are six main principles:

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1-The three main branches of the government are separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are delicately balanced by the power of the other two. Each branch serves as a check on potential excesses of the others.

2-The constitution, together with laws properly passed according to its provisions, and treaties entered into by the President and approved by the Senate, stand above all other laws, executive acts and regulations.

3-All men are equal before the law and are equally entitled to its protection. All states are equal, and non can receive special treatment from the Federal Government .

4-Within the limits of the Constitution, each state must recognize and respect the laws of the others.

5-State governments, like the Federal Government, must be republican in form, with final authority resting in the people.

6-The people have the right to change their form of government by legal means defined in the Constitution itself.

Concerning the Federal system, the framers of the constitution had several cut objectives in mind. They set this down with a remarkable and brilliant clarity in the federal paper. They are six major points:

1-To form a more perfect union

2-To establish justice

3-To ensure domestic tranquillity

4-To provide for the common defence

5-To promote the general welfare

6-To secure the blessing of liberty to ourselves and our prosperity

All in all, and to sum up all what has been said before in the introduction concerning the American Constitution, we may say that the United States Constitution was written in 1787, adopted in 1788, and took effect in 1789, replacing the Articles of Confederation. It remains the basic law of the United States Federal (central) government.

History of the American Constitution

Historically speaking, the American Constitution was the logical outcome of the famous historical event commonly known as the Declaration of Independence that happened on June 7, 1776. This was a significantly important resolution that was introduced in the

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Second Continental Congress declaring the union with Great Britain dissolved, proposing the formation of foreign alliances, and suggesting the drafting of a plan of confederation to be submitted to the respective states. Independence was declared on July 4, 1776; the preparation of a plan of confederation was postponed.

A year before, the gunfire of Lexington and concord burst, and the Second Continental Congress that took place in Philadelphia resulted in the fact that all the American colonies expressed their common will to resist the British aggression. Hence, the Congress assumed the executive power over all the thirteen colonies and created a continental army the head of which was George Washington. The American war of independence that opposed the British army to the thirteen colonies, who were united under the Articles of Confederation, began on June 17 with the battle of Banker Hill. On July 4, the Americans adopted the Declaration of Independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson, then on November 15, the Articles of Confederation were officially adopted as a compact that stipulated a perpetual union between the thirteen colonies, although the majority of the colonists did not believe in the efficacy of these Articles of Confederation.

Militarily speaking, the American Army was essentially composed of volunteers and was so small and weak compared to the British one. It was defeated at the battle of Long Island on August 1776, and George Washington was obliged to withdraw from New York; and the same thing happened a year late in Philadelphia. The first truly victory of the American Army occurred at the battle of Saratoga (17 October 1777). This battle is considered to be a turning point in the stream of the American Revolution especially that the French noticed that the victory of the Americans meant confining the British power and subsequently a release to the French. Hence, They decided to intervene in the war on the behalf of the French under the leadership of Lafayette and Rochambeau. The war ended victoriously to the English on October 19, 1781, whereas Britain recognized the American Independence when the Paris Peace treaty was issued at Versailles on September 3, 1783.

The newly established American nation found herself in a very difficult economic and political situation: there was no money to build a nation and no government to guide this enterprise. It was apparent to everybody that a central government is needed, subsequently; George Washington called for another Continental Convention which he would preside.

In fact, Weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation became apparent before the Revolution ended. Even before the thirteenth State (Maryland) conditionally joined the "firm league of friendship" on March 1, 1781, the need for a revenue amendment was widely conceded. Under the articles, Congress lacked authority to levy taxes; instead, it could request the States to contribute a share to the common treasury. The amounts gained through this technique were not sufficient. To remedy this defect, Congress applied to the States for power to lay duties and secure the public debts. Twelve States agreed to such an amendment, but Rhode Island refused its consent, thereby defeating the proposal.

Thus; it was emphasized a second weakness in the Articles of Confederation, namely, the Liberum Veto which each State possessed whenever amendments to that instrument were proposed. Not only did all amendments have to be ratified by each of the thirteen states, but

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all important legislation needed the approval of nine States. With several delegations often absent, one or two States were able to defeat legislative proposals of major importance.

The period between the adoption of the Articles of Confederation in 1781 and the drafting of the Constitution in 1787 has been seen by some historians as one of weakness, dissension, and turmoil, and by others as basically stable and prosperous. Under the Articles of Confederation, no provisions were made for an executive branch to enforce the laws or for a national court system to interpret them. A legislature was the sole organ of the national government, but it had no power to force the states to do anything against their will. It could theoretically declare war and raise an army, but it could not force any state to meet its assigned quota for troops or for the arms and equipment needed to support them. It looked to the states for the income needed to finance its activities, but it could not punish a state for not contributing its share of the federal budget. Control of taxation and tariffs was left to the states, and each state could issue its own currency. In disputes between states--and there were many unsettled quarrels over state boundaries--Congress played the role of mediator and judge but could not require states to accept its decisions.

Without the power to collect taxes, the federated government plunged into debt. At the same time, seven of the 13 states printed large quantities of paper money, high in face value, but low in real purchasing power, in order to pay Revolutionary War veterans and a variety of creditors as well as settle debts between small farmers and large plantation owners.

By contrast, the Massachusetts legislature imposed a tightly limited currency and high taxes, triggering the formation of a small army of farmers led by Daniel Shays, a former Revolutionary War army captain. The incident came to be known as Shays' Rebellion. In a bid to take over the Massachusetts statehouse, Shays and others demanded that foreclosures and unfair mortgages be dropped. Troops were called out to suppress the rebellion, but the national government took notice.

The absence of a single, uniform, and stable currency also disrupted trade among the states and with other countries. Not only did the value of paper currency vary from state to state, but some states, such as New York and Virginia, levied duties on products entering their ports from other states, thereby provoking retaliatory actions. The states could assert, as had the federal superintendent of finance, that their public credit was gone. To compound their problems, these newly independent states, having separated violently from Britain, no longer received favored treatment at British ports. When U.S. minister John Adams tried to negotiate a commercial treaty in 1785, the British refused on the grounds that the individual states would not be bound by it.

The weak central government also lacked the power to back its policies with military strength. As a result, it was inevitably handicapped in foreign affairs. The British refused to withdraw their troops from the forts and trading posts in the new nation's Northwest Territory, as they had agreed to do in the Treaty of Paris of 1783 that marked the end of the Revolutionary War. To make matters worse, British officers on the northern boundaries and Spanish officers to the south supplied arms to various American Indian tribes and encouraged them to attack American settlers. The Spanish, who controlled Florida and Louisiana, as well

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as all territory west of the Mississippi River, also refused to allow western American farmers to use the port of New Orleans to ship produce.

Other imperfections in the Articles of Confederation proved embarrassing as well. Congress could, for example, negotiate treaties with foreign powers, but all treaties had to be ratified by the several States. Even when a treaty was approved, Congress lacked authority to secure obedience. Congress could not act directly upon the States or upon individuals. Under such circumstances, foreign nations doubted the value of a treaty with the new confederation. Furthermore, Congress had no authority to regulate foreign or interstate commerce. Legislation in this field, subject to unimportant exceptions, was left to the individual States. Disputes between States with common interests in the navigation of certain rivers and bays were inevitable. Discriminatory regulations were followed by reprisals.

Although there were signs of returning prosperity in some areas of the fledgling nation, domestic and foreign problems continued to grow. It became increasingly clear to many nationalists that the confederation's central government was not strong enough to establish a sound financial system, to regulate trade, to enforce treaties, or to go to war when needed. With Shays' Rebellion of 1786 vividly in mind, George Washington warned: "There are combustibles in every state which a spark might set fire to."

1-Mount Vernon Conference

The colony of Virginia, recognizing the need for an agreement with Maryland respecting the navigation and jurisdiction of the Potomac River, appointed, in June 1784, four commissioners to "frame such liberal and equitable regulations concerning the said river as may be mutually advantageous to the two States." Maryland, in January 1785, responded to the Virginia resolution by appointing a like number of commissioners for the purpose of settling the navigation and jurisdiction over that part of the bay of Chesapeake which lies within the limits of Virginia, and over the rivers Potomac and Pocomoke" with full power on behalf of Maryland "to adjudge and settle the jurisdiction to be exercised by the said State, respectively, over the waters and navigations of the same."

At the invitation of George Washington, the commissioners met at his Mount Vernon home, in March 1785, and drafted a compact which, in many of its details relative to the navigation and jurisdiction of the Potomac, is still in force. What is more important, the commissioners submitted to their respective States a report in favor of a convention of all the States "to take into consideration the trade and commerce" of the Confederation. Virginia, in January 1786, advocated such a convention, authorizing its commissioners to meet with those of other States, at a time and place to be agreed on, "to take into consideration the trade of the United States; to examine the relative situations and trade of the said State; to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary to their common interest and their permanent harmony; and to report to the several State, such an act relative to this great object, as when unanimously ratified by them, will enable the United States in Congress, effectually to provide for the same."

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2- Annapolis Convention

This proposal for a general trade convention seemingly met with general approval; nine States appointed commissioners. Under the leadership of the Virginia delegation, which included Randolph and Madison, Annapolis was accepted as the place and the first Monday in September 1786 as the time for the convention. The attendance at Annapolis proved disappointing. Only five States--Virginia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, and New York--were represented; delegates from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Rhode Island failed to attend. Because of the small representation, the Annapolis Convention did not deem “it advisable to proceed on the business of their mission.” After an exchange of views, the Annapolis delegates unanimously submitted to their respective States a report in which they suggested that a convention of representatives from all the States meet at Philadelphia on the second Monday in May (May 13) 1787 to examine the defects in the existing system of government and formulate "a plan for supplying such defects as may be discovered.”

The Virginia legislature acted promptly upon this recommendation and appointed a delegation to go to Philadelphia. Within a few weeks, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Delaware, and Georgia also made appointments. New York and several other States hesitated on the ground that, without the consent of the Continental Congress, the work of the convention would be extra-legal; that Congress alone could propose amendments to the Articles of Confederation. George Washington was quite unwilling to attend an irregular convention. Congressional approval of the proposed convention became, therefore, highly important. After some hesitancy, Congress approved the suggestion for a convention at Philadelphia "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation and reporting to Congress and the several legislatures such alterations and provisions therein as shall when agreed to in Congress and confirmed by the States render the Federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union."

Therefore, the remaining States, Rhode Island excepted, appointed in due course delegates to the Convention, and Washington accepted membership on the Virginia delegation.

3-Philadelphia Convention

On February 21, 1787, Congress resolved: "It is expedient that on the second Monday in May next a Convention of delegates who shall have been appointed by the several States be held at Philadelphia for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." On the appointed day, May 14, few representatives were present. The Convention (also known as the Philadelphia Convention) only obtained a quorum—delegates of seven states—on May 25.

The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution included most of the outstanding leaders, or Founding Fathers, of the new nation. They represented a wide range of interests, backgrounds, and stations in life, although they shared a common background: the vast

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majority of them were wealthy landowners and all were white males. All agreed, however, on the central objectives expressed in the preamble to the Constitution:

“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America”.

The primary aim of the Constitution was to create a strong elected government that was responsive to the will of the people, although there is some controversy over this. Many of the Founding Fathers believed that the new government needed to be insulated from the will of the people; hence the design of such features as the Electoral College or the election of Senators by the state legislatures. The concept of sovereignty of the people in a republic was new--a key ingredient of Republicanism in the United States. By the time the Constitution was adopted, Americans had considerable expertise in the art of self-government. Long before independence was declared, the colonies were functioning governmental units controlled by the people. By 1777, ten of the thirteen states had adopted their own constitutions. Most states had a governor elected by the state legislature. The legislature itself was elected by popular vote. Every state but Pennsylvania had a bicameral legislature as well.

The Articles of Confederation had tried to unite these self-governing states. The Constitution, by contrast, established a strong central, or federal, government with broad powers to regulate relations between the states and with sole responsibility in such areas as foreign affairs and defense.

Drafting the Constitution

The sense of potential disaster and the need for drastic change pervaded the Constitutional Convention that began its deliberations on May 25, 1787. All of the delegates were convinced that an effective central government with a wide range of enforceable powers must replace the weaker Congress established by the Articles of Confederation.

On May 29, Edmund Randolph, on behalf of the Virginia delegation, submitted to the convention 15 propositions as a plan of government. Despite the fact that the delegates were limited by the instructions of their State legislatures to a revision of the Articles, Virginia had really recommended a new instrument of government. For example, provision was made in the Virginia Plan for the separation of the three branches of government; under the Articles executive, legislative, and judicial powers were vested in the Congress. Furthermore, the legislature was to consist of two houses rather than one.

On May 30, the Convention went into a committee of the whole to consider the 15 propositions of the Virginia Plan seriatim. These discussions continued until June 13, when the Virginia resolutions in amended form were reported out of committee.

The delegates agreed that the new government would be composed of three separate, branches, based on ideals enumerated in John Locke's Two Treatises of Government:

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legislative, judicial, and executive, each with distinct powers to balance those of the other two branches. It was also agreed that the legislative branch, like the British Parliament, and the state legislatures (except Pennsylvania), should consist of two houses.

Beyond this point, however, there were sharp differences of opinion that threatened, at times, to disrupt the convention and cut short its proceedings before a constitution was drafted. The Virginia Plan provided for proportional representation in both houses. The small States were dissatisfied.

The large states argued in favor of proportional representation in the legislature--that is, each state should have voting power according to its population, calling equal representation, "confessedly unjust." The small states, fearing domination by the large ones, insisted on equal representation for all states.

At the time of the convention, the South was growing more quickly than the North, and it was Southern states who had the most extensive Western claims. South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia were small in the 1780s, but they expected growth, and thus favored proportional representation. New York was one of the largest states at the time, but two of its three representatives (Hamilton being the exception) favored an equal representation, as part of their desire to see maximum autonomy for the states. (The two representatives other than Hamilton left the convention before the representation issue was resolved, leaving Hamilton, and New York state, without a vote.)

James Madison and Alexander Hamilton were two of the leaders of the proportional representation group. Madison argued that a conspiracy of large states against the small states was unrealistic, as the large states were so different from each other. Hamilton argued that the states were artificial entities made up of individuals, and accused small state representatives of wanting power, not liberty. (see History of the United States Senate).

For their part, the small state representatives argued that the states were, in fact, equal, and that proportional representation would be unfair to them. Gunning Bedford, Jr. of Delaware notoriously threatened on behalf of the small states, "the small ones w[ould] find some foreign ally of more honor and good faith, who will take them by the hand and do them justice."

Therefore, on June 14, when the Convention was ready to consider the report on the Virginia plan, William Paterson of New Jersey requested an adjournment to allow certain delegations more time to prepare a substitute plan. The request was granted, and, on the next day, Paterson submitted nine resolutions embodying important changes in the Articles of Confederation, but strictly amendatory in nature. Vigorous debate followed. On June 19, the delegates rejected the New Jersey plan and voted to proceed with a discussion of the Virginia Plan. The small States became more and more discontented; there were threats of withdrawal. On July 2, the Convention was deadlocked over giving each State an equal vote in the upper house--five States in the affirmative, five in the negative, one divided.

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The problem was referred to a committee of 11, there being 1 delegate from each State, to effect a compromise. On July 5, the committee submitted its report, which became the basis for the “Great Compromise" of the Convention. The report recommended: in the upper house, each State should have an equal vote; in the lower house, each State should have one representative for every 40,000 inhabitants, counting three-fifths of the slaves; money bills should originate in the lower house (not subject to amendment by the upper chamber).

After six weeks of tumult, North Carolina switched its vote to equal representation and Massachusetts abstained, and a compromise was reached, the so called "Great Compromise." In the "Great Compromise," every state was given equal representation, previously known as the New Jersey Plan, in one house of Congress and proportional representation, known before as the Virginia Plan, in the other. In the Senate, every state would have two seats. In the House of Representatives, the number of seats would depend on population. Because it was considered more responsive to majority sentiment, the House of Representatives was given the power to originate all legislation dealing with the federal budget and revenues/taxation.

When, on July 12, the motion of Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania that direct taxation should also be in proportion to representation was adopted, the crisis had been successfully surmounted. A compromise spirit began to prevail; however, the small States were not willing to support a strong national government.

The Great Compromise ended the rift between the large and small states, but throughout the summer the delegates worked out numerous other compromises. Some delegates, fearful of giving too much power to the people, argued for indirect election of all federal officials; others wanted as broad an electoral base as possible. Some wanted to exclude the western territories from eventual statehood; others saw the future strength of the nation in the lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains. There were sectional interests to be balanced; differing views to be reconciled on the term, powers, and method of selection of the president; and conflicting ideas on the role of the federal judiciary.

The high quality of the delegates to the convention eased the way to compromise. Only a few of the great leaders of the American Revolution were absent: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, both future presidents, were serving as America's envoys to France and Britain, respectively; John Jay was busy as secretary of foreign affairs of the Confederation, although he later wrote some of the Federalist Papers. A handful of others, including Samuel Adams, Thomas Paine, and Patrick Henry, chose not to participate, believing that the existing governmental structure was sound. Of those in attendance, the best known by far was George Washington, commander of American troops and hero of the Revolution, who presided over the convention. Benjamin Franklin, the scientist, scholar, and diplomat, was also there. So, too, were such outstanding men as James Madison of Virginia, Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania, and Alexander Hamilton, the brilliant young lawyer and soldier from New York.

Even the youngest delegates, still in their twenties and thirties, had already displayed political and intellectual gifts. As Thomas Jefferson in Paris wrote to John Adams in London, "It really is an assembly of demigods."

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Debates on the Virginia resolutions continued. The 15 original resolutions had been expanded into 23. Since these resolutions were largely declarations of principles, on July 24, a committee of five (Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, Edmund Randolph of Virginia, Nathaniel Gorham of Massachusetts, Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, and James Wilson of Pennsylvania) was elected to draft a detailed constitution embodying the fundamental principles which had thus far been approved. The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of this "committee of detail". This committee, in preparing its draft of a Constitution, turned for assistance to the State constitutions, to the Articles of Confederation, to the various plans which had been submitted to the Convention and other available material. On the whole, the report of the committee conformed to the resolutions adopted by the Convention, though on many clauses the members of the committee left the imprint of their individual and collective judgments. In a few instances, the committee avowedly exercised considerable discretion.

Some of the ideas embodied in the Constitution were new, but many were drawn from Classical Antiquity and the British governmental tradition of mixed government which was in practice among 12 of the 13 states and were advocated by the writings of Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu. The United States Constitution was partly based on ideas from the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom, such as Article 39 from the British Magna Carta of 1215, which states:

No free man shall be arrested, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor shall we go against him or send against him, unless by legal judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land.

From August 6 to September 10, the report of the committee of detail was discussed, section by section, clause by clause. Details were attended to, further compromises were effected. Toward the close of these discussions, on September 8, another committee of five (William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut, Alexander Hamilton of New York, Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania, James Madison of Virginia, and Rufus King of Massachusetts.) was appointed “to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house.”

On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style" was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this report with the proceedings of the Convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15, and the work was done by Jacob Shallus.

The Convention met on Monday, September 17, for its final session. Several of the delegates were disappointed in the result. A few deemed the new Constitution a mere makeshift, a series of unfortunate compromises. Some delegates left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: Edmund Randolph and George Mason of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. Of the 39 who did sign, probably no one was completely satisfied, and their views were ably summed up by Benjamin Franklin, who said, "There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not

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sure I shall never approve them." He would accept the Constitution, however, "because I expect no better and because I am not sure that it is not the best."

An amendment was agreed upon to change "the number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every forty thousand" to "the number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand." A paragraph making clear this change and a few minor modifications was appended to the document by Shallus, and attested to by secretary William Jackson.

The advocates of the Constitution, realizing the impending difficulty of obtaining the consent of the States to the new instrument of Government, were anxious to obtain the unanimous support of the delegations from each State. It was feared that many of the delegates would refuse to give their individual assent to the Constitution. Therefore, in order that the action of the Convention would appear to be unanimous, Gouverneur Morris devised the formula “Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present the 17th of September...In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names.” Thirty-nine of the forty-two delegates present thereupon “subscribed” to the document.

Ratification of the American Constitution

It was within the power of the old Congress to expedite or block the ratification of the new Constitution. The document which the Philadelphia Convention presented was technically only a revision of the Articles of Confederation. But the last article of the new instrument provided that when ratified by conventions in nine states, it should go into effect among the States so acting. In effect, Congress was asked to sanction a secession of nine States from the old Union which had been declared perpetual. Congress eventually yielded and passed the Constitution on to the States.

Then, followed an arduous process of ratification of the Constitution by specially constituted conventions. The need for only nine states was a controversial decision at the time, since the Articles of Confederation could only be amended by unanimous vote of all the states. Despite this, the new Constitution was ratified by all 13 states within two and a half years.

Three members of the Convention—Madison, Gorham, and King—were also Members of Congress. They proceeded at once to New York, where Congress was in session, to placate the expected opposition. Aware of their vanishing authority, Congress on September 28, after some debate, unanimously decided to submit the Constitution to the States for action. It made no recommendation for or against adoption.

Two parties soon emerged, one in opposition (Antifederalists), and one in support (Federalists), of the Constitution, and the Constitution was debated, criticized, and expounded clause by clause. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, under the name of "Publius," wrote a series of commentaries, now known as the Federalist Papers, in support of the new instrument of government; however, the primary aim of the essays was for ratification in the state of New York, at that time a hotbed of anti-federalism. These commentaries on the Constitution,

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written during the struggle for ratification, have been frequently cited by the Supreme Court as an authoritative contemporary interpretation of the meaning of its provisions. The closeness and bitterness of the struggle over ratification and the conferring of additional powers on the central government can scarcely be exaggerated. In some states, ratification was effected only after a bitter struggle in the state convention itself.

Delaware, on December 7, 1787, became the first State to ratify the new Constitution, the vote being unanimous. Pennsylvania ratified on December 12, 1787, by a vote of 46 to 23 (66.67%), a vote scarcely indicative of the struggle which had taken place in that State. New Jersey ratified on December 19, 1787, and Georgia on January 2, 1788, the vote in both was unanimous. In New York, fully two thirds of the convention were at first opposed to the Constitution. Hamilton led the Federalist campaign, including the fast-paced appearance of the Federalist Papers in New York newspapers. An attempt to attach conditions to ratification almost succeeded, but on July 26, 1788, New York ratified, with a recommendation that a bill of rights be appended. The vote was close—yeas 30 (52.6%), nays 27—due largely to Hamilton's forensic abilities and his reaching a few key compromises with moderate anti-Federalists led by Melancton Smith. Opposition to ratification was led by Governor George Clinton.

The Continental Congress—which still functioned at irregular intervals—passed a resolution on September 13, 1788, to put the new Constitution into operation.

The Bill of Rights

The American Constitution had been amended 27 times since 1789, and undoubtly, is going to be revised in the future. The most important changes were made within tow years of its adoption. At that time, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, were added to the constitution. They approved as a block by the Congress in September 1789, and were ratified by eleven states by the end of 1791.

Most of the initial resistance to the Constitution did not came from those opposed to the strengthening of the federal union, but rather by statesmen who felt that their rights of individuals must be specifically spelt out to clarify and certify the rights of the American citizen. One among these was George Mason, author of the declaration of rights of Virginia, and which, in its turn, was a forerunner of the Bill of Rights. As a delegate to the constitutional convention, Mason refused to sign the document because he felt that the individual rights were not sufficiently protected. Mason’s opposition nearly blocked the ratification by Virginia. As it was reported earlier, the state of Massachusetts, because of similar feelings, conditioned its ratification on the addition of specific guarantees of individual rights. At that particular time, the first Congress convened that the majority of the states share the same opinion about those individual rights, and that the adoption of such amendments was nearly unanimous, and the Congress lost little time in drafting them.

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These amendments remain intact today, as they were written nearly two centuries ago. The first guarantees were freedom of worship, speech and press, the right of peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrong and mistakes. The second guaranties, however, were the right of citizens to bear arms. The third provides that troops may not be quartered in private homes without the consent of the owner. The fourth guards against unreasonable searches, arrests and seizure of property.

The next four amendments deal with the system of justice; the fifth forbids trial for a major crime except after indictment by a grand jury. In fact, it prohibits repeated trials for the same offence, forbids punishment without due process of law and provides that an accused person may not be compelled to testify against himself. The sixth guarantees a speedy public trial for criminal offences, in requires trial by an unbiased jury; guarantees legal counsel for the accused, and provides that witnesses shall be compelled to attend the trial and testify in the presence of the accused. The seventh assures trial by jury in civil cases involving anything valued at more than $ 20. The eighth forbids excessive bail or fines, and cruel or unusual punishment.

Concerning the last two of these ten amendments contain very broad statements of constitutional authority: the ninth declares that the listing of individual rights is not meant to be comprehensive, that the people have other rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution. The tenth provides that powers are not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited by the constitution to the states, are reserved to the states or people.

The 13 Enduring Constitutional Issues

The thirteen enduring Constitutional issues are considered to be the core of what the Regent's examination in United States History and Government will test on the topic of government. It is recommended that you familiarize yourself with these 13 issues. As you progress through your government review be aware of how what you know about government relates to one or more of these enduring Constitutional issues.

1-National Power

The Constitution created a "limited government" with clearly delegated powers, however over time federal power has grown to include a greater amount of implied as well as "necessary and proper" powers .

2-Federalism

The Constitution attempts a balance of power between the federal government and those of the states. Over time the federal government has grown to meet the demands of a

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more complex society, how do we preserve the balance of federalism while meeting these demands ?

3-The Judiciary

As interpreter of the Constitution and its changing meaning over time, the Judicial Branch has a unique power to shape the Constitution and its protections in order to adapt to the changing needs and challenges of society .

4-Civil Liberties

An on-going discussion in American history has been the delicate balance between the civil rights of the individual with the security, welfare and needs of American society as a whole .

5-Crime and Rights of the Accused

The Constitution (in the Bill of Rights) very specifically details the rights of the accused and the limits on the government in prosecuting accusations. At the same time we have struggled to balance the rights of the accused with the general welfare of the nation and the rights of the victim .

6-Equality as a Constitutional Value

The Constitution does not outline the specific ways in which equality is to be defined, be it social, economic or political. As the nation has progressed, reinterpretations of the

Constitution have helped to better define the meanings of "equality ."

7-Rights of Women

The Constitution does not specifically address the rights and status of women, save for the 19th amendment, however in the recent past Constitutional protections assumed for men have been extended to fully include women as well .

8-Rights of Racial and Ethnic Minorities

The Constitution has in many ways failed to protect the rights of ethnic and racial minorities, however in recent history there has been a greater push to extend Constitutional protections to a greater number of groups .

9-Presidential Foreign and Wartime Powers

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Presidential power has increased as the nation as grown and expanded, reaching their peak during times of war and national emergency .

10-Separation of Powers

The Constitution set up three branches of government, each with specific and unique powers, as well as system of checks and balances designed to limit those power s .

11-Representation

The Constitution provides for voting rights, which have been expanded over time to include a greater amount of the population. The growth of political parties also has aided in the growth of representation in government .

12-Property and Economic Rights

The government provides for the general welfare and protects the rights of the people to own property and exercise economic freedom .

13-Constitutional Change and Flexibility

The Constitution as a "living document" with the ability to amend and be reinterpreted to meet changing times .

All I n all the American Constitution provides for the following:

The federal government of the United States:

It is the centralized United States government body established by the constitution. It has three major branches: The executive, the legislative and the judicial. Through the system of checks and balances, each of branches has some authority to act on its own, some authority to regulate the two other branches, and has some of its own authority, in turn, regulated by the other branches. Furthermore, we have to specify that the federal government power as a whole is limited by the constitution that vests most of its authority to the individual states. The seat of the federal government is in the federal district of Washington, D.C., the District of Columbia on the eastern seaboard. The White House, both residence and office of the president is located there.

The three branches of the U.S Government:

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1-The Executive Branch:

To better understand the executive branch and its main functions, we have to focus on its major components: the President, the Cabinet, the executive departments and agencies.

a-the President:

In the United States of America, it has been settled that all the power in the federal government is vested in the President of the nation, although, this same power is often delegated to his Cabinet members and other officials. Both of the presidents and vice-president of the United States of America are elected as “running mates” for four years terms by the Electoral College. It is also stated in the constitution that the Vice- President succeeds to the presidency in case of death, resignation or incapacitation of the president. Additionally, the Constitution spells out in some detail the duties and powers of the president .

Also we must mention that the U.S constitution put strict and clear conditions as to the choice of its president. It requires the president to be a natural born American citizen at least 35 years old. Candidates for the presidency are chosen by political parties several months before the presidential elections, which are held every four years on the first Tuesday After the firs Monday of November. The electors of all 50 states and the District of Columbia- a total of 538persons-comprise what is generally known as the Electoral College.

In the United States of America, the presidential term is four years. It begins on January 20 following the November election. Generally speaking, the U.S president starts his official duties with an inauguration ceremony, traditionally held on the steps of the U.S Capitol, where Congress meets. The president publicly takes an oath of office, which is administered by the Chief Justice of the United States. This presidential oath is well described in the second Article of the U.S Constitution:

“I Do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute The office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitutionof the United States”

After this first ceremonial oath, the U.S President always makes an inaugural address in which he explains and exposes his new policies and plans of his administration.

The presidential powers in the USA:

We have to bear in mind that the office of the President of the United States of America is the highest and most powerful in the world. To carry out his responsibility, he presides over the executive branch of the Federal Government. In addition to that, he has important powers in legislative and judicial powers. For example, concerning the legislative body, and in contrast of what is mentioned in the constitution that” all the legislative is vested in Congress”, the president of the United States, as a chief formulator of public policy, had

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the power to veto any bill passed by Congress. Hence, all the bills passed by the American Congress, and which are vetoed by the president can not become laws until two thirds in each house vote to override the veto. Furthermore, the president may call Congress into a special session if the members of this latter decide to adjourn a presidential proposal.

Concerning the president’s judicial powers, it has been settled that he is responsible for appointing the federal judges and members of the Supreme Court. Also the president has the power to grant a conditional pardon to any one accused of breaking the federal law except in case of impeachment. Coming to the executive powers, the president of the United States can issue rules, regulations and instructions commonly known as the executive orders. Besides, he is Commander –in-chief of the armed forces of the United States of America. The U.S president has also the broad power to choose the heads of all the executive departments and agencies, in addition to hundreds of high ranked federal officials.

All in all, we will summarize the functions, characteristics and powers of the president of the United States of America, as follows:

- Term of office: Elected by the people, through the Electoral College, to a four-year term;

limited to two elected terms

- Salary: $200 000 plus $50 000 allowance for expenses, and up to $100 000 tax-free for travel and official entertainment .

- Inauguration: January 20, following the November general election.

- Qualifications: Native born American citizen at least 35 years old and at least 14 years a resident of the United States.

- Chief power and duty: To protect the constitution and enforce the laws made by Congress.

- Other powers :-To recommend legislation to the Congress

-To call special sessions of the Congress-To deliver messages to the Congress

-To veto bills-To appoint federal judges

-To appoint heads of federal departments and agencies and other principal federal officials

-To appoint representatives to foreign countries-To carry on official business with foreign nations

-To exercise the function of Commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the United States of America

-To grant pardon for offences against the United States of America .

b-the Cabinet:

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The executive cabinet of the United States of America is created by Congress to deal with specific areas of national and international affairs. In the USA, there are thirteen executive departments, whose heads are chosen by the president and approved with “the advice and consent” of the U.S Senate. Altogether with the president, they for what is commonly called the Cabinet. The 13 executive departments of the USA are:

-The Department of State headed by the Secretary of state. It was created in 1789.-The Department of Treasury headed by the Secretary of the Treasury, created in 1789.

-The Department of Defence headed by the Secretary of Defence, created in 1949.-The Department of Justice headed by the attorney General, created in 1870.

-The Department of the Interior headed by the Secretary of the Interior, created in 1849 .-The Department of Agriculture headed by the Secretary of Agriculture, created in 1889.

-The Department of Commerce headed by the Secretary of Commerce, created in 1913.-The Department of Labour headed by the Secretary of labour, created in 1913.

-The department of Health and Human Services headed by the Secretary of Health and Human Services, created in 1979.

-The Department of Housing and Urban Development headed by the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, created in 1965.

-The Department of Transportation headed by the Secretary of Transportation, created in 1966.

-The Department of Energy headed by the secretary of Energy, created in 1977.-The Department of Education headed by the Secretary of Education, created in 1979.

In addition to the heads of the different existing departments, that constitute the executive cabinet, there are a number of stuff organizations grouped into the Executive Office of the president. These include each of the White House staff, The National Security Council, the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, The Office of the U.S Trade Representative, The Office of National Drug Control Policy and the Office of National Science and Technology Policy. However, all these are not the only units composing the American Executive Cabinet, because there are many other independent agencies, which have the responsibility for keeping the government and the economy working smoothly. The major function of these independent agencies is to provide an annual section 300 report to the President’s office of management and budget.

Among the most important agencies are the following:

-The Office of Personal Management -The General Accounting Office

-The Interstate Commerce Commission-The Federal Trade Commission

-The Veterans Administration-The Securities and Exchange Commission

-The General Services Administration-The National Relations Labor Board

-The Federal Reserve System-The Small Business Administration

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-The National aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) -The National Science Foundation

-The Arms Controls and Disarmament Agency-The Federal Communications Commission

-The Federal Power Commission-The United States Postal Service

-The National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities-The United States Information Agency-The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

2 -The Legislative Branch:

In the United States of America, the Legislative branch of the federal government means the Congress. This latter is bicameral i.e. it comprises two houses. An upper house, commonly known as the senate and in which the representation is equal for all sates. Hence, there 100 senators in the U.S Congress, who serve six years term, bearing in mind that one third of the senate stands for election every two years. For more than a century, after the adoption of the constitution, Senators were not elected by direct vote of the people, but were chosen by state legislatures. Senators are believed to be the representatives of their home states. Their duty was to assure that their states are treated equally in all legislation. The 17th amendment, however, adopted in 1913, provided for a direst election of the Senate. The lower house, however, is the House of representatives, which consists of 435members, each of whom represents a congregational district and serves for a two-year term. Unlike the Senate, the representation in the U.S Lower House is proportioned according to the state population.

Qualifications of members of Congress:

1-The Constitution provide that the U.S Senators must be at least 30 years old, citizens of the United States for at least nine years, and residents of the states from which they are elected. Members of the House of Representatives, however, must be at least 25 years old, citizens of the United States for at least seven years, and residents of the states which send them to Congress.

2-Each states is entitles to two Senators .

3-The total number of the members of the House of Representatives has been determined by Congress. Hence, that number is divided among the states according to their populations. Yet, regardless to its population, each state is constitutionally guaranteed at least one member of the House of Representatives.

4-State legislatures divide the 50 states into congregational districts, which must be equal in population. Each two years, the voters of every district choose their representative in the House of Representatives.

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5-Senators are chosen in state wide-elections. The senatorial term is six years, and each two years, one third of the senate stands for election. This means that one this of the senators are persons with some legislative experience at the national level.

Responsibilities of a Congressperson:

Each Congressman/women assumes three main roles: -legislator- committee member

- representative of his/her district

-Often he/she must joggle these responsibilities with party affiliation, usually with one of the two most powerful parties of the United States Of America: The Democratic Party and the Republican Party.

It is also very important to mention that there is what the American call the Congregational oversight, which is intended to prevent waste and fraud, protect civil liberties and individual rights; ensure executive compliance with the law, gather information for making laws and educating the public and evaluate executive performance. This Congress’s oversight function takes many forms like:

1-Committee inquires and hearings2-Formal consultation with and reports from the President

3-Senate advice and consent for presidential nominations and for treaties4-House impeachment proceeding sand subsequent senate trials

5-House and Senate proceedings under the 25th amendment in the event that the president becomes disables or the office of the Vice President falls vacant

6-Informal meetings between legislators and executive officials7-Congregational membership on governmental commissions

8-Studies by congregational committees and support agencies such as the Congregational Budget Office, which is considered to be an arm of Congress

Powers of the House and the Senate:

Each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation on any subject, except revenue bills, which must originate in the House of Representatives. Hence, it seems from the first glance that larger states may better benefice from the public purse rather than the smaller states. Nevertheless, in reality, each house can vote against the legislation passed by the opposite house. The Senate may disapprove a revenue bill, or add an amendment, which might change its nature. In this case, a committee, whose members belong to both houses, is called to reach a compromise and satisfy both sides before the revenue bill becomes an official law.The Senate also has specific powers including mainly the confirmation of presidential appointments of high officials of the federal government as well as ratifying the treaties by a two third vote.

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In case of impeachment, the House of Representatives has the right to bring charges of misconduct or wrong behaviour. This act may lead to an impeachment trial. The Senate, however, has the right to impeachment cases and prove that the federal officials are guilty or not guilty. In case it is proved so, this implies the removal the federal official from the public office.

All in all, the powers of the whole congress are well enumerated in the eighth section of the first article of the constitution. They include what follows:

1- To levy and collect taxes2- To borrow money from the public treasury;3- To make rules and regulations governing commerce among the states and with foreign

countries.4- To make uniform rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens.5- To coin money, state its value and provide for the punishment of counterfeiters.6- To set the standards for weights and measures.7- To establish bankruptcy laws for the country as a whole.8- To establish post offices and post roads,9- To issue patents and copyrights.10- To set up a system for federal courts.11- To punish piracy.12- To declare war.13- To raise and support armies.14- To provide for a navy.15- To call out the militia to enforce federal laws, suppress lawlessness or repel invasions by

foreign powers.16- To make all laws for the District of Columbia.17- To make all laws necessary to enforce the constitution.

It is true that the U.S Constitution gives all these prerogatives to Congress, but at the same time it forbids certain acts committed by the two houses like:

1-Suspend the writ of habeas corpus, unless necessary in time of rebellion or invasion. 2-Pass laws, which condemn persons for crimes or unlawful acts without a trial.

3-Pass any law which retroactively make a specific act a crime. 4-Levy direst taxes on citizens, except on the basis of a census already taken.

5-Tax exports from anyone state 6-Give specially favourable treatment in commerce or taxation to the seaports of any state

or to the vessels using them 7-Authorize any title of nobility.

Additionally, it is worth noting to mention that the Vice President is the president of the senate, and that he has no vote except in case of a tie. The House of Representatives, however, chooses its own presiding officer, the Speaker of the House. This latter is always member of the political party with the largest representation in both houses.

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To sum up all what has been said so far concerning the Senate and the House of Representatives, we propose the following table:

House of representativesSenate

1-Total membership:4351002-Number of members

For each state:According to population23-Elected byVoters of congregational Voters of the entire state

district 4-Term of Office2 years6 years5-VacancyFilled by special election

At next general electionSpecial election or Temporary appointmentBy state governor until

Special or regular election6-Salary$57 000 a year$57 000 a year7-Sesseion(regular)Meets Jan.3 of each yearMeets Jan.3 of each year8-Presiding officerSpeakerVice President 9-Exclusive powers of

Each house-originate revenue bills-Approves or rejects -Impeaches civil officerstreaties

Elects a president if no -tries impeached Candidate has a majority officers

In the electoral vote-Confirms or rejects Appointments made by

The president-Elects a vice president

If no candidate has a Majority in the electoral

Vote

3-The Judicial Branch:

The third branch of the U.S federal government is the judicial. The latter consists of courts headed by the Supreme Court and includes subordinate courts throughout the country. Historically speaking, the system of state court existed before the constitution was drafted. The major question that was raised among the delegation was about whether or not a federal court was needed, and whether it would supplant the state courts. The answer was provided in the third article of the constitution:

“The judicial branch of the United States shall be vested In the Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish”

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After a careful reading of that passage, we may easily notice that the delegation, as usual, had reached a compromise according to which the state courts were continued while a federal judiciary with limited power was created. Thus, the whole country was divided into districts, to each one they instituted a state court. The final result was the establishment of the following structure: the Supreme Court, 11 courts of appeal, 91district courts, and three courts of special jurisdiction. Nowadays, Congress retains the power to to create and abolish federal courts, as well as to determine the number of judges in the federal judiciary system. Nevertheless, it is unable to abolish the Supreme Court .

The Supreme Court:

The Supreme Court is believed to the highest court of the United States of America. It is also the only one created specifically by the Constitution. A decision made by the Supreme Court cannot be appealed to any other court. Congress has the power to fix the number of judges sitting on the court, and within limits, decide what kind of cases it may hear, however, it can never change the powers given to the Supreme Court by the Constitution itself. Concerning the qualifications of the judges of the Supreme Court, there exists no requirements in the constitution that describes them like within the legislative or the executive branches .

Since the creation of the Supreme Court, there have been only 100 justices. The original court consists mainly of a Chief Justice and five associate justices. Furthermore, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases: Those involving foreign dignitaries, and those in which a state is a party.

Concerning the decisions of the court, they must be unanimous, a simple majority prevails, provides at least six justices participate in the decision. In split decision, however, the court usually issues both a majority and a minority or _dissenting_ opinion, both of which may form the basis for future decisions by the court. Often, justices will write separate concurring opinions when they agree with a decision, but for reasons other than those listed by the majority.

State Government:

Before independence, each colony was governed separately by the British Crown. In the early years of the Republic, prior to the adoption of the constitution, each state was virtually an autonomous unit. The delegates of the constitutional convention sought a stronger , more viable federal union, but they were also intent in safeguarding the rights of the states.

In general, matter which lie entirely within state borders are the exclusive concern of state governments. These include internal communications, regulations relating to property, industry, business, and public utilities; the state criminal code; and working conditions within the state. Within this context, the federal government requires that state governments must be

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republican in form and that they adopt no laws which contradict or violate the federal constitution or the laws and treaties of the United States.

There are of course, many areas of overlap between state and federal jurisdictions. Particularly in the recent years, the federal government has assumed over broadening responsibility in such matters as health, education, welfare, transportation and housing and urban development. But where the federal government exercises such a responsibility in the states, programs are usually adopted on the basis of cooperation between the two levels of government, rather than an imposition from above.

The constitutions of various states differ in some details but generally follow a pattern similar to that of the federal constitution, including a statement of the rights of the people and a plan for organizing the government. On such matters as conditions governing the operation of businesses, banks, public utilities and charitable institutions, state constitutions are often more detailed and explicit than the federal . Each state constitution, however, provides that the final authority belongs to the people, and sets certain standards and principles as the foundation of government .

State government organization:

In the United States of America, no two states are exactly alike. Some are highly urbanized and industrialized. Others are essentially rural and agrarian. Some encompass relatively small areas while others sprawl over vast territories, larger than many nations in the world. Each state has social problems peculiar to the composition of its population. Hence, the forms of state governments vary in many significant details. There are features common to nearly all of them, however.

Like the national government, all state governments have three branches: executive, legislative and judicial. With the exception of Nebraska, which has a single legislative body, all states have a bicameral legislature, with the upper house usually known as the Senate, and the lower as the House of Representatives, House of Delegates or general assembly. The latter is almost always the larger. In most states, Senators serve four-year terms, and members of the lower house two-year terms.

1-The legislative branch:

Each state is divided into electoral districts, in which the voters choose their representatives for the legislature. In accordance with a Supreme Court decision in 1964, all districts are substantially equal in population, insuring parity in representation for densely populated urban areas and sparsely populated rural areas. A legislator generally must have resided in the district which elects him for at least a year before election.

The state legislative process is much like that of the national Congress. Bills are introduced by members in either house and are referred to committees for study, hearings and recommendations. A bill which successfully passes the committee stage is debated on the floor. If passed, it is sent to the other house for action. Differences between the versions of the

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two houses are dealt with by a conference committee. After passage by both houses, bills are sent to the governor for signature. In all states but north Carolina, the governor, like the president of the United States, has a veto power, which can be overridden by two thirds (in some cases a simple majority) of the legislature.

2 -The executive branch:

The chief executive of a state is the governor, elected by a popular vote, typically for four-years terms ( although in few states the term is two years).

The powers of the governor are outlined in the state constitution, and generally paralleled those of the president of the United States. The governor advices the legislature on laws which are needed and many call the legislature into special session when required. He appoints high ranking public officials and in some states his appointments are subject to legislative confirmation. The governor is the commander of the National Guard in his state, just as the president is commander-in-chief of the national armed forces. The governor has the power to pardon or reduce the sentences of persons convicted of state crimes.

The equivalent of Vice President at state level is usually a lieutenant governor, who is elected by state-wide popular vote. He presides over the Senate, and succeeds the governor if the latter dies, retires or removed from office.

The executive branch of the state government includes a number of officials who are elected by popular vote in many, but not all, the states. In some states, the governor exercises considerable control over their work; but in other states, since the officials are directly elected by the voters, they are in no sense subordinate to the chief executive. Among these official are:

1-The attorney general: He is the chief law officer. He and his deputies represent the state in the courts and in all legal matters involving the interests of the people as a whole. He also advices the governor and other officials on the meaning and application of state laws.

2-The auditor or comptroller: He approves payments of all functional obligations of the state. He is responsible for recording all money paid into and out of the state treasury, and for keeping track of all the money the legislature has voted to spend. He also supervises the work of county, city and municipal officials who collect money for the state.

3-The treasurer: He has physical control of the money received from taxes, licences and fees. With authorization from the comptroller, the treasurer pays the legal debts of the state government.

The many services of modern state governments are provided through numerous departments, commissions and bureaus, the officials of which are generally appointed by the governor. These enforce laws and conduct public business in such areas as labor relations and working conditions, banking, and road building and maintenance.

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Many states have instituted a civil service system, similar to that of the federal government, to eliminate political favouritism in public employment and to insure that officials of the state government are well qualified for their jobs.

The judicial branch:

Part of the government of every state is a court system which handles civil suits between private persons, and between private persons and state or local governments; hears cases relating to the violations of criminal laws; and keeps the other branches of the state government within the bounds fixed for them by the state constitution. In no way subordinate to the national judiciary, the state structure consists of a group of courts roughly paralleling the national pattern. It begins with purely local jurisdictions such as justices of the peace, is followed by a series of intermediate trial courts, then by appellate courts, and finally, at the top of the pyramid, by state’s Supreme Court.

In addition to courts of general jurisdiction, many states have courts of special jurisdiction. Nearly all states have probate courts to supervise the execution of wills. Many also have juvenile courts to deal with minors who have broken laws. Courts of domestic relations deal with family disagreements. Small claims courts process cases of minor debts with little expense to the litigants.

Trials are presided over by judges who are usually elected officials, although in some states judges are appointed by the governor or state legislature. In the higher courts, terms of officials range from six to fifteen years, and are shorter in the lower courts. Trial by jury is guaranteed to those accused of committing a crime, but appeals are heard by judges or judicial panels. An accused person, in accordance with federal constitution, cannot punished twice for the same offense .

As in the federal system, two types of juries are utilized. The grand jury indicts or refuses to indict accused persons. If a majority of the grand jury decides there is sufficient evidence for a trial, the case passes to a court where guilt or innocence is decided by a petit (or trial) jury, usually made up of 12 persons. In most states, the trial jury must reach a unanimous agreement on guilt, or the defendant is acquitted or a mistrial declared.

A prosecuting attorney, who is an official of the judicial branch, presents the case against the accused. If the defendant cannot afford legal counsel, the state must provide an attorney to defend him at public expense.

The U.S.A government finance:

In fact, it takes a great deal of money to supply the kind of services the American people have come to expect from their governments at all levels. The federal government employs three million full-time workers; state, city and local governments employs millions more. The provision of education, welfare, health programs, public works and reclamation projects, highways, national defence, veterans’ benefits and myriad other activities involve huge and continuing outlays of funds.

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Added to these expenditures are the cost of debt service- principal and interest on the money the government has borrowed in the past- and United States commitments of economic, military, and other forms of aid to governments abroad.

Most of the money to run the government comes from taxes of all sorts, on personal and corporate incomes, on sales of goods, on imports and on inherirances. The ultimate source of all tax money is the same: the American people. In fact, all the Americans look at the paying of taxes as a duty, not necessarily pleasant, but essential to the promotion of the welfare of the nation as a whole, and to the supporting assistance given to less fortunate nations around the world .

John Marshall, the famed chief justice of the United States of America in the early years of the republic, once remarked that “the power to tax involves the power to destroy”. Conversely, the power to tax involves also the power to create. One of the most delicate tasks facing policy makers is balancing the financing needs of government against the need to provide sufficient consumer purchasing power and business incentives to keep the economy functioning smoothly .

The governmental budget-making process is a team effort involving both the executive and the legislative branches. Budgets are drawn up in stages, beginning by estimates made by executive department heads of their fiscal needs for the year ahead. The executive ( president, governor or mayor) carefully examines the estimates, trimming unneeded items, and then, submits a combined budget request from all the executive departments to the legislative

branch.

In the national congress, the Appropriations Committee of the House of Representatives holds hearings on the presidential requests. It passes its recommendations to the whole House for floor debate and passage. From there, the proposed budgetary legislation goes to the Senate for the same kind of action. At other levels of government, budgetary matters are handled by the governor and state legislature, the mayor or city manager and a board of officials, and the county of town board.

Sources of federal funds:

In addition to the revenues from taxes, the federal government receives also incomes from the repayment of money loaned by the United States to foreign governments, sales of surplus property, and fines levied against lawbreakers in federal courts. All in all, the principal taxes are:

1-Income tax: levied against the incomes of individuals and corporations, according to the ability to pay. Certain deductions, such as the cost of supporting dependents, do- nations for charitable purposes, educational and other expenses, and business losses- reduce the amount of income that can be taxed.

2-Inheritance tax: levied on heirs and beneficiaries of estates. Large gifts of money or property made by one person to another are also taxed .

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3-Excise taxes: imposed on manufactured products, such as liquor, cigarettes, gasoline and automobile tires. Certain services, such as telephone calls, are also taxed.

4-Customs duties: charged on goods brought into the country from abroad. The government also has the power to place surcharges on goods shipped overseas.

5-Transfer taxes: on the sale or exchange of stocks and bonds.

6-Special purpose taxes: Revenues which are allocated to a specific purpose, such as the social security tax on an employee’s income. Revenues from this tax underwrite payments from the federal government to employed or retired persons.

State revenues :

Tax patterns vary from one state to another, and although efforts are made to avoid multiple taxing of the same source by federal, state and local governments, a certain amount of duplication is unavoidable. Most states, for example, levy a tax on income, as do a number of cities. State taxes are added to federal excise taxes on such items as gasoline and telephone calls.

The most common state taxes include:

1-Property taxes: Levied against land, building and equipment.

2-Inheritance taxes: Levied against the estates left by deceased persons .

3-Income taxes: Usually charged at considerably lower rates than the federal levy.

4-Business taxes: On the earning of companies and corporations operating in the state.

5-Franchise taxes: On private enterprises whose business requires extensive use of public property and facilities such as highways.

6-Gasoline tax: imposed at points of retail purchase, and frequently earmarked for highway construction and maintenance costs.

7-Sales tax: Levied on all retail purchases in some states, and on selected categories of purchases in others.

8-Fees, tools and fines: charges made for recording documents; fees for using canals, bridges, roads and ferries; and fines assessed against persons convicted of breaking the laws.

Another increasingly important source of state funds in such areas as transportation, education, welfare and housing are allocations from the federal government.

Revenues for local government :

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The real estate tax assessed annually according to the value of land and buildings is the most important revenue producer for local governments. This income is frequently shared with the state which, in turn, provides assistance to local communities for education, road construction and other activities. Other tax sources for local government include:

1- Earning tax: On local public service companies.2- Franchise taxes: Similar to those imposed by state governments.3- Sales taxes: On retail purchases.4- Gross transaction taxes: on businesses and financial institutions.5- Amusement taxes: On entrance fees to places of amusements.6- Licence and permit fees: On marriage licences, dog licences, and licences to sell

liquor, cigarettes, and other articles or to operate places of amusements. Hunting and fishing licences and auto permits may be collected by state or local governments, or both.

The more demands the American people make on government for services and administration, the higher the cost of government. Taxes act both as a check on the popular appetite for government services, and as a true expression of democracy; a government of, by and for the people.

General information about the U.S/A Government

A good portion of the United States History and Government curriculum is based on the ideas and principles of American government. These ideas and principles are best exemplified by the United States Constitution .

A Constitution is a country's plan of government. The discussion of the US Constitution focuses on the features that make our plan of government unique and enduring.

US Government review focuses on these eight main areas:

Foundation

Highlights the roots of the American system and the unique history of United States political though that gave rise to the Constitution .

Convention

Focuses on the dynamics of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia, the differing point of view and eventual compromises that gave birth to the document itself .

Three Branches

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Examines the three branches that compose the Federal Government, their unique powers and roles, as well as how power is separated in order to keep one branch of government from dominating the system .

Checks and Balances

Examples of the system of checks and balances in action. Examples of how each branch is endowed with the power to temper the power of the other two .

Federalism

Identifies the unique balance between federal and state power, as well as the types of powers identified in the Constitution .

Amendments

Discusses the process for amending the Constitution, as well as a discussion of the Bill of Rights, the other amendments and their historic roots .

Unwritten Constitution

Explains the features of the Constitution that are considered implied or "unwritten". Provides examples of these features in action, as well as a reasoning behind their implementation .

Laws

A selection of significant legislation from American history, focused on the provisions of the laws and their historic roots .

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Bibliography

Zinn, Howard, A People’s History of the United States. Bridgeman Art Library, 2003.

Schroeder, Richard. C, An Outline of the American Government. United States Information

Agency .

O. Morgen. Kenneth, The Oxford Illustrated History Of Britain. Oxford University press.1996

G.M. Trvelyann, A Shortened History of England. Penguin Books.1942

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PART TWO: LITERATURE

Introduction

Throughout history many ideas have presented themselves, especially during The latter half of the 19th century which was a time of enormous change in human thinking. Such changes includes emergence of new philosophies about religion, philosophy, and individuals, such as social Darwinism and Freudian theories of the human psyche. These changes also had a significant impact on the artists of the era, particularly those who wrote literature. thus with these ideas many literary movements were started .

While there are many similarities among these literary movements or styles, they are quite distinct in a number of ways. These distinctions most often include technique, character, setting, themes, and other characteristics. This course will discuss some of the major literary movements in order to demonstrate these distinctions in the works of authors. A conclusion will address why such literary movements are significant in terms of understanding history and human beings in general .

2. What are the Literary Movements?

Critics refer often to literary movements, citing different movements that have developed in literature and then been replaced by some other movement. Generally, the term is not defined, and instead it is simply assumed that everyone is talking about the same thing when the term is used. One definition could be that the literary movements is "A term commonly applied to

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a trend or development in literature" . although this definition is too simple to be more than a beginning, it contains the necessary elements, but they are not fully explained. The important word in his definition is "trend" rather than "development," for the latter is too unspecific and could refer to a literary device or idea used by one writer .

A literary movement must be a trend, meaning that it is subscribed to by a number of writers who make use of the ideas and techniques that define a given movement. To be a movement, it must also be differentiated from other movements and not be merely a variation on an existing theme or a core group following an old trend. A literary movement has to be identified, meaning someone has to notice that there is a trend and that there is a group of writers who are making use of it in their work .

A movement may declare itself--some movements have been created and expressed through manifestoes and overt statements of principle. Other movements may come about because there is something "in the air," as it were, so that a number of writers begin making use of a given technique.Since the literary movements are as numerous as the steps of human thinking development, the present course cannot enumerate all of them, so , we’ll be confined to the major literary movements.

3. Some Major Literary Movements

1 .The Romantic Movement Romanticism marked a profound shift in sensibilities away from the Enlightenment. It was

inspired by reaction to that period's concepts of clarity, order, and balance, and by the revolutions in America, France, Poland, and Greece. It expressed the assertion of the self, the power of the individual, a sense of the infinite, and transcendental nature of the universe. Major themes included the sublime, terror, and passion. The writing extolled the primal power of nature and the spiritual link between nature and man, and was often emotional, marked by a sense of liberty, filled with dreamy inner contemplations, exotic settings, memories of childhood, scenes of unrequited love, and exiled heroes .

In America, Romanticism coalesced into a distinctly "American" ideal: making success from failure, the immensity of the American landscape, the power of man to conquer the land, and "Yankee" individualism. The writing was also marked by a type of xenophobia. Protestant America was faced with an influx of Catholic refugees from the Napoleonic Wars, of Asian workers who constructed the railroads, and the lingering issue of Native Americans. An insular attitude developed, the "us and them" in Whitman. The major writers of the period were Irving, Cooper, Emerson, Poe, Thoreau, Hawthorne, Whitman, Dickinson, and Melville.

2. Realism

Realism developed as a reaction against Romanticism and stressed the real over the fantastic. The movement sought to treat the commonplace truthfully and used characters from everyday life.

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Writers probed the recesses of the human mind via an exploration of the emotional landscape of characters. This emphasis was brought on by societal changes sparked by The Origin of Species by Darwin, the Higher Criticism of the Bible, and the aftermath of the Civil War. A deeper, more pessimistic, literary movement called Naturalism grew out of Realism and stressed the uncaring aspect of nature and the genetic, biological destiny of man. Naturalists believed that man's instinctual, basic drives dominated their actions and could not be evaded. Life was viewed as relentless, without a caring presence to intervene. Twain, Crane, London, Norris, Howells, James, and Dreiser were the major writers of this movement.

2.1. Definition

Broadly defined as "the faithful representation of reality" or "verisimilitude," realism is a literary technique practiced by many schools of writing. Although strictly speaking, realism is a technique, it also denotes a particular kind of subject matter, especially the representation of middle-class life. A reaction against romanticism, an interest in scientific method, the systematizing of the study of documentary history, and the influence of rational philosophy all affected the rise of realism. According to William Harmon and Hugh Holman, "Where romanticists transcend the immediate to find the ideal, and naturalists plumb the actual or superficial to find the scientific laws that control its actions, realists center their attention to a remarkable degree on the immediate, the here and now, the specific action, and the verifiable consequence" (A Handbook to Literature 428).

2.2. Other Views of Realism

"The basic axiom of the realistic view of morality was that there could be no moralizing in the novel [ . . . ] The morality of the realists, then, was built upon what appears a paradox--morality with an abhorrence of moralizing. Their ethical beliefs called, first of all, for a rejection of scheme of moral behavior imposed, from without, upon the characters of fiction and their actions. Yet Howells always claimed for his works a deep moral purpose. What was it? It was based upon three propositions: that life, social life as lived in the world Howells knew, was valuable, and was permeated with morality; that its continued health depended upon the use of human reason to overcome the anarchic selfishness of human passions; that an objective portrayal of human life, by art, will illustrate the superior value of social, civilized man, of human reason over animal passion and primitive ignorance" (157). Everett Carter, Howells and the Age of Realism (Philadelphia and New York: Lippincott, 1954).

"Realism sets itself at work to consider characters and events which are apparently the most ordinary and uninteresting, in order to extract from these their full value and true meaning. It would apprehend in all particulars the connection between the familiar and the extraordinary, and the seen and unseen of human nature. Beneath the deceptive cloak of outwardly uneventful days, it detects and endeavors to trace the outlines of the spirits that are hidden there; tho measure the changes in their growth, to watch the symptoms of moral decay or regeneration, to fathom their histories of passionate or intellectual problems. In short, realism reveals. Where we thought nothing worth of notice, it shows everything to be rife with significance."

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-- George Parsons Lathrop, 'The Novel and its Future," Atlantic Monthly 34 (September 1874):313 24.

“Realism is nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material.” --William Dean Howells, “Editor’s Study,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine (November 1889) , p. 966

"Realism, n. The art of depicting nature as it is seen by toads. The charm suffusing a landscape painted by a mole, or a story written by a measuring-worm." --Ambrose Bierce The Devil's Dictionary (1911)

2.3. Characteristics

Renders reality closely and in comprehensive detail. Selective presentation of reality with an emphasis on verisimilitude, even at the expense of a well-made plot

Character is more important than action and plot; complex ethical choices are often the subject.

Characters appear in their real complexity of temperament and motive; they are in explicable relation to nature, to each other, to their social class, to their own past.

Class is important; the novel has traditionally served the interests and aspirations of an insurgent middle class.

Events will usually be plausible. Realistic novels avoid the sensational, dramatic elements of naturalistic novels and romances.

Diction is natural vernacular, not heightened or poetic; tone may be comic, satiric, or matter-of-fact.

Objectivity in presentation becomes increasingly important: overt authorial comments or intrusions diminish as the century progresses.

Interior or psychological realism a variant form.

In Black and White Strangers, Kenneth Warren suggests that a basic difference between realism and sentimentalism is that in realism, "the redemption of the individual lay within the social world," but in sentimental fiction, "the redemption of the social world lay with the individual" (75-76). The realism of James and Twain was critically acclaimed in twentieth century; Howellsian realism fell into disfavor as part of early twentieth century rebellion against the "genteel tradition."

2.4 .Realism in American Literature, 1860-1890

In American literature, the term "realism" encompasses the period of time from the Civil War to the turn of the century during which William Dean Howells, Rebecca Harding Davis, Henry James, Mark Twain, and others wrote fiction devoted to accurate representation and an

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exploration of American lives in various contexts. As the United States grew rapidly after the Civil War, the increasing rates of democracy and literacy, the rapid growth in industrialism and urbanization, an expanding population base due to immigration, and a relative rise in middle-class affluence provided a fertile literary environment for readers interested in understanding these rapid shifts in culture. In drawing attention to this connection, Amy Kaplan has called realism a "strategy for imagining and managing the threats of social change"

Realism was a movement that encompassed the entire country, or at least the Midwest and South, although many of the writers and critics associated with realism (notably W. D. Howells) were based in New England. Among the Midwestern writers considered realists would be Joseph Kirkland, E. W. Howe, and Hamlin Garland; the Southern writer John W. DeForest's Miss Ravenal's Conversion from Secession to Loyalty is often considered a realist novel, too.

2.5.Context and Controversy

In its own time, realism was the subject of controversy; debates over the suitability of realism as a mode of representation led to a critical exchange known as the realism war.

The realism of James and Twain was critically acclaimed in the twentieth century. Howellsian realism fell into disfavor, however, as part of early twentieth century rebellion against the "genteel tradition." For an account of these and other issues, see the realism bibliography and essays by Pizer, Michael Anesko, Richard Lehan, and Louis J. Budd, among others, in the Cambridge Guide to Realism and Naturalism.

2.6. Some Major Realist Writers

Mark Twain William Dean Howells Rebecca Harding Davis John W. DeForest Joseph Kirkland E. W. Howe Hamlin Garland Henry James

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3 .Naturalism

Usually in the realms of literature and the arts each major movement can be seen as a rebellion against whatever came before it, so Romanticism upstages Classicism, only to be done in in turn by Realism as people weary of the excesses of one style only to rush headlong into the excesses of its opposite .

But sometimes it happens that one style is replaced by an even more extreme version of itself, as was the case when Realism in literature and the visual arts was replaced in the late 19th- and early 20th-centuries by Naturalism, a movement that was inspired by adaptation of the principles and methods of natural science, especially the Darwinian view of nature. One of the most perfect examples of this movement is Jack London's short story "To Build A Fire", published in The Century Magazine in 1908 with its themes of the fragility of human survival and the ways in which we as humans are defined by the ways in which we are at odds with the rest of nature. (A more "juvenalized" version had been published previously, but it is the 1908 version that is now considered to be the definitive one.)

In literature, Naturalism extended the tradition of realism, aiming at an even more faithful, unselective representation of reality. It is not coincidental that the rise of Naturalism should follow the rise of photography as an artform (and as a technological possibility), for both photography and naturalism (whether in literature or in the visual arts) attempt mortality and

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man's place in the universe. Fifty degrees below zero stood for a bite of frost that hurt and that must be guarded against by the use of mittens, ear-flaps, warm moccasins, and thick socks. Fifty degrees below zero was to him just precisely fifty degrees below zero. That there should be anything more to it than that was a thought that never entered his head.

Although many of the greatest Naturalist artists were Americans, the school actually originated in France, with Emile Zola championing and perfecting the style and the associated literary philosophy . Like Zola, London would become not simply an observer, content to record phenomena, but rather an intentionally detached experimenter who subjects his (or her - although Naturalism was a field dominated by men) characters and their passions to a series of tests, working with emotional and social facts as a chemist works with matter. We see this again and again throughout "To Build a Fire" - the moment things seems to be going just the smallest degree better for our protagonist, London throws something else awful at him .

3.1. Definition

The term naturalism describes a type of literature that attempts to apply scientific principles of objectivity and detachment to its study of human beings. Unlike realism, which focuses on literary technique, naturalism implies a philosophical position: for naturalistic writers, since human beings are, in Emile Zola's phrase, "human beasts," characters can be studied through their relationships to their surroundings. Zola's 1880 description of this method in Le roman experimental (The Experimental Novel, 1880) follows Claude Bernard's medical model and the historian Hippolyte Taine's observation that "virtue and vice are products like vitriol and sugar"--that is, that human beings as "products" should be studied impartially, without moralizing about their natures. Other influences on American naturalists include Herbert Spencer and Joseph LeConte.

3.2. Characteristics

Through this objective study of human beings, naturalistic writers believed that the laws behind the forces that govern human lives might be studied and understood. Naturalistic writers thus used a version of the scientific method to write their novels; they studied human beings governed by their instincts and passions as well as the ways in which the characters' lives were governed by forces of heredity and environment. Although they used the techniques of accumulating detail pioneered by the realists, the naturalists thus had a specific object in mind when they chose the segment of reality that they wished to convey. In George Becker's famous and much-annotated and contested phrase, naturalism's philosophical framework can be simply described as "pessimistic materialistic determinism." Another such concise definition appears in the introduction to American Realism: New Essays. In that piece," The Country of the Blue," Eric Sundquist comments, "Revelling in the

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extraordinary, the excessive, and the grotesque in order to reveal the immutable bestiality of Man in Nature, naturalism dramatizes the loss of individuality at a physiological level by making a Calvinism without God its determining order and violent death its utopia" (13). A modified definition appears in Donald Pizer's Realism and Naturalism in Nineteenth-Century American Fiction, Revised Edition (1984):

]T[he naturalistic novel usually contains two tensions or contradictions, and . . . the two in conjunction comprise both an interpretation of experience and a particular aesthetic recreation of experience. In other words, the two constitute the theme and form of the naturalistic novel. The first tension is that between the subject matter of the naturalistic novel and the concept of man which emerges from this subject matter. The naturalist populates his novel primarily from the lower middle class or the lower class. . . . His fictional world is that of the commonplace and unheroic in which life would seem to be chiefly the dull round of daily existence, as we ourselves usually conceive of our lives. But the naturalist discovers in this world those qualities of man usually associated with the heroic or adventurous, such as acts of violence and passion which involve sexual adventure or bodily strength and which culminate in desperate moments and violent death. A naturalistic novel is thus an extension of realism only in the sense that both modes often deal with the local and contemporary. The naturalist, however, discovers in this material the extraordinary and excessive in human nature .

The second tension involves the theme of the naturalistic novel. The naturalist often describes his characters as though they are conditioned and controlled by environment, heredity, instinct, or chance. But he also suggests a compensating humanistic value in his characters or their fates which affirms the significance of the individual and of his life. The tension here is that between the naturalist's desire to represent in fiction the new, discomfiting truths which he has found in the ideas and life of his late nineteenth-century world, and also his desire to find some meaning in experience which reasserts the validity of the human enterprise. (10-11) For further definitions, see also The Cambridge Guide to American Realism and Naturalism, Charles Child Walcutt's American Literary Naturalism: A Divided Stream, June Howard's Form and History in American Literary Naturalism, Walter Benn Michaels's The Gold Standard and the Logic of Naturalism, Lee Clark Mitchell's Determined Fictions, Mark Selzer's Bodies and Machines, and other works from the naturalism bibliography.

3.2.1. Characters. Frequently but not invariably ill-educated or lower-class characters whose lives are governed by the forces of heredity, instinct, and passion. Their attempts at exercising free will or choice are hamstrung by forces beyond their control; social Darwinism and other theories help to explain their fates to the reader.

3.2.2. Setting. Frequently an urban setting, as in Norris's McTeague.

3.2.3. Techniques and plots. Walcutt says that the naturalistic novel offers "clinical, panoramic, slice-of-life" drama that is often a "chronicle of despair" (21). The novel of

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degeneration--Zola's L'Assommoir and Norris's Vandover and the Brute, for example--is also a common type.

3.2.4 .Themes : 1 .survival, determinism, violence, and taboo are key themes .

2. The "brute within" each individual, composed of strong and often warring emotions: passions, such as lust, greed, or the desire for dominance or pleasure; and the fight for survival in an amoral, indifferent universe. The conflict in naturalistic novels is often "man against nature" or "man against himself" as characters struggle to retain a "veneer of civilization" despite external pressures that threaten to release the "brute within."

3. Nature as an indifferent force acting on the lives of human beings. The romantic vision of Wordsworth--that "nature never did betray the heart that loved her"--here becomes Stephen Crane's view in "The Open Boat": "This tower was a giant, standing with its back to the plight of the ants. It represented in a degree, to the correspondent, the serenity of nature amid the struggles of the individual--nature in the wind, and nature in the vision of men. She did not seem cruel to him then, nor beneficent, nor treacherous, nor wise. But she was indifferent, flatly indifferent."

4. The forces of heredity and environment as they affect--and afflict--individual lives.

5. An indifferent, deterministic universe. Naturalistic texts often describe the futile attempts of human beings to exercise free will, often ironically presented, in this universe that reveals free will as an illusion

3.3. Naturalism in American Literature Once again the rapid shifts in culture pervading the U.S. during this era provided such authors with their interest in the middle-class. In a sense, realism that embodies determinism and focuses on the lower-classes is naturalism. According to Richard Chase, the following characteristics are most common to the movement known as realism: Renders reality closely and in comprehensive detail. Character is more important than action and plot. Ethical choices are often the subject. Class is important, especially the middle-class. Diction is natural vernacular, not heightened or poetic. Objectivity in presentation. The works of writers like Mark Twain and Henry James demonstrate the above characteristics, though TwainƳ classification as a writer of realism is tenuous at best. However, the works of Henry James clearly demonstrate the focus on character, middle-class, and objectivity that are the primary characteristics of realism. For example, in JamesƠDaisy Miller, we see a young, innocent, enthusiastic American girl traveling abroad with her mother .

3.4 .Some Major Naturalistic Writers

Frank Norris

Theodore Dreiser

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Jack London

Stephen Crane

Edith Wharton, The House of Mirth (1905)

Ellen Glasgow, Barren Ground (1925)

John Dos Passos (1896-1970), U.S.A. trilogy(1938): The 42nd Parallel (1930),1919 (1932), and The Big Money (1936)

James T. Farrell (1904-1979), Studs Lonigan (1934)

John Steinbeck (1902-1968), The Grapes of Wrath (1939)

Richard Wright , Native Son (1940), Black Boy (1945)

Norman Mailer (1923- ), The Naked and the Dead (1948)

William Styron, Lie Down in Darkness (1951)

Saul Bellow, The Adventures of Augie March (1953)

4.Surrealism

Surrealism was a revolution against all kinds of formal literary expression, an attempt to turn away from all previous literary movements and to achieve a new freedom without formal rules .

This is what the writers of the time believed artists were achieving, and they applied this idea consciously to their work in order to produce a surrealist literature. They were only partially successful, and many of those who were most dedicated to this movement were not the most gifted writers of the time: One cannot take Andr頂 reton, the chief surrealist, at times a veritable Stalin with his purges, wholly seriously as a creative writer; his confusions require to be studied; he is a symptom of twentieth-century unease. . . For the truly gifted writers, on the other hand, surrealism provided a new beginning, a break with conventions; they went on to new pastures (Seymour-Smith 467). A movement does not have to produce great literature to be a movement. A movement is defined by its underlying concepts and its adherents, not by its success or failure. Some movements concentrate primarily on one form of expression, such as the Imagists in poetry .

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5. Absurdism 5. Absurdism

Absurdism, and its more specific companion term Theatre of the Absurd, refers to the works of a group of Western European and American dramatists writing and producing plays in the 1950s and early 1960s. The term “Theatre of the Absurd” was coined by critic Martin Esslin, who identified common features of a new style of drama that seemed to ignore theatrical conventions and thwart audience expectations. Characterized by a departure from realistic characters and situations, the plays offer no clear notion of the time or place in which the action occurs. Characters are often nameless and seem interchangeable. Events are completely outside the realm of rational motivation and may have a nightmarish quality commonly associated with Surrealism (a post-World War I movement that features dream sequences and images from the unconscious, often sexual in nature). At other times, both dialogue and incidents may appear to the audience as completely nonsensical, even farcical. However, beneath the surface the works explore themes of loneliness and isolation, of the failure of individuals to connect with others in any meaningful way, and of the senselessness and absurdity of life and death .

The writers most commonly associated with Absurdism are Samuel Beckett, Eugène Ionesco, Jean Genet, Arthur Adamov, Harold Pinter, and Edward Albee, as well as a number of lesser-known dramatists. The avant-garde nature of absurdist writing contributed in part to its short life as a literary movement. Features of the plays that seemed completely new and mystifying to audiences in the 1950s when absurdist works first appeared, soon became not only understandable, but even commonplace and predictable. With the exception of Ionesco, most

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playwrights abandoned the absurdist style after the 1960s; however, many of the individual plays are now considered classics of European and American drama.

6. Beat Movement6. Beat Movement

The roots of the Beat literary movement go back to 1944 when Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William Burroughs met at Columbia University in New York. It was not until the 1950s that these writers and other “Beats” would be recognized as a movement and as a generation of post-World War II youths whose attitudes and lifestyles were far removed from typical Americana. Kerouac used the term “beat” to describe both the negatives of his world and the positives of his responses to it. On one hand, “beat” implied weariness and disinterest in social or political activity, and on the other it was reminiscent of the Beatitudes of Jesus—declarations of blessedness and happiness uttered during the Sermon on the Mount. While certain measures of blissfulness—often drug-induced—may have applied to followers of the Beat Movement, so would feelings of disillusionment, bitterness, and an overwhelming desire to be free of social constraints .

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The work of Beat writers is characterized by experimental styles and subjects, including spontaneous writing without regard for grammar, sexually explicit language, uninhibited discussion of personal experiences, and themes ranging from a rejection of American values and fear of nuclear war to sexual escapades and road trips. Representative works of the movement are Kerouac’s novel On the Road, Burroughs’s novel Naked Lunch, and poems such as Ginsberg’s “Howl” and Gregory Corso’s “BOMB.” None of these works appeared on American bookshelves until nearly a decade after Kerouac first used the word “beat” to signify an outlook on writing and an outlook on life. What had begun as a small cluster of rebellious outcasts in New York City soon grew into a larger group based in San Francisco and eventually spread its influences across the country. Beats appeared everywhere in the 1950s, paving the way for the hippies of the following decade .

7 .American Transcendentalism American transcendentalism was an important movement in philosophy and literature that

flourished during the early to middle years of the nineteenth century (about 1836-1860).  It began as a reform movement in the Unitarian church, extending the views of William Ellery Channing on an indwelling God and the significance of intuitive thought. It was based on "a monism holding to the unity of the world and God, and the immanence of God in the world" (Oxford Companion to American Literature 770). For the transcendentalists, the soul of each individual is identical with the soul of the world and contains what the world contains .

Transcendentalists rejected Lockean empiricism, unlike the Unitarians: they wanted to rejuvenate the mystical aspects of New England Calvinism (although none of its dogma) and to go back to Jonathan Edwards' "divine and supernatural light," imparted immediately to the soul by the spirit of God.

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7.1 .Definition "Transcendentalism, in fact, really began as a religious movement, an attempt to

substitute a Romanticized version of the mystical ideal that humankind is capable of direct experience of the holy for the Unitarian rationalist view that the truths of religion are arrived at by a process of empirical study and by rational inference from historical and natural evidence" Lawrence Buell, New England Literary Culture (1986)

"Transcendentalism, as viewed by its disciples, was a pilgrimage from the idolatrous world of creeds and rituals to the temple of the Living God in the soul. It was a putting to silence of tradition and formulas, that the Sacred Oracle might be heard through intuitions of the single-eyed and pure-hearted. Amidst materialists, zealots, and skeptics, the Transcendentalist believed in perpetual inspiration, the miraculous power of will, and a birthright to universal good. He sought to hold communion face to face with the unnameable Spirit of his spirit, and gave himself up to the embrace of nature's perfect joy, as a babe seeks the breast of a mother." William Henry Channing (1810-1844)

"That belief we term Transcendentalism which maintains that man has ideas, that come not through the five senses or the powers of reasoning; but are either the result of direct revelation from God, his immediate inspiration, or his immanent presence in the spiritual world. . . ." Charles Mayo Ellis, An Essay on Transcendentalism (1842)

"Standing on the bare ground,--my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space,--all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eye-ball. I am nothing. I see all. The currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or parcel of God" (996). See also Emerson's essay "The Transcendentalist."(1842) Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nature (1836)

7.2 .Basis of Transcendentalism Reaction against New England Calvinism

Reaction against eighteenth-century rationalism

God as Deistic "divine watchmaker"

skepticism

Reaction against Lockean empiricism

Emerging ideal of American democracy

German philosophy

idealism (principle of organicism--Leibniz)

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Kant and Neoplatonists (mind imposes form). Transcendentalism affirmed Kant's principle of intuitive knowledge not derived from the senses. According to M. H. Abrams in A Glossary of Literary Terms,

"Kant had confined the expression 'transcendental knowledge' to the cognizance of those forms and categories--such as space, time,

quantity, causality-which, in his view, are imposed on perception by the constitution of all human minds; he regarded these aspects as the universal conditions of sense-experience. Emerson and others, however, extended the concept of transcendental knowledge, in a way whose validity Kant had specifically denied, to include an intuitive cognizance of moral and other truths that transcend the limits of human sense-experience" (216).

Schelling (emphasis on feeling; divinity and creative impulse in nature) The Romantic movement, especially Coleridge, Wordsworth, and the English

romantics (Emerson) Unitarianism Eastern philosophy

7.3. Ideas from Emerson

Transcendentalism posits a distinction between "Understanding," or the normal means of apprehending truth through the senses, and "Reason," a higher, more intuitive form of perception. In Biographia Literaria, Coleridge cites Milton's Paradise Lost on the difference between reason and understanding (Book V, ll. 479-490). In this passage from Paradise Lost, Raphael instructs Adam and Eve on the distinction between heavenly and earthly perception:

So from the root Springs lighter the green stalk, from thence the leaves More aery, last the bright consummate flow'r Spirits odorous breathes: flowr's and thir fruit Man's nourishment, by gradual scale sublim'd To vital spirits aspire, to animal ,To intellectual, give both life and sense Fancy and understanding, whence the Soul Reason receives, and reason is her being ,Discursive, or intuitive; discourse Is oftest yours, the latter most is ours Differing but in degree, of kind the same.

According to Emerson, reason is "the highest faculty of the soul--what we mean by the soul itself; it never reasons, never proves, it simply perceives; it is vision." By contrast, "The Understanding toils all the time, compares, contrives, adds, argues, near sighed but strong-sighted, dwelling in the present the expedient the customary" (L1:412-413) .

Microcosm and macrocosm: each part of nature contains all within it. "Nature is a sea of forms radically alike. . . ." ; "Every particular in nature, a leaf, a drop, a crystal, a

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moment of time is related to the whole, and partakes of the perfection of the whole. Each particle is a microcosm, and faithfully renders the likeness of the world."

Principle of analogy, of perceiving correspondences: "[M]an is an analogist, and studies relations in all objects."

Emblematic Nature: "Every natural fact is a symbol of some spiritual fact."

Universal soul ("Oversoul"): "Meantime within man is the soul of the whole; the wise silence; the universal beauty, to which every part and particle is equally related."

The principle of organicism; the concept of the circle.

Transcendentalism, like other romantic movements, proposes that the essential nature of human beings is good and that, left in a state of nature, human beings would seek the good. Society is to blame for the corruption that mankind endures. Hawthorne's juxtaposition of the red rose, the flower of nature, and the rusty, blackened prison, the "black flower" of society, exemplifies this perspective. This view opposes the neoclassical vision that society alone is responsible for keeping human beings from giving in to their own brutish natures. Transcendentalism also takes the Romantic view of man's steady degeneration from

childhood to adulthood as he is corrupted by culture: "A man is a god in ruins".

7.4. Context and  Controversy

Orestes Brownson, a philosopher and contemporary of Emerson's, raised objections to Emerson's thought that are remarkable because he neither defends Lockean epistemology nor seems worried (as were conservative thinkers) about the "murderous instincts" of the lower classes. Although he retracted much of this later because he felt sympathy for Emerson (who

was under attack for these ideas), here are some of his initial impressions :"But we give it up. We cannot analyze one of Mr. Emerson's discourses. He hardly ever has a

leading thought, to which all the parts of his discourse are subordinate, which is clearly stated, systematically drawn out, and logically enforced. He is a poet rather than a philosopher--and

not always true even to the laws of poetry ".

Reviewing the "Divinity School Address," Brownson said that we are told "to obey our instincts" and to scorn to imitate even Jesus. But "How shall we determine which are our higher instincts and which our lower instincts? We do not perceive that he gives us any instructions on this point. . . . We are to act out ourselves. Now, why is not the sensualist as

moral as the spiritualist, providing he acts out himself "?

Brownson accuses Emerson of "transcendental selfishness": "Are all things in the universe to be held subordinate to the individual soul? Shall a man take himself as the center of the universe, and say all things are for his use, and count them of value only as they contribute something to his growth or well-being?" According to this system, "I am everything; all else

is nothing, at least nothing except what it derives from the fact that it is something to me".

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8 .Brief Overview of Some Other Literary movements

Literature constantly evolves as new movements emerge to speak to the concerns of different groups of people and historical periods .

Aestheticism (c. 1835–1910): A late-19th-century movement that believed in art as an end in itself. Aesthetes such as Oscar Wilde and Walter Pater rejected the view that art had to

posses a higher moral or political value and believed instead in “art for art’s sake”.

Angry Young Men (1950s–1980s): A group of male British writers who created visceral plays and fiction at odds with the political establishment and a self-satisfied middle class. John Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger (1957) is one of the seminal works of this movement.

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Bloomsbury Group (c. 1906–1930s): An informal group of friends and lovers, including Clive Bell, E. M. Forster, Roger Fry, Lytton Strachey, Virginia Woolf, and John Maynard Keynes, who lived in the Bloomsbury section of London in the early 20th century and who had a considerable liberalizing influence on British culture.

Commedia dell’arte (1500s–1700s): Improvisational comedy first developed in Renaissance Italy that involved stock characters and centered around a set scenario. The elements of farce and buffoonery in commedia dell’arte, as well as its standard characters and plot intrigues, have had a tremendous influence on Western comedy, and can still be seen in contemporary drama and television sitcoms.

Dadaism (1916–1922): An avant-garde movement that began in response to the devastation of World War I. Based in Paris and led by the poet Tristan Tzara, the Dadaists produced nihilistic and antilogical prose, poetry, and art, and rejected the traditions, rules, and

ideals of prewar Europe.

Enlightenment (c. 1660–1790): An intellectual movement in France and other parts of Europe that emphasized the importance of reason, progress, and liberty. The Enlightenment, sometimes called the Age of Reason, is primarily associated with nonfiction writing, such as essays and philosophical treatises. Major Enlightenment writers include Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, René Descartes.

Elizabethan era (c. 1558–1603): A flourishing period in English literature, particularly drama, that coincided with the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and included writers such as Francis Bacon, Ben Jonson, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, Sir Philip Sidney, and Edmund Spenser.

Gothic fiction (c. 1764–1820): A genre of late-18th-century literature that featured brooding, mysterious settings and plots and set the stage for what we now call “horror stories.” Horace Walpole’s Castle of Otranto, set inside a medieval castle, was the first major Gothic novel. Later, the term “Gothic” grew to include any work that attempted to create an atmosphere of terror or the unknown, such as Edgar Allan Poe’s short stories.

Harlem Renaissance (c. 1918–1930): A flowering of African-American literature, art, and music during the 1920s in New York City. W. E. B. DuBois’s The Souls of Black Folk anticipated the movement, which included Alain Locke’s anthology The New Negro, Zora Neale Hurston’s novel Their Eyes Were Watching God, and the poetry of Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen.

Lost Generation (c. 1918–1930s): A term used to describe the generation of writers, many of them soldiers that came to maturity during World War I. Notable members of this group include F. Scott Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos, and Ernest Hemingway, whose novel The Sun Also Rises embodies the Lost Generation’s sense of disillusionment.

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Magic realism (c. 1935–present): A style of writing, popularized by Jorge Luis Borges, Gabriel García Márquez, Günter Grass, and others, that combines realism with moments of dream-like fantasy within a single prose narrative.

Metaphysical poets (c. 1633–1680): A group of 17th-century poets who combined direct language with ingenious images, paradoxes, and conceits. John Donne and Andrew Marvell are the best known poets of this school.

Middle English (c. 1066–1500): The transitional period between Anglo-Saxon and modern English. The cultural upheaval that followed the Norman Conquest of England, in 1066, saw a flowering of secular literature, including ballads, chivalric romances, allegorical poems, and a variety of religious plays. Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales is the most celebrated work of this period.

Modernism (1890s–1940s): A literary and artistic movement that provided a radical breaks with traditional modes of Western art, thought, religion, social conventions, and morality. Major themes of this period include the attack on notions of hierarchy; experimentation in new forms of narrative, such as stream of consciousness; doubt about the existence of knowable, objective reality; attention to alternative viewpoints and modes of thinking; and self-referentiality as a means of drawing attention to the relationships between artist and audience, and form and content .

High modernism (1920s): Generally considered the golden age of modernist literature, this period saw the publication of James Joyce’s Ulysses, T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land, Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway, and Marcel Proust’s In Search of Lost Time.

Neoclassicism (c. 1660–1798): A literary movement, inspired by the rediscovery of classical works of ancient Greece and Rome that emphasized balance, restraint, and order. Neoclassicism roughly coincided with the Enlightenment, which espoused reason over passion. Notable neoclassical writers include Edmund Burke, John Dryden, Samuel Johnson, Alexander Pope, and Jonathan Swift.

Nouveau Roman (“New Novel”) (c. 1955–1970): A French movement, led by Alain Robbe-Grillet, that dispensed with traditional elements of the novel, such as plot and character, in favor of neutrally recording the experience of sensations and things.

Postcolonial literature (c. 1950s–present): Literature by and about people from former European colonies, primarily in Africa, Asia, South America, and the Caribbean. This literature aims both to expand the traditional canon of Western literature and to challenge Eurocentric assumptions about literature, especially through examination of questions of otherness, identity, and race. Prominent postcolonial works include Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, V. S. Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas, and Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children. Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978) provided an important theoretical basis for understanding postcolonial literature.

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Postmodernism (c. 1945–present): A notoriously ambiguous term, especially as it refers to literature, postmodernism can be seen as a response to the elitism of high modernism as well as to the horrors of World War II. Postmodern literature is characterized by a disjointed, fragmented pastiche of high and low culture that reflects the absence of tradition and structure in a world driven by technology and consumerism. Julian Barnes, Don DeLillo, Toni Morrison, Vladimir Nabokov, Thomas Pynchon, Salman Rushdie, and Kurt Vonnegut are among many who are considered postmodern authors.

Pre-Raphaelites (c. 1848–1870): The literary arm of an artistic movement that drew inspiration from Italian artists working before Raphael (1483–1520). The Pre-Raphaelites combined sensuousness and religiosity through archaic poetic forms and medieval settings. William Morris, Christina Rossetti, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Charles Swinburne were leading poets in the movement.

Sturm und Drang (1770s): German for “storm and stress,” this brief German literary movement advocated passionate individuality in the face of Neoclassical rationalism and restraint. Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther is the most enduring work of this movement, which greatly influenced the Romantic movement (see above).

Symbolists (1870s–1890s): A group of French poets who reacted against realism with a poetry of suggestion based on private symbols, and experimented with new poetic forms such as free verse and the prose poem. The symbolists—Stéphane Mallarmé, Arthur Rimbaud, and Paul Verlaine are the most well known—were influenced by Charles Baudelaire. In turn, they had a seminal influence on the modernist poetry of the early 20th century.

Victorian era (c. 1832–1901): The period of English history between the passage of the first Reform Bill (1832) and the death of Queen Victoria (reigned 1837–1901). Though remembered for strict social, political, and sexual conservatism and frequent clashes between religion and science, the period also saw prolific literary activity and significant social reform and criticism. Notable Victorian novelists include the Brontë sisters, Charles Dickens, George Eliot, William Makepeace Thackeray, Anthony Trollope, and Thomas Hardy, while prominent poets include Matthew Arnold; Robert Browning; Elizabeth Barrett Browning; Gerard Manley Hopkins; Alfred, Lord Tennyson; and Christina Rossetti. Notable Victorian nonfiction writers include Walter Pater, John Ruskin, and Charles Darwin, who penned the famous On the Origin of Species (1859).

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Bibliography

Adams, Hazard (ed.) (1971) Critical Theory Since Plato, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,New York

Ashcroft, Bill, et. al., The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. New York Routledge, 2002 (ISBN 0415280206)

Culler, Jonathan (1975) Structuralist Poetics, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London Dictionary of Modern Critical Terms, revised and enlarged edition, (1987) Routledge

& Kegan Paul, London Eagleton, Terry (1983) Literary Theory: An Introduction, Basil Blackwell, Oxford Ellis, John M. (1974) The Theory of Literary Criticism, University of California Press,

Berkeley Fowler, Alastair (1982) Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Theory of Genres

and Modes, Clarendon Press, Oxford

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Fowler, Roger (1986) Linguistic Criticism, Oxford University Press, Oxford Harari, Josué V. (ed.) (1979) Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist

Criticism, Methuen, London Hawkes, Terence (1977) Structuralism and Semiotics, Methuen, London Jakobson, Roman (1960) ‘Concluding Statement: Linguistics and Poetics’. In T.A.

Sebeok (ed.), Style in Language, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press,Cambridge, pp. 350–77

Jefferson, Ann and Robey, David (eds) (1982) Modern Literary Theory: A Comparative Introduction, Batsford Academic, London

Lodge, David (ed.) (1972) Twentieth Century Literary Criticism: A Reader, Longman,London

Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963.

Online References

Gioia, Dana. "Disappearing Ink: Poetry at the End of Print Culture." Hudson Review 56.1 (Spring 2003). http://www.hudsonreview.com/gioiaSp03.pdf

The Cambridge History of English and American Literature (1907-1921). http://www.bartleby.com/cambridge/

CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture http://clcwebjournal.lib.purdue.edu Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. New York:

Routledge, 2002. République Populaire Démocratique AlgérienneMinistère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche ScientifiqueÉcole Normale Supérieure des Lettres et Sciences HumainesConstantineCours à distance2e

annéeSemestre 4Préparé parMlle Soumeya HEDJEL

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TRAVAIL COLLABORATIF ASSISTÉ PAR ORDINATEUR TRAVAIL COLLABORATIF ASSISTÉ PAR ORDINATEUR

(TCAO)(TCAO)2. Les outils d’accès au savoir 2. Les outils d’accès au savoir 2.1. 2.1. Classe virtuelle Classe virtuelle La classe virtuelle La classe virtuelle désigne la simulation d'une classe désigne la simulation d'une classe réelle. La diffusion du cours se fait à réelle. La diffusion du cours se fait à l'aide d'une solution réseau, à une date l'aide d'une solution réseau, à une date et une heure précise (synchrone) auprèset une heure précise (synchrone) auprès d'apprenants éloignés d'apprenants éloignés géographiquement. Cet environnement géographiquement. Cet environnement intègre des outils reproduisant à intègre des outils reproduisant à distance les interactions d'une salle de distance les interactions d'une salle de classe. classe. 2.2. FAQ 2.2. FAQ La foire aux questions, La foire aux questions, ou Frequently Asked Questions (« ou Frequently Asked Questions (« questions fréquemment posées »), est questions fréquemment posées »), est une liste faisant la synthèse des une liste faisant la synthèse des questions posées de manière récurrentequestions posées de manière récurrente sur un sujet donné, accompagnées des sur un sujet donné, accompagnées des réponses correspondantes. réponses correspondantes. Voici un Voici un exemple de FAQ sur wikipédia.exemple de FAQ sur wikipédia.

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2.3. Wiki 2.3. Wiki Un WIKI est un site Web dont Un WIKI est un site Web dont tout visiteur peut modifier les pages à tout visiteur peut modifier les pages à volonté. Il permet non seulement de volonté. Il permet non seulement de communiquer et diffuser des communiquer et diffuser des informations rapidement, mais de informations rapidement, mais de structurer cette information pour structurer cette information pour permettre d'y naviguer commodément. permettre d'y naviguer commodément. Le mot WIKI provient d'un adjectif en Le mot WIKI provient d'un adjectif en langue hawaiienne "wikiwiki" qui signifielangue hawaiienne "wikiwiki" qui signifie rapide. Le principe est simple, il s'agit rapide. Le principe est simple, il s'agit d'un modèle coopératif de rédaction de d'un modèle coopératif de rédaction de documents. Concrètement, n'importe documents. Concrètement, n'importe quel visiteur a la possibilité de modifier quel visiteur a la possibilité de modifier la page qu'il est en train de lire. Les la page qu'il est en train de lire. Les modifications sont ensuite enregistrées modifications sont ensuite enregistrées et toutes les versions historiques restentet toutes les versions historiques restent

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accessibles. accessibles. Exemples de moteur de Exemples de moteur de WikiWiki WikiWikiWeb : WikiWikiWeb : http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors WelcomeVisitors

- MediaWiki : http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/MediaWiki - DocuWiki : http://wiki.splitbrain.org/wiki:dokuwiki

Exemples de Wiki

- Wikipédia : http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accueil - http://wiki.univ-paris5.fr/wiki/Accueil

Capture d’écran d’une page de Wikipédia

2.4. Portail d’information

Un portail Web (de l'anglais Web portal) est un site Web qui offre une porte d'entrée unique sur un large panel de ressources et de services (messagerie électronique, forum de discussion, espaces de publication, moteur de recherche) centrés sur un domaine ou une communauté particulière.

Les utilisateurs ont la plupart du temps la possibilité de s'enregistrer à un portail pour s'y connecter ultérieurement et utiliser l'ensemble des services proposés, dont notamment la personnalisation de leur espace de travail, lequel est organisé à l'aide d'éléments d'IHM de base : les portlets.

Il ne faut pas confondre le portail Web avec un site portail institutionnel. Il s'agit dans ce dernier cas d'un site servant de voie d'accès unique vers les différents sites d'un organisme

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(entreprise commerciale, institution publique). Le site portail permet de rediriger l'internaute vers le site de l'organisme qui correspond le mieux à ses attentes en fonction de son profil.

Exemples de portails

Les portails sont souvent des sites communautaires qui tentent de rassembler un ensemble de services susceptible d'intéresser les internautes.

La force des portails réside souvent dans la communauté qui les entoure. Dans le cas des portails les plus connus tels que wanadoo, la communauté est issue des abonnements internet fournis par Wanadoo (Orange maintenant). Free a quant à lui eu la même évolution. Les abonnés avaient, après installation de la ligne internet, accès en page d’accueil au portail de l’opérateur.

D'autres types de portails existent. Les portails qui ont construit leur notoriété sur un service gratuit. Quelques exemples : Hotmail (email gratuit), MSN (email gratuit), Free joue également dans cette catégorie. En revanche certains (Neuf par exemple) ont volontairement limité l'accès à leurs adresses email. Elles ne sont disponibles que pour les abonnés de Neuf.

Pour conclure sur les portails web, ils se sont tous construits autour de services (accès web, adresse mail gratuite, annuaire gratuit...) et fournissent la plupart du temps des contenus éditoriaux propres et adaptés à leur communauté.

Exemple de portail d’information :

- Thot : http://thot.cursus.edu/

2.5. Liste de diffusion

C'est une méthode de diffusion d'informations, dans laquelle les abonnés de la liste peuvent envoyer des messages qui seront diffusés aux autres.

2.6. Bookmark partagé

Le système de bookmarks (ou marque-page) partagés permet aux internautes de gérer leurs signets (ou leurs favoris) en ligne, mais aussi et surtout de permettre à d'autres de les consulter et de les exploiter.

Exemples d'applications permettant de partager des bookmarks

- Zotero : http://www.zotero.org/ - Del.icio.us : http://del.icio.us

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3 .Les outils de coordination

Également appelés outils de Workflow.

On appelle "WorkFlow" (traduisez littéralement "flux de travail") la modélisation et la gestion informatique de l'ensemble des tâches à accomplir et des différents acteurs impliqué dans la réalisation d'un processus métier (aussi appelé processus opérationnel). Le terme de Workflow pourrait donc être traduit en français par Gestion électronique des processus métier.

De façon plus pratique le WorkFlow décrit le circuit de validation, les tâches à accomplir entre les différents acteurs d'un processus, les délais, les modes de validation et fournit à chacun des acteurs les informations nécessaires pour la réalisation de sa tâche. Pour un processus de publication en ligne par exemple, il s'agit de la modélisation des tâches de l'ensemble de la chaîne éditoriale, de la proposition du rédacteur à la validation par le responsable de publication.

3.1. Agenda partagé

Un agenda partagé est l'agenda d'une personne qui est rendu visible à d'autres personnes. Par exemple celui du chef de projet. Des exemples de ce type de calendriers sont nombreux sur l toile. Voici des captures d’écrans de calendrier partagé de Google.

3.2. Agenda collectif

Un agenda collectif est un agenda tenu collectivement par plusieurs personnes.

3.3. Todo list

Une todo list, de l'anglais to do, « faire », signifie liste des choses à faire. La todo list est un procédé simple et efficace qui permet de se concentrer sur une tâche d'un projet sans pour autant perdre de vue les autres tâches à accomplir. Les listes todo se déclinent de multiples façons : par exemple, un chef de projet qui note les bogues à corriger et les fonctionnalités à programmer construit une todo list. Plus trivialement, un post-it avec une liste de courses à faire est aussi une todo list.

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3.4. Outils de management de projet en ligne

Les outils de management de projet en ligne permettent, sur un même espace internet, à plusieurs acteurs d’un projet (chef de projet, équipe de développement, clients) d’avoir accès à toutes les informations nécessaires pour collaborer : ces applications web permettent d’avoir l’agenda partagé du projet, un espace d’échange de fichier, des « todo list », des jalons, des outils de communication.

Exemples

- Basecamp : http://www.basecamphq.com/ - ActiveCollab : http://www.activecollab.com/ - Collabtive : http://collabtive.o-dyn.de/ - Projectpier : http://www.projectpier.org/

3.5. Sondages / planification de réunions

Outil qui permet d’interroger plusieurs personnes, par exemple sur leurs disponibilités pour participer à une réunion, et ainsi de synthétiser les informations facilement.

4 .Les outils de production

4.1. Versioning

Processus permettant de conserver une trace des modifications successives apportées à un fichier numérique (documentation, code source, base de données), à travers un logiciel spécialisé. Il est ainsi possible de retrouver des données effacées, mais aussi d'effectuer de nombreuses manipulations, comme la comparaison de sous parties d'un logiciel évoluant parallèlement.

4.2. Gestionnaire de fichiers

Un gestionnaire de fichiers est un logiciel qui fournit une interface utilisateur pour travailler avec les fichiers informatiques. Les plus communes utilisations sont : la création, l'ouverture, la visualisation, l'impression, la lecture, le renommage, le déplacement, la copie, la suppression, les propriétés et la recherche de fichiers. Le plus souvent, les fichiers sont affichés dans une hiérarchie, sous forme d'arborescence. Les gestionnaires de fichiers peuvent contenir des fonctionnalités héritées des navigateurs web, en incluant les flèches de navigation (précédent/suivant).

4.3. Documents, applications partagés

Ce sont des applications qui sont stockées sur un serveur auxquelles on peut accéder à distance en utilisant un réseau. Les applications qui sont souvent très lourdes sont centralisées sur un serveur.

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Exemples de logiciel de partage d'applications

- Adobe Connect : http://www.adobe.com/fr/products/connect/ - Certains outils de communication instantanée permettent de partager des applications

comme Windows Live messenger.

4.4. Partage de fichiers

Mise à disposition pour d’autres utilisateurs de fichiers pour lecture ou modification selon les droits attribués à l’utilisateur.

4.5. Le graphe conceptuel

Dans l'objectif de structurer la pensée et de représenter des connaissances, les graphes conceptuels permettent de visualiser des idées, des notions, des informations en les liant, les groupant et en les commentant.

Ces outils assistent aussi bien la réflexion personnelle que celles d'un groupe. L'idée centrale, qui peut être un mot, une phrase, éventuellement une image, est d'abord disposée dans le graphe. Puis les termes qui sont en relation avec cette idée sont disposés autour. On continue cette progression en renseignant le lien entre les idées. Chaque nouvelle idée insérée dans le graphe peut à son tour être reliée à celles qui existent déjà ou à de nouvelles.

Les outils qui assistent ce processus permettent non seulement une présentation facile et claire, mais peuvent traduire l'organisation graphique sous une forme textuelle (titres, paragraphe, alinéa, etc.).

Terme équivalent : carte conceptuelle

Voici une image représentant un graphe conceptuel

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OUTILS D'ÉDITION WEBOUTILS D'ÉDITION WEB

1 .Éditeur HTML

Un éditeur HTML (ou éditeur Web) est un logiciel conçu pour faciliter la préparation et la modification de documents écrits en Hypertext markup language (HTML). Un document HTML est le principal composant d'une page web. Il existe deux catégories d'éditeur :

- les éditeurs tel-tel (WYSIWYG) - les éditeurs de texte

L'édition des images, des animations ou du son sont effectuées avec les logiciels appropriés. Un éditeur HTML ne sert qu'à disposer ces ressources dans une page web.

Les pages offrant des services en plus de simples informations sont généralement générées à la demande par des logiciels propres au site web.

1.1. Éditeurs WYSIWYG

Définition

WYSIWYG ([wɪziwɪg] ou [wiziwɪg]) est l'acronyme de la locution anglaise What you see is what you get, signifiant littéralement en français « ce que vous voyez est ce que vous obtenez » ou de façon plus concise « tel affichage, tel résultat ». L'acronyme est couramment utilisé en informatique pour désigner les interfaces utilisateur graphiques permettant de composer visuellement le résultat voulu, typiquement pour un logiciel de mise en page, un traitement de texte ou d'image. L'acronyme désigne, de fait, une interface « intuitive » : l'utilisateur voit directement à l'écran à quoi ressemblera le résultat final (imprimé).

Usage

Un éditeur WYSIWYG (permet d'éditer une page web à peu près telle qu'elle apparaît dans les navigateurs courants. Il propose les fonctions classiques des traitements de texte WYSIWYG. Ses deux principaux avantages sont la facilité d'utilisation et l'observation immédiate du rendu graphique. Ses deux principaux désavantages sont le manque de maîtrise sur la qualité du document HTML produit et les risques d'incompatibilité avec des navigateurs non prévus par l'éditeur (plus récents, plus anciens, ou moins courants).

Exemples d’éditeurs WYSIWYG

- OPEN BEXI HTML Builder- Adobe GoLive - Adobe Dreamweaver (anciennement Macromedia Dreamweaver) - KompoZer - Microsoft Expression (anciennement Microsoft FrontPage) - Mozilla Composer - Nvu

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- Nous verrons plus en détail le fonctionnement de l’un de ces éditeurs, Nvu, en l’occurrence.

Ci-dessous une image de la fenêtre de Mozilla Composer

1.2. Les éditeurs en mode texte

Ces éditeurs éditent directement en langage HTML : le code y apparaît et y est traité comme du texte. Ils requièrent donc une compétence dans ce langage. En contrepartie, ils permettent à un utilisateur compétent de s'assurer de la qualité du document produit.

- HTML Kit - Notepad++ - Quanta+ - Bluefish - Isofting eWriter Wisto - Htmledit

Voici une image d’une fenêtre d’édition en mode texte de l’éditeur Notepad++

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Exemple d’utilisation de la plate-forme DokeosDans l’exemple qui va suivre, nous présenterons les principales fonctionnalités de DokeosPage d’accueil : sur cette page il est possible de se connecter avec un identifiant et un mot de passe si l’utilisateur est déjà inscrit, dans le cas contraire, une inscription est nécessaire pour accéder au contenu de la plate-forme.

Après vous être identifié en tant qu’étudiant, vus avez accès à cette page de Dokeos 1.8.4

Dans l’espace « Mes cours », vous découvrirez les multiples fonctionnalités de Dokeos.

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S’identifier pour un membre déjà inscrit.

S’inscrire pour un nouvel utilisateur

Les différents onglets vous donnent accès à différents espaces, nous découvrirons l’espace « Mes cours »

Voici maintenant tous les outils proposés pas Dokeos, une fois l’accès au cours effectué.

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Ceci est le titre d’un cours, en cliquant dessus, vous avez accès au contenu.

Ressources du cours

Description du cours et présentation des objectifs

Où sont consignés des dates et rendez-vous importants

Tous les documents nécessaires déposés par l’enseignant

Espace pour déposer des articles en relation avec le cours

Modules constituant le cours

BIBLIOGRAPHIE / SITOGRAPHIEBIBLIOGRAPHIE / SITOGRAPHIE

1. BIELACZYC, K. and COLLINS, A. (1999). Instructional-Design Theories and models. Volume II, Charles M. Reigeluth, LEA, Chap. 12.

2. Blog, http://www.cyberprofsdepmf.com/3. Communauté d’apprentissage, http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut

%C3%A9_d'apprentissage4. Grégoire, R. et Laferrière, T. (1997). Communauté d’apprentissage, des mots pour le

dire. Disponible à l’adresse http://www.tact.fse.ulaval.ca/fr/html/prj-7.1/commune1.html

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Table of Contents

Content …………………………………………………………...Page

Writing and GrammarPart one: WritingPart One:…………………………………………………..…………………..……………p.4

Part Two……………………………………..…………………………………………….p29

Bibliography…………………………………………..……………………………………p37

Part two: Grammar

Lesson one: Reported Speech…………..……………………………………………….…p38

Lesson two: Phrasal verbs……………………………………..…..……………………….p43

Lesson three: Types of verbs…………..…………………………….……………………..p46

Lesson four: Ellipsis…………………..….……………………….………………………..p51

Lesson five: Substitution…………………..……………………….……………………….p54

Bibliography………………………………………………...……………………………….p58

Phonetics& Speaking

Part One : Phonetics Chapter One: Aspects of Connected Speech ……….………………………………….….p62

Chapter Two: Elision………………………………………..……………………………...p73 Chapter Three: Liaison………………………………………………………………….….p77Chapter Four: Juncture……………………………………………………………….…….p80Chapter Five: Weak forms…………………………………………………….……………p81

Bibliography………………………………………………………………….…………….p85

Part Two : Listening & SpeakingLecture1 :Economy………………………………………………....................….……p87

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Lecture 2 : Jessica Tandy…………………………..........................................................p91Lectures 3,4,5: Ramadan in America, Alaska Purchase, Wynton and Willie…………………………….....................................................................................p94Lecture 6: Reef World…………………………………………….……………………p97Bibliography…………………………………..……………….………….……………p103..

Reading TechniquesGrimm’s Fairy tales ………………………………………………….……………….p107

List of References …………………………………………………………………….p131

Linguistics

Sociolinguistics and Linguistics...................................................................................p136  Varieties of Language……………………………………………………………….p138Varieties in Contact ( Mixture of Varieties)…………………….…………………….p143

Language and Social Interaction…………………….………………………………..p148

Bibliography……………………………………………………….………………….p153

Teaching English as a Foreign Language

Lesson One : Language teaching methods and approaches………………………p157

Lesson Two: The Competency-Based Approach…………………………………….p173

Bibliography…………………………………………………..……………………..p178

Educational psychology Chapter One: Adolescence Part One: Aspects of Adolescent Development……………......................................p183Part Two: Approaches to Adolescence……..…………………………..……………p200

Chapter Two: Motivation and learning…………………………………..…………..p218

Chapter Three: Teachers and Teaching………………………………………………p226

Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………….p239

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Généralités en sciences juridiques

Chapitre 1 : Les différents sens du mot droit …………….………..………………….p243

Chapitre 2 : La personnalité juridique…………………..…………..………………….p248

Chapitre 3. : La spécialisation des règles de droit………...…………..……………..…p253

Chapitre 4 : Les sources du droit………………………...…………..……………..…..p266

Bibliographie……………………………………………………………………………p272

Civilisation and LiteraturePart one : Civilisation

British imperialism in America……………………………………..….…………………p276

The Drafting of the American Constitution……………………………..……………….p289

Bibliography…………………………………………………………..………………….p320

Part two : Literature

The Romantic Movement ……………………………………………………………..p322

Realism …………………………………………………………………………………p322

Naturalism........................................................................................................................p326

Surrealism……………………………………………………………………………….p330

Absurdism……………………………………………………………………………….p331

Beat Movement ………………………………………………………………………..p332

American Transcendentalism …………………………………………….……………p333

Brief Overview of Some Other Literary movements......................................................p337

Bibliography………………………………………………………………..…………..p341

T.I.C.E.T.I.C.E.Travail collaborative assisté par ordinateur ( TCAO)………………………..………..p345Travail collaborative assisté par ordinateur ( TCAO)………………………..………..p345Outils d’édition web…………………………………………………………..……….p359Outils d’édition web…………………………………………………………..……….p359Bibliographie/Sitographie………………………………………………….………….p357Bibliographie/Sitographie………………………………………………….………….p357Table of contents………………………………………………………………………p358

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