Swimming-Induced Pulmonary Edema: Pathophysiology and Risk ...

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DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.019464 1 Swimming-Induced Pulmonary Edema: Pathophysiology and Risk Reduction With Sildenafil Running title: Moon et al.; Swimming-Induced Pulmonary Edema Pathophysiology Richard E. Moon, MD 1,2 ; Stefanie D. Martina, BS 1 ; Dionne F. Peacher, MD 1.3 ; Jennifer F. Potter, MD 1,4 ; Tracy E. Wester, MD 1,5 ; Anne D. Cherry, MD 1 ; Michael J. Natoli, M Eng 1 ; Claire E. Otteni, DO 1,6 ; Dawn N. Kernagis, PhD 1,7 ; William D. White, MPH 1 ; John J. Freiberger, MD 1 1 Dept of Anesthesiology, and Center for Hyperbaric Medicine & Environmental Physiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC; 2 Dept of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC; 3 Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA; 4 Dept of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA; 5 Dept of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC; 6 Delaware County Memorial Hospital, Drexel Hill, PA; 7 Institute for Human & Machine Cognition, Pensacola, FL Address for Correspondence: Richard E. Moon, MD Duke University Medical Center Department of Anesthesiology, Box 3094 Durham, NC 27710 Tel: 919-684-8762 Fax: 919-681-4698 E-mail: [email protected] Journal Subject Terms: Hemodynamics; Pathophysiology William D. White, MPH 1 ; John J. Freiberger, MD 1 1 Dept of Anesthesiology, and Center for Hype rbaric Medicine & Environmental Physiology, Du Du Duk k ke Uni ni niv ve versit ty Medica l Center, Durham, NC; 2 D D Dept of Medici ci cine, Du D ke University Medical Center, Dur rh r a am, NC NC NC; ; ; 3 3 3 De De Depart rt rtm m men n nt of An An Anesth hesiolo lo logy gy an n nd Cr Cr Cri i itical al al C Care e, e, H H Hospi pi pita ta t l l l of o o t t th he he Un Un Univ iv i ersity o o of f Pe en nnsy y ylv vania a a, , , P Ph Philad d del e e ph ph phia, PA PA PA; 4 De De ept o o of f f An n nes sthe e esi i iolog gy, , Un n niv v versity ty ty of Vi V V rgin n nia a, Ch harl l lottesville, VA; 5 5 Dept of f f A Anesthesia i and Perioperative Med dic i ine, Medic l l al University of S th C li Ch l t SC 6 Dl C t M ilH it l D l Hill PA by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from by guest on February 16, 2018 http://circ.ahajournals.org/ Downloaded from

Transcript of Swimming-Induced Pulmonary Edema: Pathophysiology and Risk ...

Page 1: Swimming-Induced Pulmonary Edema: Pathophysiology and Risk ...

DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.019464

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Swimming-Induced Pulmonary Edema:

Pathophysiology and Risk Reduction With Sildenafil

Running title: Moon et al.; Swimming-Induced Pulmonary Edema Pathophysiology

Richard E. Moon, MD1,2; Stefanie D. Martina, BS1; Dionne F. Peacher, MD1.3;

Jennifer F. Potter, MD1,4; Tracy E. Wester, MD1,5; Anne D. Cherry, MD1;

Michael J. Natoli, M Eng1; Claire E. Otteni, DO1,6; Dawn N. Kernagis, PhD1,7;

William D. White, MPH1; John J. Freiberger, MD1

1Dept of Anesthesiology, and Center for Hyperbaric Medicine & Environmental Physiology,

Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC; 2Dept of Medicine, Duke University Medical

Center, Durham, NC; 3Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Hospital of the

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA; 4Dept of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia,

Charlottesville, VA; 5Dept of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Medical University of

South Carolina, Charleston, SC; 6Delaware County Memorial Hospital, Drexel Hill, PA; 7Institute for Human & Machine Cognition, Pensacola, FL

Address for Correspondence:

Richard E. Moon, MD

Duke University Medical Center

Department of Anesthesiology, Box 3094

Durham, NC 27710

Tel: 919-684-8762

Fax: 919-681-4698

E-mail: [email protected]

Journal Subject Terms: Hemodynamics; Pathophysiology

g g

William D. White, MPH1; John J. Freiberger, MD1

1Dept of Anesthesiology, and Center for Hyperbaric Medicine & Environmental Physiology,

DuDuDukkke Unininivveversitty Medical Center, Durham, NC; 2DDDept of Medicicicine, DuD ke University Medical

Center, Durrhr aam, NCNCNC;;; 333DeDeDepartrtrtmmmennnt of AnAnAnesthhesiololologygy annnd CrCrCriiiticalalal CCaree,e, HHHospipipitatat l ll ofoo ttthhehe

UnUnUnivivi ersityy ooof f Peennnsyyylvvaniaaa,, , PPhPhiladddelee phphphia, PAPAPA; 4DeDeept ooof f f Annnesstheeesiiiologgy,, Unnnivvversitytyty of ViVV rginnniaa,

Chharlllottesville, VA; 55Dept off f AAnesthesiai and Perioperative Meddici ine, Medic llal University of

S th C li Ch l t SC 6D l C t M i l H it l D l Hill PA

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Abstract

Background—Swimming-induced pulmonary edema (SIPE) occurs during swimming or scuba

diving, often in young individuals with no predisposing conditions, and its pathophysiology is

poorly understood. This study tested the hypothesis that pulmonary artery and pulmonary artery

wedge pressures are higher in SIPE-susceptible individuals during submerged exercise compared

to the general population and are reduced by sildenafil.

Methods and Results—Ten study subjects with a history of SIPE (mean age 41.6 years) and 20

control subjects (mean age 36.2 years) were instrumented with radial artery and pulmonary

artery catheters and performed moderate cycle ergometer exercise for 6-7 minutes while

submersed in 20°C water. SIPE-susceptible subjects repeated the exercise 150 minutes after oral

administration of 50 mg sildenafil. Work rate and mean arterial pressure during exercise were

similar in controls and SIPE-susceptibles. Average VO2 and cardiac output (CO) in SIPE-

susceptibles and controls were: VO2 2.42 L.min-1 vs. 1.95 L.min-1, P=0.2; CO 17.9 L.min-1 vs.

13.8 L.min-1, P=0.01). Accounting for differences in CO between groups, mean pulmonary artery

pressure (MPAP) at CO=13.8 L.min-1 was 22.5 mmHg in controls vs. 34.0 mmHg in SIPE-

susceptibles (P=0.004) and the corresponding pulmonary artery wedge pressure (PAWP) 11.0

mmHg vs. 18.8 mmHg (P=0.028). After sildenafil, there were no statistically significant

differences in MPAP or PAWP between SIPE-susceptibles and controls.

Conclusions—These observations confirm that SIPE is a form of hemodynamic pulmonary

edema. The reduction in pulmonary vascular pressures after sildenafil with no adverse effect on

exercise hemodynamics suggests that it may be useful in SIPE prevention.

Clinical Trial Registration Information—ClinicalTrials.gov. Identifier: NCT00815646.

Key words: pulmonary edema; pulmonary circulation; hemodynamics; immersion; diving

imilar in controls and SIPE-susceptibles. Average VO2 and cardiac output (CO) iiin n n SISISIPEPEPE--

usceptibles and controls were: VO2 2.42 L.min-1 vs. 1.95 L.min-1, P=0.2; CO 17.999 LLL.miiin-1-1-1 vs.

13.8 L.min-1, P=0.01). Accounting for differences in CO between groups, mean pulmonary artery

presesessususure (((MPMPMPAPPP))) aaat CO=13.8 L.min-1 was 22.5 mmmmmmHg in controlsss vs. 333444.0 mmHg in SIPE-

uuusccceptibles ((P===000.0000044)4) aaandndnd thehehe ccorororrereresppponndididinnng pulmmmonarararyyy arararteteeryy wwwedededgegee prressssururureee (P(P(PAWAWAWPPP) 111111.0 00

mmmmmmHgHH vs. 18.88 8 mmmmHggg (P=000.002028). AfAA tteerr sildddennnafill, tthererere e e weweereee nooo ssstatisttticcalllly yy sis gniffficccannt

diffferrrenenencececesss in MMMPAAPAPPP oror PPPAWWWPPP bebebettweeen nn SISISIPEPEPE-susuusceceptp ibibibleleless ananand cooontntntrooolslls.

Conclusions—These observations confirm that SIPE is a form of hemodynamic pulmonary

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Introduction

Immersion pulmonary edema (IPE), also known as swimming-induced pulmonary edema (SIPE),

is a condition in which cough, dyspnea, hemoptysis and hypoxemia develop after surface

swimming or diving, often in young, healthy individuals. Wilmshurst1 first described SIPE in 11

healthy recreational divers. Although first believed to be extremely rare, nearly 300 cases have

since been published, including several that describe the syndrome in healthy military recruits

during strenuous swimming.2-7 Among military recruits, its prevalence in 2.4-3.6-km open sea

swimming trials has been reported between 1.8%-60%, depending upon severity.2,6 In triathletes,

1.4% have reported symptoms consistent with SIPE.8

SIPE usually resolves spontaneously within 24 hours, or with 2 adrenergic agonist or

diuretic therapy, but it can be fatal.9,10 Individuals who develop SIPE often have recurrences

under the same conditions.2,11,12,6,1 Proposed risk factors for SIPE include cold water,11,12,1

negative static lung load, 5,13 exertion,11,12,4,6,7 fluid loading,7 and low vital capacity.6 Many who

experience SIPE have chronic hypertension or develop it later,14-16,8,1 but many cases occur

among individuals without hypertension, especially young military recruits, who undergo careful

medical screening.2-7

The pathophysiology of SIPE is not fully understood. In one study, an analysis of

specimens obtained via bronchoalveolar lavage ruled out an inflammatory process.17 Some

instances of SIPE appear to have been precipitated by ventricular dysfunction,9,5 and indeed,

transient cardiac abnormalities have been described immediately after an event.16 However, in

most cases, cardiac function during recovery is normal.14,16,11,12,17,5,18,10 A hemodynamic cause

cannot be reasonably excluded on the basis of post hoc resting measurements on dry land,

particularly in view of both plausible rationale and physiological and observational evidence.

SIPE usually resolves spontaneously within 24 hours, or with 2 adrenergigiiccc agagagonononisisistt t ororor

diuretic therapy, but it can be fatal.9,10 Individuals who develop SIPE often have recurrences

undeeerrr thththeee sasasamemm ccconnnditions.2,11,12,6,1 Proposed riskkk fffacacactors for SIPE incluuudedede cold water,11,12,1

nnneggagative statiic lululungg llloooad,d,d, 5,15,15,13 eeexxxertrtrtioioion,n,11,11,11,12,1 4,64,64,6 77,7 fluid loaaadididingngng,,,777 andndnd lowowow vvviiitaal capapapaaacititity.y.y.6 MMMananany yy whwhwhooo

exxxpepeperirr ence SSSIPII E E hhah vee chhrh onnicici hhhypypypeeerrtr ennnssisionnn orrr deveveeloppp iitit laatateeer,,,14---1666,8,1 butuut maaanyy y casesesesss occcuuur

amamamonononggg ininindididiviividuddualalalsss wiiwithththouoouttt hyhhypepepertrtrtenenensisisiononon, esesespepepecicicialalallylly youooungngng mmmilililitititararary rererecrcrcruiiuitststs, whhwhooo unnundededergrgrgooo cacacarererefufufullll

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During immersion in water central redistribution of blood from the extremities occurs,19 and is

augmented when the water is cold.20 The resulting engorgement of the central veins, heart and

pulmonary vessels causes increased right sided intravascular pressures.21 Wilmshurst and

colleagues demonstrated a greater increase in forearm vascular resistance in response to exposure

of the head and neck to ice-cold water is greater in SIPE-susceptible individuals compared with

control subjects.1 They proposed that hydrostatic pulmonary edema occurs in susceptible

individuals due to a combination of immersion-induced central redistribution of blood and

idiosyncratic increase in afterload response due to cold. When swimming in the lateral decubitus

position, predominantly unilateral edema occurs in the dependent lung, suggesting a

hemodynamic mechanism.3,4

This study was performed to advance understanding of SIPE pathogenesis by testing the

hypothesis that SIPE-susceptible individuals have higher mean pulmonary artery and pulmonary

artery wedge pressures (MPAP and PAWP) during exercise in cold water, compared to the

general population. We also tested whether prophylactic sildenafil can attenuate the increase,

with the aim of reducing the risk of SIPE.

Methods

Subjects

After institutional approval and informed consent, ten healthy individuals 18-55 years old, with a

history of one or more episodes of SIPE, were recruited from a group of 71 who were screened

for the study (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00815646). Findings were compared to 20 controls who

had no history of SIPE and who had participated in other IRB-approved studies, which, in part,

have been previously reported.22,21 All subjects had a normal physical exam, chest radiograph,

hemodynamic mechanism.3,4

This study was performed to advance understanding of SIPE pathogenesis by testing the

hypopopothththesesesisisis ttthahh t SISISIPEPP -susceptible individuals haveveve hhhigher mean pulmonnanarrry artery and pulmonary

arararteeery wedge prereresssurrreees (((MPMPMPAPAPAP aandndnd PPPAWAWA P)P)P) duuurinng exererercicicisesese iiin cococolddd wwwatataterr, cooompmpm arararededed ttooo hthhe e e

geeenenenerarr l popupupulall tiononon. WWWe also o teteteststs eddd wwwheeethhher ppprrorophhp ylllacttticcc sillldenenenafffilll canaa aatttennnuauauatett thehehe iiincrerease,

wiiwiththth ttthehehe aaaimimim ooofff rereredudducicicingngng ttthehehe rrrisisiskkk ofofof SSSIPIPIPEEE.

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spirometry (FVC, FEV1 and FEF25-75) and 12-lead electrocardiogram. Prior to recruitment, nine

SIPE subjects had been evaluated for coronary artery disease, using exercise stress

echocardiogram, nuclear imaging, or coronary angiography. For the control subjects, exclusion

criteria were cardiovascular disease, abnormal spirometry (FVC, FEV1, FEF25-75), maximum

oxygen consumption (VO2max) < 30 mL.kg.min-1, estimated body fat >3% higher than age- and

sex-based upper limits, abnormal ECG, age >55 years or pregnancy. The same exclusions,

except the body fat criterion, applied to the SIPE subjects. SIPE subjects with a history of mild

hypertension were admitted to the study if blood pressure was normal while taking medication.

Instrumentation

Methods have been previously described.22,21 Briefly, on the morning of the study, each subject

was instrumented with radial artery and pulmonary artery catheters placed via an antecubital or

arm vein. Placement of the catheter tip in the pulmonary artery was confirmed radiographically.

Pressure transducers (Hospira, Lake Forest, IL) were calibrated immediately before each run,

using an aneroid gauge that had been pre-calibrated against a mercury manometer. All signals

were digitized with a data acquisition board (PCI 6014, National Instruments, Austin, TX) and

recorded on a personal computer using Labview (version 6.1, National Instruments, Austin, TX).

Protocol

On the day before the study, the capacity of each subject to perform dry exercise was tested on a

cycle ergometer for 12 minutes to a maximum of 150 W. Subjects were then familiarized with

the immersed environment by exercising for 9-12 minutes in the water to a maximum of 125 W

external power.

On the day of the study, SIPE subjects were first evaluated during supine dry rest. Dry

resting measurements in control subjects were conducted in the upright position (sitting on an

Methods have been previously described.22,21 Briefly, on the morning of the studyy,y, eeeacacach h h sususubjbjbjececect

was instrumented with radial artery and pulmonary artery catheters placed via an antecubital or

arm m veveveininin... PlPlPlacaa emmmeenent of the catheter tip in the puuulmlmlmooonary artery was connnfififirmed radiographically.

PPPressssure transdududuceerss (((HoHoHospspspiririra,a,a, LaLaLakekeke FFFororo estt, ILL)L wwerrre cacacalililibrbrbratatated dd imimimmememedididiattely y y bebebefofoforerere eacacachhh rururun,n,n,

usssinining g g an aneeerororoidd gggaugge that hahahad dd beeeenenen pppreee-caalalibbbrateeddd agggaiiinstt t aa a mememercccururry y mammanooomememeter.. AAAll ssigggnalsss

weewererere dddigigigitititiziizededed wititithhh aaa dadadatatata aaacqcqcquiiuisisisitititiononon bbboaoaoardrdrd (((PCPCPCIII 606060141414, NaNaNatititionononalalal IIInsnsnstrtrtrummumenenentststs, AuAAustststininin, TXTXTX))) anananddd qqq

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exercise bike) with the transducers situated 5 cm inferior to the sternal angle. To measure the

hemodynamic effect of rapid submersion, ten of the control subjects and all of the SIPE subjects

were placed in the prone position on a rescue litter breathing via a scuba regulator and immersed

as quickly as possible in cold water for 2-3 minutes (“dunk”, see Fig. 1 in Wester21). Heart rate

(HR), mean arterial pressure (MAP), mean pulmonary artery pressure (MPAP) and pulmonary

artery wedge pressure (PAWP) were measured immediately before submersion and at one

minute afterward. During this pre-exercise maneuver, pressure transducers were positioned at the

level of the subject’s mid-thorax until the subject hit the water, at which point the transducer

position was maintained at the water surface level. During underwater exercise, the transducer

level was positioned at the level of the water surface. Pressures were averaged over several

respiratory cycles. Effective arterial elastance (Ea) was calculated as (2 x Psys+Pdia)/(3 x stroke

volume),23 where Psys and Pdia represent systolic and diastolic arterial pressures. Pulmonary artery

compliance CPA was calculated as stroke volume/PA pulse pressure.24

Exercise on an electronically braked cycle ergometer was then performed for six minutes

at 60 rpm while prone and fully submersed to a depth of approximately 50 cm in a pool (volume

4.42 m3) filled with water at 18°C-20°C, as previously described.21 External work rate was set

according to the estimated exercise capacity of each subject, which was typically 100-125 W

(150-175 W total work rate including the work of moving the legs through the water, previously

estimated at 50 W). HR, MAP, MPAP and PAWP were measured immediately before the sixth

minute of exercise. In control subjects, resting measurements were also taken, several minutes

after the dunk. Resting measurements were not obtained in SIPE subjects in order to minimize

the time of exposure to cold water and the risk of SIPE.

Expired gas volume was collected in Douglas bags over one minute during the 5th and 6th

evel was positioned at the level of the water surface. Pressures were averaged ovvvererer ssseveveverereralalal

espiratory cycles. Effective arterial elastance (Ea) was calculated as (2 x Psys+Pdia)/(3 x stroke

voluuumememe),),),23 wwwhehh reee PPPsys and Pdia represent systolic c ananand dd diastolic arterial pprreressss ures. Pulmonary artery

ccocommpm liance CPAAA wwass ccc lalalcucuculalalateteted d d asass ssstrtrt okokokee voolululumme/PPAAA pupupulslslsee prprpresssususurerere.24242

Exerrrcicicise onn n annn eeelectrororonininicallllly yy brbrraakakeddd cyycyclee eeergooommmeteeer wawaw sss tththenene pppeerfooormrmrmed fffororor sixx mmminuuutees

atatat 666000 rprprpmmm whhwhililileee prprpronononeee anananddd fuffulllllly sussubmbmbmerererseseseddd tototo aaa dddeeeptptpthhh ofofof aaapppppprororoxiiximamamatetetelylly 555000 cmcmcm iiinnn aaa popopoololol (((voovolullumememe

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minutes of exercise and the volume of each was measured using a calibrated gasometer (model

DTM 325-4, American Meter, Nebraska City, NE). Samples of mixed O2 and CO2 expired gas

were collected from each bag and measured using mass spectrometry (model 1100 medical gas

analyzer, Perkin-Elmer, Pomona, CA), confirmed with gas chromatography (model 3800,

Varian, Palo Alto, CA). Arterial and mixed venous blood samples were collected anaerobically

in heparinized glass syringes over a 15- to 20-second period during the sixth minute and chilled

on ice. Within 15 minutes, the blood samples were analyzed using a blood gas analyzer

(Synthesis 15, Instrumentation Laboratory, Lexington, MA) and CO-oximeter (model 682,

Instrumentation Laboratory). Concentrations of expired O2 and CO2 were measured using mass

spectrometry (model 1100 medical gas analyzer, Perkin-Elmer, Pomona, CA) and confirmed

with gas chromatography (model 3800, Varian, Palo Alto, CA). Standard equations were used to

calculate oxygen consumption, which was then used to calculate cardiac output in the Fick

equation.

Following the first exercise, the SIPE subjects were given 50 mg sildenafil orally (Pfizer,

New York, NY). Approximately 150 minutes after sildenafil administration, the protocol was

repeated. After each exercise, SIPE subjects were examined for clinical evidence of SIPE and

performed spirometry.

Statistical Methods

Unpaired t-tests were used to compare continuous variables between groups obtained under

identical circumstances, with correction for multiple comparisons (Tukey-Kramer); paired t-tests

were used for comparisons within each group. Categorical variables were compared using

Fisher’s exact test. Hemodynamic responses that depended on cardiac output (CO), i.e., systemic

and pulmonary vascular pressures and vascular resistances, were compared among the three

pectrometry (model 1100 medical gas analyzer, Perkin-Elmer, Pomona, CA) and d d cococonfnfnfiririrmememed d d

with gas chromatography (model 3800, Varian, Palo Alto, CA). Standard equations were used to

calcculululatatate ee oxoxoxygyy ennn cccono sumption, which was then uuusssededed to calculate cardiaaacc output in the Fick

eeqequuau tion.

Followowowinng the firrsr t exxxerrrcicc seee, , , theee SSIS PEPEE sssubjjej cccts wwewereee ggivivvennn 5550 00 mmgmg silddedennnafil orororallyyy (Pfizzzeer,

NeNeNew YoYoYorkrkrk, NYNYNY))). AAApppppprororoxiiximamamatetetelylly 111505050 mmminininuttuteseses aaaftftftererer sisisildldldenenenafafafililil aaadmdmdminininisisistrtrtratatatioioionnn, ttthehehe ppprororotototocococolll waawasss

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conditions (controls, SIPE-susceptible before and after sildenafil) using a repeated-measures

analysis of covariance, where the covariable was CO (PROC MIXED, SAS 9.3, SAS Institute,

Cary, NC, USA). This model allowed pairwise comparisons among the three conditions, adjusted

for post-hoc multiple comparisons (Tukey-Kramer), while accounting for the repeated measures

within subjects and adjusting for the variable levels of exercise (CO). Given the linear

relationship between MPAP and PAWP vs CO within the range of cardiac outputs in this study,25

model estimates between SIPE-susceptible and control subjects were made at the CO of the

SIPE-susceptibles (13.8 L.min-1). P<0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Role of the Funding Sources

The funding agencies for this study funded the development of the experimental system and the

costs of each study. The funding agencies played no role in study design, data acquisition, or

analysis. The investigators and all authors had sole discretion in the data analysis and

interpretation, writing of the manuscript and the decision to submit for publication.

Results

Subject Characteristics

A summary of subject recruitment and baseline characteristics is shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 3 provides details on each SIPE-susceptible subject. The SIPE-susceptible group had a

greater proportion of females compared to the control group, but otherwise, there were no

statistically significant demographic differences between the two groups. VO2max of the control

group was 44.8±8.2 mL.kg.min-1. Two subjects had experienced SIPE while diving, five during a

triathlon or in training for a triathlon and two during both. Another subject experienced SIPE

when she fell off her windsurfer into a cold river. Echocardiography showed mild left ventricular

The funding agencies for this study funded the development of the experimental sysysystststememem aaandndnd ttthehh

costs of each study. The funding agencies played no role in study design, data acquisition, or d

anallysysysisisis.. ThThTheee invvevestss igators and all authors had sooolelele discretion in the datatata analysis and

nnnteeerpretation, wwwrittinnngg g ofofof ttthehehe mmmanananusususcrcc ipipipt and dd thhhe ddecccisiiononon tttooo sssubmbmbmititit fffororor ppuubliicacacatititiononon.

ReReResussultltltsss

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hypertrophy in subjects 1 and 5. Both ran regularly; one was a triathlete and marathon runner.

The echo findings were consistent with “athlete’s heart”. All other subjects had normal

echocardiography. Coronary artery disease had previously been excluded by exercise stress echo

in six subjects, nuclear stress testing in two subjects and coronary angiography in one subject.

Stress testing was not performed in one subject due to her young age (31 years) and regular high-

level exercise. One subject was taking candesartan for hypertension. Blood pressure was normal

in all subjects during the screening assessment and before the study.

All subjects completed the study with no adverse effects and with no symptoms,

abnormal breath sounds, or changes in spirometry to suggest pulmonary edema.

Supine, Dry Measurements in SIPE-Susceptible Group and Cold Water “Dunk”

Hemodynamic variables of the SIPE-susceptible volunteers in the dry, supine position were

normal (Table 4). We have previously observed that sitting at rest on an exercise bicycle, where

there is little peripheral muscle tone, often induces low right sided pressures. Thus, dry

measurements in the control subjects are not directly comparable to the supine measurements in

the SIPE-susceptible group, although they were within normal limits (see Wester21 for 10 of

these control measurements). Following sildenafil administration, heart rate and cardiac output

were higher (P=0.0141 and 0.0053); systemic vascular resistance (SVR) and pulmonary vascular

resistance (PVR) were lower (P=0.0007 and 0.017) (Table 4). During the pre-exercise “dunk,”

pulmonary artery pressure was greater in the SIPE-susceptible group (P=0.0032, Table 5).

Sildenafil significantly attenuated the systemic and pulmonary hypertensive responses to rapid

immersion in cold water.

Exercise Measurements

Hemodynamic and ventilatory parameters during exercise are listed in Table 6. Mean external

Supine, Dry Measurements in SIPE-Susceptible Group and Cold Water “Dunununk”k”k”

Hemodynamic variables of the SIPE-susceptible volunteers in the dry, supine position were

normmmalalal (((TaTaTablblble 444).).). WWe have previously observeddd ttthahahat sitting at rest on ananan eexercise bicycle, where

hhherrre is little peeeriririphherereraaal mmmusususccclelele tttonononee,e, ooofteen iiindndnduces lllowww rrrigigighhht t sis dededed d d prpresesessuures... TTThuhuhus,s,s dddryryy

mememeasassuru emennntststs inn n thhhe ccconntn rol ll suuubjbjbjeccctstst aaareee nototot dddirecctllyy cccompmpmpaaarababableee tttoo ththt eee supiiinenene meaaasususurememm ntsss inn

hhheee SISISIPEPEPE ss-sussuscececeptptptibibiblelele gggrororouppup, alalalthththouooughghgh ttthehehey weewererere wititithihihinnn nononormrmrmalalal lllimimimitititsss (s(s(seeeeee WWWesesesteteterrr2121 fffororor 111000 ofofof

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work rate for the control subjects was 107.8 W (range 50-170 W) and 112.5 W (range 75-200 W)

for the SIPE-susceptible subjects. VO2 during exercise was lower in the SIPE-susceptible group

but the difference was not statistically significant. Tidal volume during exercise was lower in the

SIPE-susceptible group (P=0.0036) with no significant difference in respiratory minute volume.

Ventilatory frequency was not different between the two groups. CO was lower in the SIPE

group (P=0.01). SVR was higher in the SIPE-susceptible group (P=0.0106). Blood gases were

not significantly different between groups except after sildenafil, when pH was slightly higher

compared to both control (P=0.0087) and pre-sildenafil (P=0.02), and PaO2 was higher in the

SIPE-susceptible group compared to pre-sildenafil (P=0.0337).

After accounting for differences in CO, both MPAP and PAWP were higher in the SIPE

group than in controls during exercise (P=0.004 and P=0.028, respectively), as shown in Fig. 1.

After sildenafil, there was a significant decrease in PAP, and neither MPAP nor PAWP in the

SIPE group were significantly different from controls. Differences in MAP or CVP among

groups were not statistically significant. Similarly, when SVR and PVR in the control group

were model-estimated at the cardiac output of the SIPE-susceptible group, there were no

differences between SIPE-susceptible individuals and controls, and no effect of sildenafil.

During immersed exercise there was no difference between controls and SIPE-susceptible

subjects in CPA, either before or after sildenafil.

Discussion

Our findings indicated an exaggerated increase in MPAP and PAWP during exercise in

individuals who have experienced SIPE, supporting the Wilmshurst findings.1 Despite similar

external work rates, VO2, VE, HR, CO and arterial pH measures indicated that SIPE-susceptible

After accounting for differences in CO, both MPAP and PAWP were higheheher r r ininin ttthehehe SSSIPIPIPE

group than in controls during exercise (P=0.004 and P=0.028, respectively), as shown in Fig. 1.

Afteeerr r sisisildldldenenenafafafil, thththeree e was a significant decreasee iiinnn PAPP P, and neither MMMPAPAPAP nor PAWP in the

SSSIPPEPE group wererere ee ssigngngnififificicicananantltlly y y dididifffffferererennnt frommm ccconttroools. DiDiDifffffferererenencecc sss iinin MMMAAP ooor r r CVCVCVP P P amamamononong g g

grrrouououpspsp were e e nnnot stttatisttticcac llyy siiigngngniffficicicannnt. Simmmilllarlyyy, whwhwhennn SVRVRVR aandndnd PPVRVRVR iin thththeee contttroool ggrg oooup

weewererere mmmodododelelel ee-estststimimimatatatededed aaattt thththeee cacacardrdrdiaiaiaccc ouooutptptputtut ofofof ttthehehe SSSIPIPIPEEE-sussuscscscepepeptititiblblbleee gggrororouppup, thththererereee weewererere nnnooo

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subjects were not working as hard as the control subjects even though their MPAP and PAWP

values were higher. The greater MPAP and PAWP during exercise provide a hemodynamic

explanation for SIPE susceptibility. Possible explanations for the lower metabolic rate in the

SIPE-susceptible subjects despite similar external work rates include lower baseline oxygen

consumption and differences in the rate of pedaling or in leg diameter, either of which would

affect the work necessary to move the legs through the water.

The elevation in pulmonary vascular pressures during submersion is primarily due to

central redistribution of blood from the extremities,26,19 which engorges the central veins, heart

and pulmonary vessels causing higher intracardiac and intravascular pressures,26-28,21 This

increase is augmented in cold water.20,21 In a normal lung, PAWP that acutely exceeds a critical

value of 18-25 mmHg can cause hydrostatic alveolar edema. 29-31 Pulmonary capillary pressure

has a value between MPAP and PAWP;32 thus, acute elevation in either parameter could cause a

critical pressure at the alveolar interface due to immersion-related blood redistribution.

Several possible explanations could account for an exaggerated increase in pulmonary vascular

pressures in SIPE-susceptible individuals.

1) Higher blood volume. Increased blood volume and the accompanying increase in cardiac

filling pressures are induced by immersion and could be augmented by prior fluid loading,

which, importantly, is sometimes encouraged before exercise, particularly in naval recruits

before swim training.7 However, SIPE has been reported without fluid loading.6 Moreover,

subjects in this experiment did not specifically consume excess fluid before the study.

2) Higher venous tone. This determines the degree to which capacitance vessels in the arms

and splanchnic bed can accommodate blood displaced from the legs. Low venous tone (high

venous capacitance) would allow more blood to be accommodated in these veins and thus

ncrease is augmented in cold water.20,21 In a normal lung, PAWP that acutely exccceeeeeedsdsds aaa cccririritititicacacal

value of 18-25 mmHg can cause hydrostatic alveolar edema. 29-31 Pulmonary capillary pressure

has a a a vavavalululueee bebebetwwweeeeen MPAP and PAWP;32 thus, aaacucucutett elevation in eithererr ppparameter could cause a

crcrcritttiiical pressureee att thehehe aaalllveveveoololararar iiintntnterrrfafafaccce dueee tooo immmmmersssiiioonon-r-r-reelelattteede bbblololoododod rredisisistrtrtribibibutututioioion.nn

Seeeveveverarr l posssssibibible exxpx laaanaaationnns s ccocoulld d d accccooounnttt fofofor ann eexaaaggggggerrratatededd iiincccrereease in pppulululmonananarrry vvasculllarr

prprpresesessussurereresss ininin SSSIPIPIPEEE-sussuscscscepepeptititiblblbleee ininindididiviividuddualalalsss.

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attenuate immersion-related increases in MPAP and PAWP.28 Conversely, high venous tone, due

to increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system 33,34 or mild hypertension,35 would result

in higher blood volume in the heart and intrathoracic vessels due to peripheral to central

redistribution. Indeed, previous studies in our laboratory have demonstrated that pulmonary

artery and pulmonary artery wedge pressures are higher in thermoneutral water compared to the

dry and even higher in cold water.21 Among experimental subjects we observed high variability

in this response (nearly two-fold), consistent with a variable degree of venous tone. Plausibly,

those with a greater increase in pulmonary vascular pressures may represent the subpopulation at

greatest risk for SIPE.36 The reduction in MPAP after sildenafil suggests that there may have

been active vasoconstriction, perhaps due to excessive sympathetic tone, possibly cold-related.

PA compliance was similar between controls and SIPE-susceptibles, and was not affected by

sildenafil, thus does not appear to play a role in SIPE-susceptibility.

3) Impaired left ventricular (LV) systolic function. Transient global myocardial dysfunction

with normal coronary arteries has been reported in cases of SIPE.37,9,5 However, in most cases of

SIPE, resting echocardiography after the event is normal16-18; and indeed, all SIPE-susceptible

subjects in the present study had normal echocardiography, including LV systolic function.

4) Low diastolic LV compliance. While there was no diastolic dysfunction in their dry echo

studies, central blood redistribution in the face of a stiffer left ventricle would lead to a higher

LV end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP), PAWP and PA pressures. In normal individuals exercising

in the dry, end-diastolic volume increases without a change in end-diastolic pressure.38 However,

in individuals who have heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), the greater LV

chamber stiffness causes LVEDP during exercise to increase.39 While none of our volunteers had

clinical heart failure, the analogy is that augmented preload due to immersion in cold water a

been active vasoconstriction, perhaps due to excessive sympathetic tone, possibly y y cococoldldld-r-r-relelelatatatededed.

PA compliance was similar between controls and SIPE-susceptibles, and was not affected by

ildenenenafafafililil, , , thththusuu dddoeoees not appear to play a role in SSSIPIPIPE-susceptibility.

33)3) Impairi ededed leeft tt vevev ntntntririricucuculalalarrr (L(L(LV)V)V) sssyystolill cc funnnctttion.n.n. TTTraraansnsnsieentnn gggllolobababal ff myyyocococaarardididialalal dddysyysfufufuncncnctititiooon

wiwiwiththth nnnormal l l ccoc rooonnan ry arrtr erieees hahah s bebebeennn rrrepepoororteeed inn cccasssesss of f f SIPEPEPE.337,9,5 HHHooweeveveeer, innn mmmostt cccasess oof

SISISIPEPEPE, rererestststinininggg ececechohohocacacardrdrdioioiogrgrgrapapaphyhhy afafafteteterrr thththeee eveevenenenttt isisis nnnororormamamalll16-16 1818;;; anananddd ininindededeededed, alalallll SISISIPEPEPE ss-sussuscececeptptptibibiblelele

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slightly greater left ventricular wall stiffness in SIPE-susceptible individuals could be the cause

of higher LV filling pressure during exercise in cold water. Small increases in E/A and E/e’

ratios in extremely fit athletes have been attributed to LV remodeling due to prolonged

exercise,40 and indeed seven of the 10 SIPE-susceptible subjects in this study were extremely

physically fit. It has been proposed that increased arterial stiffness may predispose to diastolic

dysfunction, especially among women.41-43 We did not observe a difference in Ea between SIPE-

susceptible and control populations during exercise, although sildenafil did induce a statistically

significant reduction in Ea in the SIPE-susceptible group during rest.

Compared to controls, the SIPE-susceptible group had a higher SVR during exercise and

a greater increase in systolic blood pressure during the cold water “dunk,” which is consistent

with an exaggerated peripheral vasoconstrictive response to cold.1 However, since cardiac output

during exercise was lower in the SIPE-susceptible subjects, the calculated SVR values in the two

groups are not directly comparable. When SVR in the control group was model-estimated at the

cardiac output of the SIPE-susceptible group, there was no difference in SVR. Therefore,

although cold exposure augmented afterload effects (blood pressure) to a greater degree in SIPE-

susceptible subjects during the dunk at rest, during exercise the increased MPAP and PAWP in

SIPE-susceptibles could not be attributed to high afterload. It is more likely that higher MPAP

and PAWP in the SIPE-susceptible group during exercise are due to enhanced venoconstriction,

which elicits increased preload, or lower left ventricular diastolic compliance. These effects,

singly or in combination, would cause greater left ventricular filling pressure and hence higher

MPAP and PAWP.

Sildenafil has pharmacological effects that probably account for the reduction in MPAP

and PAWP in SIPE-susceptible individuals during exercise in cold water. A selective inhibitor of

a greater increase in systolic blood pressure during the cold water “dunk,” which isisis ccconononsisisistststenenenttt

with an exaggerated peripheral vasoconstrictive response to cold.1 However, since cardiac output

duriingngng eeexexexercrcrcisii e wawawas lower in the SIPE-susceptiblblblee e sssubjects, the calculatattededed SVR values in the two

gggrouuups are not dddiiireectltltly yy cococompmpmparararababablelele. WWWheen SSSVVRVR inn ttthe cccoonontrtrtrololol ggrororoupupup wwwasaa modododelelel-eeestststimimimatatatededed aaattt thththee

caaardrdrdiaiaiac outptppututu off f thhhe SSSIPPEP -ssuususcecc ptptptibibiblee gggrorr upupup, therre waaas nono diififfefef rrrencncnce ee innn SSVRVRVR. Theerereeeforre,

alalalthththouooughghgh cccolololddd exeexpopoposussurerere aaauggugmemementntntededed aaaftftfterererlololoadadad eeeffffffececectststs (b(b(blololoododod ppprereressssssurrure)e)e) tttooo aaa grgrgreaeaeateteterrr dededegrgrgreeeeee iiinnn SISISIPEPEPE--

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phosphodiesterase-5, sildenafil leads to an increase in intracellular cyclic GMP (cGMP) and

relaxation of vascular smooth muscle, and has a small and transient effect on blood pressure and

systemic vascular resistance.44 In our subjects, sildenafil administration was associated with a

decrease in resting MAP and SVR and an increase in CO. During exercise, sildenafil reduced

pulmonary vascular pressures and PVR, but had no effect on other hemodynamic variables.

Although we did not assess it in this study, others have demonstrated that sildenafil induces an

increase in venous compliance.44 Thus, the sildenafil-induced reduction in pulmonary vascular

pressures observed in this study during submersed exercise is likely due to vasodilatation of both

pulmonary vessels and peripheral veins. This study demonstrated a hemodynamic effect of

sildenafil that may plausibly reduce the likelihood of pulmonary edema in SIPE-susceptible

swimmers.

A multicenter randomized trial in patients with a history of HFpEF failed to observe an

increase in exercise capacity (peak oxygen uptake during an incremental test) in response to

sildenafil treatment.45 However, hemodynamic studies in this population have demonstrated

reduced pulmonary artery pressure, PAWP, increased cardiac index, isovolumic relaxation time,

increased cardiac output and endothelial function.46-48 Whereas in this study we are focusing on

factors that may promote pulmonary edema, there are probably other factors limiting peak

oxygen consumption in chronic heart failure such as deconditioning, on which sildenafil is

unlikely to have an effect. Although we cannot conclude from this study that sildenafil provides

prophylaxis against SIPE, one of our study subjects (subject 3) who had experienced several

episodes of SIPE during triathlons, has had no further episodes since using pre-race sildenafil.

There are several shortcomings of our study. While our subjects were not randomly

selected from the SIPE-susceptible or general population, we believe that the two groups are

ildenafil that may plausibly reduce the likelihood of pulmonary edema in SIPE-susususcscscepepeptititiblblblee e

wimmers.

A AA mumumultl icenenentet r randomized trial in patientststs wwwith a history of HFpEpEpEF failed to observe an

nnncrrrease in exerrrcccisse cccapapapacacacititityy y (p(p(peaeaak k k oxoxo ygyygen uuupttakeee ddduriiingngng aaan nn inii crcrcremmmenenentatatal testtt))) ininin rrresesespopoponsnnseee tototo

iiildldldenenenafil treeeataa meemenntn .45 HHHowevevvererer, ,, heeemomom dydydynamimimic c stududdiesss innn thhhisss pppopoppuuulatata iooon haaveveve demmmonononstrrattted

eeedudducececeddd puppulmlmlmonononararary arararteteteryrry ppprereressssssurerere, PAPAPAWPWPWP, ininincrcrcreaeaeaseseseddd cacacardrdrdiaiaiaccc ininindededex, iiisososovoovolullumimimiccc rererelalalaxaaxatititiononon tttimimimeee,

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similar. In particular, potential subjects with co-morbidities associated with SIPE were excluded.

Further, the hypertensive pulmonary vascular response to exercise in cold water that was

observed in our subjects may likely be even more exaggerated in the general SIPE-susceptible

population, which includes many hypertensives.5 The control group was 90% male, compared to

40% male in the SIPE-susceptible group, raising the possibility that the differences may be due

to a fundamental sex-related phenomenon that is not connected with SIPE-susceptibility. We

believe this is unlikely, as a previous study showed no gender-related effect on MPAP during

rest or exercise in a previous study on 255 males and 101 females.49 The SIPE-susceptible group

may also have been fitter than the controls. While none of the controls had experienced SIPE

while swimming or diving the possibility that some of them by chance may have been SIPE-

susceptible cannot be excluded. However, this is unlikely as in a fit civilian population

(triathletes) only 1-2% report SIPE symptoms.8 Although the immersed exercise protocol was

identical for both groups, pre-exercise measurements were obtained under different conditions

(supine vs. sitting). Thus the congruence of the groups at baseline cannot be established with

absolute certainty. Since it was not possible to randomize the order of the sildenafil

administration we cannot exclude acute adaptation to the cold as the mechanism for post-

sildenafil attenuation of the hemodynamic responses to the dunk and submersed exercise. We

believe this is unlikely because the reduction in intravascular pressures during exercise after

sildenafil was confined to MPAP and PAWP and others have reported constant norepinephrine

response to cold-water (20°C) exposure during repetitive immersions during the same day.50

Furthermore, in our study the change in intravascular pressures during exercise in the second

cold water exposure was confined to MPAP and PAWP, with no effect on systemic blood

pressure. It could be argued that differences in exercise ventilation might have affected PAP and

while swimming or diving the possibility that some of them by chance may have bebebeenenen SSSIPIPIPE-E-E-

usceptible cannot be excluded. However, this is unlikely as in a fit civilian population

triatatthlhlhleteteteseses))) onoo lyyy 111-2- % report SIPE symptoms.8 AAAltltlthohh ugh the immerseddd eeexercise protocol was

dddennntical for bobooththth ggroooupupups,s,s, ppprerere-e-e-e exexercrcrcisisise e mmeasssurururemeenntts wwwererere e obobobtaainininededed uuundndndeer difififfefefereeentntnt ccononondididitititiononons s

ssupupupininine vs. sisisittttinng)g)g). Thhhuusu theee cooongnggrururuenenncecece of f f ththhe e grrouuupsss aaat t baaaseeelilinnne ccananannott beee estss abliliishshshedd wwwith

abababsososolullutetete cccererertatataininintytty. SiSiSincncnceee ititit wasasas nnnototot pppososossisisiblblbleee tototo rrrananandododomimimizeeze ttthehehe ooordrdrdererer ooofff thththeee sisisildldldenenenafafafililil

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PAWP, however both PAP and PVR were lower in the control group despite lower pH, which

would be expected to increase both parameters. While the observed change in PAWP after

sildenafil was not statistically significant, because of the small sample size the possibility that

sildenafil can reduce PAWP in this setting cannot be excluded.

In summary, we have observed that during submerged exercise in cold water, individuals

with a history of swimming-induced pulmonary edema have higher MPAP and PAWP than those

with no such history. We further demonstrated that these pressures can be reduced with a single

50-mg oral dose of sildenafil.

Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to the following experts for their technical

assistance: Albert Boso, Barry Castle, Owen Doar, Tommy Edwards, Eric Schinazi and Aaron

Walker and to the volunteers who were willing to donate their time to participate in the study.

The authors appreciate Kathy Gage’s constructive suggestions on the manuscript. Contributors:

REM, SDM, DFP, JFP, TEW, ADC and JJF contributed to the study concept, design and

conduct, analysis of data and writing of the manuscript. CO, DK and MN participated in the

study conduct and data acquisition. WDW performed the statistical analysis.

Funding Sources: This study was funded by the Divers Alert Network and US Naval Sea

Systems Command Contracts N61331-03-C-0015 and N0463A-07-C-0002.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None.

References: 1. Wilmshurst PT, Nuri M, Crowther A, Webb-Peploe MM. Cold-induced pulmonary oedema in scuba divers and swimmers and subsequent development of hypertension. Lancet. 1989;1:62-55. 2. Adir Y, Shupak A, Gil A, Peled N, Keynan Y, Domachevsky L, Weiler-Ravell D. Swimming-induced pulmonary edema: clinical presentation and serial lung function. Chest. 2004;126:394-399.

Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to the following experts for their techchchnininicacacal l l

assistance: Albert Boso, Barry Castle, Owen Doar, Tommy Edwards, Eric Schinazizii aanddd AAAaron

Walker and to the volunteers who were willing to donate their time to participate in the study.

Thhheee auauau hththorrrss s aapa prrrecececiate Kathy Gage’s constructiveee sssuggestions onn ttthe mmmaananuscript. Contributors:

RRREMM,M SDM, DFDFDFP,PP, JJFPFPFP, TETETEW,W,W, AAADCDCDC aandnnd JJFJFJF cccontrribbbutededed ttto oo thththe ststtudddyy cococonncepppt,t,t, dddesessigigign nn ananand

cocoondndnduct, analylylysiss oof ddataataa anddd wwwritinng gg ooof the mamam nuscsccriptptpt. COCOCO, DKDKDK aaand MMMNN paaarttticipaatatededed inn ttthe

tudddy yy cococondndnducu t anaandd dadadatatta aacccquisitititioioionnn. WDWDWDW ppperererfofoforrmrmedded ttthhheee ststatatatisisisticacaalll annnalalysyssisi .

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3. Lund KL, Mahon RT, Tanen DA, Bakhda S. Swimming-induced pulmonary edema. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;41:251-256.

4. Mahon RT, Kerr S, Amundson D, Parrish JS. Immersion pulmonary edema in special forces combat swimmers. Chest. 2002;122:383-384. 5. Peacher DF, Martina SD, Otteni CE, Wester TE, Potter JF, Moon RE. Immersion pulmonary edema and comorbidities: case series and updated review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2015;47:1128-1134. 6. Shupak A, Weiler-Ravell D, Adir Y, Daskalovic YI, Ramon Y, Kerem D. Pulmonary oedema induced by strenuous swimming: a field study. Respir Physiol. 2000;121:25-31. 7. Weiler-Ravell D, Shupak A, Goldenberg I, Halpern P, Shoshani O, Hirschhorn G, Margulis A. Pulmonary oedema and haemoptysis induced by strenuous swimming. BMJ. 1995;311:361-362.

8. Miller CC, 3rd, Calder-Becker K, Modave F. Swimming-induced pulmonary edema in triathletes. Am J Emerg Med. 2010;28:941-946.

9. Cochard G, Arvieux J, Lacour JM, Madouas G, Mongredien H, Arvieux CC. Pulmonary edema in scuba divers: recurrence and fatal outcome. Undersea Hyperb Med. 2005;32:39-44. 10. Slade JB, Jr., Hattori T, Ray CS, Bove AA, Cianci P. Pulmonary edema associated with scuba diving: case reports and review. Chest. 2001;120:1686-1694. 11. Hampson NB, Dunford RG. Pulmonary edema of scuba divers. Undersea Hyperb Med. 1997;24:29-33. 12. Koehle MS, Lepawsky M, McKenzie DC. Pulmonary oedema of immersion. Sports Med. 2005;35:183-190. 13. Thorsen E, Skogstad M, Reed JW. Subacute effects of inspiratory resistive loading and head-out water immersion on pulmonary function. Undersea Hyperb Med. 1999;26:137-141. 14. Casey H, Dastidar AG, MacIver D. Swimming-induced pulmonary oedema in two triathletes: a novel pathophysiological explanation. J R Soc Med. 2014;107:450-452. 15. Gempp E, Demaistre S, Louge P. Hypertension is predictive of recurrent immersion pulmonary edema in scuba divers. Int J Cardiol. 2014;172:528-529. 16. Gempp E, Louge P, Henckes A, Demaistre S, Heno P, Blatteau JE. Reversible myocardial dysfunction and clinical outcome in scuba divers with immersion pulmonary edema. Am J Cardiol. 2013;111:1655-1659. 17. Ludwig BB, Mahon RT, Schwartzman EL. Cardiopulmonary function after recovery from swimming-induced pulmonary edema. Clin J Sport Med. 2006;16:348-351.

riathletes. Am J Emerg Med. 2010;28:941 946.

9. Cochard G, Arvieux J, Lacour JM, Madouas G, Mongredien H, Arvieux CC. PPulululmomomonananaryryry edema in scuba divers: recurrence and fatal outcome. Undersea Hyperb Med. 2005;32:39-44.

10. SlSlSladadade ee JBJBJB,,, Jr.,,, HHHattori T, Ray CS, Bove AA, CiCiCianananci P. Pulmonary edddemmma associated with cccubububaa divinggg::: case reports and review. Chest. 2001;120:1686-169994.44

1111 . Hampson NBBB, Dunfnnford RGRGRG. Pulmonoonary edddemaa ooof scucucubababa dddiveeersss. Undedderseaeaea Hypeeerbbb MeMeed.1999979797;2;2; 4:29-3-3-33.3

121212. KoKoKoehehehlelele MMMSSS, LLLepepepawaawsksksky MMM, MMMcKcKcKenenenziizieee DCDCDC. PuPPulmlmlmonononararary oeoeoedededemamama ooofff imimimmememersrsrsioioionnn. SpSSportstts MMMedded.

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3888. NNNonogii HHH, Hess OM, Ritter M, Krayenbuehl HHHPPP. Diastolic prprpropoo erties of the normal left vvvenntntricle duriinggg suupininine exexexererercicicisesese. BrBrBr HHHeeaeart JJJ... 1119888;6660:3330-0-0-383838.

3999. .. BBBorlaug g g BABB ,, Jaaaberrr WWAW , OmOmOmmeeen nn SRSRSR, ,, Laaam mm CSS, RRRedfdfdfiiielddd MMMMMM, NNNisisishiiimmuraaa RRRA. DDDiaiaiastooliiic elaxaxaatititiononon aand cccomomplplpliaiiancncee e reseeervrvrveee duringngng dddynynynamammiicic exxexererrcicicissse iiinnn heearararttt fafaailiilururee e wiwiiththth ppprrreservrrvedded

ejejejececectititiononon fffrararactctctioioionnn. HHeHearttt. 2220101011;1;1;979797:9:9:9646464 99-9696969.

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5000. CCCastellaninini JW, Youngg AJ, Sawka MN, Pandolllf KKB. Human thththeeermoregulatoryy responses dduduririring serial coooldldld-wwatatatererer iiimmmmmmererer isisioonons.ss J JJ AApplplpl PPPhysiioll (191919858585).)) 1119999998;8;858585:22204004-2090909..

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Clinical Perspective:

Immersion pulmonary edema (IPE), also known as swimming-induced pulmonary edema (SIPE),

occurs during surface swimming or scuba diving in susceptible individuals who are often young

and healthy. SIPE usually resolves spontaneously within 24 hours, or with 2 adrenergic agonist

or diuretic therapy, but it can be fatal. Some individuals have risk factors for SIPE that include

cold water exposure, heavy exertion, fluid loading, hypertension, valve disease and

cardiomyopathy. The pathophysiology of SIPE is not fully understood but indirect evidence

suggests that it is a form of hemodynamic pulmonary edema caused by an exaggerated increase

in pulmonary vascular pressures in response to exercise and immersion in water, especially in the

cold. In this study a group of individuals with a history of SIPE and a control group without

SIPE were studied during immersed exercise in 20°C water with invasive monitoring of radial

and pulmonary artery pressures. Valve disease, cardiomyopathy and ischemic heart disease had

been excluded. We confirmed that arterial, pulmonary artery and pulmonary artery wedge

pressures were higher in SIPE-susceptible individuals. Mechanisms for the higher pulmonary

vascular pressures could include higher blood volume, augmented venous tone and reduced

diastolic left ventricular compliance. We further showed that these pressures were reduced by a

single oral dose of sildenafil 50 mg, suggesting that sildenafil should be investigated as a

possible prophylactic drug.

n pulmonary vascular pressures in response to exercise and immersion in water, eeespspspecececiaiaialllllly y y ininin the

cold. In this study a group of individuals with a history of SIPE and a control group without

SIPEEE wwwererereee stststuduu ieeed d d during immersed exercise in 202020°C°° water with invasiiiveveve monitoring of radial

ananandd d pulmonary yy aara tteryryy prereressssssururureseses. VaVaValvlvlveee ddiseaaaseee, caardddiommmyyoyopapapaththt y y annnddd isisschcchemicicic hhheaeaartrtrt ddisisseaee sesese hhhadadad

beeeenenen excludededed.dd WWWee e cooonfffirmeeed ththt at aaartr eeeriiaial,, pupupulml oonaaaryy y arararterrry andndnd pppulullmoom nnaryyy aaartrr eryyy wwweddgeee

prprpresesessussurereresss weewererere hhhigigigheheherrr ininin SSSIPIPIPEEE-sussuscscscepepeptititiblblbleee iiindndndiviividididuaaualslsls. MeMeMechchchanananisisismsmsms fffororor ttthehehe hhhigigigheheherrr puppulmlmlmonononararary

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Table 1. SIPE-Susceptible Subject Recruitment.

Summary N Volunteers screened 71 Excluded 53 Exceeded maximum age (55 years) 18 Uncontrolled hypertension 5 Asthma 4 Diabetes 1 Other medical* 5 Insufficient information to determine eligibility 23 No past SIPE history (misunderstood study criteria) 1 Eligible volunteers 18 Declined to participate 8 Volunteers studied 10 *Pulmonary hypertension (2), sleep apnea and obesity (1)

Table 2. Subject Characteristics.

SIPE-Susceptible Control P N 10 20 Age (y) 41.6±7.8 36.2±8.3 0.09 BMI (kg.m-2) 25.7±3.9 26.0±2.2 0.8 M/F 4/6 18/2 0.007 Race 1.0

White 10 19 African American 0 1

Results shown as mean±SD. BMI, body mass index.

Table 2. Subject Characteristics.

SIPE-Susceptible Control PN 10 222000 AAgAgeee (y) 4144 .6.6.6±7±7±7.8 3336..2±2±2±8.3 0.00 090909 BMBMBMI (kg.m-2) 2225.777±333.9 26.0±00±2.222 000.8 MMM/FF F 4///666 1888//2 0.007 Racecece 111.0 00

WhWhWhitititeee 101010 111999

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Table 3. Subjects with Previous SIPE.

Subj. #

Age (y)

Sex Ht. (m)

Wt. (kg)

BMI (kg/m2)

History

1 37 M 1.85 98.8 28.7 Closed circuit rebreather diver, marathon runner; developed shortness of breath and cough during a dive to 43 m. In-hospital SpO2 was 95% on 4 L/min O2. Chest radiograph – pulmonary edema. Echo – no valve disease, mild LVH. Normal systolic and diastolic properties. EKG – intraventricular conduction defect. Stress echo (Bruce stage 5, maximum HR 173 bpm) normal.

2 45 M 1.78 93.0 29.4 Triathlete and recreational diver. Bicycle exercise – up to 145 km at least once a week and then 48-64 km 2-3 other times. Plays soccer 3-4 times a week or swims 1.6 km or runs 8-10 km. Meds – mirtazapine, escitalopram, buproprion. Previous exertional asthma. Recreational diver. Dived to 32 m for 29 minutes breathing 30% O2. During decompression, developed coughing and dyspnea. Chest x-ray – pulmonary edema. EKG – incomplete RBBB. Normal troponin and BNP 83.5. Stress echo normal (17.2 METs), including diastolic function.

3 47 F 1.63 58.9 22.3 Triathlete with 5 episodes of immersion pulmonary edema. Treated for mild hypertension with candesartan 16 mg/day. Stress echo (Bruce stage 7, maximum HR 190 bpm) normal. Took candesartan before study and BP was normal.

4 33 F 1.70 72.6 25.1 Triathlete with 5-6 episodes of immersion pulmonary edema. One occasion, SpO2 92% RA with bilateral pulmonary edema on chest x-ray and CT. EKG normal. Echo normal, no LVH. RV normal. No valve disease. Slight MR. Several months after the study, diagnosed with mild hyperthyroidism.

5 37 M 1.82 86.8 26.3 Two episodes of immersion pulmonary edema during triathlons, 2 episodes while scuba diving. Trivial MR, normal systolic function. Mild LVH. Coronary angiography normal.

6 49 F 1.60 53.2 20.8 Experienced SIPE while windsurfing after falling off her board into cold water, after which she experienced dyspnea and began coughing up pink frothy sputum. Admitted to hospital, with hypoxemia and pulmonary edema. Troponin-I peaked at 0.42 ng/mL (normal 0-0.05). EKG normal except for possible left atrial enlargement. ProBNP reached a high of 351 pg/mL (normal 0-124) the day after admission. Stress echo (Bruce stage 5, peak HR 173 bpm) normal. Transthoracic echocardiography normal with no wall motion abnormalities. LV thickness normal.

7 35 M 1.78 84.5 26.7 Scuba diver with multiple episodes of cough that produced pink sputum during descent or level swimming underwater. Stress echo (15.4 METs) normal. Normal diastolic function. Trivial MR and TR.

y p y ptroponin and BNP 83.5. Stress echo normaaalll (1(1(17.77 2 2 2 MEMEMETsTsTs),)) including diastolic function.

3 47 F 1.63 58.9 22.3 Triathlete with 5 episodes of immersion pulmonary edema.Treated for mild hypertension with candesartan 16 mg/dayStress eechchcho (Bruce stage 7, maxixiximumm m HR 190 bpm) normaTook caaanddesartan before stss udy ananand BP was normal.

44 4 33 FFF 111 77.70 0 0 7277 .6.66 25.5.5.111 TrTrTriaiaiathleeteee witth h h 5-5-5-666 epee isisisodododeseses oof f f imimimmersrsrsioioion n n pupupulmmmonononararary y y edddeemema. OOne oooccccasssioioion, SSSpOOO2 92%2% RAAA wwwith bbbilllataa errralll puuulmmmonnarrry edddememema onnn chhhessst x-raaay andndnd CCCT. EKGKGKG nnorrrmal.. EEEchohoho nooro mmamall,l, nnnoo o LVLVLVH.HH RRRVVV nonn rmrmrmala . NoNoNo vvvalallveveve disseaeaeases . SSSligigighMRMRMR. SeS veral monthshh after the studyd , diiaggnosed with mild hhhyperthhhyroidididiiism.

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8 53 F 1.68 57.3 20.4 Scuba diver and triathlete. Four episodes of SIPE (2 each during scuba and triathlons) with dyspnea, productive cough while swimming or diving. Nuclear stress test to maximum HR 169 bpm negative for ischemia. Normal EF. Echo normal. Mild TR and PR. LVEF >55%.

9 49 F 1.73 73.5 24.6 Triathlete with 5 or more episodes of cough, dyspnea and some pink-tinged sputum during swim portion. LVEF 59%. Exercise EKG to 13.8 METs with nuclear imaging negative for ischemia.

10 31 F 1.73 97.1 32.5 PDA closure at age 5 months. Teaching water aerobics 40 minutes a week. Training for decathlon. Regular kick boxing, biking and running (total running+biking 5-6 hours per week). SIPE during her first swim in cold water in preparation for a triathlon. In-hospital SpO2 was 83%. Chest x-ray and CT scan – pulmonary edema. Echo – normal LV function with no evidence of valve disease. Serum troponin I, BNP and EKG normal.

BNP brain natriuretic peptide; LV, left ventricle; LVEF, LV ejection fraction; LVH, left ventricular hypertrophy; RV, right ventricle; MR, mitral regurgitation; PDA, patent ductus arteriosus; ProBNP, pro-brain natriuretic peptide; RA, room air; RBBB, right bundle branch block; TR, tricuspid regurgitation. RA, room air; RBBB, right bundle branch block; TR, tricuspid regurgitation.

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Table 4. Resting, Supine Characteristics of SIPE Subjects in the Dry. Pre-Sildenafil Post-Sildenafil P HR (bpm) 63.4±14.9 71.5±16.0 0.0141* CO (L.min-1) 6.1±1.2 8.1±2.1 0.0053* MAP (mmHg) 99.2±10.6 93.0±9.8 0.0233* MPAP (mmHg) 18.8±4.1 17.2±4.2 0.2 PAWP (mmHg) 13.0±3.2 12.9±4.6 0.7 CVP (mmHg) 7.8±2.6 6.6±5.2 0.3 SVR (dyn.s.cm-5) 1249±226 915±258 0.0007* PVR (dyn.s.cm-5) 78±27 49±14 0.0170* Ea (mmHg.mL-1) 1.37±0.40 1.11±0.29 0.0119* CPA (mL.mmHg-1) 6.25±2.06 8.78±3.08 0.0121* Results shown as mean±SD. *Statistically significant when compared to pre-sildenafil. CO, cardiac output; MAP, mean arterial pressure; MPAP, mean pulmonary artery pressure; PAWP, pulmonary artery wedge pressure; CVP, central venous pressure; SVR, systemic vascular resistance; PVR, pulmonary vascular resistance; Ea, effective arterial elastance, CPA, pulmonary artery compliance (see Methods).

Table 5. Hemodynamic Effects of Rapid Submersion in 20°C Water (“Dunk”) in All Subjects. P values Variable Controls SIPE-

Susceptible Pre-Sildenafil

SIPE- Susceptible

Post-Sildenafil

Pre-S vs. C

Post-S vs. C

Post-S vs.Pre-S

HR (bpm) 93.7±25.8 85.2±16.0 88.8±16.9 0.6 0.8 0.2 SBP (mmHg) 195.4±28.9 224.3±28.3 204.8±28.3 0.06 0.7 0.0008* DBP (mmHg) 94.0±9.3 94.8±13.5 86.6±9.3 1.0 0.3 0.0261* MAP (mmHg) 125.2±13.0 133.5±13.9 123.9±12.7 0.4 1.0 0.0026* MPAP (mmHg) 21.7±3.4 29.2±6.0 24.6±4.1 0.0032* 0.4 0.0219* PAWP (mmHg) 13.5±4.1 18.1±3.9 15.8±5.1 0.07 0.5 0.1 CVP (mmHg) 6.9±3.5 10.2±3.6 7.1±3.2 0.1 1.0 0.0404* Results are shown as mean±SD. *Statistically significant. HR, heart rate; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; MAP, mean arterial pressure; MPAP, mean pulmonary artery pressure; PAWP, pulmonary artery wedge pressure; CVP, central venous pressure.

esistance; Ea, effective arterial elastance, CPA, pulmonary artery compliance (see Methods).

Table 5. Hemodynamic Effects of Rapid Submersion in 20°C Water (“Dunk”) in All Subjects.

P values VVaVarrir able CCCononontrtrtrololols SISISIPEPEPE--

SuSuSuscepeeptibllle Pre-e-e-Siiilddenaaafiiil

SISIIPEPEPE---SSSuscscscepepeptititibblb e

PoPoPost-S-S-Sililildededennnafilll

PrPrPre-e-e-SSSvs. CC

PoPoPoststst-S-S-S vvvs. CCC

PoPooststst-S-SS vvvs.ssPrPrPre-SSS

HRRR (((bpbpbpm)m)m) 939393.7.7±2±2±25.888 8885.222±1±1±16.6.6.000 888888.8.8.8±1±1±16.66 9 9 9 0.0.0.666 0.0.0.888 0.0.0 222SBSBSBPPP (m(m(mmHmHmHg)g)g) 191919555.4±4±4±282828 99.9 222242424 33.3±2±2±2888.333 202020444.8±8±8±282828 33.3 000 00.0666 000.777 000.000000080808*DBP ( H ) 94 0±9 3 94 8±13 5 86 6±9 3 1 0 0 3 0 0261*

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Table 6. Hemodynamics and Gas Exchange Measurements in Controls and SIPE Subjects During Exercise, Unadjusted for Cardiac Output.

P values Controls SIPE-Susceptible

Pre-Sildenafil SIPE-Susceptible

Post-Sildenafil Pre-S vs. C

Post-S vs. C

Post-S vs. Pre-S

External Work (W)† 107.8±25.5 112.5±37.7 112.5±37.7 0.9 0.9 1.0 VO2 (L.min-1 STPD) 2.42±0.46 1.95±0.52 1.97±0.57 0.06 0.07 0.6 VO2 (L.min-1 STPD.kg-1) 29.1±4.6 25.6±5.7 25.9±6.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 VE (L.min-1 BTPS) 81.9±20.1 59.4±25.0 61.0±23.9 0.04 0.06 0.2 Vt (L BTPS) 2.85±0.50 2.12±0.63 2.20±0.51 0.0036* 0.0103* 0.3 Vf (breaths.min-1) 29.5±8.2 28.6±7.8 27.8±6.9 1.0 0.8 0.4 HR (bpm) 143.4±20.4 134.6±22.6 137.8±19.5 0.5 0.8 0.1 CO (L.min-1) 17.9±3.4 13.8±2.6 14.8±4.0 0.01* 0.06 0.1 Stroke volume (mL) 126.4±26.4 105.7±31.2 109.2±34.9 0.2 0.3 0.3 MAP (mmHg) 126.2±12.0 129.6±14.7 128.1±13.3 0.8 0.9 0.7 MPAP (mmHg) 27.2±6.2 34.0±5.7 29.4±7.2 0.02 0.6 0.0208* PAWP (mmHg) 13.1±5.0 18.9±5.5 16.9±6.2 0.03 0.2 0.1 CVP (mmHg) 7.1±5.4 7.8±5.1 5.3±3.3 0.9 0.6 0.3 SVR (dyn.s.cm 5) 546±107 724±138 710±211 0.0106* 0.02 0.6 PVR (dyn.s.cm 5) 62.6±15.1 84.2±22.4 69.3±24.8 0.03 0.7 0.0198* CPA (mL.mmHg-1) 4.00±0.82 3.38±0.75 3.74±0.94 0.2 0.7 0.1 Ea (mmHg.mL-1) 1.48±0.38 1.79±0.41 1.79±0.50 0.06 0.07 0.9 PaO2 (mmHg) 107.9±8.9 102.1±8.0 99.2±5.1 0.15 0.02 0.0337* PaCO2 (mmHg) 30.7±4.6 36.0±5.1 35.7±4.7 0.02 0.03 0.7 Arterial pH 7.31±0.05 7.35±0.03 7.36±0.03 0.07 0.0087* 0.02* Results shown as mean±SD. †Not including resistive work due to motion of legs through the water, which adds approximately 50 W. * Statistically significant. VO2, oxygen consumption; VE, respiratory minute volume; Vt, tidal volume; Vf, ventilatory frequency; HR, heart rate; CO, cardiac output; MAP, mean arterial pressure; CVP, central venous pressure; SVR, systemic vascular resistance; PVR, pulmonary vascular resistance; PaO2, PaCO2, arterial PO2 and PCO2, respectively (see Methods).

L.min BTPS) 81.9±20.1 59.4±25.0 61.0±23.9 0.04 000.0. 6 0.2L BTPS) 2.85±0.50 2.12±0.63 2.20±0.51 0.0036* 0.0.0.010101030303*** 0.3

reaths.min-1) 29.5±8.2 28.6±7.8 27.8±6.9 1.0 000.8.88 000.4.4.bpm) 143.4±20.4 134.6±22.6 137.8±19.5 0.5 0.8 0.1L.min-1) 17.9±3.4 13.8±2.6 14.8±4.0 0.01* 0.06 0.1ke volume (mL) 126.4±26.4 105.7±31.2 109.2±34.9 0.2 0.3 0.3P (mmHmHmHg)g)g) 126.2±12.0 129.6±14.7 128.1±13.3 0.8 0.9 0.7AP (((mmmmmmHg) 27.2±6.2 34.0±5.7 29.4±7.2 0.02 0.6 0.020

PWPWP (mmmm Hg) 131313.1.1±5±5±5.0.. 111888.9±99 5.5.5.555 161616.9.9.9±6.2.22 0.03 0.2 0.1(mmHm g) 7.1±1±1±555.444 7.77 ±±8 5.1 .5.3±3±3±3.3 0.999 0.66 6 0.00 3(d(( ynyy .s.cm 5) 5455 6±66 10777 22724±±4 13888 7171710±0±0±211 0.00 0111 6606* 0.0.0 02 000.6(d(d(d nnyn.s.cm 5) 6266 66.6±15.111 4484.2±2± 2.444 69 33.3±2±± 4.8 88 0.0300 000.7 000 00.019

LLmL.m.m.mmHmHmHggg-11))) 4.44 0000±0± .8222 3.38383 ±0±0±0.7.7.7555 33.3.747474±0±0±0.99444 0.222 0.7 7 7 0.0.0.11mmHg.mLL-111) 1.48±0.38 1.79±0.411 1.79±0.50 0.06 0.07 0.9

(((mmHHg))) 101010777.999±888.999 101010222.111±888.000 999999 22.2 55±5 11.1 000 11.1555 000.020202 000 00.03333333

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27

Figure Legend:

Figure 1. Mean PAP and PAWP vs cardiac output. Control subjects were studied at rest and

during exercise, while SIPE-susceptible subjects were studied only during exercise. Accounting

for differences in cardiac output, mean PAP and PAWP were significantly higher in the SIPE-

susceptible group compared to controls (P=0.004 and P=0.028, respectively). After sildenafil,

mean PAP was significantly reduced (P=0.025). During the post-sildenafil exercise, neither mean

PAP nor PAWP was significantly different from controls. PAP, pulmonary artery pressure;

PAWP, pulmonary artery wedge pressure.

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FreibergerD. Cherry, Michael J. Natoli, Claire E. Otteni, Dawn N. Kernagis, William D. White and John J.

Richard E. Moon, Stefanie D. Martina, Dionne F. Peacher, Jennifer F. Potter, Tracy E. Wester, AnneSwimming-Induced Pulmonary Edema: Pathophysiology and Risk Reduction With Sildenafil

Print ISSN: 0009-7322. Online ISSN: 1524-4539 Copyright © 2016 American Heart Association, Inc. All rights reserved.

is published by the American Heart Association, 7272 Greenville Avenue, Dallas, TX 75231Circulation published online February 16, 2016;Circulation. 

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12 Circulation Mayo 2016

Edema pulmonar inducido por la nataciónFisiopatología y reducción del riesgo con sildenafil

Richard E. Moon, MD; Stefanie D. Martina, BS; Dionne F. Peacher, MD;Jennifer F. Potter, MD; Tracy E. Wester, MD; Anne D. Cherry, MD; Michael J. Natoli, M Eng;

Claire E. Otteni, DO; Dawn N. Kernagis, PhD; William D. White, MPH; John J. Freiberger, MD

Antecedentes — El edema pulmonar inducido por la natación (EPIN) se produce durante la natación o el buceo, a menudo en individuos jóvenes sin entidades predisponentes, y su fisiopatología se comprende escasamente. Este estudio probó la hipótesis de que las presiones de la arteria pulmonar y la presión de enclavamiento de la arteria pulmonar (presión wedge) son más altas en los individuos susceptibles a EPIN durante el ejercicio sumergido que en la población general y se redu-cen con sildenafil.

Métodos y resultados – En 10 sujetos en estudio con un antecedente de EPIN (edad promedio, 41.6 años) y 20 sujetos control (edad promedio, 36.2 años) fueron instrumentados con catéteres en la arteria radial y arteria pulmonar, y realizaron un ciclo de ejercicio ergométrico moderado durante seis a siete minutos mientras estaban sumergidos en agua a 20 °C. Los sujetos susceptibles a EPIN repitieron el ejercicio 150 minutos después de la administración oral de 50 mg de sildenafil. El ritmo de trabajo y la presión arterial promedio durante el ejercicio fueron similares en los controles en los sujetos sus-ceptibles de EPIN. La V̇o2 promedio y el volumen minuto cardíaco en los controles y en los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN fueron: V̇o2 2,42 L•min-1 versus 1,95 L•min-1; P = 0,2; y el volumen minuto cardíaco 17,9 L•min-1 versus 13,8 L•min-1; P = 0,01. Representando las diferencias en el gasto cardíaco entre los grupos, la presión de la arteria pulmonar promedio en el gasto cardíaco = 13,8 L·min-1 fue de 22,5 mm Hg en los controles versus 34,0 mm Hg en los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN (P = 0,004), y la presión de enclavamiento de la arteria pulmonar correspondiente fue de 11,0 mm Hg versus 18,8 mm Hg (P = 0,028). Después del sildenafil, no hubo diferencias estadísticamente significativas en la presión de la arteria pulmonar promedio o la presión de enclavamiento de la arteria pulmonar entre los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN y los controles.

Conclusiones — Estas observaciones confirman que el EPIN es una forma de edema pulmonar hemodinámico. La reducción en las presiones vasculares pulmonares después del sildenafil sin efectos adversos sobre la hemodinámica del ejercicio sugiere que puede ser útil en la prevención de EPIN.

Registro del estudio clínico — URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Identificador único: NCT00815646.(Circulation. 2016;133:988-996. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.019464.)

Palabras clave: buceo ◼ hemodinamia ◼ inmersión ◼ circulación pulmonar ◼ edema pulmonar ◼ natación

Recibido el 11 de septiembre de 2015; aceptado el 15 de enero de 2016.Del Department of Anesthesiology, and Center for Hyperbaric Medicine & Environmental Physiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC

(R.E.M., S.D.M., D.F.P., J.F.P., T.E.W., A.D.C., M.J.N., C.E.O., D.N.K., W.D.W., J.J.F.); Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Dur-ham, NC (R.E.M.); Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (D.F.P.); Department of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville (J.F.P.); Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston (T.E.W.); Delaware County Memorial Hospital, Drexel Hill, PA (C.E.O.); and Institute for Human & Machine Cognition, Pensacola, FL (D.N.K.).

Correspondencia a Richard E. Moon, MD, Duke University Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology, Box 3094, Durham, NC 27710. Correo electrónico: [email protected]

© 2016 American Heart Association, Inc.Circulation está disponible en http://circ.ahajournals.org

12DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.019464

Fisiología del ejercicio

Perspectiva clínica en p 20El edema pulmonar por inmersión, también conocido como edema pulmonar inducido por la natación (EPIN),

es una entidad en la que se desarrolla tos, disnea, hemoptisis e hipoxemia nadando en la superficie o buceando, a menudo en individuos jóvenes, sanos. Wilmshurst et al1 describieron primero EPIN en 11 buceadores recreativos sanos. Si bien primero creyeron que era extremadamente raro, se han pu-blicado desde aquel momento 300 casos, que incluyen varios que describen el síndrome en reclutas militares sanos durante natación agotadora.2–7 Entre los reclutas militares, su preva-lencia en estudios de natación en mar abierto de 2,4- a 3,6-km se comunicaron entre el 1,8% y el 60%, dependiendo de la severidad.2,6 En triatletas, el 1,4% ha comunicado síntomas compatibles con EPIN. 8

Habitualmente el EPIN se resuelve en forma espontánea dentro de las 24 horas, o con agonistas β2-adrenérgicos o tra-

tamiento diurético, pero puede ser fatal.9,10 Los individuos que desarrollan EPIN a menudo tienen recurrencias en las mismas condiciones.1,2,6,11,12 Los factores de riesgo propuestos para EPIN incluyen agua fría,1,11,12 sobrecarga pulmonar estática ne-gativa,5,13 esfuerzo excesivo,4,6,7,11,12 sobrecarga líquida7 y baja capacidad vital.6 Muchos de quienes experimentan EPIN tie-nen hipertensión crónica o la desarrollan más tarde,1,8,14–16 pero numerosos casos se producen en individuos sin hipertensión, especialmente reclutas militares jóvenes, que se sometieron a selección médica cuidadosa.2–7

La fisiopatología de EPIN no está totalmente comprendi-da. En un estudio, un análisis de muestras obtenidas a través de lavado broncoalveolar descartó un proceso inflamatorio.17 Algunos casos de EPIN parecen haberse precipitado por dis-

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Moon y cols Edema pulmonar inducido por la natación 13

función ventricular5,9 y, en efecto, se han descripto anorma-lidades cardíacas transitorias inmediatamente después de un evento.16 Sin embargo, en la mayoría de los casos, la función cardíaca durante la recuperación es normal.5,10–12,14,16–18 Una causa hemodinámica no puede ser razonablemente excluida sobre la base de las mediciones en reposo post hoc en tierra fir-me, en particular en vista de ambos fundamentos plausibles de evidencias fisiológicas y observacionales. Durante la inmer-sión en agua, se produce una redistribución central de sangre desde las extremidades19 y aumenta cuando el agua es fría.20 La congestión resultante de las venas centrales, corazón y va-sos pulmonares causa presiones intravasculares aumentadas del lado derecho. 21 Wilmshurst y colaboradores1 demostraron que un incremento mayor de la resistencia vascular en el an-tebrazo en respuesta a la exposición de la cabeza y el cuello al agua fría es mayor en los individuos susceptibles de EPIN que en los sujetos control. Los autores propusieron que el edema pulmonar hidrostático se produce en individuos susceptibles debido a la combinación de la redistribución central de san-gre inducida por la inmersión y el aumento idiosincrático, en respuesta atribuible al frío, de la poscarga. Cuando se nada en posición de decúbito lateral, el edema predominantemente unilateral se produce en el pulmón dependiente, lo que sugiere un mecanismo hemodinámico.3,4

Este estudio fue realizado para avanzar en la comprensión de la patogenia de EPIN para probar la hipótesis de que los individuos susceptibles a EPIN tienen presiones de la arteria pulmonar promedio más alta (PAPP) y presión de enclava-miento de la arteria pulmonar (PEAP) durante el ejercicio en agua fría en comparación con la población general. También probamos si el sildenafil de manera profiláctica puede atenuar el incremento, con el objetivo de reducir el riesgo de EPIN.

Métodos

Sujetos Después de la aprobación institucional y el consentimiento informa-do, 10 individuos sanos de 18 a 55 años de edad, con antecedentes de ≥ 1 episodio de EPIN, fueron reclutados a partir de un grupo de 71 que fueron seleccionados para el estudio (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00815646). Se compararon los hallazgos con 20 controles que no tenían antecedentes de EPIN y que habían participado en otros es-tudios aprobados por el comité de revisión institucional, que, en parte habían sido previamente comunicados.21,22 Todos los sujetos tenían un examen físico normal, radiografía de tórax, espirometría (capacidad vital forzada; volumen espiratorio forzado en el primer segundo de la espiración y flujo espiratorio forzado, fase media espiratoria) y un ECG de 12 derivaciones. Antes del reclutamiento, nueve sujetos EPIN habían sido evaluados en busca de enfermedad coronaria a través del uso de un ecocardiograma de estrés con ejercicio, imágenes nuclea-res o angiografía coronaria. Para los sujetos control, los criterios de exclusión fueron enfermedad cardiovascular, espirometría anormal (capacidad vital forzada; volumen espiratorio forzado en el primer segundo de expiración y flujo espiratorio forzado, fase media espira-toria), consumo máximo de oxígeno (V̇o2 máx) < 30 mL•kg-1•min-1, grasa corporal estimada > 3% más alta que los límites superiores de acuerdo con sexo y edad, ECG normal, edad > 55 años o embarazo. Las mismas exclusiones, con excepción del criterio de grasa corporal, se aplicaron a los sujetos EPIN. Los sujetos EPIN con un antecedente de hipertensión leve fueron admitidos en el estudio si la presión arte-rial estaba normal mientras recibía medicación.

Instrumentación Los métodos fueron descriptos previamente.21,22 Brevemente, en la mañana del estudio, cada sujeto era instrumentado con catéteres en la arteria radial y en la arteria pulmonar colocados a través de una

vena antecubital o del brazo. La colocación de la punta del catéter en la arteria pulmonar se confirmaba a través de radiografía. Los transductores de presión (Hospira, Lake Forest, IL) fueron calibra-dos inmediatamente antes de cada carrera, con el uso de un calibre aneroide que fue precalibrado frente a un manómetro de mercurio. Todas las señales fueron digitalizadas con un tablero de adquisición de datos (PCI 6014, National Instruments, Austin, TX) y registrado en un computadora personal utilizando Labview (version 6.1, National Instruments, Austin, TX).

ProtocoloEl día antes del estudio, la capacidad de cada sujeto para realizar ejercicio en seco fue probada en una bicicleta ergométrica durante 12 minutos hasta un máximo de 150 W. Luego los sujetos eran fa-miliarizados con el ambiente de la inmersión ejercitando durante 9 a 12 minutos en el agua hasta un máximo de 125 W de poder externo.

El día del estudio, los sujetos EPIN primero fueron evaluados en posición supina y en reposo en seco. Las mediciones en reposo con los sujetos controles fueron llevadas a cabo en posición erecta (sen-tados en una bicicleta de ejercicio) con los transductores colocados 5 cm abajo del ángulo esternal. Para medir el efecto hemodinámico de la inmersión rápida, 10 de los sujetos control y todos los sujetos EPIN fueron colocados en posición prona en una camilla de rescate respirando a través de un regulador de buceo y sumergidos tan rápido como fuera posible en agua fría durante 2 a 3 minutos (zambullida; ver Figura 1 en Wester et al21). Se midieron la frecuencia cardíaca, presión arterial media, PAPP y PEAP inmediatamente antes de la in-mersión y un minuto después de esta. Durante esta maniobra pre ejer-cicio, los transductores de presión fueron ubicados a nivel de la mitad del tórax del sujeto hasta que el sujeto tocara el agua. En el agua la posición del transductor se mantenía a nivel de la superficie del agua. Durante el ejercicio bajo el agua, el nivel del transductor era ubicado a nivel de la superficie del agua. Las presiones fueron promediadas durante varios ciclos respiratorios. La elastancia arterial efectiva se calculó como (2 × Psis+Pdia)/(3 × volumen sistólico),23 donde Psis y Pdia representan las presiones arteriales sistólica y diastólica. La com-pliance de la arteria pulmonar se calculó como volumen sistólico/presión del pulso de la arteria pulmonar.24

Luego se realizó ejercicio sobre un ciclo ergométrico, con frenos electrónicos durante seis minutos a 60 rpm en posición prona y total-mente sumergido a una profundidad de ≈50 cm en una piscina (volu-men, 4,42 m3) llena con agua de 18 °C a 20 °C, como previamente se describió.21 La tasa de trabajo externo se establecía de acuerdo con la capacidad de ejercicio estimada de cada sujeto, que era comúnmente 100 a 125 W (150–175 W tasa de trabajo total, que incluye el trabajo de movimiento de piernas en el agua, previamente estimado como 50 W). La frecuencia cardíaca, presión arterial promedio, PAPP y PEAP fueron medidas inmediatamente antes del minuto 6 de ejercicio. En los sujetos de control, también se tomaron mediciones en reposo, va-rios minutos después de la inmersión. Las mediciones en reposo no fueron obtenidas en los sujetos EPIN para minimizar el tiempo de exposición al agua fría y el riesgo de EPIN.

El volumen de gas espirado se recogió en bolsas de Douglas duran-te un minuto en el quinto y sexto minutos de ejercicio, y el volumen de cada medición utilizó un gasómetro calibrado (modelo DTM 325-4, American Meter, Nebraska City, NE). Las muestras de O2 y CO2 del gas espirado fueron recogidas en cada bolsa y medidas usando espec-trometría de masa (modelo 1100 medical gas analyzer, Perkin-Elmer, Pomona, CA), confirmado con cromatografía de gas (modelo 3800, Varian, Palo Alto, CA). Las muestras de sangre venosa mixta y arte-rial fueron recogidas en forma anaeróbica y heparinizadas en jeringas de vidrio durante un período de 15 a 20 segundos durante el sexto minuto y enfriadas con hielo. Dentro de los 15 minutos, las mues-tras de sangre fueron analizadas utilizando un analizador de gases en sangre (Synthesis 15, Instrumentation Laboratory, Lexington, MA) y un oxímetro de GC (gasto cardíaco) (modelo 682, Instrumentation Laboratory). Las concentraciones de O2 y CO2 espirados fueron me-didas utilizando espectrometría de masa (modelo 1100 medical gas analyzer, Perkin-Elmer, Pomona, CA) y confirmadas con cromatogra-fía de gas (modelo 3800, Varian, Palo Alto, CA). Se utilizaron ecua-

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14 Circulation Mayo 2016

ciones estándar para calcular el consumo de oxígeno, que luego fue utilizado para calcular el gasto cardíaco en la ecuación de Fick.

Luego del primer ejercicio, a los sujetos EPIN se les administró 50 mg de sildenafil oral (Pfizer, New York, NY). Aproximadamente 150 minutos después de la administración de sildenafil, se repetía el proto-colo. Después de cada ejercicio, los sujetos EPIN fueron examinados en busca de evidencia clínica de EPIN y se realizó una espirometría.

Métodos estadísticos Para comparar variables continuas entre los grupos bajo circunstan-cias idénticas, se utilizaron pruebas de t no apareadas, con correc-ción para comparaciones múltiples (Tukey-Kramer); las pruebas de t apareadas se utilizaron para comparaciones dentro de cada grupo. Las variables categoriales se compararon utilizando la prueba exacta de Fisher. Las respuestas hemodinámicas que dependieron del gasto cardíaco (GC), es decir, presiones vasculares sistémicas y pulmona-res y resistencias vasculares, fueron comparadas entre 3 condiciones (controles, susceptibles a la EPIN antes y después de sildenafil), uti-lizando un análisis de covarianza de mediciones repetidas, donde la covariable era GC (PROC MIXED, SAS 9.3, SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Este modelo permitió comparaciones por parejas entre las tres condiciones, ajustadas por comparaciones múltiples post hoc (Tukey-Kramer), mientras que representan las mediciones repetidas dentro de los sujetos y que se ajustan por las variables de los niveles de ejercicio (GC). Dada la relación lineal entre PAPP y PEAP versus GC entre el rango de CO2 en este estudio, 25 los modelos de estimación entre los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN y los sujetos control fueron realizados al nivel de GC de los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN (13,8 L•min-1). Se consideró P < 0,05 como estadísticamente significativa.

Papel de las fuentes de recursos de fondos Las agencias de fondos para este estudio aportaron para el desarrollo del sistema experimental y los costos de cada estudio. Las agencias de fondos no jugaron un papel en el diseño del estudio, adquisición de los datos o análisis. Los investigadores y todos los autores tuvieron la discreción única en el análisis de los datos y la interpretación, la redacción del manuscrito y la decisión de someterlo a publicación.

Resultados

Característica de los sujetos En las Tablas 1 y 2 se muestra un resumen del reclutamiento de los sujetos y las características basales. La Tabla 3 brinda detalles sobre cada sujeto susceptible de EPIN. El grupo sus-ceptible de EPIN tuvo una proporción mayor de mujeres que el grupo control, pero por otro lado, no hubo diferencias demo-gráficas estadísticamente significativas entre los dos grupos. El V̇o2 máx del grupo control fue 44,8 ± 8,2 mL•kg-1•min-1. Hubo dos sujetos que experimentaron EPIN mientras bucea-ban, 5 durante un triatlón o en entrenamiento para un triatlón y 2 durante ambos. Otro sujeto experimentó EPIN cuando ella cayó de su tabla de windsurf en un río con agua fría. El eco-cardiograma mostró una leve hipertrofia ventricular izquierda en los sujetos 1 y 5. Ambos corrieron en forma regular; uno era un triatleta y corredor de triatlón y corredor de maratón. Los hallazgos de los eco eran compatibles con corazón de atleta. Todos los otros sujetos tenían ecocardiograma normal. Previamente se excluyó la enfermedad coronaria por ecocar-diograma de estrés en ejercicio en seis sujetos, pruebas de es-trés nucleares en 2 sujetos y angiografía coronaria en 1 sujeto. La prueba de estrés no se realizó en 1 sujeto debido a su edad joven (31 años) y ejercicio de alto nivel regular. Un sujeto estaba tomando candesartán para la hipertensión. La presión arterial era normal en todos los sujetos durante la evaluación de detección y antes del estudio.

Todos los sujetos completaron el estudio sin efectos adver-sos y sin síntomas, ruidos cardíacos anormales o cambios en la espirometría que sugirieran edema pulmonar.

Mediciones en posición supina en seco en el grupo susceptible de EPIN e inmersión en agua fría Las variables hemodinámicas de los voluntarios susceptibles de EPIN en seco, en posición supina, eran normales (Tabla 4). Previamente observamos que sentados en reposo en una bicicleta de ejercicio, en la que hay poco tono muscular pe-riférico, a menudo inducen presiones bajas del lado derecho. En efecto, las mediciones en seco en los sujetos de control no son directamente comparables con las mediciones en posición supina del grupo susceptible de EPIN, aunque estaban dentro de los límites normales (ver Wester et al21 para 10 de estas mediciones control). Luego de la administración de sildena-fil, la frecuencia cardíaca y GC eran más altos (P = 0,0141 y 0,0053); la resistencia vascular sistémica (RVS) y la resis-tencia vascular pulmonar era más bajas (P = 0,0007 y 0,017; Tabla 4). Durante la inmersión previa al ejercicio, la presión en la arteria pulmonar era mayor en el grupo susceptible de EPIN (P = 0,0032, Tabla 5). El sildenafil atenuó de manera significativa las respuestas hipertensivas sistémica y pulmonar a la inmersión rápida en agua fría.

Mediciones en ejercicio Los parámetros hemodinámicos y ventilatorios durante el ejercicio están enumerados en la Tabla 6. La tasa de traba-

Tabla 1. EPIN – Reclutamiento de sujetos susceptibles

Resumen n

Voluntarios evaluados 71

Excluidos 53

Edad máxima excedida (55 años) 18

Hipertensión no controlada 5

Asma 2

Diabetes mellitus 1

Otras entidades médicas* 3

Información insuficiente para determinar elegibilidad 23

Sin historia previa de EPIN (criterios de estudio mal comprendidos) 1

Voluntarios elegibles 18

Declinaron participar 8

Voluntarios estudiados 10

EPIN indica edema pulmonar inducido por natación*Hipertensión pulmonar (2), apnea del sueño y obesidad (1)

Tabla 2. Características del sujeto

Susceptible de EPIN Control Valor de P

n 10 20

Edad, años 41.6 ± 7.8 36.2 ± 8.3 0,09

IMC, kg·m-2 25,7 ± 3,9 26,0 ± 2,2 0,8

M/F 4/6 18/2 0,007

Raza 1,0

Blanca 10 19

Negra 0 1

Los resultados se muestran como media ±SD. EPIN indica edema pulmonar inducido por natación; IMC, índice de masa corporal y SD, desviación estándar.

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jo externo promedio para los sujetos control era de 107,8 W (rango, 50–170 W) y 112,5 W (rango, 75–200 W) para los su-jetos susceptibles de EPIN. El V̇o2 durante el ejercicio fue más bajo en el grupo susceptible de EPIN, pero la diferencia no fue estadísticamente significativa. El volumen Tidal durante el ejercicio fue más bajo en el grupo susceptible de EPIN, pero la diferencia no fue estadísticamente significativa. El volumen Tidal durante el ejercicio era más bajo en el grupo susceptible de EPIN (P = 0,0036) sin una diferencia significativa en el volumen minuto respiratorio. La frecuencia ventilatoria no fue diferente entre los 2 grupos. El GC fue más bajo en el grupo EPIN (P = 0,01). La RVS fue más alta en el grupo suscep-tible de EPIN (P = 0,0106). Los gases en sangre no fueron significativamente diferentes entre los grupos excepto después de sildenafil, cuando el pH era levemente más alto en compa-ración con ambos, control (P = 0,0087) y previo a sildenafil (P = 0,02), y la PaO2 fue más alta en el grupo susceptible de EPIN en comparación con previo a sildenafil (P = 0,0337).

Después de dar cuenta de las diferencias en GC, PAPP y PEAP fueron más altas en el grupo de EPIN que en los contro-les durante el ejercicio (P = 0,004 y P = 0,028, respectivamen-

Tabla 3. Sujetos con EPIN previa

Sujeto # Edad, años Sexo Talla, m Peso, kgIMC, kg/

m2 Historia

1 37 M 1,85 98,8 28,7 Buzo con reciclador de circuito cerrado, corredor de maratón; desarrolló acortamiento de la respiración y tos durante un buceo a 43 m. En el hospital Spo2 fue de 95% con O2 a 4 L·min-1. Radiografía de tórax: edema pulmonar. Ecocardiograma: sin enfermedad valvular, HVI leve. Propiedades sistólica y diastólica normales. ECG: defecto de conducción intraventricular. Ecoestrés (Estadio 5 de Bruce, FC máxima 173 lpm) normal.

2 45 M 1,78 93,0 29,4 Triatleta y buzo recreativo. Ejercicio en bicicleta: hasta 145 km por lo menos una vez por semana y además 48-64 km otras 2-3 veces. Juega fútbol 3-4 veces por semana o nada 1,6 km o corre 8-10 km. Medicaciones: mirtazapina, escitalopram, bupropion. Asma con el ejercicio previo. Buzo recreativo. Buceó a 32 m por 29 min respirando O2 30%. Durante la descompresión, desarrolló tos y disnea. Radiografía de tórax: edema pulmonar. ECG: BRD incompleto. Troponina normal y BNP 83,5. Eco estrés normal (17,2 MET), incluyendo función diastólica.

3 47 F 1,63 58,9 22,3 Triatleta con 5 episodios de edema pulmonar por inmersión. Tratado por hipertensión leve con candesartán 16 mg/d. Ecoestrés (estadio de Bruce 7, FC máxima 190 lpm) normal. Tomó candesartán antes del estudio y la PA era normal.

4 33 F 1,70 72,6 25,1 Triatleta con 5-6 episodios de edema pulmonar por inmersión. En una ocasión, Spo2 92% RA con edema

pulmonar bilateral en la radiografía de tórax y TC. ECG normal, sin HVI. VD normal. Sin enfermedad valvular. RM leve. Varios meses después del estudio, diagnosticado con hipertiroidismo leve.

5 37 M 1,82 86,8 26,3 Dos episodios de edema pulmonar por inmersión durante triatlones, 2 episodios mientras buceaba con escafandra. RM trivial, función sistólica normal. HVI normal. Angiografía coronaria normal.

6 49 F 1,60 53,2 20,8 Experimentó EPIN mientras practicaba windsurf después de caer de su tabla al agua fría, después de lo cual experimentó disnea y comenzó a expectorar espumoso rosado. Internada en el hospital con hipoxemia y edema pulmonar. La troponina I subió a 0,42 ng/ml (normal 0-0,05). ECG normal excepto por posible agrandamiento auricular izquierdo. ProBNP alcanzó una máximo de 351 pg/ml (normal 0-124) el día después de la admisión. Eco estrés (estadio de Bruce 5, FC pico 173 lpm) normal. Ecocardiografía transtorácica normal sin anormalidades de la motilidad parietal. Espesor VI normal.

7 35 M 1,78 84,5 26,7 Buzo con escafandra con múltiples episodios de tos que produjo esputo rosado durante el descenso o nivel de natación bajo el agua. Eco estrés (15,4 MET) normal. Función diastólica normal. RM y RT triviales.

8 53 F 1,68 57,3 20,4 Buzo con escafandra y triatleta. Cuatro episodios de EPIN (2 cada vez durante escafandra y triatlones) con disnea, tos productiva al nadar y bucear. Prueba de estrés nuclear a FC máxima169 lpm negativa para isquemia. FE normal. Eco normal. RT y RP leves. FEVI > 55%.

9 49 F 1,73 73,5 24,6 Triatleta con ≥ 5 episodios de tos, disnea y algún esputo teñido de rosa durante la natación. FEVI 59%. ECG de esfuerzo a 13,8 MET con imagen nuclear negativa para isquemia.

10 31 F 1,73 97,1 32,5 Cierre de DAP a la edad de 5 meses. Profesora de aeróbica acuática 40 min por semana. Entrenamiento para decatlón. Kick boxing, bicicleta, carrera regular (total carrera + bicicleta 5-6 h por semana). EPIN durante su primera natación en agua fría como preparación para un triatlón. En el hospital Spo

2 fue de 83%. Radiografía de tórax y escáner TC: edema pulmonar. Eco: función VI normal sin evidencia de enfermedad valvular. Troponina sérica I, BNP y ECG normal.

BNP indica péptido natriurético cerebral; BRD, bloqueo de rama derecha; DAP, ductus arterioso persistente; echo, ecocardiografía; EPIN, edema pulmonar inducido por natación; FC, frecuencia cardíaca; FE, fracción de eyección; FEVI, fracción de eyección VI; HVI, hipertrofia ventricular izquierda; IMC, índice de masa corporal; MET, equivalente metabólico; PA, presión arterial; ProBNP, péptido natriurético procerebral; RA, aire de la habitación; RM, regurgitación mitral; RP, regurgitación pulmonar; RT, regurgitación tricuspídea; TC, tomografía computada; VD, ventrículo derecho y VI, ventrículo izquierdo;

te), como se muestra en la Figura. Después del sildenafil, hubo una disminución significativa en la PAP, y ni PAPP ni PEAP en el grupo de EPIN fueron significativamente diferentes de los controles. Las diferencias en la presión arterial o en la presión venosa central entre los grupos no fueron estadísticamente sig-nificativas. De manera similar, cuando la RVS y la resistencia vascular pulmonar en el grupo control fueron estimadas como modelo en el GC eran modelo de estimación del grupo suscep-tible de EPIN, no hubo diferencias entre los individuos suscep-tibles de EPIN y los controles, y no hubo efectos del sildenafil. Durante el ejercicio en inmersión no hubo diferencia entre los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN y los controles, en la compliance de la arteria pulmonar, ya sea antes o después de sildenafil.

Discusión Nuestros hallazgos indicaron un incremento exagerado en PAPP y PEAP durante el ejercicio en los individuos que expe-rimentaron EPIN, que respaldan los hallazgos de Wilmshurst.1 A pesar de frecuencias de trabajo externas similares, V̇o2, VE, frecuencia cardíaca, GC y mediciones de pH arterial indicaron

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que los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN no estaban trabajando tan fuerte como los sujetos control aun cuando sus valores de PAPP y PEAP eran más altos. Las PAPP y PEAP más altas du-rante el ejercicio brindan una explicación hemodinámica para la susceptibilidad a EPIN. Las explicaciones posibles para la tasa metabólica más baja en los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN a pesar de tasas de trabajo externo similares incluyen un con-sumo de oxígeno basal más bajo y diferencias en la tasa de pedaleo o en el diámetro de la pierna, uno u otro de los cuales pudieran afectar el trabajo necesario para mover las piernas a través del agua.

La elevación en las presiones vasculares pulmonares duran-te la inmersión es principalmente atribuible a la redistribución central de sangre desde las extremidades,19,26 que engulle las venas centrales, corazón y vasos pulmonares, que causan pre-siones intracardíacas e intravasculares más altas.21,26–28 Este incremento aumenta en el agua fría.20,21 En un pulmón normal, la PEAP que excede en forma aguda un valor crítico de 18 a 25 mmHg puede causar edema alveolar hidrostático.29–31 La presión capilar pulmonar tiene un valor entre PAPP y PEAP32;

en efecto, la elevación aguda en uno u otro parámetro puede causar una presión crítica a nivel de la interfase alveolar a cau-sa de la redistribución de sangre relacionada con la inmersión.

Varias explicaciones posibles podrían dar cuenta de un au-mento exagerado en las presiones vasculares pulmonares en los individuos susceptibles de EPIN.

1. Volumen de sangre más alto. El incremento del volumen de sangre y el incremento acompañante en las presiones de llenado cardíaco son inducidas por la inmersión y po-drían estar aumentadas por una sobrecarga de líquido pre-via, que, lo que es importante, a veces es estimulada antes del ejercicio, en particular en los reclutas navales antes del entrenamiento de natación.7 Sin embargo, el EPIN ha sido comunicado sin sobrecarga de líquido.6 Además, los sujetos en este experimento no consumieron específicamente líqui-do en exceso antes del estudio.

2. Tono venoso más alto. Esto determina el grado en el cual los vasos de capacitancia en los brazos y en el lecho esplácnico pueden acomodar la sangre desplazada de las piernas. El tono venoso bajo (capacitancia venosa alta) podría permitir que más sangre se acomodara en estas venas y de ese modo atenuar el incremento en PAPP y PEAP relacionado con la inmersión.28 A la inversa, el tono venoso alto, atribuible al aumento de actividad del sistema nervioso simpático,33,34 o hipertensión leve35 podrían resultar en un volumen de sangre más alto en el corazón y en los vasos intratorácicos debido a la redistribución periférica hacia central. En efec-to, estudios previos en nuestro laboratorio han demostrado que la presión de la arteria pulmonar y la presión de encla-vamiento de la arteria pulmonar son más altas en el agua termo-neutral en comparación con el ejercicio en seco e incluso más alta en el agua fría.21 Observamos, entre los su-jetos experimentales, una alta variabilidad en esta respuesta (casi dos veces), compatible con 1 grado variable de tono venoso. Es posible que aquellos con un mayor incremento en las presiones vasculares pulmonares puedan representar la subpoblación con el riesgo mayor para EPIN.36 La re-ducción de PAPP después de sildenafil sugiere que puede haber habido una vasoconstricción activa, quizás debido al tono simpático excesivo, posiblemente relacionado con el frío. La compliance de la arteria pulmonar fue similar entre los controles y los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN, y no fue afectada por el sildenafil, por lo que no parece jugar un rol en la susceptibilidad a EPIN.

Tabla 4. Reposo, características en decúbito supino de los sujetos con EPIN en condiciones secas

Pre-sildenafil Post-sildenafil Valor de P

FC, lpm 64,4 ± 14,9 71,5 ± 16,0 0,0141*

GC, L·min-1 6,1 ± 1,2 8,1 ± 2,1 0,0053*

PAM, mmHg 99,2 ± 10,6 93,0 ± 9,8 0,0233*

PAPP, mmHg 18,8 ± 4,1 17,2 ± 4,2 0,2

PEAP, mmHg 13,0 ± 3,2 12,9 ± 4,6 0,7

PVC, mmHg 7,8 ± 2,6 6,6 ± 5,2 0,3

RVS, dyn.s.cm-5 1249 ± 226 915 ± 258 0,0007*

RVP, dyn.s.cm-5 78 ± 27 49 ± 14 0,0170*

Ea, mmHg·ml-1 1,37 ± 0,40 1,11 ± 0,29 0,0119*

CPA, ml·mmHg-1 6,25 ± 2,06 8,78 ± 3,08 0,0121*

Resultados mostrados como media ± SD. CPA indica compliance de la arteria pulmonar, (ver Métodos); Ea, elastancia arterial efectiva; EPIN, edema pulmonar inducido por natación; GC, gasto cardíaco; PAM, presión arterial media; PAPP, presión arterial pulmonar promedio; PVC, presión venosa central; PEAP, presión de enclavamiento de la arteria pulmonar; RVP, resistencia vascular pulmonar; RVS, resistencia vascular sistémica; SD, desviación estándar.

*Estadísticamente significativa en comparación con pre-sildenafil.

Tabla 5. Efectos hemodinámicos de la sumersión rápida en agua a 20 °C (zambullida) en todos los sujetos

Susceptible a EPIN Valores de P

Variable Controles Pre-sildenafil Post-sildenafil Pre-S vs C Post-S vs C Post-S vs Pre-S

FC, lpm 93,7 ± 25,8 85,2 ± 16,0 88,8 ± 16,9 0,6 0,8 0,2

PAS, mmHg 195,4 ± 28,9 224,3 ± 28,3 204,8 ± 28,3 0,06 0,7 0,0008*

PAD, mmHg 94,0 ± 9,3 94,8 ± 13,5 86,6 ± 9,3 1,0 0,3 0,0261*

PAM, mmHg 125,2 ± 13,0 133,5 ± 13,9 123,9 ± 12,7 0,4 1,0 0,0026*

PAPP, mmHg 21,7 ± 3,4 29,2 ± 6,0 24,6 ± 4,1 0,0032* 0,4 0,0219*

PEAP, mmHg 13,5 ± 4,1 18,1 ± 3,9 15,8 ± 5,1 0,07 0,5 0,1

PVC, mmHg 6,9 ± 3,5 10,2 ± 3,6 7,1 ± 3,2 0,1 1,0 0,0404*

Los resultados se muestran como media ± SD. C indica control; PVC, presión venosa central; PAD, presión arterial diastólica; FC, frecuencia cardíaca; PAM, presión arterial media; PAPP, presión de la arteria pulmonar promedio; PEAP, presión de enclavamiento de la arteria pulmonar; S, sildenafil; SD, desviación estándar; PAS, presión arterial sistólica; y EPIN, edema pulmonar inducido por natación.*Estadísticamente significativo.

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3. Afectación de la función sistólica del ventrículo izquierdo (VI). La disfunción miocárdica global transitoria con ar-terias coronarias normales ha sido comunicada en casos de EPIN.5,9,37 Sin embargo, en la mayoría de los casos de EPIN, el ecocardiograma en reposo después del evento es normal16–18; y en efecto, todos los sujetos susceptibles a EPIN en el presente estudio tuvieron un ecocardiograma normal que incluye función sistólica del VI.

4. Compliance del VI diastólica baja. Si bien no era disfun-ción diastólica en los estudios ecocardiográficos en seco, la redistribución de sangre central en la cara de un VI más rígido podría conducir a una presión de fin de diástole del VI, PEAP y presión de la arteria pulmonar más altas. Los individuos sanos, haciendo ejercicio en tierra, el volumen de fin de diástole se incrementa sin un cambio en la pre-sión de fin de diástole.38 Sin embargo, en los individuos que tienen insuficiencia cardíaca con una fracción de eyección preservada, la mayor rigidez de la cámara del VI causa in-cremento de la presión de fin de diástole del VI durante el ejercicio.39 Si bien ninguno de nuestros voluntarios tenía in-suficiencia cardíaca clínica, la analogía es que, con una pre-carga aumentada atribuible a la inmersión en agua fría, una levemente mayor rigidez de la pared del VI en los indivi-duos susceptibles a EPIN podría ser la causa de una presión de llenado del VI más alta durante el ejercicio en agua fría. Los pequeños incrementos en las relaciones E/A y E/e’ en

atletas extremadamente aptos ha sido atribuida al remode-lado del VI atribuible al ejercicio prolongado40; y, en efecto, 7 de 10 sujetos susceptibles a EPIN en este estudio eran físicamente extremadamente aptos. Se ha propuesto que el

Tabla 6. Mediciones hemodinámicas y de intercambio gaseoso en controles y sujetos con EPIN durante el ejercicio, no ajustadas por gasto cardíaco

Susceptibles de EPIN Valores de P

Controles Pre-sildenafil Post-sildenafil Pre-S vs C Post-S vs C Post-S vs Pre-S

Trabajo externo, W* 107,8 ± 25,5 112,5 ± 37,7 112,5 ± 37,7 0,9 0,9 1,0

o2, L·min-1 STPD 2,42 ± 0,46 1,95 ± 0,52 1,97 ± 0,57 0,06 0,07 0,6

o2 L·min-1 STPD/kg-1 29,1 ± 4,6 25,6 ± 5,7 25,9 ± 6,2 0,2 0,3 0,5

E, L·min-1 BTPS 81,9 ± 20,1 59,4 ± 25,0 61,0 ± 23,9 0,04 0,06 0,2

Vt, L BTPS 2,85 ± 0,50 2,12 ± 0,63 2,20 ± 0,51 0,0036† 0,0103† 0,3

Vf, respiraciones·min-1 29,5 ± 8,2 28,6 ± 7,8 27,8 ± 6,9 1,0 0,8 0,4

FC, lpm 143,4 ± 20,4 134,6 ± 22,6 137,8 ± 19,5 0,5 0,8 0,1

GC, L·min-1 17,9 ± 3,4 13,8 ± 2,6 14,8 ± 4,0 0,01† 0,06 0,1

Volumen sistólico, mL 126,4 ± 26,4 105,7 ± 31,2 109,2 ± 34,9 0,2 0,3 0,3

PAM, mmHg 126,2 ± 12,0 129,6 ± 14,7 128,1 ± 13,3 0,8 0,9 0,7

PAPP, mmHg 27,2 ± 6,2 34,0 ± 5,7 29,4 ± 7,2 0,02 0,6 0,0208†

PEAP, mmHg 13,1 ± 5,0 18,9 ± 5,5 16,9 ± 6,2 0,03 0,2 0,1

PVC, mmHg 7,1 ± 5,4 7,8 ± 5,1 5,3 ± 3,3 0,9 0,6 0,3

RVS, din.s.cm-5 546 ± 107 724 ± 138 710 ± 211 0,0106† 0,02 0,6

RVP, din.s.cm-5 62,6 ± 15,1 84,2 ± 22,4 69,3 ± 24,8 0,03 0,7 0,0198†

CPA, ml·mmHg-1 4,00 ± 0,82 3,38 ± 0,75 3,74 ± 0,94 0,2 0,7 0,1

Ea, mmHg·ml-1 1,48 ± 0,38 1,79 ± 0,41 1,79 ± 0,50 0,06 0,07 0,9

PaO2, mmHg 107,9 ± 8,9 102,1 ± 8,0 99,2 ± 5,1 0,15 0,02 0,0337†

PaCO2, mmHg 30,7 ± 4,6 36,0 ± 5,1 35,7 ± 4,7 0,02 0,03 0,7

pH arterial 7,31 ± 0,05 7,35 ± 0,03 7,36 ± 0,03 0,07 0,0087† 0,02†

Los resultados se muestran como mediana ± SD. BTPS indica la temperatura corporal y la presión; C, control; EPIN, edema pulmonar inducido por natación; FC, frecuencia cardíaca; GC, gasto cardíaco; PAM, presión arterial media; PaO2,PaCO2, PO2 y PCO2 arterial, respectivamente (ver Métodos); PAPP, presión de la arteria pulmonar media; PEAP, presión de enclavamiento de la arteria pulmonar; PVC, presión venosa central; RVP, resistencia vascular pulmonar; RVS, resistencia vascular sistémica; S, sildenafil; SD, desviación estándar; STPD, presión y temperatura estándar, seco; Vf, frecuencia ventilatoria; O2, consumo de oxígeno; E, volumen minuto espiratorio y Vt, volumen Tidal.

*Sin incluir trabajo de resistencia a causa del movimiento de las piernas a través del agua, que añade ≈50 W.†Estadísticamente significativo.

Figura. PAP y PEAP media vs gasto cardíaco. Los sujetos control se estudiaron en reposo y durante el ejercicio, mientras que los sujetos susceptibles de EPIN se estudiaron solamente durante el ejercicio. Representando las diferencias en el gasto cardíaco, la PAP y PEAP medias son significativamente más altas en el grupo susceptibles de EPIN que en los controles (P = 0,004 y P = 0,028, respectivamente). Después de sildenafil, la PAP media se redujo significativamente (P = 0,025). Durante el ejercicio post-sildenafil, ni la PAP media ni la PEAP media difieren significativamente de los controles. EPIN indica el edema pulmonar inducido por natación; PAP, la presión de la arteria pulmonar; PEAP, la presión de encla-vamiento de la arteria pulmonar.

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incremento de la rigidez arterial puede predisponer a la dis-función diastólica, en especial en las mujeres.41–43 Nosotros no observamos una diferencia en la elastancia arterial entre las poblaciones susceptibles a EPIN y los controles durante el ejercicio, si bien el sildenafil indujo una reducción es-tadísticamente significativa en la elastancia arterial en el grupo susceptible a EPIN durante el reposo.

En comparación con los controles, el grupo susceptible a EPIN tuvo una RVS durante el ejercicio y un mayor incremen-to en la presión arterial sistólica durante la inmersión en agua fría, que es compatible con una respuesta vasoconstrictora pe-riférica exagerada al frío.1 Sin embargo, debido a que el GC durante el ejercicio era más bajo en los sujetos susceptibles a EPIN, los valores calculados de la RVS en los dos grupos no son directamente comparables. Cuando la RVS en el grupo control fue estimada como modelo en el GC del grupo sus-ceptible de EPIN, no hubo diferencia en la RVS. Por lo tanto, si bien la exposición al frío aumentó los efectos de poscarga (presión arterial) a un mayor grado en los sujetos susceptibles a EPIN durante la inmersión en reposo, durante el ejercicio el incremento de PAPP y PEAP en los sujetos susceptibles a EPIN podría no ser atribuido a una poscarga alta. Es más pro-bable que la PAPP y PEAP más altas en el grupo susceptible de EPIN durante el ejercicio sean atribuibles al incremento de la venoconstricción, que provoca aumento de la precarga, o una compliance diastólica del VI más baja. Estos efectos, solos o en combinación, deberían causar una mayor presión de llena-do de VI y, por lo tanto, una PAPP y PEAP más altas.

El sildenafil tiene efectos farmacológicos que probable-mente den cuenta de la reducción en la PAPP y PEAP en los individuos susceptibles a EPIN durante el ejercicio en agua fría. El sildenafil, un inhibidor selectivo de la 5 fosfodiesterasa conduce un incremento en el GMP cíclico intracelular y relaja-ción del músculo liso vascular, y tiene un pequeño y transitorio efecto sobre la presión arterial y la resistencia vascular sisté-mica.44 En nuestro tema, la administración de sildenafil estuvo asociada con una disminución en la presión arterial promedio en reposo y la RVS y un incremento en GC. Durante el ejer-cicio, el sildenafil redujo las presiones vasculares pulmonares y la resistencia vascular pulmonar, pero no tuvo efectos sobre otras variables hemodinámicas. Si bien nosotros no las eva-luamos en este estudio, otros han demostrado que el sildenafil induce un incremento en la compliance venosa.44 En efecto, la reducción inducida por el sildenafil en las presiones vasculares pulmonares observadas en este estudio durante el ejercicio de inmersión probablemente sea atribuible a la vasodilatación de los vasos pulmonares y las venas periféricas. Este estudio de-mostró un efecto hemodinámico del sildenafil que puede plau-siblemente reducir la probabilidad de edema pulmonar en los nadadores susceptibles a EPIN.

Un estudio aleatorizado multicéntrico en pacientes con una historia de insuficiencia cardíaca con fracción de eyección pre-servada fracasó en observar un incremento en la capacidad de ejercicio (captación de oxígeno máxima durante una prueba incremental) en respuesta al tratamiento con sildenafil.45 Sin embargo, los estudios hemodinámicos en esta población han demostrado presión arterial pulmonar reducida, PEAP, aumento del índice cardíaco, tiempo de relajación isovolumétrico e incre-mento del GC y función endotelial.46–48 Si bien en este estudio nos centramos en los factores que pueden promover edema pul-monar, probablemente haya otros factores que limitan el con-sumo de oxígeno máximo en la insuficiencia cardíaca crónica,

tales como el desacondicionamiento, sobre el cual el sildenafil es improbable que tenga efecto. Si bien no podemos concluir a partir de este estudio que el sildenafil brinde una profilaxis frente a EPIN, uno de nuestros sujetos del estudio (sujeto 3) que experimentó varios episodios de EPIN durante triatlones, no tuvo más episodios a partir del uso sildenafil antes de la carrera.

Nuestro estudio tiene varios inconvenientes. Si bien nues-tros sujetos no estaban seleccionados al azar a partir de la po-blación susceptible de EPIN o la población general, creemos que los dos grupos son similares. En particular, los sujetos potenciales con comorbilidades asociadas con EPIN fueron excluidos. Además, la respuesta vascular pulmonar hiperten-siva al ejercicio en el agua fría que fue observada en nuestros sujetos puede probablemente ser incluso más exagerada en la población general susceptible a EPIN, que incluye muchos individuos con hipertensión.5 El grupo de control fue 90% masculino, en comparación con un 40% femenino en el gru-po susceptible de EPIN, lo que aumenta la posibilidad de que las diferencias puedan estar causadas por un fenómeno fun-damental relacionado con el sexo que no esté conectado con la susceptibilidad a EPIN. Creemos que es improbable, dado que un estudio previo mostró que no había efectos relaciona-dos con el sexo sobre PAPP durante el reposo o ejercicio en un estudio previo en 255 hombres y 101 mujeres.49 El grupo susceptible a EPIN también pudo haber estado más entrenado que los controles. Si bien ninguno de los controles había expe-rimentado EPIN mientras nadaba o buceaba, la posibilidad de que alguno de ellos por acaso pueda haber sido susceptible a EPIN no puede ser excluida. Sin embargo, esto es improbable debido a que, en una población civil en forma (triatletas), so-lamente el 1% al 2% comunicaron síntomas de EPIN.8 Si bien el protocolo de ejercicio en inmersión fue idéntico para ambos grupos, las mediciones previas al ejercicio fueron obtenidas en diferentes condiciones (supina versus sentado). En efecto, la congruencia de los grupos a nivel basal no puede ser esta-blecida con absoluta certeza. Dado que no fue posible asignar al azar el orden de la administración de sildenafil, no podemos excluir la adaptación aguda al frío como un mecanismo debido a la atenuación posterior al sildenafil de las respuestas hemo-dinámicas a la zambullida y el ejercicio sumergido. Creemos que es improbable dado que las reducciones de las presiones intravasculares durante el ejercicio después del sildenafil es-tuvo confinada a PAPP y PEAP y otros comunicaron una res-puesta constante de la noradrenalina a la exposición al agua fría (20°C) durante inmersiones repetitivas durante el mismo día.50 Además, en nuestro estudio el cambio en las presiones intravasculares durante el ejercicio en la segunda exposición al agua fría fue confinado a PAPP y PEAP, sin efecto sobre la presión arterial sistémica. Se podría argumentar que las dife-rencias en la ventilación en ejercicio pueden haber afectado la PAP y PEAP, pero ambas, la PAP y la resistencia vascular pul-monar eran más bajas en el grupo control a pesar de un pH más bajo, que podría esperarse incrementara ambos parámetros. Si bien el cambio observado en PEAP después del sildenafil no fue estadísticamente significativo, debido al pequeño tamaño de la muestra, la posibilidad de que el sildenafil pueda reducir la PEAP en este marco no puede quedar excluida.

En resumen, observamos que durante el ejercicio sumergi-do en agua fría, los individuos con un antecedente de edema pulmonar inducido por la natación tienen PAPP y PEAP más altas que aquellos sin tal historia. Además demostramos que estas presiones pueden reducirse con una dosis oral única de 50 mg de sildenafil.

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Moon y cols Edema pulmonar inducido por la natación 19

Agradecimientos Agradecemos a los siguientes expertos por su asistencia técnica: Albert Boso, Barry Castle, Owen Doar, Tommy Edwards, Eric Schinazi y Aaron Walker y los voluntarios que estuvieron dispuestos a donar su tiempo para participar en el estudio. Apreciamos las sugerencias cons-tructivas sobre el manuscrito de Kathy Gage. Contribuyeron: Dr Moon, S.D. Martina y Dres Peacher, Potter, Wester, Cherry y Freiberger con-tribuyeron con el concepto, diseño y conducción del estudio, el análisis de los datos y la redacción del manuscrito. Los Dres Otteni y Kernagis y M. J. Natoli participaron en la conducción del estudio y la recolección de los datos. W. D. White realizó el análisis estadístico.

Orígenes de los fondos Este estudio fue subvencionado por la Divers Alert Network y US Naval Sea Systems Command Contracts N61331-03-C-0015 y N0463A-07-C-0002.

Declaración de intereses Ninguna.

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20 Circulation Mayo 2016

PERSPECTIVA CLÍNICAEl edema pulmonar por inmersión, también conocido como edema pulmonar inducido por la natación (EPIN), se produce durante la natación en superficie o el buceo en individuos susceptibles que a menudo son jóvenes y sanos. Habitualmente EPIN se resuelve en forma espontánea dentro de las 24 horas o con agonistas β2 adrenérgicos o tratamiento diurético, pero puede ser fatal. Algunos individuos tienen factores de riesgo para EPIN que incluyen la exposición al agua fría, el ejercicio fuerte, la sobrecarga de líquidos, hipertensión, enfermedad valvular y miocardiopatía. La fisiopatología de EPIN no está totalmente comprendida, pero evidencias indirectas sugieren que es una forma de edema pulmonar he-modinámico causado por un aumento exagerado en las presiones vasculares pulmonares en respuesta al ejercicio y la inmersión en agua, especialmente en agua fría. En este estudio, un grupo de individuos con un antecedente de EPIN y un grupo control sin EPIN fueron estudiados durante el ejercicio en inmersión en agua a 20 °C con monitoreo invasivo de las presiones de las arterias pulmonar y radial. La enfermedad valvular, la miocardiopatía y la enfermedad cardíaca isquémica habían sido excluidas. Confirmamos que las presiones arterial, arterial pulmonar y de enclavamiento arterial pulmonar eran más altas en los individuos susceptibles a EPIN. Los mecanismos para las presiones vasculares pulmo-nares más altas podrían incluir un volumen de sangre más alto, tono venoso aumentado y reducción de la compliance diastólica del ventrículo izquierdo. Mostramos además que estas presiones se redujeron con una dosis única de 50 mg de sildenafil oral, lo que sugiere que el sildenafil podría ser investigado como una posible droga profiláctica.

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