Sustainability and the Sustainability and the expanding influence of expanding influence of

AquacultureAquaculture

The cost of the “Blue Revolution” The cost of the “Blue Revolution” in the prawn industry, and the in the prawn industry, and the potential impacts on wild catch potential impacts on wild catch

fisheries and marketsfisheries and markets

SustainabilitySustainability

■■ Sustainable development is the management Sustainable development is the management and conservation of the natural resource base and conservation of the natural resource base and the use of technological and institutional and the use of technological and institutional change to ensure the attainment of human change to ensure the attainment of human

needs for present and future generations. Such needs for present and future generations. Such development is environmentally nondevelopment is environmentally non--degrading, degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and technically appropriate, economically viable and

socially acceptable. socially acceptable. ■■ FAO, 2001FAO, 2001

Why Why Aquaculture Aquaculture is so is so Important……….Important……….

Worldwide Growth in Animal Protein Production, based on annual average growth, 1990-2002

11.70%

0.10%

4.80%

2.40%

0.50%

0.80%

AquacultureWild CatchPoultryPorkBeefOthers

Seafood production, in whole, is now equal Seafood production, in whole, is now equal to beef and poultry production, Worldwideto beef and poultry production, Worldwide

2002 World Animal Protein Production, Million of Tons

60.5

72.6

9216.9

92

41

beefpoultryporkmuttonwild catchaquaculture

Annual Seafood Production

0102030405060708090

100

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Year

Mill

ions

of t

ons

wild catch aquaculture

Annual per Capita Consumption of meats Annual per Capita Consumption of meats and seafood has increased every year for and seafood has increased every year for

32 years………..32 years………..

Per capita Consumption of Animal Protein

05

1015202530354045

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Year

Kilo

s/pe

rson

/yea

r

meat seafood

While Animal Protein consumption While Animal Protein consumption increases, grain consumption is at the increases, grain consumption is at the

lowest level in 32 years………..lowest level in 32 years………..

Per capita Grain Consumption

290

300

310

320

330

340

350

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Year

Kgs/

pers

on/y

ear

How Broad is Aquaculture?How Broad is Aquaculture?

■■ There are currently 220+ species being There are currently 220+ species being cultivated by aquaculture. Over half of these cultivated by aquaculture. Over half of these (137) are only reared in China.(137) are only reared in China.

■■ Its difficult to judge the total economic scale of Its difficult to judge the total economic scale of aquaculture, as much of the production is aquaculture, as much of the production is bartered locally, without monetary exchange.bartered locally, without monetary exchange.

■■ Only 24 species account for 90+% of the Only 24 species account for 90+% of the reported economic value of world aquaculture reported economic value of world aquaculture ($41 billion US, exclusive of algae).($41 billion US, exclusive of algae).

Ten dominant Aquaculture species,2002 Ten dominant Aquaculture species,2002 with quantities and valueswith quantities and values

■■ Mtons Mtons $billions, US$billions, US■■ Common carp 4.29 5.20Common carp 4.29 5.20■■ Grass carp 5.14 4.72Grass carp 5.14 4.72■■ Silver Carp 5.00 4.64Silver Carp 5.00 4.64■■ Nile Nile tiapia tiapia 1.54 1.841.54 1.84■■ Channel catfish 0.46 0.71Channel catfish 0.46 0.71■■ Atlantic salmon 1.04 3.44Atlantic salmon 1.04 3.44■■ Milkfish Milkfish 0.53 0.93 0.53 0.93 ■■ Tiger prawn 0.79 5.64Tiger prawn 0.79 5.64■■ White prawn 0.64 4.88 White prawn 0.64 4.88 ■■ Pacific oyster 4.30 4.59 Pacific oyster 4.30 4.59

Despite rapid growth and Despite rapid growth and economic success, economic success, Aquaculture has its Aquaculture has its

problems……...problems……...

The Cost of being The Cost of being Environmentally ResponsibleEnvironmentally Responsible

■■ The level of environmental regulation in Australia has The level of environmental regulation in Australia has significant cost and is one of the highest in the world.significant cost and is one of the highest in the world.

■■ In addition to the environmental costs, the In addition to the environmental costs, the implementation of HACCP (Hazard Assessment Critical implementation of HACCP (Hazard Assessment Critical Control Point) for export, adds further costControl Point) for export, adds further cost

■■ Finally, if ecoFinally, if eco--labeling and certification can be made labeling and certification can be made attractive to differentiate product, there is a cost attractive to differentiate product, there is a cost associated with obtaining both.associated with obtaining both.

■■ In implementing these practices elsewhere (some 30 In implementing these practices elsewhere (some 30 farms), we have found the cost to vary between $0.70 farms), we have found the cost to vary between $0.70 and $1.00 US/kilo.and $1.00 US/kilo.

The cost of being The cost of being Environmentally responsibleEnvironmentally responsible

■■ Various environmental agencies (WWF, EJF) Various environmental agencies (WWF, EJF) have suggested that a 5% environmental tax, have suggested that a 5% environmental tax, passed on to the consumer, would offset the passed on to the consumer, would offset the added costs of environmental compliance.added costs of environmental compliance.

■■ The authors experience is that a tax of 10The authors experience is that a tax of 10--12% 12% would be necessary to offset all environmental would be necessary to offset all environmental and new process monitoring costsand new process monitoring costs

Belize and Australia in Belize and Australia in AquacultureAquaculture

■■ Both countries have large offBoth countries have large off--shore reef shore reef environments that may require extra environments that may require extra discharge protection.discharge protection.

■■ Belize uses different levels of Belize uses different levels of regulation, dependent on the regulation, dependent on the intensityintensityof shrimp production at the facilityof shrimp production at the facility

Belize and AustraliaBelize and Australia

■■ Belize sets levels of production as Belize sets levels of production as extensive (<1000 extensive (<1000 kgskgs/ha) , semi/ha) , semi--intensive (1000intensive (1000--3000 3000 kgskgs/ha), intensive /ha), intensive (3000(3000--7500 7500 kgskgs/ha) and super intensive /ha) and super intensive (>7500 (>7500 kgskgs/ha.) /ha.)

BelizeBelize

■■ Intensive farming requires that no more than Intensive farming requires that no more than 20% of the nitrogenous value of the crop 20% of the nitrogenous value of the crop reared can be discharged in the entire cycle, reared can be discharged in the entire cycle, including drainage.including drainage.

■■ Super Intensive farming requires Zero Super Intensive farming requires Zero Discharge. All farm operations must retain Discharge. All farm operations must retain and reuse all of their discharge water. and reuse all of their discharge water. Adequate retention volume must be present Adequate retention volume must be present to retain 20% of the farms production to retain 20% of the farms production volume.volume.

Draft ‘Marine Prawn Aquaculture’ Operational PolicyLicensing Criteria – Minimum Standards

! Environmental Protection Act 1994! Environmental Protection (Water) Policy 1997! Great Barrier Marine Park (Aquaculture) Regulation 2000! Fisheries Act 1994! Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999! Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) Guidelines

Compliance Monitoring Parameters and Frequency

! Daily when discharging – pH and dissolved oxygen (plus free residue chlorine)! At least once per month or more frequently in accordance with licence! requirements! During growing season where:

3 samples within last 3 months of grow-out ≥≥≥≥ 2 weeks apart1 sample in late stage of drain harvest2 samples within 24 hrs of ≥≥≥≥100 mm rainfall event6 samples minimum

9.08.5

6.58.0

No dataNo data

90No data

5050

10050

10001000

1010

100100

51

0.51

South CentralEstuariesMarine

8.58.48.2

7.58.08.2

nanana

909090

540 5

4555

750230230

555

302020

30.70.3

12

South-westEstuariesInshoreOffshore

8.58.48.2

7.08.08.2

120No dataNo data

809090

151-101-6

302-81-4

250100100

55

2-5

201510

20.7-1.40.5-0.9

1-201-201-20

Tropical 1EstuariesInshoreOffshore

8.58.4

7.08.0

110110

8090

1515

155

300120

510

3025

41

100.5

-eastEstuaryMarine South

9.06.590(4 mg L-1)

3,000(max.)

400(max.)

40 mg L-1

(75 max.)PrawnWastewater *

pHUpperlimit

pHLowerLimit

DO%Upperlimit

DO%Lowerlimit

NH4+

(µ(µ(µ(µg L-1)NOx

(µ(µ(µ(µg L-1)TN

(µ(µ(µ(µg L-1)FRP

(µ(µ(µ(µg L-1)TP

(µ(µ(µ(µg L-1)Chl a

(µ(µ(µ(µg L-1)Turbidity

(TNU)Ecosystem

Type

Australian default Trigger Values below whichthere is low adverse biological effect

(ANZECC)

1 Northern Queensland, the Northern Territory and north-west Australia* Farm operator shall implement continual improvement

Production costs in semitensive vs. superintensive culture today

0123456789

2.3T/ha/cycle1997

85T/ha/cycle2002

do

llar

s, U

SfueltaxestransportationmaintenancecertificationPL costdepreciationprocessing costlaborelectricityconversion lossInterestfeed

Foreign Subsidies make it difficult for Foreign Subsidies make it difficult for Australia to compete on prawn exportsAustralia to compete on prawn exports

■■ Brazil provides free shipment for its growers to the US market.Brazil provides free shipment for its growers to the US market.■■ China sponsors training programs on active farms, where the China sponsors training programs on active farms, where the

farm then receives free power for the year. China also pays a farm then receives free power for the year. China also pays a 1010--20% subsidy on feeds used for export product.20% subsidy on feeds used for export product.

■■ Equador, Panama and Costa Rica provide expansion loans for Equador, Panama and Costa Rica provide expansion loans for the adoption of technology that results in a 20% production the adoption of technology that results in a 20% production increase. If the technology is successful, only half the loan increase. If the technology is successful, only half the loan need be repaid.need be repaid.

■■ Government subsidies discount export product by $1Government subsidies discount export product by $1--4 4 dollars a kilo.dollars a kilo.

Lets Talk about PrawnsLets Talk about Prawns

Aquaculture production of prawn Aquaculture production of prawn exceeded wild catch worldwide exceeded wild catch worldwide in 1999in 1999 and is now 62% of total and is now 62% of total

productionproduction

Microbial floc TechnologyMicrobial floc Technology

Belize Aquaculture, Belize Aquaculture, LtdLtd. ponds: lined, zero . ponds: lined, zero exchange, producing 35exchange, producing 35--50 tons/ha/year50 tons/ha/year

Belize does have its Belize does have its problems…..problems…..

Prawn Farming is the largest proportional Prawn Farming is the largest proportional economic sector in economic sector in AquacultureAquaculture

■■ While prawn farming constitutes less than 1% of the While prawn farming constitutes less than 1% of the biomass biomass produced in aquaculture, it constitutes 21% produced in aquaculture, it constitutes 21% of the total value of aquaculture products.of the total value of aquaculture products.

■■ While seafood accounts for only 0.9% of the caloric While seafood accounts for only 0.9% of the caloric intake of our diets, it constitutes 6.3% of the protein intake of our diets, it constitutes 6.3% of the protein in the world diet.in the world diet.

■■ In the past three years, over a dozen environmental In the past three years, over a dozen environmental groups have launched campaigns against prawn groups have launched campaigns against prawn farmingfarming

“Big Men make Better “Big Men make Better Targets”Targets”

William Bonnie, William Bonnie, akaaka Billy the KidBilly the Kid

Examples of articles on detrimental Examples of articles on detrimental effects of Prawn effects of Prawn AquacultureAquaculture

■■ Smash and Grab, Conflict, Corruption and human rights abuses Smash and Grab, Conflict, Corruption and human rights abuses in the shrimp farming industryin the shrimp farming industry, Environmental Justice , Environmental Justice Foundation, 2003Foundation, 2003

■■ Squandering the seas, How shrimp trawling threatens ecological Squandering the seas, How shrimp trawling threatens ecological integrity,integrity, Environmental Justice Foundation,2002Environmental Justice Foundation,2002

■■ The Marketplace for Sustainable Seafood, Growing appetites The Marketplace for Sustainable Seafood, Growing appetites and shrinking seasand shrinking seas, Seafood Choices Alliance,2002, Seafood Choices Alliance,2002

■■ Effects ofEffects of AquacultureAquaculture on World Fish Supplieson World Fish Supplies, R., R. NaylorNaylor, et.al. , et.al. Nature, June 2000Nature, June 2000

■■ Shrimp, the devastating delicacyShrimp, the devastating delicacy,, GreenpeaceGreenpeace, 1999, 1999■■ Toward Sustainable Shrimp Toward Sustainable Shrimp AquacultureAquaculture, Jason Clay, World , Jason Clay, World

Wildlife fund 1997Wildlife fund 1997

Key concerns of the Environmental Key concerns of the Environmental CommunityCommunity

■■ Habitat ModificationHabitat Modification■■ Use of wild seedUse of wild seed■■ Introduction of non indigenous speciesIntroduction of non indigenous species■■ GMO introduction to wild populations and their GMO introduction to wild populations and their

potential effects when ingestedpotential effects when ingested■■ Effluent dischargeEffluent discharge■■ Coastal zone modificationCoastal zone modification■■ Excessive dependence in fish mealExcessive dependence in fish meal■■ Social inequality in shrimp farmingSocial inequality in shrimp farming

Habitat Damage and lossHabitat Damage and loss

■■ Mangrove loss has been dropping with the Mangrove loss has been dropping with the realization the the soil in a mangrove area is realization the the soil in a mangrove area is too acidic for shrimp culture. Today, mangrove too acidic for shrimp culture. Today, mangrove loss is <10% annually of what it was 10 years loss is <10% annually of what it was 10 years ago. Mangrove depletion is now solely confined ago. Mangrove depletion is now solely confined to subsistence farmers on very small farms.to subsistence farmers on very small farms.

■■ Seagrass Seagrass bed loss to trawler operations has bed loss to trawler operations has been lessened by the incorporation of new been lessened by the incorporation of new types of net equipmenttypes of net equipment

Introduction of NonIntroduction of Non--Indigenous Indigenous SpeciesSpecies

■■ A truly serious problem with displacement or A truly serious problem with displacement or destruction of native species, as well as the destruction of native species, as well as the introduction of diseases for which the native populationintroduction of diseases for which the native populationhas no resistance.has no resistance.

■■ L. L. vannameivannamei, a West coast American species, has been , a West coast American species, has been adapted and cultured throughout Asia and the Pacific. adapted and cultured throughout Asia and the Pacific. “make Hay while the sun shines” attitude has seen “make Hay while the sun shines” attitude has seen China switch dominant species three times in 8 years.China switch dominant species three times in 8 years.

■■ Escapement will probably introduce the species into Escapement will probably introduce the species into Australian waters within 10 years through pelagic Australian waters within 10 years through pelagic migration from Indonesia.migration from Indonesia.

Use of wild seedUse of wild seed

■■ In Central and South America, the use of wild seed has In Central and South America, the use of wild seed has dropped 80% in the past three years, due to biosecurity dropped 80% in the past three years, due to biosecurity concerns on introduction of viral diseases from the wild. In concerns on introduction of viral diseases from the wild. In China, SPF stocks will be mandated by law in 2004.China, SPF stocks will be mandated by law in 2004.

■■ The use of wild seed is still practiced in subsistence farming The use of wild seed is still practiced in subsistence farming worldwide and will be almost impossible to stop. The by catch worldwide and will be almost impossible to stop. The by catch loss of larval fish fry and non target species is exceptionally loss of larval fish fry and non target species is exceptionally high in this subsistence practice.high in this subsistence practice.

■■ Governmental intervention to provide inexpensive SPF Governmental intervention to provide inexpensive SPF pl’s pl’s to to subsistence farmers would reduce the viral pool and improve subsistence farmers would reduce the viral pool and improve survival. This is proposed in six South and Central American survival. This is proposed in six South and Central American countries within the next five years. countries within the next five years.

GMO speciesGMO species

■■ Genetically modified organisms have been used Genetically modified organisms have been used in in anadromous anadromous fish culture for over a century. fish culture for over a century. Every time we select for a desirable trait, such Every time we select for a desirable trait, such as disease resistance, we are modifying the as disease resistance, we are modifying the expression of that trait in the natural expression of that trait in the natural population that the specimen was selected population that the specimen was selected from. from.

■■ Environmental and health groups have been Environmental and health groups have been particularly successful in getting retailers to particularly successful in getting retailers to refuse the sale of GMO species refuse the sale of GMO species

Difference in strain selection saves 35 days per cycle in Difference in strain selection saves 35 days per cycle in reaching a target weight of 18.5 grams, which allows reaching a target weight of 18.5 grams, which allows

annual production to be increased by 85%, to 54 annual production to be increased by 85%, to 54 kgskgs/cu.m./year/cu.m./year

Selected growth strains of L. vannamei

0

5

10

15

20

25

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Days

Wei

ght,g

ram

s

GMSBSIS

Coastal Zone ModificationCoastal Zone Modification

■■ These effects are primarily secondary due to habitat These effects are primarily secondary due to habitat damage and removal. Examples would be decreased damage and removal. Examples would be decreased larval fry survival due to lack of habitat or increased larval fry survival due to lack of habitat or increased mortality due to lack of cover. This terminology also mortality due to lack of cover. This terminology also describes the shore area alteration for inlets or outlets describes the shore area alteration for inlets or outlets from aquaculture farms. All countries (14 in Central from aquaculture farms. All countries (14 in Central and South America) with significant aquaculture have and South America) with significant aquaculture have initiated Coastal Zone Management (CZM) laws within initiated Coastal Zone Management (CZM) laws within the last five years to protect this very valuable the last five years to protect this very valuable ecological areaecological area

Effluent DischargeEffluent Discharge

■■ The average level of water exchange has fallen from The average level of water exchange has fallen from 1515--25%/day to less than 4%/day in 5 years25%/day to less than 4%/day in 5 years

■■ Much culture technology has been moving towards Much culture technology has been moving towards Zero Exchange, where there is only evaporation Zero Exchange, where there is only evaporation replacement and very little effluent dischargereplacement and very little effluent discharge

■■ At least 30 commercial facilities world wide now At least 30 commercial facilities world wide now practice zero exchange, some for as long as 4 yearspractice zero exchange, some for as long as 4 years

■■ Reduced water exchange results in lower production Reduced water exchange results in lower production costs. costs. Zero exchange uses less than 1% of the water Zero exchange uses less than 1% of the water used in typical Australian intensive culture practiceused in typical Australian intensive culture practice

Excessive dependence on fish mealExcessive dependence on fish meal

■■ Aggressive research in the past three years has produced a Aggressive research in the past three years has produced a series of commercial feeds for SIMS (Super Intensive Microbial series of commercial feeds for SIMS (Super Intensive Microbial Systems) which reduce fish meal use by >50%Systems) which reduce fish meal use by >50%

■■ Today, numerous commercial operations use only 0.6Today, numerous commercial operations use only 0.6--0.7 0.7 kgs kgs of fishmeal/kg of shrimp producedof fishmeal/kg of shrimp produced

■■ Reduction in Reduction in FCR’s FCR’s from 2.0 to less than 1.5 in the past five from 2.0 to less than 1.5 in the past five years has reduced the quantity of fishmeal needed by an years has reduced the quantity of fishmeal needed by an additional 25%.additional 25%.

■■ The growing popularity of L. The growing popularity of L. vannamei vannamei has resulted in reduced has resulted in reduced protein needs in feeds, with protein levels falling from an protein needs in feeds, with protein levels falling from an average of 35% in 1998 to 28% in 2001average of 35% in 1998 to 28% in 2001

Production development of feeds for Super intensive prawn Production development of feeds for Super intensive prawn culture with decreased values of fish meal, average production culture with decreased values of fish meal, average production

in excess of 75 Tons/ha/cycle since 2000, L. in excess of 75 Tons/ha/cycle since 2000, L. vannameivannamei

Feed Efficiency and Fish Meal Utilization in Super Intensive Cutlture

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Year

Rela

tive

Units

kg fishmeal/kgshrimpAve FCR

Research Leaders in Fishmeal Research Leaders in Fishmeal replacementreplacement

■■ Zeigler feeds, Pennsylvania, USAZeigler feeds, Pennsylvania, USA■■ CP Feeds, Bangkok, ThailandCP Feeds, Bangkok, Thailand■■ CSIRO, Drs David Smith, Geoff L. Allan, CSIRO, Drs David Smith, Geoff L. Allan,

Kevin Williams and Chris BarlowKevin Williams and Chris Barlow■■ Montana State U. Fisheries Research Montana State U. Fisheries Research

Center, Dr. Rick BarrowsCenter, Dr. Rick Barrows

Social inequality generated by Social inequality generated by prawn cultureprawn culture

■■ Prawn culture is the number one employer of women Prawn culture is the number one employer of women in regions with shrimp processing.in regions with shrimp processing.

■■ Child labor is common in rural communities and is Child labor is common in rural communities and is poorly regulated by the governments that already poorly regulated by the governments that already have legal positions against child laborhave legal positions against child labor

■■ Land theft and crop theft occurs throughout the third Land theft and crop theft occurs throughout the third world in remote areas. Environmental groups calling world in remote areas. Environmental groups calling attention to these problems may bring some attention to these problems may bring some resolution of inequities, particularly land theft.resolution of inequities, particularly land theft.

Lack of Certification or BMP Lack of Certification or BMP referencesreferences

■■ The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Global Global Aquaculture Aquaculture Alliance (GAA), World Alliance (GAA), World Aquaculture Aquaculture Society (WAS) and Society (WAS) and Aquaculture Aquaculture Certification Council (ACA) have published Certification Council (ACA) have published protocols for management of both farms and protocols for management of both farms and processing plants.processing plants.

■■ The GAA, MSC (Marine Stewardship Council) The GAA, MSC (Marine Stewardship Council) and ACA have third party certification programs and ACA have third party certification programs as precursors to as precursors to ecoeco--labeling and packaging labeling and packaging origination labelingorigination labeling

A major weakness of most A major weakness of most Aquaculture Aquaculture Environmental ArgumentsEnvironmental Arguments…...…...

■■ Environmental criticism of prawn farming and other Environmental criticism of prawn farming and other aquaculture practices usually fails to consider the aquaculture practices usually fails to consider the growing dichotomy between large scale, business growing dichotomy between large scale, business oriented growers (responsible for 90+% of export oriented growers (responsible for 90+% of export production) and the much smaller subsistence farmer production) and the much smaller subsistence farmer who practices aquaculture to survive or provide barter who practices aquaculture to survive or provide barter to obtain needed goods. to obtain needed goods. China conducts more China conducts more aquaculture than all other countries combined and half aquaculture than all other countries combined and half of its production never leaves a 50 kilometer radius of of its production never leaves a 50 kilometer radius of the production site.the production site.

Sounds like Progress is Significant, Sounds like Progress is Significant, but………….but………….

■■ The Seafood industry has been ineffectual in The Seafood industry has been ineffectual in combating the “bad press” associated with the combating the “bad press” associated with the environmental movement. Environmental groups get environmental movement. Environmental groups get 15 times the media response that the seafood industry 15 times the media response that the seafood industry receives in terms of printed response or air time. receives in terms of printed response or air time. Positive steps, such as site certification andPositive steps, such as site certification and ecoeco--labeling, have proven ineffectual thus far, partially due labeling, have proven ineffectual thus far, partially due to lack of explanation from the seafood industry and to lack of explanation from the seafood industry and negative environmental pressnegative environmental press.The consumer needs to .The consumer needs to be informed and educated about the industries efforts be informed and educated about the industries efforts to reduce environmental impact.to reduce environmental impact.

Status of Wild fisheries in Status of Wild fisheries in AustraliaAustralia

Australian Fisheries Status ReportsAustralian Fisheries Status Reports

Australian Overfished Species, 2001Australian Overfished Species, 2001

■■ Southern Southern bluefinbluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyi)tuna (Thunnus maccoyi)■■ Brown Tiger shrimp (P. esculentus)Brown Tiger shrimp (P. esculentus)■■ Grooved Tiger shrimp ( P. semisulcatus)Grooved Tiger shrimp ( P. semisulcatus)■■ Eastern Gemfish (Rexea solandri)Eastern Gemfish (Rexea solandri)■■ School shark (Galeorhinus australis)School shark (Galeorhinus australis)■■ Southern scallop (Pectan fumatus)Southern scallop (Pectan fumatus)■■ Sandfish (Holothuria scabra)Sandfish (Holothuria scabra)■■ Orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus)Orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus)■■ Blue Blue warhouwarhou (Seriolella brama)(Seriolella brama)■■ Redfish (Centroberyx affinis)Redfish (Centroberyx affinis)■■ Tropical rock lobster ( Panulirus ornatus)Tropical rock lobster ( Panulirus ornatus)

Strong trends in Prawn cultureStrong trends in Prawn culture

The end of big earthen ponds for export The end of big earthen ponds for export production (4+Ha), average harvest 1production (4+Ha), average harvest 1--5 5

T/ha/yearT/ha/year

Intensive, partial recirculation Prawn farms in Australia, 10-20 T/ha./year

Chinese ponds, Tan farm, 21Chinese ponds, Tan farm, 21--28 28 T/ha/yearT/ha/year

Chinese farms, Chinese farms, JunanJunan, total , total automationautomation

Raceway technology at 40 Raceway technology at 40 T/ha/year, PanamaT/ha/year, Panama

A&P A&P MaricultureMariculture, 214 , 214 T/ha/yearT/ha/year

Indoor tank culture,with harvests Indoor tank culture,with harvests every week, 299 T/ha/yearevery week, 299 T/ha/year

Typical 100 cu.m. Typical 100 cu.m. growoutgrowout tank, at 50% tank, at 50% drawdowndrawdown its 12% shrimp volumetricallyits 12% shrimp volumetrically

Advantages to inland farmingAdvantages to inland farming

■■ Zero potential for coastal zone damageZero potential for coastal zone damage■■ land is cheapland is cheap■■ gets rid of numerous environmental gets rid of numerous environmental

concerns, such as habitat damage, concerns, such as habitat damage, direct discharge and escapementdirect discharge and escapement

■■ Bore water can be recycled, but Bore water can be recycled, but detailed analysis initially is necessary to detailed analysis initially is necessary to balance the ions present in the water balance the ions present in the water for shrimp growthfor shrimp growth

Areas of Future Prawn Areas of Future Prawn Production TechnologyProduction Technology

■■ Inland farming, with indoor tanks or ponds, Inland farming, with indoor tanks or ponds, focussed on microbial floc utilizationfocussed on microbial floc utilization

■■ Three stage rearing techniques with nurseries Three stage rearing techniques with nurseries running roughly half of the production running roughly half of the production growoutgrowoutcyclecycle

■■ Biomass Biomass production in excess of 5 kilos/cubic production in excess of 5 kilos/cubic meter/cyclemeter/cycle

■■ At least three cycles per yearAt least three cycles per year

Future Prawn Production Future Prawn Production Potential of AustraliaPotential of Australia

■■ Australia has numerous unique prawn species which Australia has numerous unique prawn species which offer many challenges for market development.offer many challenges for market development.

■■ No other country has the area potential to grow No other country has the area potential to grow prawn in inland areasprawn in inland areas

■■ The level of technology available in Australia for The level of technology available in Australia for waste water treatment should allow prawn farming to waste water treatment should allow prawn farming to rapidly expand without threat to the environmentrapidly expand without threat to the environment

■■ Australia has more saline bore water (relative Australia has more saline bore water (relative to the amount of open land) than any other to the amount of open land) than any other countrycountry

Areas of Australia with bore water of salinity Areas of Australia with bore water of salinity appropriate to super intensive prawn cultureappropriate to super intensive prawn culture

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

P. monodon

P. japonicus

P. merguiensis

P. esculentus

P. plebejus

P. semisulcatus

P. indicus

P. marginatus

P. latisulcatus

P. longistylus

P. canaliculatus

M. endeavouri

M. ensis

M. macleayi

M. bennettae

M. eboracensis

M. dalli

Pa. Sculptilis

Pa. Tenella

Spec

ies

Total length (mm)

FemaleMale

.

Penaeus spp.Wild fishery

Penaeus spp.Aquaculture

Parapenaeopsis spp.

Australian Penaeid Prawns – 50 species

10 species ofCommercial importance

Penaeus merguiensis

Australian Penaeid Prawn “Polyculture” Candidate

Current Tank Current Tank polyculturepolyculture resultsresults

■■ L.L. vannameivannamei+ F.+ F. merguensismerguensis■■ Stocking density 750+100Stocking density 750+100■■ Survival 76%+72%Survival 76%+72%■■ Ave Size 15.4g+24.1gAve Size 15.4g+24.1g■■ growth cycle 38 days nursery+98 daysgrowth cycle 38 days nursery+98 days■■ YieldYield 8776+1735=8776+1735=10,513g/m10,513g/m33=105 T/ha=105 T/ha■■ FCR 1.12 NAE 0.55FCR 1.12 NAE 0.55■■ Water consumption 171 L/kgWater consumption 171 L/kg

! Microbes:! Algae:! Finfish:

Species being investigated by QDPI:banana prawns P. merguiensismullet Mugil cephalusrabbit fish Siganus speciesmilk fish Chanos chanos

Local species:bony bream Nematalosa erebimud herring Nematalosa comebanded grunter Amniataba percoidescresent perch Terapon jarbuadiamond scale mullet Liza vaigiensis

! Other:filter feeders, i.e. bivalve molluscs, annelids‘weed’ species (robust, highly prolific, wide tolerance)

Partial Recirculation Technology and Polyculture/ Bioremediation Candidates

Penaeus indicus

Australian Penaeid Prawn ‘Floc’ Candidate

merguiensis

Australian Penaeid Chinese export Candidate

Penaeus ensis

Australian Penaeid “bore water” Candidate

Metapenaeus macleayi

Species Selection to optimize Species Selection to optimize feed utilizationfeed utilization

■■ Australia has the largest marine prawn Australia has the largest marine prawn biodiversity biodiversity in the world. Why grow what in the world. Why grow what everybody else does?everybody else does?

■■ The selection of a The selection of a benthicbenthic, , detrital detrital grazing grazing species will increase nitrogen assimilation species will increase nitrogen assimilation efficiencies by 50%. efficiencies by 50%. FCR’s FCR’s below 1.3 are below 1.3 are expected.expected.

■■ Polyculture Polyculture of shrimp species can lead to of shrimp species can lead to higher higher biomass biomass yield per cropyield per crop

Australian Penaeid Prawn ‘Super Intensive’ Candidate

Penaeus esculentus

Australian Penaeid Prawn ‘?’ Candidate

Penaeus plebejus

Meridian Aquatic Technologies Production Data Year 2002 production 100m3 tanks, 2 tank levels 3.2 m2/m3 AquaMats, 6400K Color Temp, 100 W/cu.m. Cycle number 4 5 6 7 Average Stocking density, pl’s/m3 500 500 550 750 575 FCR 1.14 1.21 1.17 1.07 1.15 Total survival (%) 85 81 78 80 81 Cycle time, nursery 35 35 38 38 37 Cycle time, growout 102 91 98 95 97 Average harvest size 17.6 17.5 15.8 17.1 17.0 # of cycles/year 3.57 4.01 3.72 3.84 3.79 production per harvest (kg/m3) 7.48 7.09 6.78 10.26 7.90 Annual Yield (kg/m3/year) 26.7 28.4 25.2 39.4 29.9

Australia and AquacultureAustralia and Aquaculture

■■ Australia has one of the best technical bases in the Australia has one of the best technical bases in the world to develop many forms of aquaculture, world to develop many forms of aquaculture, particularly microbial floc prawn cultureparticularly microbial floc prawn culture

■■ Australia has more inland saline bore water than any Australia has more inland saline bore water than any country in the world. The potential for inland super country in the world. The potential for inland super intensive prawn culture is huge.intensive prawn culture is huge.

■■ The environmental quality of Australia does not have The environmental quality of Australia does not have to be compromised in any way to have the highest to be compromised in any way to have the highest prawn production in the world prawn production in the world

Australia and AquacultureAustralia and Aquaculture

■■ The current government focus on aquaculture The current government focus on aquaculture as a key export business creates a “window of as a key export business creates a “window of opportunity” to conduct development opportunity” to conduct development demonstrations of the key technologies, from demonstrations of the key technologies, from around the world, and integrate them with the around the world, and integrate them with the biological technical base that Australia has in biological technical base that Australia has in its research community.its research community.

My thanks to the Seafood My thanks to the Seafood Directions 2003 Conference, Directions 2003 Conference, for their support and interest for their support and interest

in Aquaculturein Aquaculture

Production Systems for Prawn Aquaculture

Flow throughExtensiveIntensive

Australian farms

Part RecirculationAustralian farms

Full recirculationBelize

Flocculation

Ocean Boy3-D &

Bioremediation

Meridian Super intensive

One-off Intake

Settlement/Treatment

Filtration/Treatment

Settlement/Storage

Grow-out

Grow-out

Grow-out

One-off Intake

& Top-up

Settlement/Storage

Settlement/Treatment

One-off Intake

& Top-up

Intake

Intake Settlement/Storage

Settlement/Storage

Grow-out

Grow-out

Discharge

Settlement/Treatment

Settlement/Treatment

Discharge

Current Discharge Control Current Discharge Control TechnologyTechnology

■■ A retention pond with a holding volume A retention pond with a holding volume equal to the largest single pond in the equal to the largest single pond in the property. property.

■■ Ponds are set up, on cycle, such that Ponds are set up, on cycle, such that the first 80% of the water from a pond the first 80% of the water from a pond is discharged to a receiving pond where is discharged to a receiving pond where culture is to be started immediately culture is to be started immediately and the last 20% of the pond effluent is and the last 20% of the pond effluent is discharged to the holding lagoon.discharged to the holding lagoon.

Water Exchange Requirements

Sealed/Lined pondsUnsealed pondsSeepage

Balance evaporation/precipitation

EvaporationRainfall

SalinityManagement

SettlementMesocosm

In-pond utilisationBioremediators

AmmoniaSulfide

POM & DOM (TN & TP)Metabolites

Suspended solids

Waste Management

Nitrogen-Phosphorus ratioHeterotrophic system

CrashesDissolved oxygen

Phytoplankton Management

AlternativeFactorsVariable

Current Discharge Control Current Discharge Control TechnologyTechnology

■■ Floating baffles are sometimes used to Floating baffles are sometimes used to accelerate the settling process. Lagoons are accelerate the settling process. Lagoons are held for three days held for three days aerobiclyaerobicly, then , then anaerobiclyanaerobicly for an additional five days. A final for an additional five days. A final 22--3 day aerobic treatment “completes” 3 day aerobic treatment “completes” digestiondigestion

■■ Settlement discharge from the pond is added Settlement discharge from the pond is added back to the flow volume of the back to the flow volume of the growout growout tanks.tanks.

■■ A large fraction of the digested detritus is fed A large fraction of the digested detritus is fed to the to the plpl/juveniles in the nursery tanks/juveniles in the nursery tanks

SummarySummary■■ Current BMP is radically different, based on Current BMP is radically different, based on

biomass biomass yield and water exchange level.yield and water exchange level.■■ Most of the Codes of Conduct and GMP outlines Most of the Codes of Conduct and GMP outlines

that exist today address earthen ponds or, in a that exist today address earthen ponds or, in a few cases, lined ponds with yields of 10 few cases, lined ponds with yields of 10 T/Ha/cycle or less.T/Ha/cycle or less.

■■ RecircRecirc and zero exchange is poorly addressed and zero exchange is poorly addressed by much of current regulatory and by much of current regulatory and management practicemanagement practice

Tropical Australia Evaporation Exceeds Rainfall plus Seasonal Wet Seasons

China as a specific competitorChina as a specific competitor

■■ Unsubsidized costs are at Au$8Unsubsidized costs are at Au$8--12/kg,200212/kg,2002■■ Government subsidization of energy costs Government subsidization of energy costs

exists for all export agricultural goodsexists for all export agricultural goods■■ The Chinese government does subsidize the The Chinese government does subsidize the

most efficient producers through demo farm most efficient producers through demo farm programsprograms

■■ The Chinese have excellent market intelligence, The Chinese have excellent market intelligence, worldwideworldwide

Chinese ponds, Chinese ponds, JohaiJohai, 18, 18--24 24 T/ha/yearT/ha/year

Raceway technology at 48 Raceway technology at 48 T/Ha/year, EquadorT/Ha/year, Equador

A&P A&P biofiltrationbiofiltration sector for two sector for two 100 cu.m. tanks100 cu.m. tanks

Typical 100 cu.m. Typical 100 cu.m. growoutgrowout tank, tank, harvest yield of 214 T/ha/yearharvest yield of 214 T/ha/year

Areas for Joint Research Areas for Joint Research DevelopmentDevelopment

■■ Species selection to optimize feed Species selection to optimize feed utilizationutilization

■■ Feed formulation development to Feed formulation development to minimize effluent dischargeminimize effluent discharge

■■ Strain development for disease Strain development for disease resistance improvement, growth rate resistance improvement, growth rate increase, and uniformity improvementincrease, and uniformity improvement

Feed Formulation development to Feed Formulation development to minimize effluent discharge.minimize effluent discharge.

■■ Excess protein levels, particularly later Excess protein levels, particularly later in the growth cycle (>3.0 grams) can in the growth cycle (>3.0 grams) can double the ammonia levels and double the ammonia levels and massively increase nitrogenous waste massively increase nitrogenous waste discharge at the end of a cycle.discharge at the end of a cycle.

■■ Much of the mineral Much of the mineral pac pac and vitamin and vitamin pac pac used by most feed companies is used by most feed companies is excessive or unnecessary and is highly excessive or unnecessary and is highly species specificspecies specific

Feed Formulation development to Feed Formulation development to minimize effluent discharge.minimize effluent discharge.

■■ Reformulation to match actual Reformulation to match actual protein needs as well as minimizing protein needs as well as minimizing vitamin vitamin pac pac formulation can cut formulation can cut feed costs significantly (>30%).feed costs significantly (>30%).

■■ Optimization of feed delivery (timing Optimization of feed delivery (timing and technique) can reduce and technique) can reduce FCR’s FCR’s by 0.2 by 0.2 and reduce manpower requirements.and reduce manpower requirements.

Florida Shrimp culture pondsFlorida Shrimp culture ponds

PDP system in Gila Bend PDP system in Gila Bend ArizonaArizona

Compliance with Regulatory Environment -Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation

Council (ANZECC)

Determining appropriate guideline trigger values:! Define the water body

! Determine the environmental values to be protected

! Determine level of detection

! Identify environmental concerns

! Determine major natural and anthropogenic factors effecting the water system

! Determine ‘management goals’

Australian and New Zealand Environmentand Conservation Council

(ANZECC)

Preferred hierarchy for deriving trigger values

Most preferred

Least preferred

Local biological effects data

Local reference data

Regional reference data Generic effects-basedguidelines

! Microbial: bacteria and micro-planktonConversion of dissolved nutrients to capturable food sourcePrawn feed (C:N) <10:1 whereas microbial activity max. 16:1 – 30:1Strong mixing through vertical aeration gyres

Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM)! Algae:

Planktonic and sessile

Particulate Organic Matter (POM)! Engineering:

Physical barriers – accelerate sedimentationCentral drain - waste water management technologiesMesocosms – diverse community structure

Partial Recirculation TechnologyTreatment Ponds – Settlement Engineering

Tropical Australia Evaporation Exceeds Rainfall plus Seasonal Wet Seasons

Darwin

Cairns

Townsville

Tropical Seasonality

Engineering Solutions

Evaporation control

Super Intensive SystemsMeridian, Montana, USA - Self Contained Infrastructure

The “America’s” Prawn P. vannamei

Flocculation Production System & Super High Density Candidate

The ‘Australian Tropical’ Prawn P. esculentus

Super High Density Candidate

P. vannameiP. merguiensis ?

Flocculation3-D structure

Intensive

P. esculentusIndoor tanksSuper Intensive

Proven SpeciesStructureCulture System

! Markets Can Australia compete in a small prawn (<25 grams) market??If < 25 grams –

Limited export opportunities – competing against P. vannameiCompetition from imports, eg P. vannamei from China

If > 25 grams –Opportunity to establish niche export market

! Systems Can prawns >25 grams be produced??Vertical integration: Hatchery – Nursery – Grow-out

Key Considerations if ‘Closed’ Production SystemsAdopted in Australia

Selection Criteria for ‘Next Generation’Prawn Farming

" Capable of competing:Domestically - against importsInternationally – against cost of production and product quality

" Designed for intensive production:Major shift from current Australian technologyExpensive capital start-up

" Species selection:Flocculation system

Flocculation eater all stages of life cycle% nutrition derived from flocculates

Optimum growth parametersIntegrated and polycultureMarketability

" High level of integration:Biosecurity Hatchery-nursery-grow-out Selective breeding

" Geographic location:Water quality Water access – evaporation vs rainfall

Key biological issueKey biological issue

■■ Get the SPF, HDT line in the ponds Get the SPF, HDT line in the ponds ASAPASAP

■■ Be aware that if biosecurity is breached, Be aware that if biosecurity is breached, these strains may be more susceptible these strains may be more susceptible and experience higher mortality than a and experience higher mortality than a wild strain.wild strain.

Key feed issuesKey feed issues

■■ If you make the switch to stocking If you make the switch to stocking densities that will produce greater than densities that will produce greater than 1 kilo/cubic meter at harvest, you can 1 kilo/cubic meter at harvest, you can switch to bacterial floc supported switch to bacterial floc supported culture.culture.

■■ If you go to floc systems, you will be If you go to floc systems, you will be able to reduce your average protein able to reduce your average protein levels by 7levels by 7--10% in 10% in growoutgrowout, over what , over what you do now.you do now.

Key Engineering IssuesKey Engineering Issues

■■ Above 15 hp/ha, particle shear Above 15 hp/ha, particle shear introduced by paddlewheel aeration introduced by paddlewheel aeration systems produces erosion in unlined systems produces erosion in unlined ponds.ponds.

■■ Line ponds as economics permitsLine ponds as economics permits■■ Move away from paddlewheels for Move away from paddlewheels for

aeration and use low RPM VFD units for aeration and use low RPM VFD units for circulating watercirculating water

■■ Use PDP piping to provide aerationUse PDP piping to provide aeration..

Key Engineering IssuesKey Engineering Issues

■■ PDP piping will lower flow velocity and PDP piping will lower flow velocity and improve improve FCR’sFCR’s

■■ PDP piping reduces evaporation loss PDP piping reduces evaporation loss and helps with salinity control.and helps with salinity control.

Key engineering issuesKey engineering issues

■■ Get nurseries integrated into your Get nurseries integrated into your system as quickly as possiblesystem as quickly as possible..

■■ Nurseries should have about 5% of the Nurseries should have about 5% of the volume of the volume of the growout growout unit they are unit they are used to stockused to stock

■■ Use Use AquaMats AquaMats in the nurseries at in the nurseries at roughly 1sq.m./cu.m.roughly 1sq.m./cu.m.

Key Engineering ConceptsKey Engineering Concepts

■■ Settlement ponds can be used to Settlement ponds can be used to significantly reduce water input to the significantly reduce water input to the system. The use of a baffled AOA system. The use of a baffled AOA settlement pond with PDP aeration will settlement pond with PDP aeration will reduce water consumptionreduce water consumption

Longer term development Longer term development commitmentscommitments

■■ Government organizations and academia need Government organizations and academia need to explore the adaptation of indoor, super to explore the adaptation of indoor, super intensive, zero exchange to Australian needs intensive, zero exchange to Australian needs

■■ A demo facility has been the best means of A demo facility has been the best means of introducing major new prawn technology in introducing major new prawn technology in most of the countries where this technology is most of the countries where this technology is being explored.being explored.

■■ The potential of inland, indoor bore water The potential of inland, indoor bore water seems enormous. seems enormous.