Suspense Curiosity Surprise

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    ELSEVIER Poetics 26 (2000) 277-286POETICS

    www.elsevier.nl/locate/poetic

    S u s p e n s e , c u r i o s i t y , a n d s u r p r i s e :H o w d i s c o u r s e s t r u c t u r e i n f l u e n c e s t h e a f f e c t i v e a n d

    c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g o f a s to r y *H a n s H o e k e n * , M a r i o v a n V l i e t

    Department o f Business Com munication, Nijmegen U niversity,P.O. Box 9 103, 6500 HD N ijmegen, The Netherlands

    A b s t r a c tThe s t ruc tu ra l a f fec t theory (Brewer and L ich tens te in , 1982) s ta te s tha t d i f fe ren t a f fec t ive

    r e s p o n s e s c a n b e e v o k e d b y m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h a s t o r y ' s e v e n t s a r e n a r r a t e d .S u s p e n s e i s e v o k e d b y p o s t p o n i n g t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e , c u r i o s i t y i s e v o k e d b y p r e s e n t i n g t h eo u t c o m e b e f o r e t h e p r e c e d i n g e v e n t s , a n d s u r p r i s e i s e v o k e d b y a n u n e x p e c t e d e v e n t . A p a r tf r o m e v o k i n g d i f f e r e n t a f f e c t i v e re s p o n s e s , t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e e v e n t o r d e r c a n i n f lu e n c et h e c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g a s w e l l. I n t h is p a p e r , a n e x p e r i m e n t is d e s c r i b e d i n w h i c h t h e a f f e c -t ive and cogn i t ive e f fec t s o f suspense , cu r ios i ty , and su rp r i se s t ruc tu res a re s tud ied us ing as t o r y b y a p r o f e s s i o n a l a u t h o r . T h e r e s u l t s s h o w e d t h a t s u s p e n s e c a n b e e v o k e d e v e n w h e nr e a d e r s k n o w h o w t h e s t o r y w i l l e n d . T h e i n c l u s i o n o f a s u r p r i s i n g e v e n t i s h i g h l y a p p r e c i -a t ed . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t le a d s t o a b e t t e r re p r e s e n t a ti o n o f t h e s t o r y ' s e v e n t s , a s w a s p r e d i c t e d b yK i n t s c h ( 1 9 8 0 ) . 2 0 0 0 P u b l i s h e d b y E l s e v i e r S c i e n c e B . V . A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .

    I . I n t r o d u c t i o n

    T h r i ll e rs , d e t e c t iv e s , a n d s p y n o v e l s a r e a l w a y s h i g h o n b e s t - s e ll e r l is ts . T h e s eb o o k s a r e n o t re a d f o r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y c o n t a i n , b u t fo r t h e p l e a su r e t h e y p r o v i d e( y o u d o n o t r e a d J o h n l e C a r r 6 f o r th e h i s t o r y o f th e c o l d w a r ) . S t e i n ( 1 9 8 2 ) c l a i m st h a t t h is p l e a s u r e a r i se s f r o m t h e e m o t i o n s t h e s e n o v e l s e v o k e . B r e w e r a n d L i c h t e n -s t ei n (1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 ) h a v e d e v e l o p e d a t h e o r y i n w h i c h t h e y p r e d i c t t h e o c c u r r e n c e o fc e r t a i n e m o t i o n s a s a r e s u lt o f a s p e c i fi c o r d e r i n g o f th e s t o r y e v e n t s , t h e s o - c a l l e d

    The authors wish to thank Leo N oordman, Jose Sanders, Gerard S teen and two anonym oug review-ers for their helpful comments o n an earlier version o f this paper. Needless to say, any remaining flawsare ours.* Correspon ding author. Phone : +31 24 361 2884; Fax: +31 24 361 2177;E-mail: [email protected] 3 0 4 -4 2 2 X /0 0 /$ - see f ront mat ter 2000 Published by Elsevier Science B.V . All rights reserved.P I I : S 0 3 0 4 - 4 2 2 X ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 2 1 - 2

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    278 H. Hoe ken , M. van Vl ie t / Po et ics 27 (2000) 277 -28 6discourse structure. In the next section, the theory put forward by Brewer and Licht-enstein is discussed and predictions about the affective and cognitive effects of cer-tain discourse structures are derived.

    2 . T h e s t r u c t u r a l a f fe c t th e o r y : A f f e c t i v e a n d c o g n i t iv e o u t c o m e s o f d i f fe r e n ts t o r y s t r u c t u r e sBrewer and Lichtenstein (1981, 1982) developed the structural affect theory. In

    their view, a story is a description of a series of events. The chronological order ofthese events is called the event structure. Using flashbacks and flash forwards, theauthor can manipulate the order in which the events are narrated. The order of nar-rated events is called the discourse structure. Brewer and Lichtenstein state that cer-tain discourse structures are capable of evoking certain emotions, namely suspense,curiosity, and surprise.

    As an example, Brewer and Lichtenstein (1981: 365-366) present the followingevent structure:1. BUTLER PUTS POISON IN WINE.2. BUTLER CARRIES WINE TO LORD HIGGINBOTHAM.3. LORD HIGGINBOTHAM DRINKS WINE.4. LORD HIGGINBOTHAM DIES.By manipulating the order in which these events are related to the reader, differentemotions can be evoked. Suspense, for instance, is evoked by narrating the events inchronological order. Brewer and Lichtenstein provide the following example:1. The butler put poison in the wine.2. The butler carried the wine to Lord Higginbotham.3. Lord Higginbotham drank the wine.At this point, the reader becomes uncertain about the story's outcome: Will the lordsurvive drinking the poisoned wine? The suspense would not arise if the readeralready knew that the lord dies or survives (cf. Kintsch, 1980). Suspense is thereforethe result of uncertainty about the outcome.

    Knowing a story's outcome may decrease the suspense, but on the other hand, itmay evoke curiosity. By starting with the story's outcome, readers become curiousabout how this event came about. Brewer and Lichtenstein give as an example of acuriosity evoking discourse structure a story starting with the sentence1. Lord Higginbotham fell over dead.

    Readers want to know whether the lord died of natural or unnatural causes. In thelatter case, they would be interested in who was the murderer and how he or shecommitted it. That is, they would be interested in the events preceding Lord Higgin-botham's death.

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    H. Hoeken, M. van Vliet / Poetics 27 (2000) 277-286 279

    S u s p e n s e m a y r e s u l t f r o m u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e o u t c o m e , w h e r e a s c u r i o s i t y m a yb e e v o k e d b y c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e o u t c o m e . T h e a m o u n t o f s u s p e n s e a r e ad e r e x p e ri -e n c e s , a s w e l l a s t h e a m o u n t o f c u r io s i t y , c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e s t o r y ' s a p p r e c i a ti o n . As t o r y i n w h i c h t h e o u t c o m e i s r e l a t e d r i g h t a w a y , i s m o r e l i k e l y t o e v o k e c u r i o s i t yt h a n s u s p e n s e . A s t o r y i n w h i c h , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , t h e o u t c o m e i s u n k n o w n , i s m o r el i ke l y t o e voke su spe nse t ha n c u r i o s i t y . T h i s r a i s e s t he que s t i on w h i c h f e e l i ngs a r em o r e i m p o r t a n t to t h e a p p r e c i a t io n o f th e s t o r y : c u r i o s i ty o r s u s p e n s e ? S e v e r a la u t h o r s a p p e a r t o a t ta c h m o r e i m p o r t a n c e t o s u s p e n s e ( s ee e . g. , B r e w e r a n d L i c h t e n -s t e in , 1981 , 1982 ; K i n t sc h , 1980 ) . T he r e f o r e , t he f i r s t hyp o t he s i s is :Hypothesis 1W h e n t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e is u n k n o w n , t h e s to r y w i ll b e a p p r e c i at e d m o r e t h a n w h e nt h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e i s k n o w n .K n o w i n g a s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e c a n i n f l u e n c e t h e c o g n i ti v e r ea d i n g p r o c e s s a s w e l l. F o ri n s ta n c e , s u p p o s e t h e s t o ry a b o u t L o r d H i g g i n b o t h a m s ta r ts w i t h t he e v e n t o f th e l o r df a l l i ng ove r de a d . T he n , t he p r e c e d i ng e ve n t s a r e na r r a te d . F o r i n s t a nc e , t he l o r d m a yh a v e w o k e n u p t h a t d a y w o n d e r i n g a b o u t w h i c h p e r s o n s t o i n v it e to h i s d i n n e r p a r tyn e x t m o n t h . K n o w i n g t h a t t h e l o r d w i l l n o t l a s t t h e d a y , t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s e e ml e s s i m por t a n t . O n t he o t he r ha nd , t he ga r de ne r m e n t i on i ng t he a r r i va l o f r a t po i sona m o n g o t h e r s u p p l i e s m a y a t t r a c t m o r e a t t e n t i o n w h e n t h e r e a d e r s k n o w t h e s t o r y ' so u t c o m e . R e a d e r s a r e c a p a b l e o f d is t i n g u i s h i n g b e tw e e n m o r e a n d l es s i m p o r t a n ti n f o r m a t i o n w h i l e r e a d in g t h e s t o r y . C i r i lo a n d F o s s ( 1 9 8 0) s h o w e d t h a t r ea d e r s p a i dm o r e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e n t e n c e ' H e c o u l d n o l o n g e r s p e a k a t a l l ' w h e n t h i s w a s t h eo u t c o m e o f a w i t c h ' s c u r s e t h a n w h e n i t g a v e e x p r e s s i o n t o t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s a m a z e -m e n t . K n o w i n g t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e t h e r e f o r e i n f l u e n c e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e a t t a c h e d ,a nd he nc e , t he a t t e n t i on pa i d , t o c e r t a i n pa s sa ge s i n t he s t o r y .Hypothesis 2W h e n t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e i s u n k n o w n , c e r t a i n p a s s a g e s w i l l r e c e i v e m o r e a t t e n t i o nt h a n w h e n t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e i s k n o w n .

    D i sc ou r se s t r uc t u r e s c a n e voke su r p r i s e a s w e l l . S u r p r i s e i s e voke d by a n une x -p e c t e d e v e n t . B y l e a v i n g o u t a n i m p o r t a n t e v e n t , a s u b s e q u e n t e v e n t m a y b e c o m eu n e x p e c t e d , a s i s s h o w n b y B r e w e r a n d L i c h t e n s t e i n ' s e x a m p l e :1 . T h e b u t l e r c ar r ie d t h e w i n e t o L o r d H i g g i n b o t h a m .2 . L o r d H i g g i n b o t h a m d r a n k t h e w i n e.3 . L o r d H i g g i n b o t h a m f e l l o v e r d e a d .T h e e v e n t o f th e b u t l e r p o i s o n i n g t h e w i n e i s l e ft o ut . K n o w l e d g e o f t h is e v e n t w o u l dha ve m a de t he ou t c om e l e s s su r p r i s i ng . S u r p r i s e i s one o f t he e m o t i ons t ha t a r e sup -p o s e d t o h e i g h t e n t h e s t o r y ' s a p p r e c i at io n .Hypothesis 3W he n t he s t o r y c on t a i n s a su r p r i s e , i t w i l l be a pp r e c i a t e d m or e t ha n w he n i t c on t a i n sno su r p r is e .

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    28 0 H . H o e k e n , M . v a n V l i e t / P o e t i c s 2 7 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 2 7 7 - 2 8 6

    A c c o r d i n g t o K i n t s c h ( 1 9 8 0 : 9 8 ), a s u r p r i si n g e v e n t h a s a n i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t o n t h ec o g n i t i v e r e a d i n g p r o c e s s a s w e l l . W h e n r e a d i n g t h e s t o r y , r e a d e r s b u i l d a m e n t a lr e p r e se n t a t i o n o f it . T h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a su r p r i s i n g e v e n t f o r c e s r e a d e r s t o r e a s se s st h e i r r e p r e se n t a t i o n o f t h e s t o r y u p t il l t h a t p o i n t, b e c a u se a su r p r i s i n g e v e n t i s b yd e f i n i t i o n n o t a l o g i c a l s e q u e l t o th e p r e c e d i n g e v e n t s . T h e y h a v e t o c h e c k t h e i r r e p -r e s e n t a ti o n t o s e e w h e t h e r t h e y m i s s e d s o m e t h i n g . A s a s r e s u l t o f th i s r e as s e s s m e n t ,r e c a ll o f th e p r e c e d i n g e v e n t s i m p r o v e s . T o g i v e a n e x a m p l e . I n m a n y A g a t h aC h r i s t i e n o v e l s , t h e m u r d e r e r i s e x p o se d i n t h e l a s t c h a p t e r . Usu a l l y , i t i s so m e o n et h e r e a d e r s d i d n o t su sp e c t a n d t h e m u r d e r e r ' s i d e n t i t y c o m e s a s a su rp r i s e. I n Andthen there were none, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e m u r d e r e r i s b e l i e v e d t o b e d e a d . T h e r e v e l a -t i o n o f h i s i d e n t i t y f o r c e s r e a d e r s t o r e a s se s s t h e i r r e p r e se n t a t i o n o f t h e s t o r y ' se v e n ts , p e rh a p s m a k i n g t h e m m o r e m e m o r a b l e .Hypothesis 4W h e n t h e s t o r y c o n t a i n s a s u r p r i s e , t h e p r e c e d i n g e v e n t s w i l l b e r e m e m b e r e d b e t t e rt h a n w h e n i t c o n t a i n s n o s u r pr is e .W r i t in g a s u s p e n s e f u l , c u r i o s i t y e v o k i n g , a n d s u r p ri s in g s t o ry p r o v e s v e r y d i f f i c u l tf o r r es e a r ch e r s . T h e r e f o r e , w e u s e d a s t o r y w r i t te n b y t h e w e l l - k n o w n E n g l i s h a u t h o rP .D . J a m e s t o p u t t h e h y p o t h e se s t o t h e t e s t .

    3 . M e t h o d

    W e c o n d u c t e d a n e x p e r i m e n t i n w h i c h r e a d e rs r e a d d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s o f a m u r d e rs t o ry i n w h i c h t h e d i s c o u r s e s t r u c tu r e w a s m a n i p u l a t e d t o e v o k e s u r p ri se , s u s p e n s eo r c u r i o s i t y . W e c o l l e c t e d th e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' r e a d i n g t i m e s , t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th es t o r y , a n d t h e i r r e c o l l e c t i o n o f i t.3.1. Materials

    I n t h e s t u d y , t h e f i rs t c h a p t e r o f P . D . J a m e s ' Devices and desires i n the (p ro fes -s i o n a l) D u t c h t r a n s l a ti o n b y J . J. d e W i t w a s e m p l o y e d . T h e f i rs t c h a p t e r c a n b e r e a da s a sh o r t s t o r y . T h e c h a p t e r c o n s i s t s o f 1 9 p a r a g r a p h s c o n t a i n i n g 1 9 9 8 wo r d s . I td e sc r i b e s a 1 5 - y e a r o l d g i r l wh o m i s se s t h e b u s o n h e r n i g h t o u t . Sh e f e a r s a r o ww i t h h e r s t r i c t f a t h e r w h i c h w o u l d r e s u l t i n b e i n g g r o u n d e d f o r t h e n e x t c o u p l e o fm o n t h s . S h e s u c c e e d s i n g e t t i n g a r i d e f r o m t w o e l d e r l a d i e s a n d h a s t h e m d r o p h e ro f f a t a b a c k r o a d t h r o u g h w h i c h s h e c a n r e a c h a b u s s t o p. B e c a u s e h e r b u s m a k e s ad e t o u r t h r o u g h s o m e v i l l a g e s , s h e m i g h t b e a b l e t o g e t o n t h e b u s a n d b e h o m e i nt i m e . As sh e wa l k s d o w n t h e b a c k r o a d , sh e r e a l iz e s t h a t sh e i s a n e a sy t a r g e t f o r t h em u r d e r e r w h o h a s m u r d e r e d s e v er a l w o m e n i n t h e n e ig h b o u r h o o d . S h e p a n i c k s b u ti s r e l ie v e d w h e n s h e s e e s a w o m a n i n f r o n t o f h e r w a l k i n g a d o g . S h e r u n s t o th ew o m a n , b u t w h a t s e e m e d t o b e h e r r e s cu e r , p r o v e s t o b e t h e m u r d e r e r i n d is g u i s e. H es t r a n g l e s h e r w i t h t h e l e a sh .

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    H . H o e k e n , M . v a n V l i e t / P o e t i c s 2 7 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 2 7 7 - 2 8 6 281

    T h e s t o r y p r o v i d e d u s w i t h a n e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y to t e st t h e h y p o t h e s e s :- K n o w i n g h o w th e s t o ry e n d s

    M a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e w a s e a s y . T h e f i r st s e n t e n c e o f t h e o r ig i n a ls t o r y r e a d : " T h e W h i s t l e r ' s f o u r t h v ic t i m , V a l e r ie M i t c h e l l , w a s h i s y o u n g e s t : f i f -t e e n y e a r s , a n d s h e d i e d b e c a u s e s h e m i s s e d t h e b u s l e a v i n g a t t w e n t y t o t en f r o mE a s t h a v e n f o r it s r id e to C o b b ' s M a r s h . " T o m a n i p u l a te t h e k n o w l e d g e a b o u t th es t o r y ' s o u t c o m e , t h i s s e n t e n c e w a s r e p l a c e d b y " T h e n e w b u s s c h e d u l e ' s f i r s t v i c -t i m , V a l e r i e M i t c h e l l , w a s y o u n g : f i f te e n y e a r s, a n d s h e h a t e d t h a t s h e m i s s e d t h eb u s l e a v i n g a t t w e n t y t o te n f r o m E a s t h a v e n f o r it s r i d e t o C o b b ' s M a r s h " .

    W e a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p t h e s e n t e n c e s a s s i m i l a r a s p o s s i b l e w i t h r e g a r d t o t h en u m b e r a n d s o r t o f w o r d s u s e d . R e p l a c i n g t h e fi r st s e n t e n c e b y a n e a r l y i d e n t ic a lo n e w a s p r e f e r r e d t o l e a v i n g t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e o u t f o r t w o r e a s o n s . F i rs t, i t k e p tt h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s a n d s e n t e n c e s o f t h e t w o v e r s i o n s i d e n t ic a l . S e c o n d , s i m p l yl e a v i n g t h e f i r st s e n t e n c e o u t w o u l d r e s u l t in a d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e s u b s e -q u e n t s e n t e n c e : " A s a l w a y s s h e le f t t h e d i s co a t th e l as t m o m e n t . " R e m o v i n g t h ef i rs t s e n t e n c e w o u l d h a v e r e a d e r s g u e s s i n g a t th e i d e n t i t y o f t h e c h a r a c te r .A s u r p r i s i n g e v e n tT h e s t o r y c o n t a i n e d a s u r p ri se : T h e w o m a n w i t h h e r d o g o n a l e a sh p r o v e d t o b et h e k il le r w i t h h is m u r d e r w e a p o n . T h e s u rp r is e c o u l d b e r e m o v e d b y m a k i n g t h ew o m a n w h a t s h e s e e m e d t o b e : a w o m a n w a l k in g h e r d o g . T o t h i s e n d , o n l y t h el as t tw o p a r a g ra p h s h a d t o b e c h a n g e d . H o w e v e r , i f t h e w o m a n is w h a t s h e s e e m st o b e , t h e s t o r y h a s a h a p p y e n d i n g , b e c a u s e V a l e r i e M i t c h e l l g e t s to t h e b u s s t o ps a f e l y a n d w i l l b e h o m e i n ti m e . T h e a b s e n c e o f a s u r p ri s e is c o n f o u n d e d w i t h ah a p p y e n d i n g , a n d h a p p y e n d i n g s h a v e b e e n s h o w n t o b o o s t a s t o r y ' s a p p r e ci a t io n( s e e I r a n - N e j a d , 1 9 8 7 ) .

    T o d i s s e c t th e e f f e c t o f a h a p p y e n d i n g f r o m t h e a b s e n c e o f a s u rp r i si n g e v e n t ,a n o t h e r v e r s i o n w a s w r i t t e n . I n t h i s v e r s i o n , t h e r e i s a s u r p r i s i n g e v e n t ( t h ew o m a n w i t h t h e d o g i s t h e k i l l e r i n d i s g u i s e ) , b u t i t h a s a h a p p y e n d i n g a s w e l l( V a l e r i e s u c c e e d s i n e s c a p i n g b e c a u s e t h e l e a s h b r e a k s a n d t h e k i l l e r f a l l s b a c k -w a r d s i n t o th e b u s h e s ) .

    F o u r v e r si o n s o f t h e s t o r y w e r e c o n s t ru c t e d . E a c h v e r s i o n d i f f e r e d in o n l y o n e r e s p e c t( k n o w n o u t c o m e o r n o t , s u rp r is in g e v e n t o r n o t~ h a p p y e n d o r n o t ) f r o m o n e o t h e rv e r s i o n e n a b l i n g u s t o t e s t o u r h y p o t h e s e s . T a b l e 1 d i s p l a y s t h e d i f f e r e n t v e r s io n s .Table 1The characteristics of the different versionsStory Outcome known Surprising event Happy ending1 Yes Yes No2 No Yes No3 No Yes Yes4 No No Yes

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    282 H. Hoeken , M . van V l i e t / Poe t i c s 27 (2000 ) 277 -2 86T o t e s t h y p o t h e s e s 1 a n d 2 a b o u t th e e f f e c ts o f k n o w i n g t h e o u t c o m e , s t o ri es 1

    a nd 2 a r e c om pa r e d . T o t e s t hyp o t he s e s 3 a nd 4 a bou t the e f f e c t s o f a su r p r i s i nge ve n t , s t o r i e s 3 a nd 4 a r e c om pa r e d . S t o r y 1 i s a l m os t i de n t i c a l t o t he o r i g i na l s to r yb y P . D . J a m e s . W e o n l y l e f t o u t o n e s e n t e n c e th a t h i n t e d a t t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e . T h es e n t e n c e w a s p o s i t i o n e d m i d w a y i n t h e s t o r y a n d c a m e a f t e r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o fV a l e r ie g e t t i n g o u t o f th e c a r o f t h e t w o e l d e r l y l ad i e s. T h e s e n t e n c e r e a d : " T h e yw e r e t he l a s t pe op l e t o s e e he r a l i ve , e xc e p t f o r one " .3 .2 . I n s t r u m e n t a t i o nF o u r d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w e r e m e a s u r e d :1. A m a n i p u l a t i o n c h e c k a b o u t t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e s t o r y e v o k e d f e e l i n g s o f s u s -

    pe nse a nd su r p r i s eT o t ha t e nd , pa r t i c i pa n t s i nd i c a t e d on 7 - po i n t L i ke r t s c a l e s t he e x t e n t t o w h i c ht h e y a g r e e d w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t s ' I f o u n d t h e s t o r y s u s p e n s e f u l ' a n d ' I f o u n d t h es t o r y s u r p r i s i n g ' . W e r e f r a i n e d f r o m h a v i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r t h e yf ou nd t he s t o r y c u r i o s i t y e vok i ng . I n a p r e t e s t , it p r ov e d a d i f f i c u l t que s t i on t oa nsw e r . Cu r i o s i t y i s u sua l l y a s soc i a t e d w i t h sho r t t e r m s t a t e s o f unc e r t a i n t y ,w h i c h a r e e a s i l y f o r go t t e n a f t e r t he c u r i o s i t y i s s a t i s f i e d ( H i d i a nd A nde r son ,1992) .

    2 . T he ge ne r a l a pp r e c i a t i on o f t he s t o r yT h e g e n e r a l a p p r e c i a ti o n o f th e s t o r y w a s m e a s u r e d u s i n g e i g h t 7 -p o i n t L i k e r ts c a le s . S o m e o f th e s t a t e m e n t s u s e d w e r e p o s i t iv e l y f o r m u l a t e d ( I f o u n d t h e s t o r yi n t e r e s t i ng , n i c e , be a u t i f u l ) , o t he r s w e r e ne ga t i ve l y f o r m u l a t e d ( I f ound t he s t o r ybo r i ng , poo r , p r e d i c t a b l e , l ong - w i nde d , du l l) . T he r e l i a b i l it y o f the r e su l t i ng sc a l ew a s g ood ( Cr onb a c h ' s c t = . 82) .

    3 . A t t e n t i o n t o p a ra g r a p h s d i f f e r in g i n im p o r t a n c e a s a r e s u l t o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h eo u t c o m eT o a s s e s s w h e t h e r t h e r e w e r e s u c h p a r a g r a p h s , a p r e t e s t w a s c o n d u c t e d . A t t h ep r e te s t, t w e n t y m a l e a n d t w e n t y f e m a l e s t u d e n ts r e c e i v e d e i t h e r th e s t o r y w i t h t h ek n o w n o u t c o m e o r w i th t h e u n k n o w n o u t c o m e . T h e y r a te d e a c h s e n t e n c e fo r it si m p o r t a n c e o n a 7 - p o i n t s c al e . T h e r e s u lt s s h o w e d t h a t th r e e p a r a g r a p h s w e r e p e r -c e i v e d a s m o r e i m p o r t a n t w h e n t h e o u t c o m e w a s u n k n o w n t h a n w h e n t h e o u t -c o m e w a s k n o w n . O n e p a r a g r a p h w a s a b o u t th e u p c o m i n g r o w w i th h e r fa t h e r a sa r e su l t o f m i s s i n g t h e b u s , i n t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h a l l u s i o n s w e r e m a d e t o t h ed a n g e r s o f h i t c h h i k i n g i n g e n e r a l , a n d i n t h e t h i r d p a r a g r a p h , t h e p r e s e n c e o f as e ri a l k i l le r w a s r e v e a l e d . T h e r e a d i n g t i m e o f th e s e p a r a g r a p h s w a s m e a s u r e d .

    4 . R e c o l l e c t i on o f t he e ve n t s p r i o r t o t he su r p r i s ing e v e n tT w e n t y c o m p r e h e n s i o n i t e m s w e r e d e v e l o p e d . T h e i t e m s w e r e d i r e c t e d t o t h ee ve n t s p r i o r t o t he su r p r i s i ng e ve n t , i . e ., to t he i n f o r m a t i on t ha t w a s i de n t i c a l in a l lf o u r v e r s io n s . T h e i te m s c o n s i s t e d o f a s t a t e m e n t f o r w h i c h t h e p a r ti c ip a n t s h a d t oi n d i c a t e w h e t h e r t h e s t a t e m e n t w a s c o r r e c t . T h e y a l s o h a d t o i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r

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    H. Hoeken, M . van Vliet / Po etics 27 (2000) 277 -286 283

    t h e y w e r e c e r t a i n a b o u t th e c o r r e c t n e s s o f th e i r a n s w e r o r n o t. I n t h is w a y , t h er e s u l ts c o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d f o r g u e s s i n g ( s e e S a x , 1 9 8 0 ).

    3 . 3 . P a r t i c i p a n t sA t o t a l o f 91 p a r t i c i p a n t s t o o k p a r t ( v o l u n t a r i l y ) in t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T h e y w e r e a l l

    s t u d e n t s a t T i l b u r g U n i v e r s i t y i n T h e N e t h e r l a n d s . A g e r a n g e d f r o m 1 7 t o 5 1 y e a r s ,w i t h a m e a n o f 2 3 y e a rs . T h e r e w e r e 5 2 m e n a n d 3 9 w o m e n .3 . 4 . P r o c e d u r e

    P a r ti c ip a n t s r e c e i v e d r a n d o m l y o n e o f th e v e r s i o n s o f t he s t o r y . T h e y r e a d t h es t o r y s e n t e n c e b y s e n t e n c e o n a c o m p u t e r s c r e e n . A t t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e n e x t s e n -t e n c e , th e p r e v i o u s o n e d i s a p p e a r e d . T h e p a r t i c ip a n t s c o n t r o l l e d th e s p e e d o f p r e s e n -t a t i o n b y p r e s s i n g t h e ( r i g h t h a n d ) s h i f t b u t t o n o n t h e k e y b o a r d . T h e y c o u l d n o t r e -r e a d p r e v i o u s s c r e e n s . T o h e l p p a r t i c i p a n t s g e t u s e d t o t h is m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t io n ,t h e y f i r s t r e a d a s h o r t, u n r e l a t e d s t o r y . A f t e r t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts h a d r e a d t h e s t o r y a b o u tV a l e r i e , t h e y r e c e i v e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n t a i n i n g t h e i t e m s a b o u t t h e s u s p e n s e a n ds u r p r i se t h e y h a d e x p e r i e n c e d , t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e s t o r y , a n d t h e c o m p r e h e n s i o ni t e m s .

    4 . R e s u l t s

    T a b l e 2 c o n t a i n s t h e m e a n s c o r e s o n t h e m a i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ( g e n e r a l s t o r ya p p r e c i a t i o n a n d r e c o g n i t i o n s c o r e s ) a s a f u n c t i o n o f th e d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s o f t h es t o r y .Table 2The m ean appreciation scores (1 = very negative, 7 = very po sitive) and p roportion correct recognitionitems as a function of the story characteristicsS t o r y O u t c o m e n o w n S u r p r is i n g v en t H a p p y n d i n g A p p r e c i a t i o n R e co gn itio n1 Yes Yes No 4.63 .412 No Yes No 4.57 .473 No Yes Yes 4.86 .444 No No Yes 4. ! 7 .34

    T h e f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s p r e d i c t e d t h a t w h e n t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e i s u n k n o w n , t h e s t o r yw i l l b e a p p r e c i a t e d m o r e t h a n w h e n t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e i s k n o w n . T h i s h y p o t h e s i sh a s t o b e r e j e c t e d . W h e t h e r t h e o u t c o m e w a s k n o w n ( a p p r e c i a t i o n = 4 . 6 3 ) o ru n k n o w n ( a p p r e c i a t i o n = 4 . 5 7 ) d i d n o t l e a d to r e l ia b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a p p r e c i a t i o n ( t( 4 4 ) = 0 . 2 0 , p = . 8 4 ) . T h i s r e s u l t c o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d a s f o l l o w s . B o t h c u r i o s i t y a n ds u s p en s e i n f l u e n c e a r e a d e r ' s a p p r e c ia t io n . T h e a m o u n t o f c u ri o s it y e v o k e d b y k n o w -i n g t h e o u t c o m e i s a p p r e c i a t e d a s h i g h a s t h e a m o u n t o f s u s p e n s e e v o k e d b y n o t

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    2 8 4 H . H o e k e n , M . v a n V l i e t / P o e t ic s 2 7 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 2 7 7 - 2 8 6

    k n o w i n g t h e o u t co m e . H o w e v e r , w h e n a s k e d t o r at e th e s u s p e n s e e v o k e d b y t h e s to r y ,t h e tw o v e r s io n s o f th e s t o r y w e r e r a t ed e q u a l l y s u s p e n s e f u l (o u t c o m e k n o w n : 5 . 2 6;o u t c o m e u n k n o w n : 5 . 26 ) . I n t h e d i s c u ss i o n , w e w i ll a d d r es s t h is u n e x p e c t e d f m d i n g .

    T h e s e c o n d h y p o t h e s i s p r e d i c t e d t h a t w h e n t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e i s u n k n o w n , c e r -t a in p a s s a g e s w i ll re c e i v e m o r e a t t en t i o n th a n w h e n t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e i s k n o w n . I nt h e p re t e st , t h re e p a r a g r a p h s h a d b e e n i d e n t i f ie d a s b e in g m o r e i m p o r t a n t w h e n t h es t o r y ' s o u t c o m e w a s u n k n o w n . F o r o n l y o n e o f t h es e p a ra g r ap h s w a s t h e h y p o t h e s i sc o n f i r m e d . P a r t i c ip a n t s p a i d m o r e a t t e n ti o n to t h e p a r a g r a p h d i s c u s s i n g t h e u p c o m -i n g ro w b e t w e e n t h e g i r l a n d h e r f a t h e r w h e n t h e y d i d n o t k n o w t h a t t h e g ir l w o u l db e m u r d e r e d ( o u t c o m e u n k n o w n : 1 0 .2 3 s e c. , o u t c o m e k n o w n : 9 . 1 2 ; F ( 2, 8 7) =2 .7 9 , p < . 0 5) . 1 T h e o t h e r t wo p a r a g r a p h s , o n e a b o u t t h e d a n g e r s o f h i t c h h i k i n g a n do n e a b o u t t h e s e r i a l k i l l e r , d i d n o t r e c e i v e m o r e a t t e n t i o n w h e n t h e o u t c o m e w a sun kn ow n ( re spec t ive ly F (2 , 87) = 1 .57, p = .21 ; F < 1 ).T h e t h i r d h y p o t h e s i s p r e d i c t e d t h a t wh e n t h e s t o r y c o n t a i n s a su r p r i s e , i t w i l l b ea p p r e c i at e d m o r e t h a n w h e n i t c o n t a in s n o s u r p ri se . T h i s p r o v e d t o b e t h e c a s e. T h es t o r y in w h i c h t h e w o m a n w i t h t h e d o g w a s i n a c t u a l it y t h e k i ll e r in d i s g u i s e w a sa p p r e c i a t e d m o r e ( 4 . 8 6 ) t h a n t h e s t o r y i n w h i c h t h e w o m a n w a s w h a t s h e a p p e a r e dt o b e ( 4 .1 7 ; t ( 4 3 ) = 2 .6 7 , p < . 0 5 ) . T h e f o r m e r s t o r y wa s a l so r a t e d a s m o r e su r p r is -ing (3 .96) th an the l a t t e r ve r s io n (3 .14 ; t (43) = 1 .83 , p < .05) .

    F i n a l l y , t h e f o u r t h h y p o t h e s i s p r e d i c t e d t h a t wh e n t h e s t o r y c o n t a i n s a su r p r i s e ,t h e p r e c e d i n g e v e n t s w i l l b e r e m e m b e r e d b e t t e r t h a n w h e n i t c o n t a i n s n o s u r p r i s e .A g a i n , t h e r e s u l t s w e r e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e p r e d i c t i o n . M o r e c o m p r e h e n s i o ni te m s w e r e a n s w e r e d c o r r e c t ly ( .4 4 ) w h e n t h e s t o r y c o n t a in e d a s u r p r is i n g e v e n t t h a nw h e n i t c o n t a i n e d n o su r p r i s e ( . 3 4 ; t (4 3 ) = 2 .1 1 , p < . 0 5) . T o e n su r e t h a t th i s d i f -f e r e n c e i s t h e r e su l t o f r e a s se s s i n g t h e p r e c e d i n g e v e n t s a f t e r e n c o u n t e r i n g t h e su r -p r i se a n d n o t b e c a u s e o f p a y i n g m o r e a t t e n ti o n to t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e e n c o u n t e r -i n g t h e su r p r is e , t h e r e a d i n g t i m e s o f t h e s e n t e n c e s r e l e v a n t t o th e c o m p r e h e n s i o ni te m s w e r e c o m p a r e d . T h e r e w e r e n o d i f f e r e n c e s i n re a d i n g t i m e s o f t h e se s e n t e n c e s( F < 1 ) . T h e r e f o r e , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e c a u se f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n c o m p r e h e n s i o nb e t w e e n t h e v e r s i o n s i s t o b e l o c a t e d a f t e r r e a d i n g t h e su r p r i s i n g e v e n t .

    5 . D i s c u s s i o n

    A n i n t e r e s ti n g f i n d i n g is t h a t th e s t o r y i n th i s s t u d y e v o k e d s u s p e n s e e v e n t h o u g ht h e re a d e r s d i d k n o w h o w i t w o u l d e n d . A p p a r e n t l y , u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t a s t o r y ' s o u t-c o m e i s n o t a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r t h e s t o r y t o b e su sp e n se f u l . Ge r r i g ( 1 9 8 9 ) r e p o r t s as i m i l a r e f f e c t in a s t u d y o n n o n - f i c t io n a l te x ts . H e u s e d s h o r t te x t s a b o u t w e l l - k n o w nh i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s , f o r i n s t a n c e , G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n b e c o m i n g t h e f i r s t A m e r i c a np r e s i d e n t . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n h i s s t u d y k n e w t h a t W a s h i n g t o nh a d b e c o m e t h e f i r s t A m e r i c a n p r e s i d e n t , G e r r i g s u c c e e d e d i n c r e a t i n g s u s p e n s e b ys t a ti n g th a t W a s h i n g t o n w a s t i r ed a f t e r w i n n i n g t h e w a r w i t h E n g l a n d a n d l o n g e d f o r1 H y p o t h e s i s 2 w a s t e s t e d u s i n g a m u l t i v a r i a te a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e o n t h e r e a d i n g t i m e s o f t h e in d i -v i d u al s e n t e n c e s c o n s t i tu t i n g th e p a r a g r a p h . T h e a s s o c i a t e d F - v a l u e s o f W i l k s ' l a m b d a a r e r e p o r te d .

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    H. Hoeken , M. van Vl ie t / Poet ics 27 (2000) 277-286 285

    a q u i e t l i f e a t t h i s p l a n t a t i o n i n V i r g i n i a . T h e r e wa s e v e n t a l k a b o u t e l e c t i n g Jo h nA d a m s a s p r e si d e n t. W h e n a s k e d t o v e r i f y t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t W a s h i n g t o n h a db e c o m e t h e f i rs t A m e r i c a n p r e s i d e n t, p a r t i c ip a n t s t o o k l o n g e r t o v e r i f y th i s s t a t e m e n tw h e n t h e y h a d r e a d a b o u t W a s h i n g t o n ' s d o u b t. A p p a r e n tl y , th is i n f o r m a t i o n m a d et h e m ( t e m p o r a r i ly ) u n c e r t a in a b o u t t h e o u t c o m e . E v e n w h e n t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e o f t h et e x t s t a t e d t h a t W a s h i n g t o n b e c a m e p r e s i d e n t , f o u r i n t e r v e n i n g s e n t e n c e s a b o u t h i sd o u b t s w e r e e n o u g h t o c r e at e s u s p e n se .

    S a n d e r s ( 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 96 ) p r o v i d e s a n e x p l a n a t i o n fo r th i s p h e n o m e n o n . S h e u s e s F a u -c o n n i e r ' s m e n t a l sp a c e t h e o r y t o e x p l a i n t h e e f f e c t o f p e r sp e c t i v e i n n a r r a t i v e d i s -c o u r se . F a u c o n n i e r (1 9 8 5 ) c l a i m s t h a t r e a d e r s b u i l d a m e n t a l r e p r e se n t a t i o n o f t h es t o r y . W i t h i n t h i s r e p r e se n t a t i o n , s e v e r a l m e n t a l sp a c e s c a n b e d i s t i n g u i sh e d . T h e sesp a c e s a r e h i e r a r c h i c a l l y o r d e r e d . I n f o r m a t i o n i n c e r t a i n sp a c e s i s n o t ( a l wa y s )d i r e c t l y a c c e s s i b l e ( o r k n o wn ) i n o t h e r sp a c e s . Sa n d e r s c l a i m s t h a t a c h a n g e i n p e r -sp e c t i v e l e a d s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a m e n t a l sp a c e . C o n s i d e r t h e s t o r y a b o u t Va l e r i eMi t c h e l l . T h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e o f t h e o r i g i n a l s t o r y s t a t e s t h a t Va l e r i e Mi t c h e l l w i l l b et h e s e r i al k i l l e r ' s f o u r t h v i c t i m . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f th e s t o r y i s to l d f r o m t h e p o i n t o fv i e w o f Va l e r i e h e r se l f . I f t h i s c h a n g e i n p e r sp e c t i v e l e a d s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f am e n t a l s p a c e , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t s h e w i l l b e m u r d e r e d i s p l a c e d i n a d i f f e r e n t m e n -t a l sp a c e t h a n t h e r e s t o f t h e s t o r y . As a r e su lt , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t sh e w i l l d i e i sm o r e o r l e s s f o r g o t t e n , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , su sp e n se m a y s t i l l a r i s e .

    S a n d e r s ' e x p l a n a t i o n i s c a p a b le o f e x p l a i n i n g t h e r e su l ts o f t h e G e r r i g s t u d y a sw e l l . A p a r t f r o m c h a n g e s i n p er s p e c ti v e , c h a n g e s i n ti m e f r a m e c a n a l so l e a d t o th ec o n s t ru c t io n o f m e n t a l s p a c es . A l t h o u g h p e o p le n o w a d a y s k n o w t h a t W a s h i n g t o nb e c a m e t h e f i r s t p r e s i d e n t o f t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s , i t wa s u n c e r t a i n f o r h i s c o n t e m p o -r a ri es . T h e d e s c r i p ti o n o f W a s h i n g t o n ' s d o u b t s l e a d s t o t h e c o n s t r u c ti o n o f a m e n t a ls p a c e i n w h i c h t h e o u t c o m e i s s ti ll u n k n o w n , a n d , t h u s , s u s p e n s e c a n a r is e . O n e m a yc o m p a r e a m e n t a l s p a c e t o a r o o m . S o m e o n e m a y t e l l y o u a t t h e e n t r a n c e w h a t i sg o i n g t o h a p p e n , b u t a s s o o n a s y o u h a v e p a s s e d t h e d o o r s t e p , y o u f o r g e t th i s i n f o r-m a t i o n . W h e n a s k e d t o v e r i f y t h a t W a s h i n g t o n b e c a m e t h e fi rs t A m e r i c a n p r e s id e n t ,y o u h a v e t o l e a v e t h a t r o o m i n o r d e r t o c h e c k w h e t h e r t h a t s t a t e m e n t i s c o r r e c t .T h u s , e v e n t h o u g h y o u m a y k n o w h o w t h e s t o r y w i l l e n d , a c h a n g e i n p e r sp e c t iv e o rt i m e f r a m e l e a d s y o u i n t o a m e n t a l s p a c e i n w h i c h t h e s t o r y ' s o u t c o m e i s s t i l lu n k n o w n . A n d a s a r e s u l t , s u s p e n s e i s e v o k e d .

    K n o w i n g t h e o u t c o m e o r n o t w a s h y p o t h e s i z e d t o i n f l u e n c e t h e a m o u n t o f a t t e n -t io n p a i d t o c e r t a in i n f o r m a t i o n . T h r e e p a r a g r a p h s w e r e r a t ed t o b e m o r e i m p o r t a n tw h e n t h e o u t c o m e w a s u n k n o w n t h a n w h e n i t w a s k n o w n . O n l y o n e o f th e mr e c e i v e d m o r e a t t e n ti o n f r o m t h e r e ad e r s . T h i s f i n d i n g r a is e s d o u b t s a b o u t t h e a d e -q u a c y o f u s i n g i m p o r t a n c e r a ti n g s t o p r e d ic t th e a m o u n t o f a tt e n ti o n . H o w e v e r , i tm i g h t b e t h e c a s e t h a t m e a s u r i n g t h e d u r a t i o n o f a t t e n t i o n p r o v i d e s o n l y a p a r t i a li n d i c a t o r o f t h e a m o u n t o f a tt e n t i o n sp en t . Pe r h a p s r e a d e r s r e a d t h e se p a r a g r a p h sm o r e i n t e n se l y . T o t e s t t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n , a s e c o n d a r y t a sk , i n wh i c h r e a d e l - s , f o ri n s ta n c e , h a v e t o r e s p o n d t o a t o n e, s h o u l d b e e m p l o y e d .T h e i n c l u s i o n o f a s u r p r i s i n g e v e n t h a d t h e p r e d i c t e d e f f e c t s . T h e e v e n t e v o k e df e e l i n g s o f su r p r i s e a n d i t a l so r a i s e d t h e a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e s t o r y . Ap a r t f r o m t h e sea f f e c t i v e e f fe c t s , th e i n c l u s i o n o f a su r p r i s in g e v e n t h a d a l so t h e p r e d i c t e d c o g n i t i v e

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    28 6 H . H o e k e n , M . v a n V l i e t / P o e t i c s 2 7 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 2 7 7 - 2 8 6

    effect. After reading the story with the surprising event, readers were better atanswering questions about the events preceding the surprise. This improved compre-hension was not the result of readers paying more attention to that information whenreading it for the first time; the reading times for that information were identicalregardless whether the story contained a surprising event or not. Therefore,Kintsch's (1980) explanation seems valid that readers reassess the preceding eventsto check whether the surprising event fits in. In the absence of a surprising event,such a reassessment is unnecessary.

    The results of this study provide some insight into the effects of different dis-course structures. On the one hand, it shows that Brewer and Lichtenstein's (1981,1982) structural affect theory and Kintsch's notions about what makes a story inter-esting are valid and important ideas about the processing and appreciation of sus-penseful stories. On the other hand, it shows that suspense is not simplythe result ofuncertainty about the outcome. Important narrative techniques such as perspectivemanipulation appear to be capable of overriding the effects of discourse structures,as we have shown using a real story by a bestselling author.

    Reference sBrewer , W.F. and E.H. Lich tenste in , 1981 . Event schemas, s to ry schemas, and s tory grammars. In : J .Lo n g an d A. B ad d e ley ( ed s . ) , A t t en t io n an d p e r f o r man ce , v o l . 9 , 3 6 3 - 3 7 9 . Hi l l sd a le , NJ : E r lb au m.Brewer , W.F. and E.H. Lich tenste in , 1982 . Stor ies are to en ter ta in : A s t ructura l -af fec t theory of s to r ies .

    Journal o f Pragmat ics 6 , 473--483 .Cir i lo , R .K . and D.J . Foss , 1980 . Te xt s tructure and read ing t im e for sen tences . Journa l o f Verbal Learn-in g an d Ver b a l B eh av io r 1 9 , 9 6 - 1 0 9 .Fau co n n ie r , G . , 1 9 8 5 . Men ta l sp aces : A sp ec t s o f mean in g co n s t r u c t io n in n a tu ra l l an g u ag e . C am b r id g e :Bradford .Ge rr ig , R .J . , 1989 . Susp ense in the absence of uncerta in ty. Journal o f M em ory and Lang uage 28 ,633--648.Hid i , S . and V. Anderson , 1992 . Si tua t ional in terest and i t s impact on read ing and exposi tory wr i t ing . In :

    K .A. R en n in g e r , S . H id i an d A. Kr ap p ( ed s . ) , Th e r o l e o f i n t e r e s t i n l ea r n in g an d d ev e lo p men t ,2 1 5 - 2 3 8 . Hi l l sd a le , NJ : E r lb au m.I r an - Ne jad , A . , 1 9 87 . C o g n i t iv e an d a f f ec t iv e cau ses o f i n t e r e s t an d l ik in g . Jo u r n a l o f Ed u ca t io n a l Psy -ch o lo g y 7 9 , 1 2 0 - 1 3 0 .James , P .D . , 1 9 9 1 . De v ices an d d es i re s . New Yo r k : W ar n e r B o o k s .Kin t sch , W. , 1 9 8 0 . Lea r n in g f r o m t ex t , l ev e l s o f co mp r eh en s io n , o r : W h y an y o n e w o u ld r ead a s to r yan y way ? Po e t i c s 9 , 8 7 - 9 8 .Sanders , J . , 1994 . Perspect ive in nar ra t ive d iscourse . Doctora l d isser ta t ion , Ti lburg Universi ty .Sanders , J . , 1 996 . Persp ect ive and a t t r ibu t ion : Th e cogn i t ive represen ta t ion o f b ib l ica l nar ra t ive , Poet ics2 4 , 5 7 - 8 0 .Sax , G . , 1 9 8 0 . P r in c ip le s o f ed u ca t io n a l an d p sy ch o lo g ica l measu r em en t an d ev a lu a t io n . B e lmo n t , C A :W a d s w o r t h .S te in , N . , 1 9 8 2 . Th e d e f in i t i o n o f a s to ry . Jo u r n a l o f P r ag m at i c s 6 , 4 8 7 - 5 0 7 .

    H a n s H o e k e n is a n A s s o c i a t e P r o fe s s o r a t t h e D e p a r tm e n t o f B u s i n e s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n a t th e U n i v e r si t yo f Ni jm eg en , t h e Ne th e r l an d s . H i s r e sea r ch in t e r es t s l i e ma in ly in th e f i e ld o f d o cu men t d es ig n , t h a t i s,t h e way in wh ich d o cu men t ch a r ac te ri s t ic s can g u id e an d in f lu en ce th e r ead in g p r o cess.Mar io v an Vl i e t g r ad u a ted f r o m th e Di sco u r se S tu d ie s Gr o u p a t T i lb u r g Un iv e r s i ty , Th e Ne th ed an d s .C u r r en t ly h e i s t h e d ir ec to r o f a co p y - wr i t in g ag en cy . "