Survival Against the Elements 1975

8/4/2019 Survival Against the Elements 1975

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EhJRVIVAL AGAINST THE ELEMENTIP

Cmwn Copy;ieht Reamed

By Command of the LJe.fmce Cound


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SUR VIVAL AGAINST THECONTENTS

PageIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Chapter IV. Prevention and I Treatment for ExposureChapter 1. Physical Fitness I and Exhaustion 27 Sect ion Sect ionI . The need for physical n tn en .. 1 I . Exposure and exhaustion . . . . . 2 1

Chapter 11. Movement in 2. Frost bite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Difficult Country 3 3. Heat diaordera . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Sect ion

Chapter V. Clothing andI.General .............. 3 Equipment 40 2.ReparaUon . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Sect ion 3.Thccxpedition . . . . . . . . . . 8 I.Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 4 . Roadure in the cnnt of an 2.Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

accident or emergency . . . . . . 17 ChapterVI. Food and Water 4 3 Chapter 111. Weather 19 Sect ionSect ionLFwd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 .'-1 . C c n e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192.wt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3 2.Tyrypuofweathcr . . . . . . . . . 2 0 . ).Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3. Cold weather ............ 20 4.Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4. The cflect of wind on cold mather 11 ANNEX'A' THE COUNTRY CODE5.Hotweather . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 ANNEX '6' SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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SURVIVAL AGAINST THE ELEMENTSINTRODUCTION

1. This pamphlet is intended as a guide to al l those leading, taking part in,or planning exercises, expeditions or other activities, when the dangers ofexhaustion and expowre may be encountered. Although the pamphletparticularly emphasizes the dangers, and safeguards that should be taken, whentraining in hilly or mountainous country in the United Kingdom it should beremembered that the Symptoms of exposure and exhaustion may be met any-where at any time.2 The pamphlet is not intended as a complete guide t o mountaineering andhill walking. Those who are planning special training and expeditions in wchareas are to refer to DCI (Army) Parts I o V, S20 of 1974 on MountainSafety, and are advised to consult certain of the publications shown atAnnex A.3. A chapter on weather conditions is induded as th e weather can changevery rapidly and the leaders of exercises and expeditions should be aware ofthe implications of any deterioration in the conditions.4. The best advice is not to take chances G t h nature.

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CHAPTER IPHYSICALITNESS

SECTION 1 - THE NEED FOR PHYSICAL FITNESS101. Military skill and technical knowledge are wasted unless the soldier canovercome fatigue and mental strain. , n e basic requirement to help preventsuch inefficienq is physical fitness, which can only be acquired by PhysicalTraining.102. Continuous and strenuous physical effort in extreme weather conditionscan sap morale just as much as anxiety and danger, and there is a great riskthat the untrained will become casualties from premature exhaustion leading tocollapse.103. Physical Training is, therefore, an essential. preparation for soldierstaking part in strenuous field exercises, since a suitably graded programmetoughens the body and develops a high standard of functional and specificfiiness.

104. The acquisition of physical fitness, together with training in survivaland technical military skills, i s of the utmost importance in making the soldierconfident that he can perform efficiently in adverse conditions of terrain andweather. It should be remembered that:

.-,'a. Physical fitness is the basis on which to build military fitness.b. Planning and preparation are essential for the success of anyexercises, including physical exercises.c. The unit APTC Instructor should be coapted on to all trainingconferences; he is a fully qualified technician.d. The effectiveness of the fitness programme should be checked bycarrying out physical efficienq tests.e. Tests are "yardsticks" by which a man's progression andachievements are measured, thus giving an indication of an individual's-bility to carry out his duties effectively in varying conditions.f. It is far better to take every possible step to avoid cases ofexposure and exhaustion than to have to treat them.

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105. Complacenn/ about physical fitness can be very dangerous and it shouldnever be assumed that: . .

a. Soldiers are physically fit to take part in an exercise orexpedition without confirmation.b. Games fitness is the equivalent of all-round physical fitness; theone is complementary to the other.

. ,c. Everything will be all right on the day. Plan wisely and welland ensure that it is all right.

106. The relevant information on the preparation and conduct of physicalfitness programmes is given in the Ministry of Defenoe (GS) training publication"PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE ARMY 1958" pamphlets Nos 1 and 4. (CodeNos 9467, 9470).

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CHAPTER IIMOVEMENT IN DIFFICULT COUNTRY

SECTION 1 - GENERAL201. The term difficult country applies to areas of moorland and uplandas well as to hills and mountains. The sections in this chapter cover theplanning and execution of any expedition and the action to take in the eventof an accident. The chapter can be summarised at this stage under the generalheading of Responsibilities of the Leader. These may conveniently be listedunder three sub headings:

a. Before setting out on the expedition:(1) Brief members of the expedition on the complete plan.(2) Advise a responsible person, not on the expedition, of thecomposition of the party, routes and timings.(31 Check clothing and equipment of all members of theexpedition for serviceability and completeness.(4 ) Ensure members of the expedition are fit and well, andthat they have eaten.(5) Obtain a weather forecast.

b. On the expedition:(1) Keep the p a w together a t all times.(2 ) Maintain a suitable pace, and rest a t suitable times andplaces.(3) Know the location of the expedition at a l l times. Detailothers to assist with navigation.

(41 Maintain a watch on the .weather, the remaining daylightand the wellbeing of all members of the expedition, and theprogress of the expedition.

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c. On return to base:(1) Advise the responsible person of the safe return of theexpedition, particularly in circumstances which may have led toapprehension for the safety of the party.(2) Check al l equipment and the wellbeing of members of theexpedition.

SECTION 2 - PREPARATION202. Planning of the Route

a. The chocsing of a good and sensible route, when moving indifficult country. is most important. A detailed route card, containingall details required to complete each leg of the route, must always beworked out beforehand. In the event of bad conditions and poorvisibility all the necessary data is then immediately available. The mapand route card should be carried in a polythene cover for protectionfrom the wet.b. . When planning a route the following points should be borne inmind:

(1) Try to choose the easiest route and to memorise prominentfeatures on it; a rough sketch map is most valuable.

A. (2) Note in particular the position .of possible difficulties, egcliffs and unbridged rivers etc. so t h a t they can be avoided.(3) Note the general direction that rivers etc run, so that ifthey are encountered in a mist or a t night the'expedition willhave an idea of i ts own position and the best way to go.(4) Choose the route so that height which will have to beregained later i s not lost. Sometimes, however, if there is veryrough ground it may be better to avoid it by either descendingor climbing.(5) Remember t ha t in hills the shortest route i s seldom thequickest or emiest.

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(6) 'A hillside, provided it is not too craggy. may be descendeddirect.

c. When planning a route involving a valley remember that wateralways tries to find the shortest way and consequently descends inthe steepest places. ,A better route for ascent or descent will usuallybe found on the shoulders of mountains or hills which enclose a stream.d. I f it is envisaged t ha t the route may be difficult or dangerouslocal advice should be obtained, i f possible. on recommended route5and the conditions likely to be encountered.

203. Length of Routea. It is most important, when planning a route, that care should betaken to ensure that the expedition is on easy ground, or in a valley,before nightfall.b. The leader must judge the capabilities of the remainder of theexpedition and adjust the length of any route acmrdingly..c. When estimating how far it i s possible to travel, Naismith's Rulegives a good .guide. ie:

(1 ) Allow one hour for every 5 Kms as measured on.the map. 2(2) Allow a % hour for every 300 metres climbed. ' ,

(3) Allow additional time for halts as required.It must be remembered that this i s only a guide; a tired party. heavyloads, rough going, mist or high winds will reduce the.distanoetravelled considerably. Only experience will teach leaders how muchto allow for these factors.

204. The Briefing of an--l%pedition'a. It is most important that an expedition is properly briefed beforeit sets off. The leader should cover such points as:

(1 ) Route and approximate timina (Details must be left atBase for use in an emergency).

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(2) Size of the party; this should never be less than four.(31 Equipment, clothing and rations to be taken.(4) Details of halts (ie frequency and duration).(5) Speed of the Party (ie t o be that of the slowest member).(6) Order of march and distribution of loads.(7) Resume' on safety aspects (qparty must not split up).(8) Procedure in event of an accident (See paras 210-214).(9) A system of signalling, including distress signals /Seepara 212).

b. A deputy leader of an expedition must be appointed beforeit mwes off.c. When making his plan the leader must allow for th e unforeseenand thus his plan must be flexible.d. When movement is particularly difficult in mountains, theleader must ensure that the more experienced members of theexpedition are detailed to help and guide those with less experience.

205. Clothing, Equipment and Rations. These are discussed in more detailand with particular reference to the medical aspects, in Chapters V and VI.Ar a general guide, h o w e r , the following points should be considered byevery leader of an expedition:

a. Clothing(11 This should be light and designed to protect thewhole body. including the head, against cold. wind and rain.(2) Spare warm clothing, to wear when temporarilyresting, must be carried, also light-weight wind and water-'. proof outer garments, and gloves when applicable.

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b. Footwear(1) It is essential t o be well shod.(2) For general purposes in hill walking and in snow and icyconditions boots are necessary. These must be tough and givea good grip on rocks; plain leather soles are not adequate andhard moulded rubber ,soles, eg Vibram, are best.(3) For rock climbing on some types of dry rock gym shoeswith a thin hard sole are acceptable, but they are very danger-ous if the rocks are slimy. icy, or very wet.(4) Boots DMS should not be wom for any form of rockclimbing hut can be worn for fe l l walking.

c. Equipment(1) Equipment to be taken will depend on the type andscope of the exercis or expedition, but even the shortestand easiest will require map, compas. torch; whistle, energyproducing foods, First Aid and bivouac equipment. In i f ssimplest form, the latter could be a polythene bag (8 x 4minimum, gauge 500)which should not, of coufse, be closeda t the head when being used. On more ambitious expeditionsa tent, sleeping bag and cooking stove should be included. -(2) It is of v i ta l importance that, where i t is to be used.climbing equipment (such as ropes, slings, pitons, karabinen,etc.) is not only serviceable but is up to the approved safetystandards laid down by the British Mountaineering Council., .

d. Rations(1 ) Light, quick-energy producing foods are best for difficultclimbing or mountaineering conditions and whenever strengthand stamina deteriorate quickly.(2) On exercises or expeditions lasting seberal days or weeksa balanced diet containing plenty of energy producing foodwil l be .necessary.


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(3) Emergenq rations should always be carried, includingthe ingredients for brewing up hot Nveet drinks: alcohol mustbe avoided.(4) Take some form of salt in summer as heat exhaustioncan be as dangerous as cold exposure.

SECTION 3 - THE EXPEDITION206. Rouk Finding

a. General(1) If the expedition becomes lost, or hag difficulty infinding a route, the leader should tell the remainder ofthe expedition. If he does not do so, t will soon becomeapparent to the remainder and they will lose faith in himas a leader.(2) The leader must, however. maintain command, andalthough a general discussion on the route may take placethe leader alone must take the final decision and ensurethat his orders are obeyed.(3) If the leader is physically unfit to mntinue, thedeputy leader mu* a u m e command. I f he also isunfit another member of the expedition must be appointedleader at once.

(4) An expedition MUST NEVER DIVIDE INTO GROUPSbecause of differences of opinion about the route etc. Thishas been shown to be one of the commonest cause ofaccidents.

b. In Clear Weather(1) In clear weather it is often k t o maintain directionby using landmarks if possible.(2) I f the whole of the route can be seen from thestarting point the easiest line should be chosen and thelandmarks memorised, eg houses, curiously shaped rocks,

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streams, etc. It i s important to do this as some way alongthe route it may no longer be possible to see the ultimateobjective and the intermediate marks will help to ensurethat the correct route is followed.(3) When going up a hillside from a valley or plain itmay be possible to see a road, river, railway, or the edgeof a field, which can be used as a pointer in the directionto be followed. Such a pointer is most valuable as it canbe used when both the objective and intermediate landmarksare hidden by a fold in the ground, or a wood. It is, therefore, advisable to look back occasionally to see if such apointer is available.(4) In difficult country, where bad weather may make itadvisable to turn back, a memory of what the countrylooked like when seen i n the revers? direction i s mostvaluable i f the expedition has to retrace i ts steps.

c. In Mist

(1) The compass is often of use in clear weather, but i t sgreatest use is at night or when visibility is limited by mistor low cloud. A knowledge of i t s correct us? is essential.(2) In featureless country a party of three can maintain -direction by walking in line a t suitable intervals. Thedirection of the line should be set by a compms bearingand the last man should then maintain a direction by keep-ing the leader in line with the centre man. Any deviationsby the leader may then be corrected by orders from thelast man. eg one pace to the left, or two paces to theright etc. A fresh compass check, however. should bemade periodically.

d. A t N i g h t(1 ) On a clear night a convenient check on generaldirection can be obtained from the pole star. The leaderand deputy leader, a t 1east:should know how to find th epole star and hence true north.

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(2) If overCaSt a compass should be used in the same wayas in mist.

e. In very hot desert or semi desert areas( 1 ) It is dangerous to rely on distant features on theground as markers as sight can often be distorted due 'toheat, resulting in the wrong direction being taken.( 2 ) Compass bearings should also be frequently checkedas magnetic storms can causa considerable magneticvariation.

Speed, Rests and Halting Placesa. Speed

(1 ) Do not waste energy a t the beginning of the dayby starting a t a fast speed. It is better to s tar t slowlyso that a reserve of energy is maintained for difficultparts or emergencies.(2): The leader must set a steady speed based on thatof the slowst member. He must also ensure that theparty sticks together and that there are no stragglers.(3) The last fev; metres to the top of a mountain orhill should not be'rushed. as the apparent "top" mayoften prove to be a false crest.'

(4) Each step should be made deliberately. Whenclimbing, the whole sole of the boot should be placedhorizontally on the ground where possible. This canoften be done by placing the heel on a stone and byclimbing in Zig-zags'rather than straight up.(5) The foot should not. be lifted too high nor thestride made too long. If it is necessary t o increasespeed this should be done by lengthening the stride.(6) Breathing should be rhythmical, according to thepace and the steepners of the slope. If it is possible

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to sing or whistle going along the speed can be consideredas reasonable.

(7) When descending a slope flex the knees and keep theweight well forward. It is advisable not to go too fast unlessthe b w t s are well fitting and comfortable, otherwise feet willget blistered or ankles injured.(8 ) The leader must restrain the overenthusiastic andencourage and support the weaker members of an expedition(9) Weak members, either physically or morally, should walkimmediately behind the leader; on no account must they beallowed to trail as their condition will rapidly become worse.

b. Rests and Halting Places(1 ) The leader should decide the time for a rest and for howlong; rests should not be for tw long a duration.(2) When it is decided to rest, choosa a place sheltered fromthe wind, put on spare clothing and try to rest completely. Itis a good idea to t ry and rest the feet by removing boots andadjusting socks or stockings. Any blisters should be dealt withimmediately. and a piece of elastoplast over rubbed skin, or the

'use of thin strips of Dunlopiilo as padding, will help prevent -.blisters from developing.(3) I f the halt is for a meal it should be eaten slowly, andeveryone encouraged to drink as much as they require. If .however. water i s difficult to obtain it should be drunk sparingly.As a general rule sweet foods are the most beneficial.(4) It is advisable not to drink from valley streams and rivers,or any that are downstream of human dwllings or farm build-ings. Water purifying tablets should be used whenever possible.(5) During rests the opportunity should be taken to changerucksacks. i f neaessary, M that all members of the expeditiondo their fair share of carrying.. It i s up to the leader to ensurethat this i s done.


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208. Adapting the Route to suit the Grounda. When the leader obtains his first view over the ground ahead,and again when he reaches a viewpoint, he should check the routesthat have been chosen against the actual country and modify themwhere necessary. It may well be that there i s a stretch of boggyground, or of rough going, which does not appear on the map, butwhich can easily be avoided on the ground.b. When climbing in a mountainous area it is usually better tomove along the ridges, as the sides of a mountain are often themost difficult and roughest going and the gullies and l i t t le valleysmay be boggy. hummocky and also rough.c. . A few hints on negotiating certain types of country are givena t paragraph 209. In general, however, avoid scree, rocks, gulliesand wet places; keep to clean turf and high ridges if'possible.d. If convenient, use paths and tracks, as they often take thequickest line and are generally safe. They seldom, however, gothe way that men want to go!e. The following are the safest rules:

(1 ) If there are no paths, climb or.descend in single file.- unless there is a.danger of dislodging stones etc on to thosebelow. If this is so, climb or descend simultaneously in

line abreast.

(2) If the width of the slope is restricted by rocks, as ina gulley, and it is necessary to follow the leader, keep closetogether so that any stones dislodged do not have time'togather momentum and become dangerous to the other membersof the party lower down.

f. In precipitous mountains never attempt to follow a streamdown unless it is possible to see the whole of i t s course to easier

'ground, or unless the party has been up the same way. .209. Types of Country

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( l i Shon grass is the most pleasant and easiest to walk on. andis usually the best way up a hill.(2) It is possible to descend grassy slopes veri/ rapidly, withsafety. provided the complete slope can be seen.

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(3) Steep grassy slopes may well become coated with ice orthin snow in winter and should then be avoided. W et grasscan also be very slippery on steep slopes.Bracken

(1 ) Bracken should be avoided in summer as it makes walkingvery laborious and difficult.(2 ) On rocks and hillsides it is treacherous as a handhold asit is very brittle and the roots mme out very easily.Heather( 1 ) Heather is better for climbing, as the plant is tough andnot easily up-rooted.(2 ) Heather mvered slopes of boulders should be avoided.Scree -( 1 Scree i s the name given to steep slopes of loose stones orrocks.(2 ) In this country scree sometimes provides a safe, i f rathertiresome, way up a mountainside and a rapid way down. Screerunning i s an acquired skill, and should be avoided in high and'remote places where a twisted ankle or broken leg could haveserious repercussions.(3) Generally it is better to avoid scree altogether whencarrying a heavy pack.(4) When ascending. it is advisable to avoid scree and climbgrassy slopes.

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( 5 ) When descending scree, boots should be worn to avoidcutting or twisting the ankles. The best method to descendis with the legs stiffened and the heels driven well in. Neverdescend at high speed and ensure that the bottom of thescree can be Seen before descending.(6) Large saee should be avoided.

e. R o c k s(1) Where possible rocks should be avoided and lett to theexperienced rock climber.(2) If it is . not possible'to avoid them then, as. a generalrule, avoid using your hands unnecessarily and make sure ofeach foothold.(3) To avoid slipping or dislodging stones, pay carefulattention to the placing of the feet and always think one orWO movements ahead.

(4) . Never descend rocks where it is not possible to see thewhole way down, or where it is necessary to drop more thanonce from the hands: ' '

- (5) There are few places in the United Kingdom where'itis necessary to descend rocks ad t h e r e is usually an easierway around.

f. Stones. Even small stones can be lethal weapons if they falldown a hillside, and great care must be taken to avoid dislodgingstones or rocks. : If a stone is dislodged the culprit should shout"Below" in a loud voice to warn anyone beneath him.g. ~ o g . In certain hills or moors there are large stretches ofboggy ground. These are rarely dangerous but should always beavoided as they are heavy going and very tiring.

h. Rivers, Streams and Lakes(1 ) The majority of hillside streams are easy to cross;butit is always advisable to moss carefully and to choos theeasiest place.

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(2) Be careful if attempting to cross dry shod, as whendoing so it is a y o attempt too long a jump and slip.(3) The rivers in the main valleys should always becrossed by bridges where possible.(4) In strong flowing rivers it is extremely difficult towade safely in water above waist level as the bed of theriver is usually rocky and uneven; a detour is more pleasantand less dangerous than a ducking on a cold day.( 5 ) A number of mountain lakes have steep hillsides rising'from them, and th e lakes may be very difficult to clamberout of. It is advisable, therefore, always to walk carefullywhen traversing a steep hillside round a lake.(6) Mountain streams are liable to become gushing tonents/.within a very short time after heavy rain. Should theproposed route be blocked and a detour impossible, theusual course i s to wait until the force of water is reduced.Should it be vital to cross such a stream the followingprecautions must be taken:

(a) DO NOT remove boots.(b) The strongest member should cross first;helped -by a stick to act as a third leg upstream.(c) He should tie to an arm any available buoyancy,eg plastic water container.(d) He should secure himself to an endless circle ofrope which is held by two others, one slightly upstreamand one well downstream of him. If he is swept awaythe others must run downstream whilst guiding himashore. If they try to pull him to the bank againstthe current he will be forced under water.(e) Once the first man i s aaoss,.an endless circleof rope is available to enable others to cross sicurelv;

'the last man crosses in a similar manner to the first;.. .


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j. S n o w a n d Ice( 1 ) In snow and icy conditions it is essential to wearwrrect footwear, to carry an iwaxe and to know how tous it to brake in the event of a downhill slide.(2) Ice on sloping rock or grass is highly dangerous andshould be crossed only with the greatest caution. crampons'provide the only safe footwear. . .(3) The effect of snow depends upon i t s condition. but,,ifit is soft the labour of walking uphill or on the level i s . 'greatly increased.

. .(4) In climbing hard snow without crampons steps shouldbe dug by the leader of the party. On a long slope thisduty should be taken in turn as it is very tiring. The leadermust dig steps sufficiently close together for the smallest . .member of the party to use them comfortably.,451 In descending hard snow without crampons the heelsshould be dug well in and, i f the slope i s steep, balancestadied by the use of an ice axe.(6).Soft or powdery snow, lying on a firm snowhce base,should be cleared away with the axe before placing the feet.-.( 7 ) Snow slopes.are inviting to glissade down but this shouldonly be done if:

(a) the run out of the slope can be seen .to be safe.(b) Ice axes are carried and everyone is trained intheir use.

(8) In general, conditions of ice and hard snow completelychange the character of an expedition. What in summer maybe a straighfoward hill wdk may, in winter. demand theexperience and skill of an alpine mountaineer.

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SECTION 4 - PROCEDURE IN THE EVENT OF ANACCIDENT OR EMERGENCY

210. Generala. Evewone must know what to do in the event of an accidentor emergency.b. No injured or exhausted person should be left alone.

211 Immediate Action

a. Carry out any immediate first aid,if necessary.b. Make the casualty(s) comfortable and warm, as recommendedin Chapter IV .c. Decide on further action to be taken.

212 International Distress Signal. The International Distress Signal, whichevery member of the expedition should know, is six blasts on a whistle, sixshouts, or six flashes of a torch, followed by a pause of a minute, then afurther six blasts, etc. If the signal has been heard the answer wi ll be threeblasts followed by a pause of a minute, repeated several times.213. If for some reason it is not possible to use a whistle or shout, etca signal may be made by waving a handkerchief or something similar, as-above.

214. Going for help. Before going for help the leader of the expeditionmust:a. Ensure the casualtyls) i s as comfortable as possible and wellsheltered.b. Issue clear instructions on the treatment and action to betaken by those remaining or going for help.c. Ensure the expedition's present position is pin-pointed asaccurately as possible. The party going for assistance should writedown the details of their location and also of the time and natureof the casualty(s).

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.. Detail someone to be in charge of the party going for assistance, .or remaining behind, if the leader is going himself. One man shouldnot be sent on his own.e. Check the position and route t o the nearest mountain rescuepost, police or habitation. All members of the expedition shouldknow the location of the mountain rescue posts when training inmountainous areas.

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CHAPTER 111WEATHER

SECTION 1 - GENERAL301. The climate of Western Europe, in particular that of the UnitedKingdom, has a wide range of temperature from very cold to extremelyhot; "temperature" is, therefore, a poor description of the weatherpattern. Deaths have occurred in the United Kingdom during cold orrainy spells and in heat waves; these were mainly due to underestimatingor not recognising the dangers.

302. Because weather conditions in mountainous areas are liable tochange rapidly, parties should normally be prepared for the worstmnditions. The leader must obtain a local weather forecast, from theMet Office or local air station, before setting out. He must also havesufficient knowledge of weather t o be able to make sensible deductionsfrom the forecast given and if necessary make appropriate changes tohis plans.303. Preparation.. The best preparation is to have an advanceknowledge by learning the "three Rs" of weather, because they describei t s dangers, and the precautions to be taken against it. The "three Rs"are:

a. Risk. The types of weather. .-b. Results . The result of taking the risk and the effects onthe human body of each type of weather.c. Remedies .

( 1 ) Prevention by the correct. use of clothing and equipmentand by mrrect feeding.( 2 ) Learning to recognise the Results (Effects) in theirearly stages and knowing their First Aid treatment.

304. . This chapter deals with the Risk and the two subsequent chapterswith the Results and Remedies. They should all be read carefully as eachi s 'as important as the others.'

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THE RISKSECTION 2 . TYPES OF WEATHER

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305. The four main types of weather, a l l of which are encountered inWestern Europe and the United Kingdom, are:a. Coldmetb. Coldloryc. Hotmetd. Hotlory

SECTION 3 - COLO WEATHER306. ColdMlet. Coldmet describes the weather when the air temperaturevaries around freezing point in the range loo Centigrade to minus

Centigrade (50' Fahrenheit to 28' Fahrenheit) with rain, sleet and highwinds. It is typical of the winter months in the United Kingdom that whatstarts as a mild day can. a few hours later, be cold and wet enough to bea hazard to life. The great danger to life in this type of climate is ageneral lowering of the body temperature due to a combination of cold,wind and wet clothing, aggravated by fatigue and lack of hot food anddrink. This condition has various names - Exposure, Cold Exposure, orHypothermia (deficient heat). Another serious condition arising in a Cold/Wet climate is Immersion Foot or Trench Foot, when the feet have beenin water or mud for long periods without much movement.307. Cold/Dn/. Cold/Ory describes the climate when the air temperaturerarely rises above freezing point a t any time of the day. The ground,puddles, pools, etc are frozen. snow does not melt, and the presence ofwind greatly increases the danger of body chilling in this climate. Thegeneral lowering of body temperature (Exposure) can occur, or localchilling can go on to local freezing of exposed or badly protected tissue:t h i s is called Frostbite.

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SECTION 4 - THE EFFECT OF WINDON COLD WEATHER308. Wind Speed. Wind speed plays such an important part in theeffects which the Cold/Wet and Cold/Dry climates may have on thehuman body that the table reproduced below is a guide so that thespeed can be estimated. without instruments, in order that the windchill effect, which is shown a t Figure 1, can be referred to correctly.As an example, the wind chili effect of a strong breeze of Force 6(about 28 mphl in an air temperature of 10' Centigrade (50' Fahrenheit)is equivalent to a slight breeze of Force 1 (about 2 mph) a t minus12 Centigrade 110' Fahrenheit); this can be checked in Figure 1.309. The wind speed, in the following table, is shown in relation tothe Beaufort Scale, and with a general description to assist estimating.

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WIND SPEEDrind Speed

mph3eaufort

Scale Wind Force Land Description1 0 Calm Smoke rises vertically

1 - 3 1 Light Air Wind direction shown by smokeand not by wind vane.4 - 7 2 Slight Breeze Wind felt on face, leaves rustleordinary vane moved.8 - 12 3 Gentle Breeze Leaves and small twigs inconstant motion, wind extends

high flag.13 - 18 4 Moderate Breeze Raises dust and loose paper,small branches are moved,

snow begins to drift.19 ~ 24 5 Fresh Breeze Small trees in leaf begin tosway, created wavelets form

on inland waters.25 - 31 6 Strong Breeze Large branches in motion,whistling heard in telegraph

wires, high drift occurs.32 - 38 7 High Wind Whole trees in motion, incon-venience felt when walkingagainst wind, visibility obscured

by drifting snow.39 - 46 % 8 Gale Breaks t q i g s off trees, generallyslows progress . '47 - 54 9 Strong Gale Slight structural damage occurs .chimney pots and slates fall off

roofs.55 - 63 10 Whole Gale Inland trees uprooted.64 72 11 Storm Widespread damage.73 ~ 82 12 Hurricane Hurricane.

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310. WindChill. The wind-chill index gives a measure of the coolingp o w r of the climate on the body and is obtained from the relationship$existingbctween the temperature of the air and the speed of the wind. Theair temperature can be taken from the minimum temperature quoted in thenewspaper, or other weather forecasts, or by.direct measurement in a trainingarea.311. The wind-chill index, shown in Fig 1, i s used as follows:

a. Check the newspaper, or thermometer, to see if thetemperature i s in degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Centigrade.The degrees Fahrenheit Scale is shown along the top anddegrees Centigrade along the bottom of the chart. If clothingis wet from profuse sweat, rain, sleet, melting snow or otherimmersion, subtract 6' Centigrade or 11' Fahrenheit from theair temperature (to allow for the extra cooling of the body dueto the water) before using the chart.b. Make a pencil point mark where the temperature lineintersects the left -toright line of the wind speed. This is givenin miles per hour on the right of the chart and in metres persecond on the left.c. To interpret the wind-chill index, if the pencil pointmark i s in:

(1 ) Zone A (below ZOO),no danger.(2) Zone B (200.400). l i t t le danger with light clothingprovided the exercise is not too prolonged and food i staken regularly; but beware of the weather deteriorating.(3 ) Zone C (400-1000). increasing danger requiring upto full clothing, hot food, waterproof shelter, and preven-tion of exhaustion. It i s in this band that the majorityof deaths from exposure have occurred in the UnitedKingdom.(4) Zone D (1000-1200). travel becomes dangerous onovercast days.(5) Zone E (120Cb1400). travel only in heated vehicles.

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Fig. 1 - Wind Chill Index ',24


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(6) Zone F ~14001600). emporary shelter i s dangerousto live in.(7) Zone G (1600 and above). exposed flesh freezes in lessthan one minute, and survival efforts are required.

SECTION 5 - HOT WEATHER312. General. Healwaves in Westem Europe and the United Kingdomcontain parts of both the HotNVet and Hotlory climates having air temperatures up to 34' Centigrade (93' Fahrenheit).'but with lower humidity thanthe jungle climate and without the heavy rainfall. The great dangers to healthand l i fe are Heat Exhaustion from lack of water or salt, and the deadly Heat-stroke, both arising from working or training too hard especially while unaccli-matised to the heat. This is particularly dangerous in a sudden heatwave inEurope.313. Cases of heat illness, and a few deaths, have occurred in the UnitedKingdom and BAOR during healwaves in recent years. Deaths occur'everysummer in the United States when intensive training starts for the .Autumnfootball season. These could all be prevented i f the risk was measured andactivities lessened or stopped when the heat stress was too great. The USMarine Corps Recruit Depot in Southem Carolina have had great problemsduring training (600 heat casualties in the summer of 1952) and have evolveda system for preventing heat illness by grading the amount and type of train-.ing to be carried out with variws readings of the heat s t r e s index.314. Whenever i t is considered that there may be a danger o f heat illnessesoccurring during training the Medical Officer should be consulted.315. Hotmet. Hotmet climates are typical of tropical'jungle countrywhere the air temperature seldom rises above 38' Centigrade (looo Fahren-heit) and more commonly is around 34' Centigrade (930 Fahrenheit) in day-time. These temperatures are mainly due. to the abundant supply of moisture,with cloud formations blocking direct sunlight There is no marked fall intemperature a t night because the moisture' which evaporated during the daycondenses once more, thus returning heat to the atmosphere. Cloud formetions a t night a h revent the terrain from losing heat to the open sky. Thedanger of direct radiation from the sun is not very great because of thereadily available shade in the dense vegatation and from the convective

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cumulus cloud formaticons. Rain occurs frequently as local downpours andcauses dripping vegetation, stagnant and humid atmosphere. A storm isusually followed by a brief period of intense sunshine. Wind velocities arelow except in violent storms and approach zero in forested areas.316. Hot/Dry. Hot/Dry climates are those of desert and semi desertareas. The sky is clear, radiation levels from the sun are high and air tempem-tures may go up to 50' Centigrade (122' Fahrenheit) or higher. The lowhumidity and scanty rainfall result in sparse vegetation and there are suddenintense windstorms, often dust or sand laden. There is a marked fall intemperature during the night because the lack of clouds allow the ground toradiate the heat accumulated during the day to the open sky.

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CHAPTER I VPREVENTION AND TREATMENT FOR EXPOSURE

AND EXHAUSTION(RESULTS AND REMEDIES)

SECTION 1 - EXPOSURE AND EXHAUSTION

101. Definitionsa. Ehporurc . Exposure is a severe chilling of the body surfacecausing a progressive fall of body temperature with the risk of deathfrom hypothermia (def ic ient heor) .b. Exhaus t ion . Physical exhaustion is an additional factor overand above the deficiency of body heat which kil ls quickly. It hasnot been possible to separate the effects of one from the other inmany of the recent fatal cases in the United Kingdom.

402. Symptoms of Exposure and Exhaustion. I t i s not always easy torecognise the early or mild cases of exposure or exhaustion, but i t is mostimportant to be on the watch for it. Any two of the following symptomsrequire immediate action:

a. Complaints of feeling cold, tired or listless.b. Unexpected or unreasonable behaviour.c. Sudden uncontrollable shivering fits.d. Physical and mental lethargy, including failure to respond toor understand questions or orders.e. Slowing down, stumbling 0; repeated falling

f. disturbance or failure of vision9. Violent outbursts of unexpected energy or speech. orslurring of speech.

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h. physical resistance to offered help.j. Collapse, stupor or unconsciousness.

403. Aggravating Factors. The following factors are likely t o aggravate'.'the Symptoms given above:a. Soaked clothing with high wind increasing the windchill..b. General chilling from continued low air temperature andhigh wind speed.

c. Immersion in cold water.d. An injury that immobilises the casualty and severelyreduces his ability to produce heat.e. A.combination of fatigue, cold. anxiety or mentalstress can be especially dangerous.f. Unusual thinness.

404. Prevention. A thorough knowledge of First Aid and th e contents ofthe chapters in this pamphlet, with strict adherence to the rules, is the bestway of preventing the onset of exposure or exhaustion. Men should beencourad to develop the "buddy" system, in which soldiers are paired offto watch one another a t al l times; the onset of any of the signs or symptomsof exposure or exhaustion can then be recognised and reported quickly.405. To keep warm a good mnemonic to remember is "Cold Feet".

C - Clean Clothing.0 - Overheating is Out.L - Loose Layers of clothingD - Dryness Definitely' Demanded.

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F - Faca. Finger and Foot Exercises.E - Equipment check before leaving.E - Eat your Rations.T - Tight Boots are Terrible.

406. Treatment of Exposurea. Although there i s general agreement between authorities on thissubject, there' are many important discrepancies which can be remn-ciled only when considered in the light of actual conditions at the,time of a particular accident. These conditions will include:

(1) The state of the patient. Is he in the early stages,fairly advanced. or has he collapsed and become quiteincapable of any further movement? What reserves of energyhas he remaining.(2) The Weather. Summer or Winter conditions; mild forthe time of year or severe; raining, snowing, high wind. Timeof day (daylight. e tc )(3) Location. On top of a mountain, or in a valley. Timeand distance to a safe refuge. Chances of being able to reachit.(4) Clothing and equipment of the party. What are th echances of being able to survive until.rescued if they remainwhere they are?

b. . It is a matter of leadership and experience to decide what t odo in specific circumstances. .The general rules are discussed below.c. The way in which a casualty will eventually remver fromexposure is by:

(1 ) Insulation from further heat loss.(2) . Resting, t o enable energy reserves to be built up (6gfrom body fat).

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(3) Replacement of lost heat and energy by warm drink ,'and food and exterior warmth.d. c.(3)' is not necessarily essential, and the casualty can recoverspontaneously; that i s to say with his own body resources. Butwarm drink and food should always be given, when available, toassist recovery. Exterior warmth can be provided by fires, cookingstoves in tents, warmth from companions, etc.e. The first decisions to be made by the leader are:

( 1 ) Are ihe conditions suitable for the casualty to be ableto recover in his present environment?(2) Must an attempt be made to get him,'to safety, eventhough this will lead to further deterioration and possiblydeath. because there i s litt le chance of him surviving in hispresent situation?(3) A compromise solution might be a temporary halt fora rest and food.before continuing to the nearest place ofsafety.

'. Treatment for Recovery. Insulating the patient against furtherheat loss also .insulates him against absorbing heat from outside, whichi s a good method of assisting recovery. When should wet clothing beremoved? When should the patient be left with little clothing on to 'speed the abmrption of exterior warmth? One method of treatmentis t o strip the patient, as well as a healthy person, and to put themboth in a sleeping bag together. To attempt this on top of aScottish mountain in Winter would be madness; whereas in a hutwith a fire going, or a warm tent, it becomes more practical, exceptfor the difficulty of getting two adults into one sleeping bag. Evenwet clothing. covered by waterproof outers to prevent evaporation ofmoisture, can provide considerable extra warmth. It will also act asa very efficient insulation against exterior warmth. Remember' alwaysto keep the head and neck well protected. and the head low inrelation to the body.g. Carrying Out and Walking Out. Carryinpout implies evacuationof a casualty on some form of stretcher or improvised carry. The

.

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advantages of this System are that the casualty does not use energyin movement. However, unless he is kept very warm (sleeping bagetcl he will s t i l l lose a great deal of body heat. If he is allowed towalk out he may well keep himself warmer. Frequent halts can bemade for rest and warm drinks and food to be consumed. It i sfrequently better to le t the casualty make his own way in this manner,without assistance from companions, even i f he is staggering to acertain extent. They should, of course, be ready to give a l l assistanmif required.h. Hot Bath Treatment. The important thing to remember is thatthis treatment should be given only under a doctor's supervision. Itdoes not form part of the treatment in the mountains or a t normalrefuge, and details of the treatment are basically tor interest only.The patient is immersed, fully clothed except for his boots, in a hotbath at a temperature of 45' (113OF). The temperature must bemaintained by frequent topping up with hot water. When normalbody temperature is regained, and perspiration breaks out on thebrow, the patient is removed to a warm bed in a warm room. Undercertain conditions, the treatment can be harmful. as when the patienti s suffering from serious injuries or frostbite. Incorrect temperaturemay introduce shock if too hot, or further loss of body heat if toocool.

407. Survivala. When a decision i s made to set up a bivouac. the treatment ofthe casualty should proaeed along the lines set out in para 406c. Ifthe expedition has been planned to last Several days, it is likely thatfull bivouac equipment in the form of tents, sleeping bags and cwk-ing stoves will be carried, greatly facilitating the treatment of thecasualty.

(1) Set up the bivouac in a location as sheltered aspossible in the circumstances.(2) Use all means to insulate a l l members of the expeditionfrom cold, i f necessary by erecting a wind break, collectinggrass or heather to form a warm bed, and gathering closetogether. Put on al l extra clothing.(3) Light a fire, brew-up and use emergency ration.

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(4) In suitable snow conditions dig a snow scrape or snowhole.(5) Send a t least two of the fittest members of the expeditionfor assistance.

b. The ability to survive in adverse conditions is dependent onmental and moral qualities as much as the physical condition ofthe. casualty. Fear i s the great enemy, coupled with a fatalisticattitude to succumb. Previous experience of bivouaccing in ahostile environment will do much to create confidence and. strengthof will. This is it matter of training. '

408. Immersion in Very Cold Water (Immersion Exposure)a. Immersion in water with ice floating nearby 'is a graveemergency because the effects are immediate and clothing affordslittle or no protection. The breath i s k.nocked out of the person.violent shivering starts, the body curls up and control of the musclesis lost. Exposed parts, such as the fingers, freeze in about fourminutes, consciousness becomes clouded in about seven minutes,and death occurs in 15-20 minutes. 'Some men have saved them-selves by really violent action on hitting the water but greaternumbers require help or die because of muscle spasm.-b. A common belief that immersion in cold water is rapidlyfatal is, in fact, not always t rue and it is possible for men tosurvive immersion in very cold water for some time. ' Survivalwill depend upon the kind of protective clothing being worn;age; injury and training, for example; it i s not easy to predicthow long, in general, men can live in cold water. There is arisk; however, of cold injury to the extremities in these circumstances..It has been stated that a t sea temperatures under 4.5' Centigrade(40' Fahrenheit) survival should be considered as a matter of minutes;this may be as few as five but perhaps as many as 60. At tempera-tures in the order of 15.5' Centigrade (60' Fahrenheit) it.would beunlikely for men not wearing special protective garments to survivefor more than aboui five hours. 'A t temperatures of the order of21' Centigrade (70' Fahrenheit), and above, the likelihood ofsurvival after longer periods of time i s good.

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c. Immersion in water that is not cold enough to produce theseacvte reactions calls for ths saving of body heat by a minimum ofexertion. When the liner LACONIA was abandoned near Madeira,only 11 of the 124 deaths were due to injury or accident, and therest were attributed to Immersion Exposure. Some people swamaround and thus lost body heat, others took clothing off in thewater or entered it with little or none on. It is better t o cling toa floating object rather than to stmggle or to swim more than avery short distance unless this is likely to reduce the time spent inthe water. Do not remove your clothing in the water. The prind-ples of treatment are those for exposure.

409. Immersion or Trench Foota. Immersion or Trench Foot occurs when the feet are immersedin cold water, or are thoroughly damp and cold for long periodswithout free movement and their blood supply i s additionallyconstricted by tight clothing and by sitting with the legs down formany hours. The condition is serious and i t s onset is hastened byexhaustion, general chilling, and lack of food, drink and sleep. Thefeet and legs are painful and numb, or the pain and numbness mayalternate. The pain can be so severe that the person looks ill andshocked.b. I f Immersion Foot is suspected the First Aid treatment i s toremove the casualty gently to warm surroundings as soon as possible,lay him down and then take off the foot and leg coverings very carefully, preferably by cutting. The skin will be livid or purple in anestablished case, with swelling and blister formation. Dry the limbwith gentle dabbing but do not rub or damage any of th e blisters.Elevate the pan to help the swelling to diminish and improvise acage over the feet to take the weight of the blankett that arenecessary to provide warmth and wmfon. Do not provide the panwith artificial warmth and do not massage or rub. Do give thecasualty hot food and drink, combat the pain with aspirin and keepthe casualty lying down until he is safe in bed in haspital.c. Prevention comprises dryness, to8 and leg exercis and theloosening of any constrictions that may impede circulation of thelegs.

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SECTION 2 - FROSTBITE410. General

a. Frostbite occurs when the tissue' actually freezes, and this is .not until a skin temperature of minus lo Centigrade (30' Fahrenheit)or lower is reached. The time scale depends on the severity of thecold, the wind speed, the area of skin exposed, or the amount ofconstriction of blood supply to a part.b. ' Minor Frostbite most often affects the tip of the nose. cheeks,ears and fingers. .Severe Frostbite is wrnrnonest on the feet andindeed 85 per Cent of the cases.in Korea were of frostbitten feet.This i s because the shape and function of the feet render them diffi.cult 'to insulate adequately and 'any carelessness in severe wathermakes them particularly liable to this form of cold injury.

411. ' Prevention of Frostbitea. Know the contents o f these sections.b. ' Protea the casualty by getting under cover and warming up .the affected part as quickly as posible while it is in the painfultie warning) stage.c. ' Under the "buddy" system the men should watch each otherfor the blanching (white appearance) .of nose;ears, cheek and skinwhich herald frostbite.d. ' .&gravating factors to be guarded against are exhaustion, lackof food and drink, other illness,.con&iction of blood supply:to apart such as the foot, wetting by sueat or water and the generalchilling of the body. ' .e. . Do not handle metal with bare hands in these conditions anddo not allow fuels, such as petrol, to contaminate the skin, asfreezing is almost instantaneous. . '

f. ' To keep warm remember "COLO FEET".

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412. Treatment for Frostbitea. The affected part may be intensely painful and this should besufficient warning that it must be warmed up. The first aid treat-ment at this stage is to cwer the nose. cheek or ear with a glovedhand and get into warm shelter quickly. The fingers or hand shouldbe slipped through the clothing into the armpit. When the feet areaffected, get into shelter quickly and, as a test of true friendship,place them on the bare warm abdomen of a comrade, but withblankets or other coverings around to conserve heat. The disappear-ance of pain and the return of normal sensation indicates that thedanger is over.b. If a p e r m i s intensively pre-ompied - generally stunned withcold or exhausted - the warning pain may not be recognised; event-ually the pain disappears when the foot becomes numb. At thisstage the frost has bitten and the area i s blanched and waxy whiteto look a t and hard to the touch. The condition i s now serious andwill spread i f shelter and w a r m i n g are not obtained. Never ruba frost bitten part with anything, because this will cause furtherdamage to what is already very delicate tissue.c. Research has indicated that rapid thawing in water of 42' -43O Centigrade (loa0 - 109' Fahrenheit) provides the best treat-ment for frost bitten limbs. Water in a container over a primusstove can be used conveniently for hands or feet. The water maybe tested for temperature by using the elbow.

SECTION 3 - HEAT DISORDERS413. General

a. The challenge of the heat wave and the tropical climatecan be better met i f there is a wider understanding of the illnessesand afflictions likely to be encountered, especially those directly dueto the environment.b. Dehydration (lack of water) causes a loss of working efficiency,a marked decline in endurance and can lead t o Heat Exhaustion.

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c. Lack of salt produces a similar inefficiency and likelihood offatigue. and can lead to Heat Cramps, which may m u r alone, orin association with, Heat Exhaustion.

d. Dehydration and lack of salt can o a r ogether, perhapscomplicated by sunburn or prickly heat or aggravated by continuedexercise, so that they become ptentially lethal.e. Unacclimatised troops are particularly prone to heat disordersespecially under operational conditions, but even acclimatised troopsare affected when the simple instructions are not obeyed.f. Any of the heat disorders can predispose a man to Heat Stroke,from which he may die.

.g. For further consideration they fall into two main .groupsa a a r d i n g to the degree of incapacity they cause:.(1) Minor disorders.(2) Major disorders.

414.. Minor disordersa. Prickly heat

(1 ) Prickly heat is common and is a source of greatannoyance to the sufferer, particularly by interferingsleep.(2) The prickly sensation arises from a blockage of themouths of the sweat glands which prevent Sweat escaping.Instead. the sweat has to force i ts way through layers ofskin cells causing fine eruptions, sometimes with a vesiclein the 'centre, a reddening of the surrounding skin andirritation,(3) Areas of skin' usualli covered by clothing are mostfquently affected, and. may become infected due toscratching.

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(4) The mndition is aggravated by heat s t m . which wouldotherwise causa increased sweating.( 5 ) A severely affected man may suffer extensive damage toa large number of sweat glands causing sweating ability to be,diminished, with the result that, i f not removed from the heatstress. he is predisposed to a more sarious heat illness.

b. Sunburn(1 1 Sunburn i s a particular hazard for unacclimatised troops.

(2 ) The reddening and blistering of sunburn is due to theultra violet content of sunshine affecting skin which has notdeveloped a protective tan. Th is ten i s achieved by gradedexposure, but in regions where sunshine is strong the firstexposure must be no longer than five minutes if sunburn isto be avoided.(31 Extensive sunburn causes temporary upset, headache.fever and occasional vomiting. in addition t o the pain of theburn.(4) The body's heat regulation may be upset because theaffected areas do not sweat.

c. Fainting(1) Fainting after standing still for long periods can occurin troops anywhere.(2 ) In the tropics the troops are more likely t o faint hermed"Heat Syncope") while standing quietly. from the increasedstrain on the cirwlatory system due to the environment.T h i s is particularly true of unacclimatised men.(3) I ts occurrence does not imply any weakness or incapacityin the man, who will recover rapidly after a short rest.

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415. Major disordersa. Heat exhaust ion. Heat Exhaustion includes four separablemnditions all of which are serious. These are:

. ,11) Anhidrotic heat exhaust ion. This is the name given to

' ''chronic swaating deficienq of gradual onset (anhidroticmeaning "without swat"). which is nearly always preceded . 'by severe prickly heat and accompanied by loss of.energy. :initiative and interest. Such cases usually have to be returned.

. .to a temperate climate. . .( 2 ) Salt deficient heat exhaustion. This commonly occursafter 2 3 ays heavy sweating without replacement of salt.The symptoms are collapse, pallor, sweating, nausea or vomitingand sometimes cramp of the muscles. The latter wn involvethe large muscle groups and morphine may have to be used tocontrol the severe pain. This type of Heat Exhaustion i s apotentially lethal cmdition and requires urgent medical atten-tion.(3) Water deficient heat exhaustion. This may follow anyperiod of heavy sweating when the water intake has beenrestricted. The symptoms are that the man complains ofvague discomfort, no appetite and dizziness. He is impatient.weary and sleepy; tingling sensations, shortness of breath anda blue tinge of the skin develop and he has diff iculty in walk-ing. Eventually he is unable to stand or cmtrol his musclesand becomes restless and hysterical or delirious. However,with rest in the shade and water t o drink, recovery IS rapid.(4) Exercise induced heat exhaustion. This is the Sequel tophysical exertion in a hot environment in the absence ordeficienq of salt or water or sweating, and may stop a t theexhaustion stage or 90 on to actual collapse.

b. Heat hyperpyrexia and heat. stroke. These are of the utmostimportance in view of the rapidity with which a man may be struckdown and die.

(1) Heat hyperpyrexia means "high fever" and is usuallydefined as a body temperature of 41' Centigrade (106O

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Fahrenheit) or more, resulting from impaired functioning of theheat regulating mechanism. Heat Hyperpyrexia can progressrapidly to Heat Stroke in which. the heat regulating mechanismshave failed. The body temperaturn rises steadily in the absenceof sweating and death ensues at a temperature of about 43'Centigrade (110' Fahrenheit).(2) Heat stroke

(a) The onset of Heat Stroke is sudden and thevictim may have been quite well a few hours previously.The disturbances are profound, including delirium,convulsions and partial or' complete 10s of consciousness.with snoring breathing and a hot, dry. flushed skin.(b) The only cure is immediate cooling to checkthe rise in temperature, as a delay of one or two hourscan mean the differenca between life and death.(c) The man should be stripped of his clothing,wrapped in a wet sheet or covered with a wet towel.and fanned by any means at hand to promote coolingby evaporation.(d) Do not apply iced water to the skin of the patientas this will not have. the desired effect.(e) Do not wait for medical aid to arrive before start-ing the suggested treatment i f Heat Stroke i s suspected.If) Although cases'of Heat Stroke are relatively rare,they are more dangerous from a tendenq on the partof a casualty to crawl into a quiet corner, such as undera t en t flap or behind a bush, where he may easily escapenotice during the critical period. Where there is a risk ofHeat Stroke the above point must therefore be borne'inmind.

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CHAPTER VCLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

SECTION 1 - CLOTHING

501. The function of clothing is to aid in keeping the body temperaturewithin the narrow range of the few degrees that are normal for efficientfunctioning and to prevent injury to the skin from rough terrain, thomyplants, insects etc.502. Clothing for cold climates should have the following qualities:

a. . Insulat ion. Insulation is achieved by trapping s t i l l air (the .best 'insulation known to man).between the fibres in the weaveand between the layers of the under garments. The amount ofinsulation can be varied by removing or putting on one or morelayers of clothing when too warm or chilly.

'. Vent i la t ion . Over-heating is prevented by ventilating theclothing through clmures at'the neck, wrists.and waist,.and byhaving the' head, face and hands bare.c Bulk. Clothing should not hinder agile or fine movements,otherwise the workload will increase and there will be a dangerof over-heating, end therefore quick fatigue.

'. Fit. Each layer must fi t comfortably on the inner layerwithout constricting. It must not be too loose or body movements will cause a serious loss of heat by ."bellow" action.e. ' Windproofness. The windprcmfing of garments preventsthe penetration by wind which would remove the st i l l heatedair. This quality is particularly required in outer garments.f. ' Water resistance and water proofness: These are highlydesirable in outer garments and footwear in ColdANet climates:

'. Fibre permeability. This is essential in outer garmentsfor ColdIDry climates since exoegive sweat can evaporate andescape without condensing in the clothing. There is a danger

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that frost or ice may form inside certain commercial waterproofclothing in these conditions and soldiers should be on their guardagainst this.h. Durability. This is in order to prevent snagging and tearingof outer garments which would allow trapped heat to be lostrapidly.j . Washable. This calls for fabrics that do not shrink on wash.ing. and dry easily.

503. Cold weather clothing is fitted on the layer principle, and this appliesto the head, hands and feet as well as on to the body and limbs. 'Care shouldbe taken to overlap the various items particularly a t the wrist,-as it is in suchplaces where frostbite has resulted from not replacing mittens and glovesproperly. The footwear for ColdNVet climates, ie. socks and boots. must befitted carefully when a man is standing and carrying a loaded pack. In severeCold/Dry conditions, leather boots-cease to protect between minus 10' Centi-grade and minus 20' Centigrade (14' 5ahrenheit to minus Fahrenheit) soduffle socks, felt insoles and mukluks should be used.

504. Protection of the head in cold weather deseNeS special mention. Theskin of the head i s well supplied with blood vessels, but it does not feel thecold. The result i s that a bare head can lose a substantial amount of heat,but it i s the body that feels cold and extra clothing put on the body doesnot make a man any warmer. It is therefore more economical and weightsaving to wear even a light head covering. More severe weather requires theuse of ear muffs, balaclavas, hats and hoods of combat smock and parka.The areas most liable to frostbite after the feet and fingsrs are the tip of thenose. cheeks and ears. . In snow cover and sunshine snow goggles are requiredto prevent snow blindness.Equipment505. The equipment to be carried should ideally be in a waterproofcontainer, such as a rucksack. Web equipment is not waterproof and so thecontents should be kept dry by, for instance, putting them into a polythenebag. Spare food. First Aid Kit , waterproof overgarments, torches and sparebatteries, lightweight cooking equipment and emergency camping gear, withsleeping bag, should also be carried by each man i f the expedition'is to be ,away for more than a few hours.

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506. That it is dangerous not t o carry the above items is shown clearly inrecent incidents of exposure in the United Kingdom in which there were 25deaths, 5 cases of unconsciousness - all recovered - and 58 milder cases, inall of which the symptoms began 5-6 hours after setting out. The intervalbetween the onset of wmptoms and collapse and death was sometimes as shortas 1-2 hours. All were wet through with inadequate windproof clothing,especially on the lower half of the body, and had pushed on to exhaustion.

'507. All men, and in particular the leader of an expedition, must checkclothing and equipment before setting out to ensure that:

a. Correct clothing i s taken, eg string vest;long pants, heavyshirt, pullover(s), socks, mittens, gloves. head coverings, windproofouter garments and boots; furthermore that.the i tems are in good.order.b. Waterproof garments are carried: This means that the dangerof setting out in bad weather or deteriorating conditions must betaken into amount.c. Emergency items have not been forgotten and the polytheneb a s are not torn, the.sleeping bags have no holes and zippers arenot jammed.

508. The leader of a party should check, each morning, that members donot put on all their warm clothing before beginning the day's activities. Asconditions change throughout the day clothing should be added or removedto maintain an even skin temperature.

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CHAPTER VIFOOD AND WATERSECTION 1 - FOOD

601. There is a great temptation to travel light, and this is often done a tthe expense of food and water supplies. Optimism that there will not be anemergency in the short time away from Base is another danger, but it needsonly a twisted ankle to immobilise a man in open country for several hourswhile help is obtained. If the weather deteriorates suddenly the results oflacking shelter, hot food and drink may be fatal.

602. Always carry a reserve of food above the normal requirement.Experiments on troops have proved that a high fat and carbohydrate(starches and sugars) diet is better for protection in cold climates than ahigh meat diet. One of the best reserve foods (to be eaten in emergenciesonly) is glucose toffee sweets containing 7 per cent fat and 85 per centsugar, packed in 58 oz boxes.603. In heat-waves and tropical climates the main meal should be keptuntil the cool of the evening and special attention should be given to"attractiveness" so that jaded appetites are stimulated.

SECTION 2 . SALT604. Common salt is lost in the sweat and in the urine and if it is notreplaced inefficient working and then illness result. There is enough salt inArmy rations to replace that lost in 10-12 pints of sweat daily. prov ided th erotion is eo t e n . Appetites readily become jaded in the heat, however. sothere should be supervision a t meal times. It is advisable not to swallow sal ttablets whole because they can irritate the stomach and cause vomiting. Ifextra salt is required it should be taken by crushing and dissolving thetablets a t the rate of one tablet to one pint of water, say in the waterbottle. This solution does not taste and i s quite the best way of ensuringan extra supply with the amount of water required by the body to use it.

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SECTION 3 .WATER605. Troops lacking experience of winter training are often surprised a t ' .the high daily water requirement in a cold climate, i f physical efficiency ism be maintained. It i s better to stop at regular intervals to "brew-up" inshelters. Always have a good meal before starting, then a snack a t a "brew-up" halt about midday and another good meal in the evening. Remembert ha t food and drink are the only souras of fuel necessary to keep goingwell, and remember to take a reserve.606. The body's water requirements in heatwave, and in the tropics.are large because of the high sweat rate which is necessary to keep'the bodymol and working efficiently. The thirst sensation i s not an accuratereflection of the body's water requirements and troops.,must be encouragedto drink past the point of thirst quenching. A good d e s 10 pints ofwater per day plus one pint for every hour of activity; walking round countsas an activity. I f the urine is scanty and highly wloured more water mustbe drunk.

SECTION 4 - ALCOHOL607. Never take alcohol during the-day and only well diluted and insmall quantities in t h e evening in hot climates. The consumption of alwholcan be dangerous in Certain conditions of exposure and exhaustion and it. .should not be used.

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Annex ATHE COUNTRY CODE1. a. It is essential that th e Country Code is always obselved. particularlywhen training or moving Over private land. It IS not only a matter of

courtesy to the landowner and the public in general, but helps to ensurethat the Army is not brought into disrepute.b. I f it i s necessary to climb over a gate, do so a t the hinged end.When climbing a wire fence put one foot on each side of a POSt anddo not stand with full weight on the wire between WO posts.c. Do not scorch grass with cooking stoves but rest them on a stone.d. Do not dig water trenches around tents in the mountains asgrass can be precious.e. If damage is caused by accident it must be reported as soon aspossible. This must be done even if the damage is repaired a t thetime.f . Do not shout unless there is an emergency.g. The Country Code is:

(1) Guard against all risks of fire.(2) Fasten all gates.(3) Keep d o g under proper control.(4) Keep to paths across farmland.(51 Avoid damaging fences, hedges and walls.(6) Do not leave l i t ter .(7) Safeguard water supplies.(8) Protect wildlife, wild plants and trees.(9) Go carefully on country roads.(10) Respect the life of the countryside.

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ANNEX B

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYThe bibliography contains only a few of the publications available and i snot intended to be a comprehensive list.Mountaineering"Mountain Leadership" by E Langmuir Sports Council"Mountaineering" by A Blackshaw Penguin Books"A Short Manual by W C Burns Mountaineeringof Mountaineering AssociationTraining""Rock Climbing" (Know the Gameseries) Educationalby C M Dixon Publications"Mountain (Teach Yourself series) EdinburghClimbing" by G H Francis Universiw Press"Let's Go by C Kirkus NelsonClimbing""Modern by S Styles FaberMountaineering""The Technique of by J E B Wright KayeMountaineering"

\"Safety on CCPR Handbook obtainable fromMountains" 22 Park Crescent, London W1.British Mountaineering Council and Association of Scottish ClimbingClubs Joint Circulation No. 326.British Mountaineering Council and Association of Scottish ClimbingClubs Joint Circulation No. 380 (BMC 380 lissued on scale C)).Hill Walking"Camp and Trek" by J Cox Lutterworth


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ReSCUe"Mountain Rescue and Cave Rescue" . Handbook of the Mountain RescueCommittee obtainable from Hill House, Cheadle Hulme. Stockport, Cheshire,Weather"The Observer's Book by R M Lester Warneof Weather""The Weather Map" Meteorological Office HMSO'Weather" by R S Scorer Phoenix House"Understanding bv 0 G Sutton . PelicanWeather"'Weather' Guide" by Fosdyke HamiltonGeneral"Where to climb in by E C Watt Faberth e British Isles""Rock Climbing in by J E B Wright KayeBritain""The Climber and This is a monthly magazine suited to a l l tastesRambler""Mountain" 10 times a vear BMC.

Survival Against the Elements 1975

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Transcript of Survival Against the Elements 1975