SURVEYS OF YOGA HISTORY, TYPES, PRACTICES, SCHOLARS, INSTITUTIONS, SPIRITUALITY AND PHILOSOPHIES

Aparna Ramaswamy, Ed.D., Ph.D.

SSVT Educational Committee

FEBRUARY 2020

YOGA

WHAT IS YOGA?WHO PRACTICED IT?WHEN AND WHERE?

WHY, HOW, AND WHAT FOR?

TOPICS

2

• Background

• History and Texts

• Types of Yoga Approaches – Classical and Modern

• Practices and Asanas

• Scholars of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Institutions of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Spirituality and Philosophies

BACKGROUND: MULTIDISCIPLINARY

3

TOPICS

4

• Background

• History and Texts

• Types of Yoga Approaches – Classical and Modern

• Practices and Asanas

• Scholars of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Institutions of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Spirituality and Philosophies

HISTORY AND TEXTS

5

•Vedas and Upanishads

•Bhagavad Gita

• Yogasutra

•Hata Yoga Pradipika

•Historical Timeline

VEDA-S AND UPANISHADS

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7

VEDAS

PARTS PURPOSE

SAMHITA Collection of Mantra-s or hymns

BRAHMANA Exposition on how to use mantra-s

ARANYAKA Meditative dwelling on meaning of rituals

UPANISHADContemplation of the philosophy behind

scriptures

BHAGAVAD GITA AND 4 YOGA-S: KARMA, DHYANA, JNANA, BHAKTI

PATANJALI’S YOGASUTRA

1. Yama2. Niyama

3. Asana4. Pranayama

5. Pratyahara6. Dharana

7. Dhyana8. Samadhi

HATA YOGA PRADIPIKA

• Chapter 1: setting the proper environment for yoga, ethical duties of a yogi, and asanas

• Chapter 2: pranayama and the shatkarma (body cleansing)

• Chapter 3: mudras and their benefits

• Chapter 4: meditation and samadhi as a journey of personal spiritual growth.

VEDAS: REVELATORY SCRIPTURAL CANON

11

Types of the Vedas Definition

Rig Veda Focuses on hymns to the various Vedic deities

Yajur Veda Details a systematic code and method for worship

Sama Veda Hymns of the Vedas put to song and music

Atharva Veda Systematic codes of mathematics, medicine, sciences, and

social structure

Sections of the

Vedas

Definition

Mantra Section Hymns to the various deities of the Vedic tradition

Brahmana Section Contains technical details of rituals from simple domestic

sacrifices (4 priests) to complex opulent fire sacrifices

involving hundreds of priests.

Aranyaka Section Contains theosophical discussions about the the true, inner

and esoteric meaning of the fire-sacrifices

Upanishad Section 108 total of which 13 are considered vital. Texts of

metaphysical speculation. Foundation of Hindu

Philosophical/Scriptural Authority

VEDAS AND UPANISHADS

12

• Yoga Practices Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna (sacrifice), might have been precursors to yoga. Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in the Atharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which may have evolved into yogic asanas.

• Early references to practices that later became part of yoga, are made in Upanishads, for example:- the practice of pranayama (consciously regulating breath) is mentioned

in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), - the practice of pratyahara (concentrating all of one's senses on self) is

mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE)- the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana teaches mantra repetition and

control of the breath.

• Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas (texts of the Vedic corpus, c. 1000–800 BCE) and the Atharvaveda.

• Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests the presence of an early contemplative tradition.

13 PRINCIPLE UPANISHADS: METAPHYSICAL SPECULATIONS

1. Katha: Conversation between Nachiketa and Yama (God of Death) on life, knowledge, atma and moksha

2. Mundaka: Describes spiritual knowledge

3. Mandukya: Shortest Upanishad, discusses the syllable Aum.

4. Aitareya: Discusses atman.

5. Taittiriya: Includes prayers and roles of students and teachers (gurus).

6. Chandogya: Discusses knowledge, soul, moksha, language, universe and rituals.

7. Prashna: Describes nature of life, humanity, meditation and education.

8. Shvetashvatara: Origins of the universe and nature. Describes God and Souls.

9. Brihadaranyaka: Introduces concept of Karma, Atma (Soul), Universe, Morals and Ethics.

10. Kena: Discusses Brahman, knowledge, and spiritual living

11. Isha: Discusses God, Universe, Karma, Spiritual Knowledge, Virtues

12. Kaushitaki: Discusses Atma, Spiritual Practices, Brahman (Divine)

13. Maitri: Discusses Meditation, Atma, Spiritual Knowledge, Universe

BHAGAVAD GITA AND 4 YOGAS: KARMA, DHYANA, JNANA, BHAKTI

• The Bhagavad Gita manuscript is found in the sixth book of the Mahabharata manuscripts – the Bhisma-parvan. Therein, in the third section, the Gita forms chapters 23–40, that is 6.3.23 to 6.3.40.

• Sādhana → Means to spirituality, moksa and ending suffering- Karma → Works / Actions- Dhyāna → Meditation / Control of Mind and Ego- Jnāna → Knowledge / Wisdom- Bhakti → Devotion / Faith / Love / Compassion

PATANJALI’S YOGASUTRA• Patanjali divided his Yoga Sutras into 4 chapters or books (Sanskrit pada), containing

in all 196 aphorisms, divided as follows:

- Samadhi Pada (51 sutras) : Samadhi refers to a blissful state where the yogi is absorbed into the One. The author describes yoga and then the nature and the means to attaining samādhi. This chapter contains the famous definitional verse: "Yogaś citta-vritti-nirodhaḥ" ("Yoga is the restraint of mental modifications".

- Sadhana Pada (55 sutras) : Sadhana is the Sanskrit word for "practice" or "discipline". Here the author outlines Ashtanga Yoga (Eightfold or EightlimbedYoga) and describes the eight limbs that together constitute Raja Yoga.

- Vibhuti Pada (56 sutras) : Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for "power" or "manifestation". 'Supra-normal powers' (Sanskrit: siddhi) are acquired by the practice of yoga. The temptation of these powers should be avoided and the attention should be fixed only on liberation.

- Kaivalya Pada (34 sutras) : Kaivalya literally means "isolation", but as used in the Sutras stands for emancipation, liberation and used interchangeably with moksha (liberation), which is the goal of Yoga. The Kaivalya Pada describes the nature of liberation and the reality of the transcendental self.

PATANJALI’S YOGASUTRA

1. Yama: ethical values2. Niyama: behavioral observances

3. Asana: body posture4. Pranayama: regulating energy using breath

5. Pratyahara: withdrawal from sensory stimulation6. Dharana: single-pointed focus

7. Dhyana: meditation8. Samadhi: meditative immersion

HATA YOGA PRADIPIKA

• The Haṭa Yoga Pradīpikā is a classic fifteenth-century Sanskrit manual on haṭayoga, written by Svātmārāma, who connects the teaching's lineage to Matsyendranath of the Nathas. It is among the most influential surviving texts on hatha yoga.

• The Hatha Yoga Pradīpikā is also one of three classic texts on haṭa yoga, alongside the Gheranda Samhita and the Shiva Samhita.

• It consists of 389 shlokas (verses) in four chapters:• Chapter 1 with 67 verses deals with setting the proper environment for

yoga, ethical duties of a yogi, and asanas• Chapter 2 with 78 verses deals with pranayama and the shatkarma (body

cleansing)• Chapter 3 with 130 verses discusses mudras and their benefits.• Chapter 4 with 114 verses deals with meditation and samadhi as a

journey of personal spiritual growth.

DEFINITION OF YOGA IN SACRED TEXTS

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Text ] Approximate Date Definition of Yoga[28

Katha Upanishad c. 5th century BCE

"When the five senses, along with the mind, remain still and the intellect is not active, that is known as the highest state. They consider yoga to be firm restraint of the senses. Then one becomes un-distracted for yoga is the arising and the passing away" (6.10-11)

Bhagavad Gita c. 2nd century BCE "Yoga is said to be equanimity" (2.48); "Yoga is skill in action" (2.50); "Know that which is called yoga to be separation from contact with suffering" (6.23).

Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra(Sravakabhumi), a Mahayana Buddhist Yogacara work

4th century CE "Yoga is fourfold: faith, aspiration, perseverance and means" (2.152)

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali c. 4th century CE "Yoga is the suppression of the activities of the mind" (1.2)

Vaisesika sutra c. 4th century BCE

"Pleasure and suffering arise as a result of the drawing together of the sense organs, the mind and objects. When that does not happen because the mind is in the self, there is no pleasure or suffering for one who is embodied. That is yoga" (5.2.15-16)

Yogaśataka a Jain work by Haribhadra Suri

6th century CE

"With conviction, the lords of Yogins have in our doctrine defined yoga as the concurrence (sambandhah) of the three [correct knowledge (sajjñana), correct doctrine (saddarsana) and correct conduct (saccaritra)] beginning with correct knowledge, since [thereby arises] conjunction with liberation....In common usage this [term] yoga also [denotes the soul’s] contact with the causes of these [three], due to the common usage of the cause for the effect. (2, 4).

DEFINITION OF YOGA IN SACRED TEXTS

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Text ] Approximate Date Definition of Yoga[28

Kaundinya's Pancarthabhasya on the Pasupatasutra

4th century CE "In this system, yoga is the union of the self and the Lord" (I.I.43)

Linga Purana 7th-10th century CE "By the word 'yoga' is meant nirvana, the condition of Shiva." (I.8.5a)

Brahmasutra-bhasya of Adi Shankara

c. 3rd century BCE "It is said in the treatises on yoga: 'Yoga is the means of perceiving reality' (athatattvadarsanabhyupāyo yogah)" (2.1.3)

Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, one of the primary authorities in non-dual Kashmir Shaivism

6th-10th century CE "Yoga is said to be the oneness of one entity with another." (MVUT 4.4–8)

Mrgendratantravrtti, of the Shaiva Siddhantascholar Narayanakantha

6th-10th century CE "To have self-mastery is to be a Yogin. The term Yogin means "one who is necessarily “conjoined with” the manifestation of his nature...the Siva-state (sivatvam)" (MrTaVr yp 2a)

Yogabija, a Hatha yogawork

14th century CE "The union of apana and prana, one's own rajas and semen, the sun and moon, the individual soul and the supreme soul, and in the same way the union of all dualities, is called yoga. " (89)

Śaradatilaka of Lakshmanadesikendra, a Shakta Tantra work

11th century CE

"Yogic experts state that yoga is the oneness of the individual soul (jiva) with the atman. Others understand it to be the ascertainment of Siva and the soul as non-different. The scholars of the Agamas say that it is a Knowledge which is of the nature of Siva’s Power. Other scholars say it is the knowledge of the primordial soul." (SaTil 25.1–3b)

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TOPICS

21

• Background

• History and Texts

• Types of Yoga Approaches – Classical and Modern

• Practices and Asanas

• Scholars of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Institutions of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Spirituality and Philosophies

TYPES OF YOGA

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Type Description Scholar(s) Text(s)

Raja Yoga Approach to achieve highest state of yoga practice (samadhi) – also referred to as ashtanga yoga

Patanjali, Swami Vivekananda,Swami Rama, Swami Sivananda

Yogasutra

Kundalini Yoga LayaYoga

Practice of yoga to activate kundalini energy from base of spine and move it upwards through the body (chakras) to achieve union

Swami Purnananda

Shat Chakra Nirupana

Hata yoga Physical practice of asana and pranayama that later included use of mudras and concept of chakras. It is commonly used as an umbrella term for all physical postures of yoga.

Svatmarama, Matsyendranath, Gorakshanath

Hata Yoga Pradipika, GherandaSamhita, Siva Samhita

Mantra Yoga Recitation of chants (mantra) to engage the mind through focus on sound, duration and number of repetitions.

Unknown Vedas, SvaraYoga

YOGA PRACTICES (MODERN)

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Hata Yoga Variations Description Gurus

Ashtanga Yoga Set sequence of postures that starts with five sun salutation A's and five sun salutation B's and then moves into a series of standing and floor postures. Vinyasa yoga stems from Ashtanga as the flowing style linking breath to movement.

Sri. K. Pattabhi Jois

Vinyasa Yoga Vinyasa was adapted from Ashtanga yoga in the 1980s. In Vinyasa classes, the movement is coordinated with your breath and movement to flow from one pose to another.

Sri. T.T. Krishnamacharya

Iyengar Yoga Focuses on alignment as well as detailed and precise movements with breath control. Poses are held for a long time (repose in pose).

Sri. B.K.S. Iyengar (student of Sri. T.T. Krishnamacharya)

Others Yoga Nidra (guided relaxation); Restorative Yoga (holding poses for extended time); Bikram Yoga (postures in 105*F); Yin Yoga (incorporates Chinese Medicine principles – holds positions longer)

Students of Yoga

YOGA TEXTS AND PRACTICES

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Title Author Timeframe PracticesAcaranga Sutra Unknown

Kshama Shraman Devardhigani (compiled)4th – 2nd century BCE

5th century CE

Jain code of conduct, meditation

Yogasutra Patanjali 3rd century CE Raja Yoga

Yoga Bhashya Vyasa 5th – 6th century CE Raja YogaYoga Vasishta Valmiki 6th century CE Raja Yoga

Yogadristisamucchaya Haribadrasuri 8th century CE Jaina form of ashta anga

Yoga Yagnavalkya Yagnavalkya 9th – 12th century CE KundaliniAshta anga

Vasishta Samhita unknown 13th century CE Hata Yoga

Hata Yoga Pradipika Svatmarama 13th – 15th cent CE Hata YogaKundalini Yoga

Goraksha Shataka Disciples of Gorakshanath 11th – 13th century CE Hata Yoga Laya Yoga

Siva Samhita unknown 15th – 17th century CE Hata YogaTantra

Shat Chakra Nirupana Purnananda Swami 16th century CE Kundalini YogaGheranda Samhita Disciples of Gorakshanath – Sage Gheranda 17th century CE Hata Yoga

Ahirbudhnya Samhita unknown 4th – 10th century CE

Svara Yoga (Shiva Svarodhya) unknown Mantra yogaBreath focus

Vijnana Bhairava Tantra Unknown Mantra yogaBreath

Concentration

YOGA PRACTICES

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Type Description Scholar(s) Text(s)

Raja Yoga Approach to achieve highest state of yoga practice (samadhi) – also referred to as ashtanga yoga

Patanjali, Swami Vivekananda,Swami Rama, Swami Sivananda

Yogasutra

Kundalini Yoga Laya Yoga

Practice of yoga to activate kundalini energy from base of spine and move it upwards through the body (chakras) to achieve union

Swami Purnananda Shat Chakra Nirupana

Hata yoga Physical practice of asana and pranayama that later included use of mudras and concept of chakras. It is commonly used as an umbrella term for all physical postures of yoga.

Svatmarama, Matsyendranath, Gorakshanath

Hata Yoga Pradipika, Gheranda Samhita, Siva Samhita

Mantra Yoga Recitation of chants (mantra) to engage the mind through focus on sound, duration and number of repetitions.

Unknown Vedas, Svara Yoga

YOGA PRACTICES

26

Hata Yoga Variations Description Gurus

Ashtanga Yoga Set sequence of postures that starts with five sun salutation A's and five sun salutation B's and then moves into a series of standing and floor postures. Vinyasa yoga stems from Ashtanga as the flowing style linking breath to movement.

Sri. K. Pattabhi Jois

Vinyasa Yoga Vinyasa was adapted from Ashtanga yoga in the 1980s. In Vinyasa classes, the movement is coordinated with your breath and movement to flow from one pose to another.

Sri. T.T. Krishnamacharya

Iyengar Yoga Focuses on alignment as well as detailed and precise movements with breath control. Poses are held for a long time (repose in pose).

Sri. B.K.S. Iyengar (student of Sri. T.T. Krishnamacharya)

Others Yoga Nidra (guided relaxation); Restorative Yoga (holding poses for extended time); Bikram Yoga (postures in 105*F); Yin Yoga (incorporates Chinese Medicine principles – holds positions longer)

Students of Yoga

ASANAS DESCRIBED IN HATA YOGA TEXTS

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Item Sanskrit Name English Name GherandaSamhita

Hata Yoga Pradipika

Siva Samhita

1 Matsyāsana Fish 2.21 Absent Absent

2 Matsyendrāsana Lord of the fishes 2.22-23 1.26-27 Absent

3 Gorakshasana Cowherd 2.24-25 1.28-29 3.108-112

4 Paschimottanasana Seated Forward Bend 2.26 Absent Absent

5 Utkaṭāsana Superior 2.27 Absent Absent

6 Sankatasana Contracted 2.28 Absent Absent

7 Mayūrāsana Peacock 2.29-30 1.30-31 Absent

8 Kukkutasana Rooster 2.31 1.23 Absent

9 Kūrmāsana Tortoise 2.32 1.22 Absent

10 Uttana Kurmasana Raised Tortoise 2.33 1.24 Absent

11 Mandukasana Frog 2.34 Absent Absent

ASANAS DESCRIBED IN HATA YOGA TEXTS

28

Item Sanskrit Name English Name GherandaSamhita

Hata Yoga Pradipika

Siva Samhita

12 Uttana Mandukasana Raised Frog 2.35 Absent Absent

13 Vrikshasana Tree 2.36 Absent Absent

14 Garuḍāsana Eagle2.37 (describes a

different asana)Absent Absent

15 Trishasana Bull 2.38 Absent Absent

16 ShalabhasanaLocust

(Grasshopper)2.39 Absent Absent

17 Makarāsana Crocodile 2.40 Absent Absent

18 Ushtrasana Camel 2.41 Absent Absent

19 Bhujaṅgāsana Serpent 2.42-43 Absent Absent

20 Yogasana Union 2.44-45 Absent Absent

21 Uttana Mandukasana Raised Frog 2.35 Absent Absent

22 Vrikshasana Tree 2.36 Absent Absent

TOPICS

29

• Background

• History and Texts

• Types of Yoga Approaches – Classical and Modern

• Practices and Asanas

• Scholars of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Institutions of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Spirituality and Philosophies

SAGE PATAÑJALI

30

SAGE VYASA

31

MATSYENDRANATH

32

GORAKHNATH

33

SWAMI SIVANANDA SRI. T. KRISHNAMACHARYA

OTHER SCHOLARS AND YOGIS

Swami YoganandaSri. Aurobindo

Swami Kripalvananda

Swami Rama

Swami Vivekananda

PATAÑJALI

36

• Patañjali was a sage in India, thought to be the author of a number of Sanskrit works. The greatest of these are the Yoga Sutras, a classical yoga text.

• He is variously estimated to have lived between 2nd century BCE to 4th century CE, with more scholars accepting dates between 2nd and 4th century CE

• There is doubt as to whether the sage Patañjali is the author of all the works attributed to him as there are a number of known historical authors of the same name.

• Other works by Patañjali are:

- Mahābhāṣya, an ancient treatise on Sanskrit grammar and linguistics, based on the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini. (2nd century BCE).

- Medical text called Patanjalatantra. He is cited and this text is quoted in many medieval health sciences-related texts, and Patanjali is called a medical authority in a number of Sanskrit texts such as Yogaratnakara, Yogaratnasamuccaya and Padarthavijnana.

VYASA

37

• Vyasa is a central and revered figure in most Hindu traditions. He is also sometimes called Veda Vyasa (the one who classified the Vedas in to four parts) or Krishna Dvaipayana (referring to his complexion and birthplace).

• Other works attributed to Vyasa:- Eighteen major Purāṇas- Yoga Bhashya, a commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali- Brahma Sutras are attributed to Badarayana Vyasa (sometimes

confused for Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa)

• In Vyasa’s Yoga Bhashya, there is an explanation of the ashta angaprinciples with 10 examples provided for asana (all seated positions)

• Yama and Niyama are expanded to include more attributes

MATSYENDRANATH

38

• Matsyendra, Matsyendranātha, Macchindranāth or Mīnanātha (early 10th century) was a saint and yogi in a number of Buddhist and Hindu traditions.

• He is traditionally considered the founder of hatha yoga as well as the author of some of its earliest texts.

• He is also seen as the founder of the natha sampradaya, having received the teachings from Shiva

• He is considered the guru of Gorakshanath, another important figure in early hatha yoga.

• Matsyendra is credited with composing Hatha and Tantric works such as the Kaulajñānanirnāya, the Matsyendrasamhita and "Akula-Viratantra", some of the earliest texts on hatha yoga in Sanskrit in the eleventh century

GORAKHNATH

39

• Yogi Gorakhnath (also known as Goraksanath, c. early 11th century) was a Hindu yogi and saint who was the influential founder of the Nath Hindu monastic movement in India.

• He is considered as one of the two notable disciples of Matsyendranath. His followers are found in India at the place known as Garbhagiri which is in Ahmednagar in the state of Maharashtra.

• Historical texts imply that Gorakhnath was originally a Buddhist in a region influenced by Shaivism, and he converted to Hinduism championing Shiva and Yoga.

• Gorakhnath championed Yoga, spiritual discipline and an ethical life of self-determination as a means to reaching samadhi and one's own spiritual truths.

SWAMI SIVANANDA

• Sivananda Saraswati (or Swami Sivananda; 8 September 1887 – 14 July 1963) was a Hindu spiritual teacher and a proponent of Yoga and Vedanta. He studied medicine and served in British Malaya as a physician for several years before taking up monasticism.

• He was the author of over 200 books on yoga, Vedanta, and a variety of subjects.

• Disciples who went on to grow new organizations include: • Chinmayananda Saraswati, founder of the Chinmaya Mission• Jyotirmayananda Saraswati, President of the Yoga Research

Foundation, Miami, USA• Satchidananda Saraswati, founder of the Integral Yoga Institutes,

around the world• Satyananda Saraswati, founder of Bihar School of Yoga• Shantananda Saraswati, founder of Temple of Fine Arts (Malaysia &

Singapore)

SRI. T. KRISHNAMACHARYA

• Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (November 18, 1888 – February 28, 1989) was an Indian yoga teacher, ayurvedic healer and scholar. Often referred to as "the father of modern yoga,“ Krishnamacharya is widely regarded as one of the most influential yoga teachers of the 20th century.

• Krishnamacharya held degrees in all the six Vedic darśanas, or Indian philosophies.

• Underlying all of Krishnamacharya's teachings was the principle "Teach what is appropriate for an individual.“

• While he is revered in other parts of the world as a yogi, in India Krishnamacharya is mainly known as a healer who drew from both ayurvedic and yogic traditions to restore health and well-being to those he treated.

• He authored four books on yoga—Yoga Makaranda (1934), Yogaasanagalu (c. 1941),Yoga Rahasya, and Yogavalli (Chapter 1 – 1988)—as well as several essays and poetic compositions

TOPICS

42

• Background

• History and Texts

• Types of Yoga Approaches – Classical and Modern

• Practices and Asanas

• Scholars of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Institutions of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Spirituality and Philosophies

INDUS VALLEY - PASUPATI SEAL

43

KAMAKHYA – SHAKTI

MATSYENDRANATH TEMPLES: CENTRAL INDIA

44

YOGINI TEMPLES (CENTRAL INDIA)

45

KAMAKHYA

46

• Also known as Kamrup-Kamakhya temple, KamakhyaDevalaya, is a Hindu temple dedicated to the mother goddess Kamakhya.

• It is one of the oldest of the 51 Shakti Pithas. It is the main temple in a complex of individual temples dedicated to the ten Mahavidyas of Saktism.

• The Kalika Purana, an ancient work in Sanskrit describes Kamakhya as the yielder of all desires, the young bride of Shiva, and the giver of salvation.

• Shakti is known as Kamakhya.

• Tantra is basic form of worship in the precincts of this ancient temple of mother goddess Kamakhya.

• It has drawn practitioners of yoga and tantra to her for more than two thousand years.

MATSYENDRANATH TEMPLES

47

• Multiple Matsyendra is seen as the ‘founder’ of hatha yoga as well as the author of some of its earliest texts. He is also considered founder of the nathasampradaya, having received the teachings from Shiva.

• Numerous temples are scattered in the State of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh in central India

YOGINI TEMPLES

48

• There are four major extant shrines of the Sixty-four Yogini (Chausathijogan, among other spellings) in India (named for 64 legendary yogini), two in Odisha and two in Madhya Pradesh.

TOPICS

49

• Background

• History and Texts

• Types of Yoga Approaches – Classical and Modern

• Practices and Asanas

• Scholars of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Institutions of Yoga – Classical and Modern

• Spirituality and Philosophies

DHARMA AND THE FOUR YOGA SADHANAS

INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL DARSANAS (BHARATIYA DARSANA)

51

52

YOGA AND JAINISM

Jain yoga aims at the liberation and purification of the self (atma) or soul (jiva) from the forces of karma, which keep all souls bound to the cycle of transmigration

YOGA AND BUDDHISM

An important and unique feature of classical Buddhism is its understanding of all phenomena (dhammas) as being empty of a self (atman) or inherent essence, a doctrine termed Anatta ("not-self") and Śūnyatā (emptiness).

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIAN RELIGION → VEDA AND TANTRA/AGAMA

• Veda- Central themes and concepts within the Vedic

texts focus on fire, rivers, rishis, devas, mantra, sound, karma and moksa

- Hallmark texts include:oRig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva VedasoVedangasoUpavedas

• Tantra and Agama (Tantragama)- Central themes and concepts within the Tantric

and Agamic texts include temple practices and construction, meditation, bhakti, yoga, silence

- Hallmark texts include:oSaiva AgamasoVaisnava AgamasoSakta Agamas (Tantras)oAdditional Agamas (Soura and Ganapatya)

VEDATANTRA &

AGAMA

Note: Buddhist temple practices in Northeast Asia and Southeast Asia also are influenced from Confucian, Taoist, Shinto and Shamanistic (Native Mongolian/Tibetan/Korean/Other) Traditions

PHILSOPHICAL HINDUISM, JAINISM & BUDDHISM

TEMPLE HINDUISM

EPIC HINDUISM (RAMAYANA,

MAHABHARATA, & PURANAS)

BODY MIND SOUL

• Body- Bound in Space- Bound in Time- Death is decay of the body only- Characterized by Actions → What we do

• Mind- Not in Space- Bound in Time- Carries between lifetimes- Characterized by Thoughts → What we think

• Soul- Not in Space- Not in Time- Characterized by Being → What we are

SOUL

MIND BODY

THE “BIG PICTURE”…..

Samsara / Rebirth

Moksa / Nirvana

Key Term Description Car Diagram Reference

1 SamsaraSuffering, struggling,

sickness, hunger, fearStarting Point

2 DharmaGoodness, virtue, order,

righteousness, dutyRoad

3 MoksaEnd of suffering and

strugglingDestination

4Karma

Yoga

Action, choice, response,

work, ritualsWheel 1

5Dhyana

Yoga

Meditation, control of the

mind, control of the egoWheel 2

6Jnana

Yoga

Wisdom, knowledge,

understandingWheel 3

7Bhakti

Yoga

Faith, love, devotion,

compassion, mercyWheel 4

8 Shariram

Physical body. Arms, legs,

heart, brain, eyes, lungs,

liver, blood, etc.

Car engine, doors, trunk,

windows, seats, gasoline and

parts

9Manasa /

Vijnana

Mind, thoughts,

consciousness, ideas,

preferences, attitudes,

aptitudes

Steering wheel, dashboard

10Atma /

Jivatma

Soul, spiritual identity,

permanent Self, the thinker,

the chooser, the actor.

Driver

11 Yoga Union Where the rubber meets the road

12 BrahmanDivine, God, Isvara,

Bhagavan

The ground that the road and car

and driver sit on, the whole

picture, the car designer, the

Person that laid the road

MAJOR INDIAN THOUGHT PERSPECTIVES

• Primarily there are a total of 23 Indian systems- Jainism (1)- Buddhism (4)- Hinduism (18)

• There are historically many additional systems of Buddhism and other schools of Hinduism where references exist, but full information is lost

• The 23 systems listed to the right collapse to 11 principal traditions to be covered- Jainism (1)- Theravada Buddhism (1)- Madhyamika and Yogacara Mahayana Buddhism (2)- Sankhya-Yoga (1)- Nyaya-Vaisesika (1)- Purva-Mimamsa of Kumarila and Prabhakara (2)- Advaita, Visistadvaita and Dvaita Vedanta (3)

• 11 major philosophical traditions result from historical convergence and splitting of some traditions as well as latter schools developing more on theologically than philosophically

Indian Religio-Philosophical School / Tradition(Darsana / Sampradaya)

1 Jainism

2 Sautrantika Theravada Buddhism

3 Vaibhashika Theravada Buddhism

4 Madhyamika Mahayana Buddhism

5 Yogacara Mahayana Buddhism

6 Nyaya (Hinduism)

7 Vaisesika (Hinduism)

8 Sankhya (Hinduism)

9 Yoga (Hinduism)

10 Purva Mimamsa of Kumarila (Hinduism)

11 Purva Mimamsa of Prabhakara (Hinduism)

12 Advaita Vedānta (Bhamati) (Hinduism)

13 Advaita Vedānta (Vivarana) (Hinduism)

14 Visistadvaita Vedānta - Vadakalai (Hinduism)

15 Visistadvaita Vedānta - Thenkalai (Hinduism)

16 Dvaita Vedānta (Hinduism)

17 Dvaitādvaita Vedānta of Nimbārka (Hinduism)

18 Shuddhādvaita Vedānta of Vallabha (Hinduism)

19 Achintyabhedābheda Vedānta of Mahāprabhu Caitanya (Hinduism)

20 Vedānta of Sri Aurobindo (Hinduism)

21 Saiva Siddhānta (Hinduism)

22 Kāsmīra Saivism (Hinduism)

23 Shākta Schools (Hinduism)

CYCLE OF KARMA AND SAMSARA: BONDAGE AND SUFFERING

▪ 1. Soul bound by ignorance

– Soul is linked with body and

mind

– Ignorance: Avidya

• Lack of a spiritual perspective

in life

• Lack of detachment to the

material world

▪ 2. Material Desires are of 2 types:

– Longing for material

possessions that we do not

have

– Clinging onto material

possessions that we do have

▪ 3. Selfish Actions (Initiating Karma)

are of 3 types:

– Morally good / Positive

– Morally wrong / Negative

– Morally Neutral

▪ 4. Accrual of Merit/Sin

(Consequential Karma)

– Merit → Punya (Reward)

– Sin → Papa

(Punishment)

▪ 5. Exhaustion

– Spending of karmic

“bank account”

▪ 6. Death

– Separation of only the

body from the mind/soul

▪ 7. Rebirth

– Endless cycle of rebirth

that has been

happening forever in the

past, until the cycle is to

be broken

▪ 1. Soul with Spiritual knowledge

– Spiritual knowledge →

Sadvidya

▪ 2. Stoppage of Material Desires

▪ 3. Selflessness

– No acceptance of rewards

for one’s good deeds

– No expectance of rewards

for one’s good deeds

– Accomplished via:

• Faith/devotion → bhakti

• Wisdom → Jnana

• Good works → Karma

• Meditation → Dhyana

BREAKING THE CYCLE OF KARMA AND SAMSARA: MOKSA/NIRVANA AND THE SPIRITUAL RELEASE FROM SUFFERING

▪ 4. No accrual of merit and sin

– No desire

– No expectance

– No acceptance

▪ 5. Exhaustion of remainder

merit and sin

▪ 6. Death

– Separation of only the body

from the mind/soul

▪ 7. Salvation

– No rebirth

– Soul is free from the

encumbrances

of the mind as well as the

body

– Moksa/Nirvana

JAINISM, BUDDHISM AND HINDUISM: HIGH-LEVEL OVERVIEW

Accepts Dharma?

Accepts Karma? Accepts Souls? Accepts Isvara(God)?

Accepts Sruti/ Vedas (Scripture)?

Buddhism YES YES NO NO NO

Jainism YES YES YES NO NO

Hinduism YES YES YES YES YES

X X

XX

X

SANKHYA-YOGA SUMMARIZED

Doctrine Highlights and Trademarks

1 Knowledge: Pramanavicarasastra / Epistemology

• Rationalist School• Valid means to knowledge Perception, Inference and

Scripture• Doctrine of Truth Coherence Theory of Truth (Practicality is a

function of veracity)• Doctrine of Error Non-apprehension of the truth (Error by

omission)

2 Reality:Tattvavicarasastra / Metaphysics

• Dualism: All reality reduces to Prakrti and Purusa(s) (cosmic matter and souls)

• non-theistic, rationalistic, realistic, and non-atomistic • Intrinsicness, complex to simple, simultaneity, commonality

3 God: Isvaravicarasastra / Theology

• No God to proctor Karma

4 Souls/Mind:Jivavicarasastra / Psychology

• Universal Efficient, Instrumental and Material Causes →Prakrti, Karma, Prakrti

5 Universe:Jagadvicarasastra / Cosmology

• Existence and Consciousness is intrinsic to the nature of the soul (Sat + Cit)

6 Salvation:Moksavicarasastra / Soteriology

• The process of salvation begins at the discrimination of the purusa from the psychical apparatus

• Practiced virtues : Friendliness, compassion, happiness to the virtuous, indifference to the vicious

• Practice of the 8-fold Yoga• The state of the soul in Moksa is that of Existence and

Consciousness (but no bliss)

Philosopher Work / Text

Kapila Sānkya-Sūtra

Patanjali Yoga-Sūtra

Isvarakrishna Sānkya-Karika

Vijnānabhiksu Sānkya-pravachana-bhāsya, Yogavartika

Vyasa Yoga-Sūtra-bhāsya

Sankara Yogasutrabhasyavivarana

Vacaspati Misra Sānkya-tattva-kaumudi, yogasarasamgraha

System / Darsana

Geographical Area and Religious Communities

Sankhya-Yoga

Geographical presence: Limited modern distributionReligious Community: Saktaand Tantric Hinduism

SANKHYA-YOGA METAPHYSICS

64

SAMKHYA SUTRAS AND SAMKHYA LITERATURE

• Sage Kapila is considered as the founder of the Samkhya school, but there is no evidence to prove that the texts attributed to him, the Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra and the Tattvasamāsawere actually composed by him.

• The earliest extant text of this school is Sāṁkhya Kārikā of Iśvarakṛṣṇa (3rd century). - Iśvarakṛṣṇa in his Kārikā described himself as being in the succession of the disciples from Kapila,

through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha. - Gauḍapāda wrote a commentary on this Kārikā. - The next important work is Vācaspati’s Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī (9th century AD). Nārāyaṇa’s treatise

Sāṁkhyacandrikā is based on the Kārikā. - The Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra is assigned to the 14th century, as Guṇaratna (14th century) did not refer

to this text but referred to the Kārikā. This text consists of 6 chapters and 526 sūtras. - The most important commentary on the Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra is Vijñānabhikṣu’s

Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya (16th century). - Anirruddha’s Kāpilasāṁkhyapravacanasūtravṛtti (15th century) and Mahādeva’s

Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtravṛttisāra (c. 1600) and Nāgeśa’s Laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti are the other important commentaries on this text.

YOGA AND JAINISM

• Jainism is based on:- a strict code of nonviolence or ahimsa (which includes vegetarianism),- almsgiving (dana),- right faith in the three jewels (right faith, right knowledge, right conduct),- the practice of austerities (tapas) such as fasting, and - yogic practices.

• Jain yoga aims at the liberation and purification of the self (atma) or soul (jiva) from the forces of karma, which keep all souls bound to the cycle of transmigration. Like Yoga and Sankhya, Jainism believes in a multiplicity of individual souls which bound by their individual karma. Only through the reduction of karmic influxes and the exhaustion of one's collected karma can a soul become purified and released, at which point one becomes an omniscient being who has reaches "absolute knowledge" (kevala jnana).

• The early practice of Jain yoga seems to have been divided into several types, including;- meditation (dhyāna), - abandonment of the body (kāyotsarga), - contemplation (anuprekṣā), and - reflection (bhāvanā)

• Some of the earliest sources for Jain yoga are the Uttarādhyayana-sūtra, the Āvaśyaka-sūtra, the SthanangaSutra (c. 2nd century BCE). Later works include Kundakunda's Vārassa-aṇuvekkhā (“Twelve Contemplations”, c. 1st century BCE to 1st century CE), Haribhadra's Yogadṛṣṭisamuccya (8th century) and the Yogaśāstra of Hemachandra (12th century).

YOGA AND BUDDHISM

• Two mental qualities are said to be indispensable for yogic practice in Buddhism:- samatha (calm, stability) is a calm mind, associated with samadhi (mental

unification, focus) and dhyana (meditative absorption)- vipassanā (insight, clear seeing) is a kind of insight or penetrative understanding

into the true nature of phenomena.

• In early Buddhism, various yogic practices were taught including: • the four dhyānas (four meditations or mental absorptions),• the four satipatthanas (foundations or establishments of mindfulness),• anapanasati (mindfulness of breath),• the four immaterial dwellings (supranormal states of mind),• the brahmavihārās (divine abodes).• Anussati (contemplations, recollections)

• The true nature of things is defined and explained in different ways, but an important and unique feature of classical Buddhism is its understanding of all phenomena (dhammas) as being empty of a self (atman) or inherent essence, a doctrine termed Anatta ("not-self") and Śūnyatā (emptiness). This is in sharp contrast with most other Indian traditions, whose goals are founded either on the idea of an individual soul (atman, jiva, purusha) or a universal monistic consciousness ( Brahman). Vipassanā also requires an understanding of suffering or dukkha (and thus the four noble truths), impermanence (anicca) and interdependent origination.

CORE BUDDHISM FROM THE BUDDHA’S FIRST SERMON: THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, 3 MARKS OF EXISTENCE AND 12-FOLD WHEEL OF CAUSALITY, NOBLE 8-FOLD PATH

Division Noble Eightfold Path

Wisdom (Sanskrit:

prajñā, Pāli: paññā)

1. Right view

2. Right intention

Ethical conduct

(Sanskrit: śīla, Pāli:

sīla)

3. Right speech

4. Right action

5. Right livelihood

Concentration (Sanskrit

and Pāli: samādhi)

6. Right effort

7. Right mindfulness

8. Right concentration

4 Noble Truths Explanation

The Nature of Suffering (Dukkha)

"This is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering.”

Suffering's Origin (Samudaya)

"This is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there, that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination.“

Suffering's Cessation (Nirodha)

"This is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, non-reliance on it."

The Way (Mārga) Leading to the Cessation of Suffering

"This is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: it is the Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration."

THERAVADA BUDDHISM SUMMARIZEDDoctrine Highlights and Trademarks

1 Knowledge: Pramanavicarasastra / Epistemology

• Means to valid knowledge include Perception, inference, Teachings of the Buddha

• Sautrantika: Inference is primary• Vaibhashika: Perception is primary

2 Reality:Tattvavicarasastra / Metaphysics

• “mind” and “matter” are equally real• Non-substantialism: nothing permanent exists from

moment to moment in time• 3 Marks of Existence Dukka, Anicca, Anatta (Suffering,

Impermanence, Essencelessness)

3 God: Isvaravicarasastra / Theology

• Denial of the existence of a Supreme Being as creator/lord of the universe

4 Souls/Mind:Jivavicarasastra / Psychology

• 5 Skandhas: This and not the soul undergoes the karmic cycle that includes: The Body and 4 mental factors of perceptions, feelings, innate tendencies (aptitudes/attitudes), ideas

• 12 fold wheel of causality for karma

5 Universe:Jagadvicarasastra / Cosmology

• Momentariness of space, time, matter, universe

6 Salvation:Moksavicarasastra / Soteriology

• Nirvāna → 4noble truths, noble 8 fold path, extinction of personality series

Philosopher Work / Text

Buddha Tripitika (Pali Canon), Dhammapada

Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga(Pali)

System / Darsana

Geographical Area and Religious Communities

Theravada Buddhism

Geographical presence: Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Southern Vietnam, Laos, BurmaReligio-philosophicalcommunity of Sautrāntika (or Sarvāstivāda) and Vaibhāsika

MADHYAMIKA MAHAYANA BUDDHISM SUMMARIZED

Doctrine Highlights and Trademarks

1 Knowledge: Pramanavicarasastra / Epistemology

• Means to valid knowledge include Perception, inference, Teachings of the Buddha

2 Reality:Tattvavicarasastra / Metaphysics

• According to the Mādhyamikas, all phenomena are empty of "self nature" or "essence" (Sanskrit: Svabhāva), meaning that they have no intrinsic, independent reality apart from the causes and conditions from which they arise.

• Madhyamaka is the rejection of two extreme philosophies, and therefore represents the "middle way" between eternalism—the view that something is eternal and unchanging—and nihilism.

• Mādhyamīka state mind and matter relative and cancel

3 God: Isvaravicarasastra / Theology

• Trikaya doctrine Buddha is a cosmic being, Samobhogakaya doctrine Bodhisattvas (e.g. Amitābha, Avalokiteshwara)

4 Souls/Mind:Jivavicarasastra / Psychology

• 5 Skandhas: This and not the soul undergoes the karmic cycle that includes: The Body and 4 mental factors of perceptions, feelings, innate tendencies (aptitudes/attitudes), ideas

• 12 fold wheel of causality for karma

5 Universe:Jagadvicarasastra / Cosmology

• Mādhyamīka → absolutely nothing exists

6 Salvation:Moksavicarasastra / Soteriology

• dissolution of the 5 skandhas and no re-birth

Philosopher Work / Text

Buddha Tripitika (Pali Canon), Dhammapada

Ashvagosa Saudarananda, Buddhacharita

Nāgārjuna Mulamadhyamaka, Ratnāvalī, Vigrahavyāvarttanī

Candrakīrti Prasannapadā, Chatuhshataka(Commentary), Madhyamakāvatāra

Aryadeva Chatuhshataka,Chittavishuddhiprakarana, Hastabālaprakarana

Dharmakirti Nyāyabindu, Pramānavārtika, Pramānavārtika-Svrtti, Vādanyāya

Shantaraksita Tattvasangraha

Shāntideva Bodhicharyāvatāra, ShiksāSamuchchaya

Kumārajīva Vimalakirtī Sūtra

Kamalashila Tattvasanghrahapanjikā

Dinnāga Pramānasamuchchaya, Ālambanaparīksā

System / Darsana

Geographical Area

Madhyamika Mahayana Buddhism

Paramithyana: (non-Tantric) China, Korea, Japan, TaiwanVajrayana: (Tantric) Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, Sikkim and Ladakh

YOGACARA MAHAYANA BUDDHISM SUMMARIZED

Doctrine Highlights and Trademarks

1 Knowledge: Pramanavicarasastra / Epistemology

• Means to valid knowledge include Perception, inference, Teachings of the Buddha

2 Reality:Tattvavicarasastra / Metaphysics

• Śūnyatā and Pratītyasamutpāda and the theme of "two truths" are central in Yogācāra thought and meditation

• Consciousness must transmigrate

3 God: Isvaravicarasastra / Theology

• Trikaya doctrine Buddha is a cosmic being, Samobhogakaya doctrine Bodhisattvas (e.g. Amitābha, Avalokiteshwara)

• No supreme being for proctoring the doctrine of karma

4 Souls/Mind:Jivavicarasastra / Psychology

• 5 Skandhas: This and not the soul undergoes the karmic cycle that includes: The Body and 4 mental factors of perceptions, feelings, innate tendencies (aptitudes/attitudes), ideas

• 12 fold wheel of causality for karma

5 Universe:Jagadvicarasastra / Cosmology

• Consciousness stream alone exists

6 Salvation:Moksavicarasastra / Soteriology

• Individual consciousness merges into the consciousness stream

Philosopher Work / Text

Buddha Tripitika (Pali Canon), Dhammapada

Ashvagosa Saudarananda, Buddhacharita

Vasubandhu Vijnaptimātratāsiddhi(Vimshatikā/Trimshikā), Abhidharmakosha, Abhidharmakoshakārikā, Abhidharmakoshavyākhyā of Yashomitra, Trisvabhāvanirdesha

Asanga Mahāyānasūtralankāra, Bodhisattvabhūmi

Sthiramati Madhyāntavibhāga-Sūtra-Bhāsya-Tīkā

Shantaraksita Tattvasangraha

Shāntideva Bodhicharyāvatāra, Shiksā Samuchchaya

China: Xuanzang and Kuiji (K'uei-chi)

Japan: Chitsū智通 and Chidatsu智達

Korea: Daehyeon大賢, Sinhaeng (神行 ;704-779), Weonchuk (圓測 ; 631-696) and Weonhyo (zh: 元曉 ; 원효; 617 - 686);

Tibet: Dolpopa, Taranatha, Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Thaye, Ju MiphamSystem / Darsana Geographical Area

Yogacara Mahayana Buddhism

Paramithyana: (non-Tantric) China, Korea, Japan, TaiwanVajrayana: (Tantric) Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, Sikkim and Ladakh

SUMMARY

MEANING OF SPIRITUALITYRESPECTING GURUS

UNDERSTANDING EXPRESSIONS

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