Surveying Cameroon Surveying Cameroon English: evidence from English: evidence from previous researchprevious research

Daniel A. NkemlekeDaniel A. NkemlekeDepartment of EnglishDepartment of English

Guest Scholar, University of Massachusetts, at Guest Scholar, University of Massachusetts, at BostonBoston

(2009/2010)(2009/2010)

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OutlineOutline

1. 1. Introduction: situating CameroonIntroduction: situating Cameroon

2. Defining Cameroon English2. Defining Cameroon English

3. Foci of Cameroon English3. Foci of Cameroon English

4. Approaches to Cameroon English4. Approaches to Cameroon English

5. Some features of Cameroon English5. Some features of Cameroon English

6. Conclusion: Future perspectives6. Conclusion: Future perspectives

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1.1. Introduction: situating Introduction: situating CameroonCameroon

A Central African country, with a population of A Central African country, with a population of about 20 million (roughly French 80 % English about 20 million (roughly French 80 % English 20 %??)20 %??)

A Former British, French and German colony, A Former British, French and German colony, but which has adopted French and English as but which has adopted French and English as official languages, along sides 248 indigenous official languages, along sides 248 indigenous languages, a lingua franca (Cameroon Pidgin languages, a lingua franca (Cameroon Pidgin English), and an emerging urban language- English), and an emerging urban language- Camfranglais (English + French + indigenous Camfranglais (English + French + indigenous languages)languages)

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Introduction: situating CameroonIntroduction: situating Cameroon, , con‘tcon‘t

The first university was created in 1963, and in The first university was created in 1963, and in 1992 five others were added. Recently, another 1992 five others were added. Recently, another one was created in the Far North Region of the one was created in the Far North Region of the country and in the North Westcountry and in the North West

There are a number of private universities run by There are a number of private universities run by various church groups and individualsvarious church groups and individuals

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Introduction: situating CameroonIntroduction: situating Cameroon, , con‘tcon‘t

The Anglophone sub-system of education was The Anglophone sub-system of education was designed following the British system (formally designed following the British system (formally London GCE Ordinary and Advanced Levels): London GCE Ordinary and Advanced Levels):

5 years of secondary school, 2 years of high 5 years of secondary school, 2 years of high school, 3 years of university studies (general school, 3 years of university studies (general education: GCE O/L, GCE A/L, BA/BSC Degree)education: GCE O/L, GCE A/L, BA/BSC Degree)

technical education (largely French-oriented)technical education (largely French-oriented)

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2. Defining Cameroon English2. Defining Cameroon English

Cameroon English has been defined in terms of its Cameroon English has been defined in terms of its reliance on orality and contact with Pidgin English, reliance on orality and contact with Pidgin English, in terms of the level of education of its accepted in terms of the level of education of its accepted users, in relation to its accepted regional speakers, users, in relation to its accepted regional speakers, the functions, especially formal and official, for the functions, especially formal and official, for which it is used, the institutional settings in which which it is used, the institutional settings in which it operates, and the extent of its indigenization it operates, and the extent of its indigenization within the Cameroonian ecology.within the Cameroonian ecology.

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Defining Cameroon English, con‘tDefining Cameroon English, con‘t

The following questions have confronted The following questions have confronted researchers, who have sought to define what researchers, who have sought to define what Cameroon English really is:Cameroon English really is:

Is Cameroon English a continuum from CPE to Is Cameroon English a continuum from CPE to educated English or ethnic varieties or accents educated English or ethnic varieties or accents to educated English, or a stable system with to educated English, or a stable system with identifiable features?identifiable features?

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Defining Cameroon English, con‘tDefining Cameroon English, con‘t

Does Cameroon English have a Standard? Does Cameroon English have a Standard?

Are there a set of accepted users and functions?Are there a set of accepted users and functions?

Which accents are acceptable in Cameroon Which accents are acceptable in Cameroon English?English?

Are there speakers who could be considered Are there speakers who could be considered reference points of what is correct or incorrect in reference points of what is correct or incorrect in the variety of English spoken in Cameroon? the variety of English spoken in Cameroon?

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3. Foci of Cameroon English3. Foci of Cameroon English

1950-19801950-1980

classification of indigenous languages (e.g. classification of indigenous languages (e.g. Ardener 1956)Ardener 1956)

bilingualism and multilingualism (e.g. Fonlon bilingualism and multilingualism (e.g. Fonlon 1963, Mbassi-Manga 1964)1963, Mbassi-Manga 1964)

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Foci of Cameroon English con‘tFoci of Cameroon English con‘t

the so-called ‘language problem’ in Cameroon the so-called ‘language problem’ in Cameroon (e.g. Ngijol 1964, Fonlon 1969)(e.g. Ngijol 1964, Fonlon 1969)

structure and status of Pidgin English (e.g. structure and status of Pidgin English (e.g. Schneider 1960, 1963, Kerkvliet 1957)Schneider 1960, 1963, Kerkvliet 1957)

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Foci of Cameroon English, Foci of Cameroon English, con‘tcon‘t

spotlight on the status, Standards, distinctive spotlight on the status, Standards, distinctive features, and accents of English in Cameroon features, and accents of English in Cameroon (Todd, 1982 a, b)(Todd, 1982 a, b)

Pidgin English research (Mbangwana, 1983)Pidgin English research (Mbangwana, 1983)

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Foci of Cameroon English, Foci of Cameroon English, con‘tcon‘t

1990- present: a second generation of scholars1990- present: a second generation of scholars

Cameroon English phonology (Simo Bobda, 1994, Cameroon English phonology (Simo Bobda, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2006, 2007, 2010; Tamfu, 1989; Atechi, 1997, 2000, 2006, 2007, 2010; Tamfu, 1989; Atechi, 2006)2006)

General usage problems (Simo Bobda, 2002, post-General usage problems (Simo Bobda, 2002, post-graduate dissertations)graduate dissertations)

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Foci of Cameroon English, Foci of Cameroon English, con‘tcon‘t

Camfranglais (Kouega, 2003)Camfranglais (Kouega, 2003)

Pragmatics, syntax, interferences, Pragmatics, syntax, interferences, sociolinguistics, ELT (Mbangwana, 1991, 1992, sociolinguistics, ELT (Mbangwana, 1991, 1992, 1993; Mforteh 2006, 2007; Nkemleke 2004, 1993; Mforteh 2006, 2007; Nkemleke 2004, 2006; Sala, 2003, 2010, Wolf, 2001)2006; Sala, 2003, 2010, Wolf, 2001)

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Foci of Cameroon English, Foci of Cameroon English, con‘tcon‘t

Corpus linguistics (Tiomajou 1993; Corpus linguistics (Tiomajou 1993; Nkemleke 2003, 2004 a, b, 2005, 2007, Nkemleke 2003, 2004 a, b, 2005, 2007, 2008 a, b, 2009)2008 a, b, 2009)

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4. Approaches to Cameroon 4. Approaches to Cameroon EnglishEnglish

Approach Approach Major works & Major works & exponents exponents

Core issues Core issues

English studies English studies (Anglistic) approach(Anglistic) approach

Mbassi-Manga Mbassi-Manga (1973), Todd (1982) (1973), Todd (1982) Simo Bobda and Simo Bobda and Mbangwana (1993) Mbangwana (1993)

Analyzing CamE Analyzing CamE from monolingual from monolingual English perspectiveEnglish perspective

Interference Interference approach approach

Masanga (1983), Masanga (1983), Tamfuh (1989), Tamfuh (1989), Song (1996), Sala Song (1996), Sala (1999), Fonyuy (1999), Fonyuy (2003)(2003)

Show how Show how indigenous indigenous languages /French languages /French have influence have influence acquisition and acquisition and production of production of English in formal English in formal and informal and informal situations situations

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Approaches to Cameroon Approaches to Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

Approach Approach Major works & Major works & exponents exponents

Core issues Core issues

Error analysis (SLA) Error analysis (SLA) approachapproach

Bafuh (1988), Bafuh (1988), Anchimbe (1998), Anchimbe (1998),

Simo Bobda (1994)Simo Bobda (1994)

Identify and correct Identify and correct errors in the use of errors in the use of

EnglishEnglish

Feature analysis Feature analysis approach approach

Nkemleke (2006) Nkemleke (2006) Talla Sando (2006) Talla Sando (2006) Anchimbe (2009)Anchimbe (2009)

Identify and Identify and describe distinct describe distinct features of CamE features of CamE

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Approaches to Cameroon Approaches to Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

Approach Approach Major works & Major works & exponents exponents

Core issues Core issues

Language planning Language planning approachapproach

Ayafor (2001), Ayafor (2001), Atechi (2006, Atechi (2006, 2008), Sala (2006), 2008), Sala (2006), Simo Bobda (2006) Simo Bobda (2006)

Ensure English has Ensure English has equal status with equal status with French or call for French or call for the codification of the codification of CamE CamE

Theory or analytical Theory or analytical framework design framework design approach approach

Simo Bobda (1994), Simo Bobda (1994), Sala (2003), Sala (2003), Anchimbe (2006), Anchimbe (2006), Wolf (2008) Wolf (2008)

Design new Design new theories for study of theories for study of CamE and other CamE and other New Englishes New Englishes

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Approaches to Cameroon Approaches to Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

Approach Approach Major works & Major works & exponents exponents

Core issues Core issues

Creole & Pidgin Creole & Pidgin studies studies

Mbassi-Manga Mbassi-Manga (1973)(1973)

Describe CamE as a Describe CamE as a mixed language, mixed language, simplification simplification strategies used by strategies used by speakersspeakers

Social interaction, Social interaction, pragmatics pragmatics approachapproach

Anchimbe (2008), Anchimbe (2008), Talla (2006), Talla (2006), Mforteh Mforteh (2006)Nkemleke (2006)Nkemleke (2007, 2008)(2007, 2008)

Choices in use of Choices in use of English, politeness English, politeness phenomena phenomena

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Approches to Cameroon Approches to Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

Approach Approach Major works & Major works & exponents exponents

Core issues Core issues

Sociology of Sociology of language approachlanguage approach

Sociology of Sociology of language approachlanguage approach

Language decay, Language decay, linguistic identities, linguistic identities, English as tool for English as tool for social stratification social stratification

Lexicography Lexicography approachapproach

Kouega (2007, Kouega (2007, 2008), Hagen 2008), Hagen (1908), Schneider (1908), Schneider (1960) (1960)

Writing of Writing of dictionaries and dictionaries and encyclopedias of encyclopedias of CamE CamE

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Approaches to Cameroon Approaches to Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

Approach Approach Major works & Major works & exponents exponents

Core issues Core issues

Corpus-based Corpus-based approachapproach

Nkemleke (2003, Nkemleke (2003, 2004 a, b., 2005, 2004 a, b., 2005, 2007, 2008 a, b, 2007, 2008 a, b, 20092009

Quantifying Quantifying features of features of Cameroon English, Cameroon English, and comparing with and comparing with other corpora other corpora

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5. Some features of 5. Some features of Cameroon EnglishCameroon English

Lexical peculiarities owing to contextualizationLexical peculiarities owing to contextualization((““frnchificaation“ of the lexcicon)frnchificaation“ of the lexcicon) ““ bon de caissebon de caisse” ” (pay voucher) (pay voucher)““arrété” (decree)arrété” (decree)““bordereau” (mail enclosure slip)bordereau” (mail enclosure slip)““chargé de mission” (government official)chargé de mission” (government official)““Concours” (competitive examination)Concours” (competitive examination)““Crédit foncier” (estate bank)Crédit foncier” (estate bank)““Mandat” (money order)Mandat” (money order)““Rappel” (arrears)Rappel” (arrears)

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Some features of Cameroon Some features of Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

Lexical peculiarities owing to Lexical peculiarities owing to contextualization (nativization of the lexicon)contextualization (nativization of the lexicon)

((to) eat sb. to) eat sb. (fixed expression). Definition: ‘to cause (fixed expression). Definition: ‘to cause sb. to get sick or die by means of witchcraft in sb. to get sick or die by means of witchcraft in order to take the person’s life forces, i.e., to order to take the person’s life forces, i.e., to become rich’.become rich’. Text example: Text example: The mother was The mother was suspected to have eaten her own childsuspected to have eaten her own child. . Underlying conceptualizations: witchcraft is Underlying conceptualizations: witchcraft is eating, people are resources [target domains eating, people are resources [target domains witchcraft, witchcraft, people] [source domains people] [source domains resources, resources, eating]. (Source: Wolf, 2001) eating]. (Source: Wolf, 2001)

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Some features of Cameroon Some features of Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

((to) eat money (fixed expression). Definition: ‘to to) eat money (fixed expression). Definition: ‘to extort money from sb.’, ‘to use somebody else’s extort money from sb.’, ‘to use somebody else’s money’, ‘to waste money’, ‘to embezzle money’. money’, ‘to waste money’, ‘to embezzle money’. Text example: How many million promises can Text example: How many million promises can fill a bucket when you eat money the way fill a bucket when you eat money the way locusts eat tons of green. Underlying locusts eat tons of green. Underlying conceptualizations: money is food, being conceptualizations: money is food, being corrupt is eating, being in power is being able corrupt is eating, being in power is being able to eat [target domains to eat [target domains resources, resources, corruption] [source domain corruption] [source domain eating]. (Source: eating]. (Source: Wolf 2001)Wolf 2001)

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Some features of Cameroon Some features of Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

kolakola (n.). Definition: 1. ‘fruit used as a stimulant, (n.). Definition: 1. ‘fruit used as a stimulant, often offered as gift to guests’ (Cola acuminata often offered as gift to guests’ (Cola acuminata and Cola epidonta). 2. ‘corruption, bribe; money.’ and Cola epidonta). 2. ‘corruption, bribe; money.’ Text example: He therefore tells the Chief of Text example: He therefore tells the Chief of Manawhoneybee village that his... name can only Manawhoneybee village that his... name can only go on the radio if [he] brought something; and of go on the radio if [he] brought something; and of course, the chief gives him money (kola). course, the chief gives him money (kola). Underlying conceptualizations: money is food, a Underlying conceptualizations: money is food, a bribe is a gift, being in power is being able to eat bribe is a gift, being in power is being able to eat [target domains [target domains resources, resources, corruption] corruption] [source domain [source domain eating, eating, gift giving]. (Source: gift giving]. (Source: Wolf 2001) Wolf 2001)

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Some features of Cameroon Some features of Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

thick madame (fixed expression). Definition: thick madame (fixed expression). Definition: ‘wealthy, influential woman’. Text example: ... ‘wealthy, influential woman’. Text example: ... simply trying to go to where… a “thick simply trying to go to where… a “thick madame” with strong connections can send madame” with strong connections can send them [criminals] back to “work” just with a them [criminals] back to “work” just with a couple of phone calls? Underlying couple of phone calls? Underlying conceptualization: being important is being big, conceptualization: being important is being big, being big is being important,being big is being important,[1] being rich is being rich is being big, enrichment is eating [target domains being big, enrichment is eating [target domains resources, material wealth, power] [source resources, material wealth, power] [source domain domain physical size]. (Source: Wolf, 2001) physical size]. (Source: Wolf, 2001)

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Some features of Cameroon Some features of Cameroon English, con‘tEnglish, con‘t

makalapati (makala pati)makalapati (makala pati). . (n.). Source (n.). Source

language: Duala, Basaa (language: Duala, Basaa (makalamakala), Ewondo ), Ewondo ((mekalimekali). ). Definition: 1. ‘a sort of doughnut’ 2. ‘a Definition: 1. ‘a sort of doughnut’ 2. ‘a bribe’. Text example: bribe’. Text example: For sure, we shall still For sure, we shall still fight to end the makalapatifight to end the makalapati. Underlying . Underlying conceptualization: a bribe is food, being in conceptualization: a bribe is food, being in power is being able to eat [target domains power is being able to eat [target domains resources, resources, corruption]. (Source: Wolf, 2001) corruption]. (Source: Wolf, 2001)

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Some features of Cameroon Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t (Modals)English, con‘t (Modals)

ModalModal CCECCE LOBLOB

willwill 3,2503,250 2,8042,804

wouldwould 1,8541,854 3,0023,002

maymay 1,3661,366 1,3231,323

mightmight 202202 775775

cancan 2,0352,035 2,1412,141

couldcould 918918 1,7441,744

shallshall 413413 352352

shouldshould 1,5371,537 1,2851,285

mustmust 1,3681,368 1,1311,131

TotalTotal 12,94312,943 14,55714,557

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Some features of Cameroon English, Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t (Central modals: CCE vs LOB con‘t (Central modals: CCE vs LOB corpus)corpus)

ModalModal CCE %CCE % LOB %LOB %

willwill 25.125.1 19.319.3

wouldwould 14.314.3 20.620.6

maymay 10.610.6 9.19.1

mightmight 1.61.6 5.35.3

cancan 15.715.7 14.714.7

couldcould 7.07.0 12.012.0

shallshall 3.23.2 2.42.4

shouldshould 11.911.9 *8.8*8.8

mustmust 10.610.6 7.87.8

TotalTotal 100.0100.0 100.0100.0

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Some features of Cameroon English, Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t (Primary vs. tentative forms)con‘t (Primary vs. tentative forms)

FormsForms ModalsModals CCECCE LOBLOB

PrimaryPrimarywillwill

cancan

maymay

shallshall

7,0647,064 6,6206,620

TentativeTentativewouldwould

couldcould

mightmight

shouldshould

4,5114,511 6,8066,806

Freq. Freq. differencedifference

„ „ 2,553 2,553 >P>P 186 186 >T>T

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Some features of Cameroon English, Some features of Cameroon English, con’t (Sementic functions of central con’t (Sementic functions of central modals)modals)

0102030405060708090

100

Epis

tem

ic

Root

Epis

tem

ic

Root

Subju

nctive

Abili

ty

Possib

ility

Perm

issio

n

Epis

tem

ic

Root

Epis

tem

ic

Root

Epis

tem

ic

Root

Epis

tem

ic

Root

Epis

tem

ic

Root

Hypoth

etical

must should can could may might will shall would

Modal/basic functions

CCE % LOB %

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Some features of Cameroon Some features of Cameroon English, con’t (Adjectival English, con’t (Adjectival expressions of modality)expressions of modality)

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

Adjectives

Freq. in 10,000 words (CCE) Freq. in 10,000 words (LOB)

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Some features of Cameroon Some features of Cameroon English, con’t (Modal lexical English, con’t (Modal lexical verbs expression of verbs expression of modality)modality)

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5

Modal lexical expressions

Freq. in 10,000 words (CCE) Freq. in 10,000 words (LOB)

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6. Conclusion: Corpus linguistics, 6. Conclusion: Corpus linguistics, the future ??the future ??

• The Corpus of Cameroon English The Corpus of Cameroon English (1992-94)(1992-94)

• ICE-CAM on-going (since 2008… ICE-CAM on-going (since 2008…

Written (400,000 words) Written (400,000 words)

Spoken component (100,000 words)Spoken component (100,000 words)

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