Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship

Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurshipPotential programs to improve livelihoods for vulnerable workers

Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurshipPotential programs to improve livelihoods for vulnerable workers

Yoonyoung Cho, David Robalino, and Samantha Watson

© 2014 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank

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Cover photo: World BankCover design/layout and editing: Nita Congress

This note was prepared to synthesize a series of knowledge products developed under the self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship project (P127002). Useful inputs and suggestions were provided throughout the project by Xavier Cirera, Leonardo Iacovone, and Esperanza Lasagabaster. The authors also thank Graham Dixie, Sukanya Garg, Hyewon Kang, David Margolis, and Marta Malgorzata Milkowska for their contributions. The World Bank Education Team, led by Alexandria Valerio, provided invaluable input through the provision of data from their Entrepreneurship Education and Training database which accounts for half of the inventoried programs in this paper. Helpful comments were received from Mary Hallward-Driemeier, Cem Mete, Jamele Rigolino, and Dena Ringold in their role as peer reviewers. Rita Almeida, Louise Fox, Mattias Lundberg, Iftikhar Malik, Lucian Pop, Patrick Premand, Maria Laura Sanchez Puerta, and conference participants at the 9th IZA/World Bank Conference on Employment and Development in Lima, Peru, provided useful inputs. For more information, contact Yoonyoung Cho ([email protected]), Task Team Leader of this activity.

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Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship

1

Employment status (objective)

∎ Wage workers (wage employment)

∎ Nonwage workers (self-employed)

– Agricultural workers

– Nonpaid family workers

– Own-account workers

– Employers

Entrepreneurs (interchangeable with self-

employed, but often a subjective designation and

not homogeneous)

∎ Transformational: Refers to high-growth, innova-

tive, and expansive entrepreneurs who are likely to

have entrepreneurial traits

∎ Vocational: Refers to those who choose entre-

preneurial activities and business as a vocation,

but who likely lack the desire or ability to grow a

business

∎ Subsistence: Refers to those who are self-em-

ployed out of necessity and who often lack skills

and entrepreneurial traits

Box 1. Terminology usedWorldwide, around 55 percent of work-ers are self-employed, and about three-quarters of these are likely to be subsistence entrepreneurs. These

self-employed workers include farmers and own-ac-count workers, many of whom work in small house-hold enterprises without pay. A large proportion of these workers live in poor or vulnerable households. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, close to 80 percent of the self-employed are poor.1 While numerous countries have adopted programs that aim to promote self-em-ployment and small-scale entrepreneurship (SSE), the design of such programs seems ill suited to respond to the needs of those who engage in entrepreneurial activities not by choice, but by necessity.

This note discusses the potential public policy role of programs aimed at improving the livelihoods of subsis-tence entrepreneurs (box 1). It begins by looking at the characteristics of self-employed workers, the different types of entrepreneurs, and the constraints they face. It then analyzes the potential role of public policy in improving the earning opportunities of subsistence entrepreneurs, the types of programs that could be used, and general issues to be considered when designing and implementing pilot interventions. The note has four main messages:

∎ In the context of a global strategy to increase the incomes of the poorest workers, it is important to identify interventions to support subsistence entre-preneurs. The constraints they face and the type of support they need differ from those of vocational or transformational entrepreneurs.

∎ The evidence of what works is limited. A few pro-grams have been successful, but they tend to be small, and there is limited knowledge available about design and implementation in different con-texts and with different types of beneficiaries.

1 The poverty line is defined as $2 per day for per capita household consumption.

∎ Given the market failures faced by subsistence entrepreneurs interventions that complement safety net programs could be considered to increase earnings and improve the livelihoods of subsistence entrepreneurs.

∎ Going forward, it is critical to adopt a more sys-tematic approach to designing, implementing, and evaluating new programs. Special attention should be paid to eligibility, targeting, and profiling mech-anisms; selection of businesses to be supported; adaptation of core interventions (training, access to finance, advisory and mentoring services, and networking) to beneficiary needs; whether and how programs are integrated into subsectors and/or value chains; and delivery mechanisms for different services.


2

1 Understanding self-employment and the role of public policy

Who are the self-employed?

Most workers in middle- and, particularly, low-income countries are self-employed: either farmers or own-ac-count workers in nonfarm activities. The share of workers in agriculture drops as a country's income per capita increases. Even in the average middle-income country, however, around half of workers are self-em-ployed, and three-quarters of the non-agriculture jobs are own-account work (figure 1a). In Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, for instance, where the large majority is self-employed, about 20 percent of the employed are own-account or unpaid workers outside agriculture, and more than half are agricultural workers (figure 1b).

Individual characteristics such as education, age, and gender are important determinants of employ-ment status including self-employment. On average, own-account workers and agricultural workers have low educational outcomes, while employers and wage

workers tend to be better educated. Self-employment also tends to follow a strong life-cycle pattern and to become more common with age (figure 2). How-ever, there is large heterogeneity across countries. For instance, self-employment is quite common, even among youth, in countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, par-ticularly in agriculture. Gender effects also tend to be country specific. In Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, women are more likely to be self-employed than men. More women than men work in wage employment in Europe and Central Asia and in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Close to 70 percent of the self-employed worldwide live in poor households; these are subsistence entre-preneurs or severely constrained vocational entrepre-neurs. Given that households often have more than one self-employed individual, the high prevalence of poverty attests to the low level of productivity and earnings of these businesses and activities, particularly in agriculture (figure 3). Clearly, there are important differences across regions which reflect the income level of the countries. In Sub-Saharan Africa, 80 per-cent of the self-employed live in poor households,

Source: Based on data from Gindling and Newhouse 2014.

Figure 1. Proportion of workers who are self-employed

0 20 40 60 80 100

East Asiaand Pacific

Europe andCentral Asia

Latin Americaand the Caribbean

Middle East andNorth Africa

South Asia

Sub-SaharanAfrica

Agriculture Non-agriculture

b. By regiona. By per capita GDP

0

20

40

60

80

100Percent

0.3 0.5 1.0 2.5 5.0 10.0 25.0 50.0Per capita GDP (thousand $)

Non−agricultural unpaidNon−agricultural own-account

Non−agricultural employer

Non−agricultural wage and salaried

All agricultural workers


3

(figure 4). Mobility is generally greater for men than women. Transition rates are higher among the non-ag-riculture self-employed. Nonetheless, mobility is considerably lower when only focusing on movements between jobs, excluding transitions in and out of the labor market and unemployment. Mobility of own-ac-count workers, in particular, is in large part explained by their exiting the labor market or becoming unem-ployed as opposed to transitioning into other employ-ment opportunities. This may suggest the precarious-ness of own-account activities.

Own-account workers are a heterogeneous group. Profiling analysis suggests that among less successful entrepreneurs (own-account workers), there are some that have the characteristics of the more successful (employers).2 For instance, a non-negligible proportion of own-account workers have seemingly similar char-acteristics to employers (table 1). Similarly, employers

2 The propensity for a worker to be an employer or own-ac-count worker is estimated using observable characteristics such as age, education, or sector of employment; this serves a basis for similarity/difference in characteristics.

Figure 2. Non-agriculture self-employment as a percentage of total working-age population, by gender and age

Figure 3. Poverty among the self-employed

Source: Gindling and Newhouse 2014.

Source: Based on data from Gindling and Newhouse 2014.

compared to only about 20 percent in either Europe and Central Asia or Latin America and the Caribbean.

Employment status is not static: workers move in and out of the labor market and transition between jobs

0 20 40 60 80 100

South Asia

All

Latin Americaand the Caribbean

Sub-SaharanAfrica

Europe andCentral Asia

East Asiaand Pacific

Middle East andNorth Africa

Percent

Agriculture Non-agriculture

a. Female b. Male

Percent Percent

20 40 60Age

0

Own-account

Employer

Nonpaid employee

8

6

4

2

10

20 6040Age

0

15

5EmployerNonpaid employee

Own-account

10

20


4

have many observable attributes in common with own-account workers. In general, the literature sug-gests that different types of entrepreneurs—for example, transformational, vocational, and subsistence entrepreneurs—coexist.3

3 For instance, Grimm, Knorringa, and Lay (2012) defined 10 percent of business owners as “top performers,” based on their accumulated capital and its profitability. The likelihood of being a top performer increases with char-acteristics such as age, education, and “entrepreneurial spirit.” The researchers then obtained the propensity to be successful and find those who have similar success pro-pensity among unsuccessful ones (so-called “constrained gazelles”). Thus, high performers, constrained gazelles, and entrepreneurs with low potential coexist in the market.

What are the constraints facing the self-employed and small-scale entrepreneurs?

Potential constraints and factors that may affect pro-ductivity and earnings can be classified in two groups: individual and environmental (table 2). Individual constraints include lack of entrepreneurial aptitude and traits, skills, and social capital. Environmental constraints include limited access to financial ser-vices and products, an adverse business environment, underdeveloped markets for inputs and outputs, and other impeding cultural factors. Even if the market and regulatory failures that create environmental constraints could be removed, the lack of aptitude, skills, and cognitive abilities to understand, discover, and develop business opportunities traps subsistence

Gender Argentina Brazil Chile Indonesia Mexico Pakistan Philippines South Africa Tanzania Uganda

Men 0.623 0.568 0.185 0.573 0.735 0.309 0.058 0.102 0.287 0.134

Women 0.533 0.503 0.210 0.829 0.534 0.000 0.007 0.195 0.164 0.085

Source: Cho, Robalino, and Romero 2014.

Table 1. Share of own-account workers with characteristics similar to employers in 10 countries

Figure 4. Proportions of individuals who change employment status

Source: Based on data from Cho, Robalino, and Romero 2014.

Note: Panel spans specified in parentheses.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60 Male

Mexico(1)

Argentina(1)

Chile(1)

Brazil(1)

Russia(1)

Moldova(1)

Tanzania(2)

Uganda(4)

S. Africa(2)

Indonesia(7)

Philippines(1)

Pakistan(1)

Percent

Female


5

entrepreneurs in a low-level productivity equilibrium. Therefore, the discussion below is limited to individual constraints, which tend to be the focus of SSE pro-grams. (See appendix for a full list of assessment tools by type of constraint.)

AptitudeSeveral interlinked attributes, such as personality, aspiration, and noncognitive skills, fall in the category of entrepreneurial aptitude or traits. A large volume of literature argues that entrepreneurial aptitude is an important determinant of business success. Some personality traits that are associated with being suc-cessful in business include: innovative, imaginative, creative, flexible, adaptable, reliable, responsible, self-reliant, and calculated risk-taking (Develi 2011). The Big 5 Personality Test and the Pearlin and Schooler scale (the locus of control or self-efficacy) are exam-ples of tools commonly used to assess personality or noncognitive skills. Aspiration, on the other hand, is related to entrepreneurs’ motivation to create new products, innovate, achieve, and grow a business. According to the Skills Towards Employability and Productivity (STEP) skills measurement surveys, the top 25 percent of self-employed earners are differ-entiated from other self-employed counterparts in terms of their socio-emotional skills: they are more intuitive in their decision making and tend to take

risks.4 Self-employed workers who are entrepreneurs by necessity and for subsistence are often deemed to lack entrepreneurial aptitude. There is still a limited understanding of how these traits are formed and affect behaviors. However, an assessment of entre-preneurial traits can potentially inform the targeting or design of SSE programs.

SkillsThe ability of individuals to develop a business activity, solve problems, make financial decisions, manage risks, or find clients depends on their skills. Basic numeracy and literacy skills seem to be a precondition to setting up and operating a business, but these skills are often lacking due to low levels of education, particularly among subsistence entrepreneurs. Low levels of cog-nitive skills affect the capacity of individuals to inter-pret and process information about events that can affect their business and require strategic actions. Low cognitive skills also limit the capacity to choose viable economic activities in the first place and to learn from failure or success (Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua 2006). In Ghana, for instance, about 80 percent of workers with lower secondary education self-report that they are

4 See Pierre et al. (2014) and Valerio et al. (2014) for the sum-mary methodology and findings from the STEP skills mea-surement surveys.

Individual constraints Environmental constraints

∎ Aptitude – Personality (noncognitive skills) – Aspiration and preferences

∎ Skills – Basic skills – Technical skills – Business skills – Financial capability – Noncognitive skills (personality)

∎ Social capital – Networks, associations

∎ Financial services – Availability of banking service – Access to credits/loan – Financial management tools (e.g., debit/credit card)

∎ Local business environment – Regulatory and legal environment – Government capacity (corruption) – Infrastructure

∎ Access to markets

∎ Cultural factors – Attitudes and norms – Social class/status/gender

Table 2. Individual and environmental constraints to entrepreneurship


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literate, but only 50 percent pass the core reading test because they lack a sufficient level of literacy (Pierre et al. 2014; Valerio et al. 2014).

Technical skills are critical in many jobs—such as a tailor’s skills to make and repair clothes, or a farmer’s skills to operate machinery. Many workers acquire such skills through informal arrangements, learning from family or friends or by working at local workshops. Building these skills and maintaining up-to-date tech-niques can be a challenge for workers. In the region of San Gregorio, Ecuador, for instance, many farmers are engaged in the cultivation of balsa wood. Reported mortality rates of the young trees, however, are over 50 percent because workers are using outdated plant-ing techniques and do not implement schemes to address the most common predators. Such examples of inadequate skills are commonplace in developing countries, particularly in remote areas.

Skills are also lacking with respect to basic principles of business and finance. Business skills enable individ-uals to manage sales and marketing, human resources, customer relations, and accounts. A few recent stud-ies (e.g., Bloom and Van Reenen 2010; Bowen and De Clercq 2008) have emphasized business skills and managerial capital as a key factor in successful entre-preneurship. A survey in Uganda, for instance, shows that managerial deficiencies such as incorrect pricing, poor recordkeeping, inadequate inventory control, and faulty product concept are among the main causes of small business failure (Tushabomwe-Kazooba 2006). Moreover, a lack of financial capability substantially limits the ability to operate a business, particularly over a longer term (Holzman, Mulaj, and Perotti 2013). Along with low education and limited access to finan-cial products, a lack of financial skills often exposes entrepreneurs to mismanagement of cash flows, overindebtedness, and scams and fraud.

Social capitalSocial capital refers to the institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a

society's social interactions. When it comes to busi-ness, social capital is the primary resource entrepre-neurs may rely upon to find new business opportu-nities, manage resources, and secure legitimacy from external stakeholders (Stam, Arzlanian, and Elfring 2013). In particular, the role of social capital in facili-tating access to credit among the poor in developing countries has been widely recognized.5 Vulnerable workers, who are often unable to build or participate in networks—in part due to a lack of noncognitive skills or external constraints such as social norms—tend to lack social capital and engage in business activities in isolation. This limits entrepreneurs’ ability to receive information, learn about new technology, or take advantage of economies of scale. India’s Self-Em-ployed Women’s Association is a good example of how social capital can assist self-employed women in con-necting to information, markets, and financing.

What could be the role of public policy for subsistence entrepreneurs?

Whether governments should intervene to improve the earnings and livelihoods of subsistence entrepre-neurs through entrepreneurship programs is, in the end, a question about the social benefits and costs of the intervention. One strand of research suggests that programs to promote entrepreneurship should target individuals with the highest growth potential, with sufficient cognitive skills and entrepreneurial aptitude. This implies that the support subsistence entrepre-neurs could receive would be limited to antipoverty transfers and probably interventions to connect them to wage employment. When wage employment is lacking, however, safety nets alone will not lead to a sustained increase in earnings and living standards. At the same time, it might be possible—and examples do exist—to have SSE programs that generate social ben-efits greater than social costs. These benefits would

5 See van Bastelaer (2000) for a review.


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include increasing incomes and consumption levels above what could be achieved through safety nets (C in figure 5), and reducing safety net expenditures and their associated opportunity cost (B in figure 5). In addition, there can be positive externalities resulting from potentially higher investments in human capital.

One set of programs would aim to improve the earn-ings generated by current activities, without attempt-ing to change the nature of the work or individual traits. This outcome would be possible by improving pricing mechanisms, product quality, and produc-tion technologies to reduce costs and/or increase output and/or quality; or by expanding markets. Many subsistence farmers, for instance, could be better off simply by having access to better seeds, better products to protect their crops, and appropriate tech-nology—even if their production is only for house-hold consumption and does not generate external employment. Thus, interventions with the potential to increase the earnings of the self-employed would be possible, without expecting subsistence entrepreneurs to become vocational or transformational entrepre-neurs. Such interventions include efforts to improve knowledge and upgrade technology, facilitate better access to equipment and inputs, and offer better opportunities to price and sell products. Some recent

or ongoing experiments (e.g., Conley and Udry 2010; Giné and Yang 2009) are particularly concerned with finding good mechanisms to upgrade skills and facili-tate the adoption of new technology.

More complex interventions would require changes in the organization of a given business, aiming to facilitate entrepreneurs to engage in more transformative activ-ities and/or to be integrated into value chains. Farmers, or other self-employed, for example, could be involved in a processing business of their basic produce: trees into wood planks, fruits into frozen pulp or conserves, and animals into meat. By bringing several small farmers or crafts people into associations or cooperatives and increasing production volumes, the resulting groups could take advantage of economies of scale and the local, regional, or national value chains often found in specific sectors such as food products, tourism, and textiles. For this type of intervention, it is reasonable to envisage that third parties with the necessary tech-nical expertise—either for-profit or nonprofit enti-ties—could develop the business plans and manage the implementation, including mobilizing the necessary resources and expertise. Many of these opportunities might not be exploited because of low expected pri-vate rates of return on investments with high associ-ated risk, lack of local knowledge, coordination costs, or regulatory failures. The role of the public sector would be to facilitate the emergence of business that integrates subsistence entrepreneurs into more lucra-tive and transformative activities, including by ensuring access to skills, credit/grants, and basic infrastructure.

2 What programs exist to promote self-employment and

small-scale entrepreneurship?

This section presents an overview of an inventory of 106 SSE programs, including both organizational approaches and specific entrepreneurship projects that aim to improve the earnings opportunities for self-employed workers, (see figure 6 for regional

Figure 5. Conceptualizing the social cost and benefit of SSE programs

Earnings

Age

Income withoutSSE program

Income with SSE program

Cost of safety net

AA BB

CC

Social cost of not having SSE program = A + B + C Cost of efficient SSE program < B + C


8

distribution of the programs).6 The results show the landscape of current programs, revealing large variations in terms of design and implementation arrangements. Unfortunately many existing programs are unlikely to be suited to the needs of subsistence entrepreneurs.

6 The review was based on an entrepreneurship inventory that documents characteristics of SSE programs, and sup-plementary interviews with practitioners and experts. An emphasis was placed on programs that target the self-em-ployed and businesses with 10 employees or fewer. Some programs discussed here are organizational approaches such as curricula or tools for entrepreneurial training that are adaptable to various projects (e.g., the International Labour Organization’s Know About Business initiative). Others are projects with heterogeneous implementation details. The inventory was drawn from three sources: (1) the Entrepreneurship Education and Training (EET) data-base created by the World Bank Team (see Valerio, Parton, and Robb 2014a and 2014b for more information on the database), (2) the Youth Employment Network (YEN) data-base; and (3) relevant World Bank projects with “entrepre-neurship” and “self-employment” as keywords in the main stated objectives. In selecting programs for the inventory, the focus was on programs that directly address con-straints of individual beneficiaries with respect to business activities as opposed to indirect approaches—such as the construction of business infrastructure, capacity building of financial institutions, or the facilitation of financial inclusion without the promotion of business activities.

Targeting, eligibility, and selection

Definition, identification, and selection of beneficia-ries are often the greatest challenge in program design. The general trend, in both organizational approaches and projects, is toward open beneficiary groups with demand-driven services, targeting mainly existing entrepreneurs; around 79 percent of organizational approaches and 58 percent of projects target this group. Programs often target a broad group by includ-ing micro, small, and medium-size enterprises with more established entrepreneurs covered—suggesting that subsistence entrepreneurs are largely excluded from public intervention.

Targeting based on the characteristics of poten-tial beneficiaries (such as age, education, gender, or income level) is not prominent among the SSE pro-grams in the inventory. For instance, 32 percent of the projects focus solely on women, while the rest include both genders. Similarly, programs that are exclusive to youth are not numerous; about a quarter of projects target this group. Although projects often recognize the greater needs among women and youth and utilize gender- or age-specific quotas or mobilization meth-ods (e.g., women’s associations, youth groups, commu-nity nomination, or outreach campaigns), SSE programs tend not to use demographic targeting. Surprisingly, education or skills levels also are not often part of targeting criteria, and only 25 percent use education levels in eligibility. Some assessment of skills—whether using education as a proxy or directly testing benefi-ciaries—is likely to help customize the design of SSE programs to participant needs. Further, few programs explicitly target the poor or beneficiaries of safety nets. This finding suggests that SSE programs may cur-rently overlook the most vulnerable group of workers who could benefit from such programs the most.

It is not clear what methods programs use to select beneficiaries within the defined target group; in fact, only 20 projects in the inventory report their selec-tion methods. Among these programs, business plan

Figure 6. Regional distribution of SSE programs reviewed

05

1015

202530354045Percent

16%

South Asia

10%

Middle East & North Africa

7%

Europe &

Central Asia

7%

East Asia & Pacific

22%

Latin America

& the Caribbean

41%

Sub-SaharanAfrica

Source: Based on SSE program inventory.


9

vast majority of organizational approaches and nearly three-quarters of projects provide some combination of multiple services. The number of services com-bined in a program varies across regions (figure 8). For instance, about 75 percent of programs in the Latin America and the Caribbean region provide two ser-vices or less, compared to the Sub-Saharan Africa and

review/competition is most frequently used, followed by written applications and community nomination (figure 7). Several programs report that business plan review/competition, written application, or interview selection methods often serve as a tool to assess and identify constraints in addition to screening applicants when targeting entrepreneurs with limited skills and education. Recently, a handful of programs have begun using psychometric tests that discern some entrepre-neurial traits as part of their selection process. The World Bank’s Women Entrepreneurship Development Project in Ethiopia, for instance, in collaboration with Harvard’s Entrepreneurial Finance Lab Research Ini-tiative, is testing a psychometric measure of assessing credit for selecting participants for access to finance. If proven effective, such tests will allow commercial banks to assess the credit worthiness of lower-income individuals who lack collateral and credit.

Technical components

Program services were classified into four technical components: training, access to finance, advisory and mentoring services, and networking. The majority of programs provide combinations of these services: the

Figure 7. Selection of beneficiaries

25%

40%

15%

75%

10% 15%

30%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Interview Writtenapplication

Psychometrictests

Business plan review/businessidea competition

Caseworker Voluntary Communitynomination

Percent


Figure 8. Number of services provided by region

Percent

South Asia

Latin America

& the Caribbean

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Sub-Saharan Africa

Other regions

4 services

3 services

2 services

1 service



10

South Asia regions where over 40 percent of programs provide three to four services. This finding probably reflects the fact that individuals in lower-income countries are more likely to be affected by multiple constraints. Similarly, when looking at implementation arrangements, projects implemented jointly by the public and private sectors are more comprehensive than those delivered solely by either private or public service providers.

Training is by far the most commonly offered service (figure 9). Conversely, direct provision of access to finance is the least prevalent service offered, with only 30 percent of the projects reviewed providing it. Instead, many programs (67 percent of organizational approaches and 60 percent of projects) report that they link beneficiaries to outside financial services. Projects that involve the private sector for service delivery are more likely to provide access to financial services than purely publicly implemented projects: 28 percent of public projects, 32 percent of private projects, and 46 percent of combined public-pri-vate projects provided direct access to finance. The low utilization of access to finance in the programs reviewed may reflect the fact that the main objective of financing projects such as microcredit programs

is often consumption smoothing without promoting entrepreneurial activities. Over half of the programs reviewed provided the two remaining services—advi-sory services and mentoring and networking.

TrainingTraining is a key method for building entrepreneur-ial capacity. About two-thirds of the projects in the inventory use traditional classroom-based training; workplace training, including apprenticeships and on-the-job training, is used in 26 percent of the proj-ects. There is great variety across programs in terms of training intensity and duration. In fact, some programs literally customize trainings to each group, without having a standard approach even within the program. Among the many topics covered in SSE programs, business-related training predominates, including business planning, general business and marketing skills, and financial literacy and capability (figure 10a). Foundational skills training such as numeracy/literacy or vocational training is less prevalent. In Latin America and the Caribbean, vocational training is particularly low, with only 6 percent of programs providing such content. South Asia, on the other hand, is the most likely to provide vocational content, with half of the programs that include training addressing vocational content.

Financial servicesAs mentioned above, only 30 percent of the projects reviewed have a component that directly provides access to finance, while 60 percent link beneficiaries to outside financial services. Figure 10b shows the specific types of direct financial products programs provide. Cash grants, scholarships, and prizes are the most common form of financial support, followed by micro-finance. Sixty-three percent of the programs providing access to finance in Sub-Saharan Africa, 100 percent of those in Latin America and the Caribbean, 67 percent of those in South Asia, and 86 percent of those in the other regions provide grants, scholarships, and prizes. Meanwhile, savings and loans group, as well as micro-finance tend to be concentrated in Asia.

Figure 9. Types of services provided

99%

30%

59% 52%

0

20

40

60

80

100

Training Access to finance

Advisory services &mentoring

Networking

Percent



11

Matching grants and loans that require the benefi-ciary to provide materials, investment, or cash up to a certain percentage of the loan/grant amount appear to be common: 40 percent of all programs providing access to finance require matching. The model is based on the belief that matching funds—even if only a small amount—helps ensure that the beneficiary is equally invested in the business. Match requirements

on financial services are more prevalent in Latin Amer-ica and the Caribbean and in South Asia (67 percent and 50 percent, respectively) than in the other regions (under 40 percent).

Different models for matching grants exist. The Eco-nomic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women project in Liberia (AGI Liberia) and the Voca-tional Training for Youths with Disabilities in West-ern Area and Kono Districts project of Sierra Leone provide grants to encourage participants to save; the programs match any savings the participants accrue during their participation with a seed grant to start their business. Other programs use matching grants to match any outside capital an entrepreneur can access. The Entrepreneurship Program for Innovation in the

Caribbean (EPIC) is an example of this model. Still other programs require entrepreneurs to invest what they already have into the business as a show of com-mitment. The Congo—Support to Economic Diversi-fication Project uses this model and requires partici-pants to put up some 10–20 percent of the financing.

Advisory services and networkingAdvisory services include technical assistance and mentoring, while network interventions help provide entrepreneurs with linkages to peers and potential cli-ents. Technical assistance is defined as advice based on particular business issues or on the circumstances of the entrepreneur. Mentoring implies a closer relation-ship and can include counseling on more personal and nontechnical issues. In some cases, technical assistance and mentoring are provided together.

With respect to networking, horizontal networking is the most common type of support. Group business organizations, forums, and study tours to establish networks are frequently used tools. The National Rural Livelihoods Project in India provides a good example of horizontal linkages that enable the many to achieve

Figure 10. Training topics and financial service products offered

0 20 40 60 80

General business skills

Vocational knowledge

Marketing

Strategic planning/business plan

Financial literacy, finance& accounting

Management/operations

Life-skills/soft skills

Literacy/numeracy

ICT & computer literacy

0 20 40 60

Loan guarantees

Loans, credits (financial),equity investments

Lines of credit

In-kind credits

Grants, scholarships, prizesVenture capital

Savings and loan groups

Microfinance

Match required

8010 30 50 70 10 30 50 70Percent Percent

b. Financial service productsa. Training topics



12

more than any individual could. Specifically, the proj-ect encourages the formation of savings groups that seek to overcome banks’ reluctance to work with small entrepreneurial activities by combining assets; members submit a joint financing request and repay-ment plan to banks. Through these linkages, more rural businesses are able to access finance. Not surprisingly, a higher percentage of programs targeting potential entrepreneurs provide networking services (62 per-cent) than those targeting existing entrepreneurs (48 percent).

Institutional arrangements

Implementation arrangements vary across the pro-grams reviewed. The public sector remains the largest funder for these programs (figure 11a), although some private sector funding complements and supports sev-eral initiatives. More heterogeneity exists with regard to implementing agency (figure 11b). Private sector enti-ties such as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) or contracted service providers are the main implement-ers in over a third of the projects reviewed. An addi-tional 12 percent are implemented by a combination of

private and public sector providers. Quite a high pro-portion of projects (40 percent) report direct service delivery by public agencies; this can be a limitation in low-income settings where resources and institutional capacity are lacking. As noted earlier, some variation exists in how programs are structured depending on the implementation arrangements.

Very few programs provide relevant information on program costs. The available information (based on 10 projects in developing countries in the inventory) suggests that there is considerable heterogeneity across programs. (For more information on program costs, see Valerio, Parton, and Robb 2014a, 2014b). For instance, known cost per beneficiary ranges from $95 (Women’s Enterprise Management Training Outreach Program in India) to $1,200 (AGI Liberia’s business development track). This range reflects many factors, including variety of services provided, program com-prehensiveness, different methods of calculating cost per beneficiary, and variations in geographic pricing. With no standard method for calculating unit costs, few programs providing information on costs, and dif-ficulty in measuring social costs and benefits, little is known about the cost-effectiveness of each program.

Figure 11. Implementation arrangements

Not specified

Public Private

Combination Public

Private

Combination

Not specified

b. Implementing agencya. Funding type



13

Trends in evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation systems are generally weak. Currently, only 7 of the organizational approaches and 36 of the projects reviewed had conducted rigorous evaluations. Impact evaluations are more prominent in the Latin America and the Caribbean region, with 69 percent of the region’s programs having rigorous evaluations, in comparison with 37 percent and 33 per-cent in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, respec-tively. For the remaining three regions, 41 percent of programs have rigorous evaluations. Globally, the rigor of evaluations seems to vary with implementing agency. Half of the programs implemented solely by the private sector have rigorous evaluations, compared to 41 percent of publicly implemented programs and 38 percent of those implemented jointly by the public and private sectors.

Related to the weak monitoring and evaluation system, many programs tend to focus on output indicators (e.g., number of beneficiaries trained, number of toolkits dis-persed) rather than outcome indicators. Several do track outcome indicators (figure 12), including: labor market activities (e.g., employment), income (e.g., profits/earnings), business knowledge and practice (e.g., book-keeping), business performance (e.g., sales), financial behavior (e.g., loan take-up), attitudes (e.g., confidence), and others (e.g., indicators capturing the result of reg-ulation reform or public infrastructure investments). Not surprisingly, the most frequently tracked outcomes of interest include business performance such as sales, number of paid employees, or inventory amounts.

3 What do we know about impacts?

There is limited evidence regarding the impacts of entrepreneurship programs, and the results are mixed. Of the programs reviewed that have been evaluated, only around 30 percent have had positive results, but

the size of these impacts is usually small. What seems clear is that stand-alone interventions—especially access to credit on its own—are less likely to make a difference. This finding suggests that targeted bene-ficiaries face multiple constraints, and effective pro-grams may need to integrate several services.

The likelihood of having positive impacts and the size of impacts vary widely by outcomes of interest (figure 13). Current evaluations suggest that business knowledge and practice, such as recordkeeping, reg-istration, and separation of individual and business accounts, are relatively easy to change compared to other outcomes. Thus, interventions such as business training work relatively well for existing entrepreneurs. However, improved business knowledge and practice do not necessarily translate into business growth or increased profits. This finding may be related to the timing of the post-intervention survey, since the period between program completion and the survey is typically short, and the impacts for final outcomes may not be fully materialized.

Regardless, business training programs are quite het-erogeneous both in terms of design and impact. The

Figure 12. Outcome indicators tracked

10 30 50 70

Labor market activities

Labor market income

Business knowledgeand practice

Business performance

Financial behavior

Attitudes

Other

Percent0 20 40 60



14

target group for business training ranges from the rural self-employed to urban small and medium enterprises, and their content, duration, intensity, and survey timing are equally diverse (McKenzie and Woodruff 2012). Although business training improves the survival of existing enterprises and facilitates new business start-up, more evidence is needed regarding best prac-tices in pedagogical approaches and implementation

arrangements. For instance, a study suggests that busi-ness training based on “rule of thumb” rather than on sophisticated and difficult lessons may be more effec-tive, specifically for the most vulnerable subsistence self-employed (Drexler, Fischer, and Schoar 2011). Also, follow-up services beyond in-class business training to provide technical assistance tailored to individual needs can further improve impacts.

Source: Cho and Honorati 2014.

Figure 13. Impacts of SSE programs by outcomes of interest

−4

0

4

8

12t−value

−.6 −.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size

a. Labor activities

−4

0

4

8

12t−value

−.6 −.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size

b. Labor income

−4

0

4

8

12t−value

−.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size

c. Business practice

−4

0

4

8

12

−.6 −.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size

d. Business performance

−4

0

4

8

12

−.6 −.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size

Training Financing Combined

e. Financial behavior

−4

0

4

8

12

−.6 −.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size

f. Attitudes

t−value

t−value t−value


15

Compared to business knowledge and practice, it is more difficult to change labor market outcomes including employment levels, hours worked, and—certainly—earnings. In general, programs providing training combined with financing or counseling seem to perform better in promoting labor market activities, particularly for youth. Vocational training combined with grants in Nicaragua for social safety net beneficiaries is an example of such a program (Macours, Premand, and Vakis 2012). Grants provided to vulnerable youth in Uganda so they could pursue vocational training also yielded positive outcomes (Blattman, Fiala, and Martinez 2013). Conversely, training or financing provided alone may not be suf-ficient to address the complex constraints faced by microenterprise owners in developing countries. A recent review by the Consultative Group to Assist the Poor of largely stand-alone financing interventions found few impacts regarding business performance and labor market outcomes (Bauchet et al. 2011). There is little evidence of any difference in effective-ness between cash, in-kind grants, and microcredit schemes.

Overall, the impacts of interventions tend to be weaker for women. Women may face more stringent constraints in skills acquisition and business opera-tion, and control over finances often reverts to men even if women are business owners or recipients of microcredits.7 These results suggest that programs need to be better tailored to address the constraints facing self-employed females. A successful example is the business development track of the AGI Liberia program. This initiative specifically targeted young women and provided training in the locality in which they resided (taking into account their mobility con-straints), and included free child care (addressing their

7 Capital infusion for microenterprises has had much lower returns for women in Sri Lanka and Ghana (de Mel, McKenzie, and Woodruff 2008; Fafchamps et al. 2011); impacts of apprenticeship training are weaker for girls than boys in Malawi (Cho et al. 2013).

family responsibilities). These considerations may help explain the project’s success: it led to a 47 per-cent increase in employment and an 80 percent increase in average weekly income among project beneficiaries.

The chief conclusion emerging is that there is still lim-ited knowledge about the specific design and imple-mentation features that make a program successful for a given population group and in a given context. Addi-tionally, the fact that many of the programs evaluated are small pilots raises questions about external validity and the potential for scaling up—a particular concern for programs that support businesses that operate in small local markets. It is also important to note that the evaluations provide little information about program sustainability. Even where there are positive effects on employment and earnings, these might be short-lived given the high mortality and turnover rates of entrepreneurial activities.

A few questions related to targeting, design, and implementation remain to be further researched:

∎ Targeting versus design. Do programs fail because they have targeted the wrong beneficiaries—i.e., the self-employed who have little growth potential? Or do programs fail to adapt the design to respond to the needs of the type of beneficiaries targeted? While great efforts have been made to identify individuals with better prospects for business growth, relatively little attention has been paid to finding the right intervention for subsistence entre-preneurs. Many of the SSE programs reviewed seem to deliver the same kind of business support devel-oped for small and medium-size firms as opposed to providing support tailored to the specific needs of self-employed workers.

∎ Design versus implementation. Even if a program is well designed with technical components appro-priate to the situation and participants, it is likely to yield little impact if not well implemented.


16

Seemingly similar programs can work in one place but fail in another. Proving the external validity of certain approaches is difficult due to heteroge-neous implementation arrangements. The review suggests that many programs are still provided directly by governments/public sector. Yet, better programs seem to be delivered by local NGOs or community-level institutions, which are more likely to be familiar with beneficiary needs and con-straints. In future programming, process evaluations should be prioritized along with impact evaluations to gain insight into design versus implementation questions.

∎ Constraints versus complaints. Programs often rely on self-reported surveys to identify serious barriers to productive entrepreneurship. Limited access to finance is among the top constraints. However, limited evidence of financing services on entre-preneurial outcomes suggests that limited access to finance might simply be a common complaint. Many other impeding constraints may exist that are as important as limited access to finance. There is a great need for improving tools that provide objec-tive information about individual and environmen-tal constraints.

4 General considerations in the design and implementation of

programs to support subsistence entrepreneurs

The livelihoods of those engaged, or who can engage, in self-employment or small-scale entrepreneurship as a subsistence activity could be improved through SSE programs. The objective of such programs would not be to identify “gazelles” and help them grow, but to support those who are engaged in subsistence activi-ties even if they lack growth potential. The implication is that government interventions should be properly evaluated. Only after understanding their impacts, implementation challenges, and costs, can decisions

be made in order to adjust and scale-up effective programs. There are four areas of program design that need to receive attention: (1) targeting, eligibility crite-ria, and beneficiary profiling; (2) identifying and select-ing business activities; (3) defining core interventions; and (4) choosing delivery options for various program components.

Targeting, eligibility criteria, and beneficiary profiling

The target group for SSE programs would be indi-viduals—not firms—who are, or who can become, self-employed in, generally, low-productivity/low-earning activities. They are either poor or live in households with consumption levels close to the pov-erty line. They can be engaged in subsistence farming, nonfarm activities in rural areas, or produce goods and services in urban areas. Often self-employment may not be their main, or at least not their only, activity; they can be involved in more than one type of busi-ness. Within this large set, governments should define priorities based on policy objectives and could include eligibility criteria such as age, gender, or geographic region.

The same mechanisms used to target social assistance programs can be used for SSE programs. These mech-anisms include combinations of geographical and categorical targeting, proxy means tests, and com-munity participation. Caution should be exercised with regard to the trend observed in the reviewed programs of open beneficiary groups and self-selec-tion. The most vulnerable are not likely to be reached through these approaches unless they are specifically targeted and actively mobilized. In many cases, the entry point to SSE programs can be existing safety net programs that may have already addressed these issues of outreach to and mobilization of the most vulnerable. Indeed, SSE programs could be linked to existing safety net programs as part of the graduation strategy.


17

Even after identifying and targeting the potential beneficiaries, designing programs to fully benefit the vulnerable groups is challenging. One issue involves the low take-up rate, which has become an ubiquitous observation among the poor across many different sectors in developing countries. Examples of low take-up include underutilization of insecticide-treated bed nets (Ashraf, Fink, and Weil 2010), improved cook-stoves (Hanna, Duflo, and Greenstone 2012), insurance or savings (Mobarak and Rosenzweig 2012), and fertil-izers (Duflo, Kremer, and Robinson 2011). Low take-up may indicate that the returns are highly heterogeneous across different beneficiary groups and that programs are not suitable for a subset of the population, par-ticularly for vulnerable groups faced with complex constraints.

Profiling and understanding the skills, capabilities, and constraints facing potential beneficiaries is, therefore, critical to the design of programs that are able to serve the vulnerable. The profiling method will depend on the context, but it is likely that survey instruments and objective indicators are cheaper and more reli-able than the more subjective assessments of pro-gram managers, counselors, or expert groups. (Some

frequently used instruments to profile individuals and assess constraints can be found in the appendix.)

Identifying and selecting business activities

There are two approaches to identifying business activities. A participant-driven model, which is similar to that used in traditional entrepreneurship programs, is one in which individuals select their business and join the program. The other model is project identi-fied. In this model, the project identifies, ex ante, prof-itable business activities in a region or sector through some type of assessment and guides participant start-up activities to the selected industry or business type. Both methods have pros and cons and are likely to be more relevant to some groups than others.

Participant drivenIn this approach, participants self-select into a program usually by applying for support, submitting a business plan or idea for review, or participating in offered ser-vices (figure 14). Among those who already have an idea about a business or who operate actual businesses,

Identification of business/

individual needs Idea

Current business Business plan

Application Interview

Support servicesprofiling

First come first servedObjective criteria Selection committee

Eligible individual or group of individuals

Contact Selection SUPPORT

Figure 14. Support for participant-driven businesses



18Model General description

Constraints addressed

Implementation considerations

Specifications for very vulnerable/self-

employed Examples

Technical Training Model with Entrepreneur-ship Track

Technical or vocational training model that offers entrepreneurship support or a separate track for those interested

Technical/vocational skills as well as business skills

∎ Training model does not lend itself to advisory and networking services

∎ Duration of training should consider skill sufficiency for self-employment

∎ Inclusion of literacy and numeracy

∎ Psycho-social sup-port

∎ Business awareness and idea genera-tion

∎ Access to finance, networks, and advi-sory services need to be included

∎ AGI Liberia

∎ Vocational Training for youths with Disabilities in Western Area and Kono Dis-tricts, Sierra Leone

One Stop Shop/Service Window

Training, finance, advisory and networking services available on demand, often through referral. Services are requested via a business idea or plan. Staff can provide guidance as to what services might be most useful. Based on need, a customized package is offered to the beneficiary.

Dependent on services provided and beneficiary needs—customized

∎ One-on-one advising to create business services package for each beneficiary

∎ Considerable linkages to other programs and institutions nec-essary to have sufficient services

∎ An intermedia-tion, hands-on approach, rather than light advising is likely needed, with much more guidance and idea generation

∎ Linkage to social services/psychoso-cial support

∎ Women Entre-preneurship Development Project, Ethi-opia

∎ Self-Employed Women’s Association Community Learning Cen-ters, India

Table 3. Examples of participant-driven models

beneficiaries are selected and support provided. Selec-tion methods to determine beneficiaries among appli-cants, in case of oversubscription, include first come, first served; objective criteria including psychometric tests or randomization; and selection by committee based on interviews or business proposals. Depending on beneficiary needs, support packages can then be designed. Programs following this approach include AGI Liberia and the Women Entrepreneurship Devel-opment Project in Ethiopia (table 3).

This is a standard approach that entrepreneurship programs typically take for business development. The strength of this approach is that it empowers beneficiaries by helping them come up with their own business ideas. The self-employed will choose ideas that match their skills and interests. In addition, they

may have insight into local preferences and tastes, as well as cultural considerations. At the same time, however, it is also possible that beneficiaries end up participating in activities already saturated or eco-nomically nonviable if they lack a good understanding of market demands. The approach requires moti-vation and self-perception as an entrepreneur, not-withstanding the fact that many self-employed might not see themselves as business people. And, even if sufficient applications are collected and business pro-posals are used as a screening method, if the quality of business ideas is low, the program is likely to fail.

For this model to reach out to more vulnerable and subsistence entrepreneurs, the following consider-ations in identifying viable business opportunities for support should be taken into account:


19

∎ Entrepreneurship awareness and sensitization should be a priority so that applicants see them-selves as potential business people.

∎ Outreach activities need to be considered, as sub-sistence workers with limited social networks are the hardest group to reach.

∎ Applications should be simple, given the target group’s lack of education and skills.

∎ Potential beneficiaries would need support in pre-paring these applications in selecting types of activ-ity and requested services.

∎ There should be a mechanism to judge whether businesses/activities are economically viable; this is crucial in avoiding market saturation.

Project identifiedIn this case, the project identifies, ex ante, business opportunities through market and subsector mapping and demand surveys (figure 15). The opportunities include both current activities that can be transformed to increase productivity and earnings, as well as new

activities that could be introduced. In some cases, business opportunities can be flagged by the private sector. In others, an assessment would need to be con-ducted; this is usually part of a study of subsectors or value chains, and takes into account the availability of natural resources, infrastructure, regulatory environ-ment, and human capital. The accuracy of such assess-ments has been debated, which should be taken into consideration.

In this model, participants are expected to develop their businesses within the context of the parameters selected by the project.

Given participants’ lack of entrepreneurial traits and ability to develop business ideas, this approach likely has advantages in serving the needs of the less capable entrepreneurs. In addition, this approach, despite its complexity compared to the participant-driven one, holds promise for potential impacts on a large scale.

The project-identified approach includes value chain integration and microfranchising (see table 4 for examples, and box 2 for processes to develop a project of value chain integration). Common features

Identification of business/

individual needs

Idea

Current business Business plan

Eligible individual or group of individuals

Contact SUPPORT

Macrofranchising Value chain assessment

Sectoral studies Consultations with stakeholders

Identification of business

opportunities

Figure 15. Support for project-identified businesses


20

across different models are that the project selects a potentially lucrative subsector or industry for intervention, involves a large number of individuals, facilitates the building of group-based social capital, and promotes public-private partnership. The value chain approach works with an identified value chain in an industry (e.g., coffee, tourism, or marble). Ideally, selection of the value chain is based on opportunity for growth or a significant reduction in inefficien-cies, and integrates self-employed individuals and businesses up and down the value chain into the

intervention. An example of this approach is Techno-Serve's Coffee Initiative, started in 2007. This value chain–strengthening program helps small-scale coffee farmers in East Africa boost their incomes by improv-ing the quantity and quality of coffee produced. The project aims to increase yields through extension and training in good agricultural practices and to improve quality by helping farmers establish and operate rural processing facilities (“wet mills”). The model enables achievement of these goals through hori-zontal integration of the farmers involved and better

Model General descriptionConstraints addressed

Implementation considerations

Specifications for very vulnerable/

self-employed Examples

Value chain approach

Refers to all activities and services that bring a product (or service) from conception to end use in a particular industry. The focus is on the system, on end markets, and on relationships. Usually, this approach upgrades business, services, and communication at every level, using mostly existing players. An opportunity exists to integrate the self-employed that have been catering to the local market.

∎ Access to mar-kets and net-works

∎ Information asymmetries

∎ Transportation constraints

∎ Business idea generation

∎ Product quality

∎ Mapping a value chain is time intensive and costly

∎ Extensive relationship building required

∎ Because the focus is on a specific sector and value chain, it might exclude some bene-ficiaries, due to industry needs

∎ Aggregated busi-nesses are often necessary for farmers/self-em-ployed to access a value chain

∎ Technical skills and quality must be upgraded

∎ Inclusion of liter-acy and numeracy training, as well as psycho-social support

∎ Green World Bayer Crop Science

∎ TechnoServ

Micro-franchising

Package interventions that provide beneficiaries with comprehensive support to enable them to replicate existing and proved business model and product. May include training, access to finance, networking, mentoring, access to markets, and many other components. Microfranchise opportunities allow self-employment with features of wage employment: the microfranchisees do not need to devise business models of their own but have minimal supervision and great autonomy.

∎ Reduces risk from potential entrepreneurs

∎ Low business knowledge/skills required

∎ Liquidity often addressed through prod-uct advances

∎ Business idea/product generation

∎ Vertical networking

∎ Limited business scal-ability in any given sector

∎ Costs asso-ciated with product advances lost or damaged, and product dissemination

∎ Inclusion of liter-acy and numeracy training, as well as psycho-social support

∎ Basic accounting skills

∎ Customer service skills

∎ Pricing support

∎ Coca Cola manual distribution centers

∎ Girls Empow-ered by Micro Fran-chise Inter-national Rescue Committee

Table 4. Examples of project-identified models


21

Value chains—also referred to as subsectors, clusters, or supply chains—are relevant for SSE programs for two reasons.

First, many producers, particularly in farm and nonfarm activities, are connected in one way or another to these chains.

In these cases, horizontal (between channels) or vertical movements within the chain can lead to gains in productivity

and earnings. Second, for certain producers of tradable goods and services who are only operating in local markets,

connecting to one of these subsectors can be an opportunity to expand sales and earnings. In fact, identifying the right

value chains could be a precondition to make SSE programs viable and avoid saturating local markets and bringing down

prices and earnings.

Two important processes need to be considered when integrating SSE programs into value chains: (1) mapping the rel-

evant subsectors, and (2) identifying the types of interventions needed to increase earnings (usually by reducing costs,

improving quality, and/or increasing productivity).

Mapping the relevant subsectors

There are several methods and instruments to map markets. These methods are often based on interviews with key infor-

mants to identify the main actors, their interactions, and their consumption and supply of different products. Since these

specialized assessments are usually conducted by management consultants, trade associations, business development

service agencies, government development agencies, and NGOs, program and project managers would need to mobilize

the necessary expertise. It is important to note, however, that while in many assessments the entry point is a given prod-

uct, in SSE programs the value chains would need to be selected/designed to be accessible to the target population of

beneficiaries. In all cases, many producers of the same goods and services would need to be brought together—primarily

because it is often through aggregation that the correct scale of the business can be achieved to compete within a given

value chain. Also, aggregation through associations, cooperatives, and firms reduces contact costs, because the program

does not have to coordinate with businesses individually.

Identifying interventions to create jobs and/or increase earnings

Once the business areas to be aggregated and the relevant value chains have been identified, various alternative inter-

ventions are possible. These will usually focus on one or more of the following: connecting beneficiaries to the value

chains; improving production technologies to improve quality, reduce costs, and/or increase productivity; facilitating

vertical or horizontal movements within the value chain; or collectively addressing bottlenecks and regulatory failures.

The challenge is to get skills up to the quality standards required by the value chain and to identify viable business for

the group. Traditionally, the value chain approach has mostly sought to address the constraints of those already in the

value chain, or at its margins. To this end, it is important to identify a value chain that does not only have a high poten-

tial for increased productivity, but already includes targeted groups. When trying to integrate new actors (the self-em-

ployed) into a value chain, a comprehensive approach that includes entrepreneurship sensitization and business and

technical skills development is needed.

Box 2. Value chains: connecting to or moving within subsectors


22

Figure 16. Different types and levels of skills

Business skills 2

Vocational skills

Business skills 1

Literacy and numeracy

Business awareness and

financial literacy

Soft

skill

s

⇨

⇨

⇨

management of cooperatives, improved quality of the coffee produced, installation of coffee wet mill facil-ities, the establishment and strengthening of market linkages between the cooperatives and the national value chains, and improving the enabling environment for coffee industry producers.

Defining core interventions

As discussed, four types of services characterize SSE programs: training of various types, access to capital and other financial services, advisory services, and networking. Given a potentially highly heterogeneous group of beneficiaries and evidence of the effective-ness of comprehensive programs, it is unlikely that suc-cessful SSE programs could focus on only one of these services. The findings indicate that the correct strategy is to offer an integrated package of services tailored to beneficiary needs. A good profiling system for ben-eficiaries is therefore a precondition to structure the package of services and avoid offering “off-the-shelf” benefits.

TrainingA general principle with regard to training services in SSE programs is to ensure that basic skills are acquired before moving up to higher-level skills (figure 16). Gaps in literacy and numeracy within the population of beneficiaries should be prioritized as this could be a primary barrier to other skills acquisition.8 Entrepre-neurial awareness is a set of skills training that enables subsistence farmers, indigenous groups, and other vul-nerable self-employed to begin seeing themselves, and acting, as business people—an important prerequisite to the development of business skills. In the same vein, basic financial literacy can help individuals better manage their limited resources. Although few SSE programs currently offer this type of training, it could

8 The African Youth Report documents that primary edu-cation can lead to 40 percent increases in earnings for the self-employed (Filmer and Fox 2014).

be one of the most relevant among the low-skilled self-employed. These basic skills should be followed by technical skills and advanced business skills. For each skill level, training in a complementary set of soft skills—ranging from fostering confidence to improving negotiation—needs to be implemented in order to improve effectiveness.

Financial servicesThe goal in providing financial services is to ensure that beneficiaries are able to fund working capital and equipment, and have access to the relevant types of insurance to protect incomes and equipment, and cope with work-related accidents. In general, provision of these services is beyond the scope of SSE programs. Instead, such programs would need to facilitate access to financial institutions that offer these services (e.g., microfinance institutions). Rather than simply linking individuals with institutions, programs should consider incorporating arrangements to ensure that the nec-essary services are actually obtained. These arrange-ments could include assistance with applications, loan guarantees, and creditworthiness assessment,9 which

9 In Ethiopia, an SSE program uses psychometric testing to assess the creditworthiness of individuals and facilitate their access to financial institutions.


23

will likely entail working with both individuals and financial institutions (figure 17).

When it comes to funding working capital and equip-ment, an alternative to credit is to provide grants in cash and/or in kind. Grants would increase the cost of the program, but might be easier to administer while giving cash-strapped beneficiaries more financial flexibility. Another alternative is crowdfunding, which was used in a very small number of the reviewed programs; loan guarantees might also facilitate access. These innovations should be developed further and rigorously tested.

Advisory services and networkingUnlike training programs which are offered at a given point in time and have a finite duration, advisory ser-vices are typically offered on a continuous basis, at least during the first stages of program implementa-tion. These services can take various forms, from very hands-on to on demand only, virtual or face to face, and/or one to one or one to many (through information

and communication technology). The advisors can be experts in the subsector or other entrepreneurs or producers. Their basic role is to answer questions about any aspect of the business or refer the beneficiary to the proper source. They could also be involved in monitoring implementation of different activities and intervene when they feel corrections are needed. Many agricultural projects rely on lead farmers who receive extensive training on new techniques, products, and quality measures, or on business skills to disseminate what they learn to a community of farmers. Other proj-ects use government extension services or more pro-fessional advisors. The right type of advisory services to offer will also depend on local conditions and business needs; multiple options could be offered. In addressing the needs of the vulnerable self-employed, face-to-face and more hands-on approaches might be the best options. Such approaches might require having advisors on the ground who monitor activities and are on call to help beneficiaries when needed. Over time, as benefi-ciaries gain experience in the implementation of their activities and/or the management of their business, some of them could gradually begin to take on advisory responsibilities and help new entrants to the program.

Networking services can take a number of forms as well. Theoretically, networking services create two types of linkages:

∎ Horizontal linkages. These describe relationships between participants operating at the same stage of production. Horizontal linkages include associa-tions, cooperatives, and other forms of cooperation between potential competitors. For example, farm-ers who establish a formal or informal association in order to sell their products in larger quantities to a wholesaler would strengthen their horizontal linkages. Another example is labor unions of service providers or manufacturers.

∎ Vertical linkages. These describe relationships between participants with adjacent roles who potentially add value to the same product at

Figure 17. Access to finance decision tree

Access to finance

Linkage to outside services

(credits, grants, crowdfunding)

Direct provision(grants or credits)

Referral only

Hands-on assistance for borrowers (e.g., with

applications, loan guarantees)

TA to lending institutions (e.g., innovations in creditworthiness

assessment tools and financial product

structures)In-kind

Cash


24

different stages of production. Vertical linkages may include buying, selling, or contracting arrange-ments throughout the chain. For example, a farmer gaining access to a wholesaler will strengthen ver-tical linkages, as will a shoemaker who is connect-ing to a leather supplier. Vertical linkages do not include supporting service providers such as banks or insurance companies, as these do not directly add value to a product itself.

While horizontal linkages are often facilitated through SSE programs, few programs include vertical linkages. The value chain inclusion model discussed above has great potential in creating vertical linkages.

Choosing delivery options

The type of institutional arrangements needed to execute the various business processes described above—profiling and assessing the constraints facing beneficiaries, assessing market demand for nontrad-able goods and services, mapping subsectors and value chains, and offering various types of services—is an important policy consideration. Four actors comprise the main institutional choices: government (either a social ministry responsible for safety net programs and social services or an industry ministry responsible for business development and competitiveness), the private sector (for profit), NGOs and social entrepre-neurs, and civil society (table 5).

Governments would need to take the lead in the conceptualization, design, financing, supervision, and evaluation of SSE programs. Large firms, employer associations, and trade associations can find win-win opportunities in helping relevant subsectors and value chains in a given region and for the targeted popula-tion of beneficiaries. A large credit card company in the Republic of Korea, for instance, built infrastructure for traditional vendors with local government coordi-nation. Part of the infrastructure included equipment for financial transactions and a credit card processor. Some NGOs and groups of social entrepreneurs (e.g., Ashoka) have developed an expertise in mapping or developing subsectors in low-income settings—including through the organization of international competitions to find the best ideas to solve a prob-lem or develop a business. NGOs could also play an important role, along with the for-profit private sector, in service provision. Communities and civil society can play a critical role in identifying and mobilizing bene-ficiaries, assessing business opportunities and needs, and monitoring and evaluation.

5 Concluding remarks

Self-employment is the most common type of employ-ment worldwide—and for many, the only alternative. A majority of the self-employed—farmers and own-ac-count workers—are engaged in very low-productivity

Actor

Identification, targeting, profiling

Assessing market and

mapping opportunities

Selecting businesses

Identifying services

Delivering services

Management and

monitoring and evaluation

Government (social) +++ ++ +++

Government (industry) ++ ++ ++ +

Private sector +++ +++ +++ ++

NGOs/social entrepreneurs +++ +++ +++ +++ ++

Communities/civil society ++ + ++ ++ + +

Table 5. Suggested implementation arrangements


25

activities and live in poor households. Simply relin-quishing the self-employed to social safety nets may not be sufficient to improve their standards of living. Programs that support the self-employed and small-scale entrepreneurs in improving their livelihoods can be an important complementary intervention.

Unfortunately, limited evidence exists regarding the impact and effectiveness of these programs, as well as the best way to design and implement them. Most of the programs that have been evaluated are small pilots, and the results are mixed. There are also questions about the external validity of these results and whether effects would persist if programs were scaled up.

Governments need to continue experimenting with SSE programs targeted to subsistence entrepreneurs. A more systematic and rigorous approach to their design, implementation, and evaluation should be adopted. Research and policy analysis should focus on profiling instruments to better understand bene-ficiary characteristics and constraints, mechanisms to identify business opportunities, guidelines to design and combine interventions tailored to different bene-ficiaries, the effectiveness of various implementation arrangements, and their cost-effectiveness and sus-tainability.

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27

Appendix: Assessing constraints to self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship

Many self-employed workers and entrepreneurs face constraints to succeeding in their livelihood activity; often, they face multiple and diverse constraints. The set of constraints may depend on the subpopulation of entrepreneurs targeted. Some are common to all individuals in a country such as business or social envi-ronment constraints; others affect subpopulations within a given country or region. An assessment of the constraints faced by potential entrepreneurs planning to start a business, or by existing entrepreneurs already engaged in business activities, is critical in order to design programs that adequately support them.

Constraints faced by the self-employed are classified as either individual or environmental. Individual constraints are those that affect individuals and subpopulations and include lack of entrepreneurial traits, insufficient cog-nitive or noncognitive skills, and limited access to social capital. Environmental constraints are those that affect larger populations and are external to the individual. They include limited access to financial services, poor business environment, underdeveloped markets or limited access to markets, and other impeding cultural factors.

Of the many possible individual and environmental con-straints, task team leaders and project managers should identify those that are actually present and binding to the businesses of the target population in the target country, and then prioritize those found for full assess-ment. There are several methods of identifying such constraints. Many task team leaders utilize previous research or final reports from already implemented pro-grams. Building on lessons learned and previous research makes for a solid understanding of the situation on the

ground. Others conduct surveys and focus groups with government officials, private sectors, and individuals within the target group profile to obtain a snapshot from different perspectives of the local economic situ-ation. A third option entails hiring a firm to do a formal study, such as a labor market assessment and demand survey. Sometimes all three methods are utilized. The best approach to take depends on the current knowl-edge of the country and the budget and time available.

Programs should be adapted to address the con-straints identified. The following should be taken into account in determining how to prioritize constraints for further assessment:

∎ Those within the scope of the program (e.g., infra-structure may be the greatest constraint, but a short-term intervention for individual entrepre-neurs is unlikely to address it)

∎ Degree to which it hinders business

∎ Existing programs that address constraints with which the present program might partner and create synergy

∎ Project budget

∎ Expertise of program staff to address constraint

∎ Time needed for assessment compared to the timeline of the program

∎ Political issues

∎ Expected return on investment

The following two tables provide a list of commonly used tools that assess constraints faced by the self-employed and small-scale entrepreneurs. This information is not intended to be exhaustive, but has been compiled to help World Bank task team lead-ers and practitioners find relevant information for conducting diagnostic assessment prior to designing entrepreneurship programs.

This appendix was prepared by Yoonyoung Cho, Hyewon Kang, and Samantha Watson with inputs from Xavier Cirera and Leonardo Iacovone.

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itedu

.or

g/te

am-d

ownl

oads

/m

easu

rem

ent/

mea

surin

g-fin

anci

al-c

apab

ility

-qu

estio

nnai

res-

and-

impl

emen

tatio

n-gu

idan

ce-f

or-lo

w-

and-

mid

dle-

inco

me-

coun

trie

s.pd

f

Tabl

e A

1. To

ols

for a

ddre

ssin

g in

divi

dual

con

stra

ints

(con

tinu

ed)

Cons

trai

ntM

etho

dolo

gyTo

olD

escr

ipti

onO

pera

tion

al c

onsi

dera

tion

sRe

fere

nce/

link

Basi

c sk

ills

Test

Rave

n’s

Prog

ress

ive

Mat

rices

test

∎M

ost p

opul

ar a

nd c

ultu

rally

fair

nonv

erba

l IQ

te

st

∎A

ppro

pria

te fo

r mea

surin

g ge

nera

l int

ellig

ence

an

d ps

ycho

met

ric e

valu

atio

n

∎C

onsi

sts

of 6

0 qu

estio

ns w

hich

are

to b

e an

swer

ed in

40

min

utes

∎In

tern

et a

cces

s re

quire

d

∎C

osts

$5

to t

ake

the

test

http

://w

ww

.our

iq.u

s

Dig

it Sp

an te

st ∎

Mea

sure

s ve

rbal

wor

king

mem

ory

abili

ty

∎M

easu

res

abili

ty o

f bra

in to

hol

d on

to in

for-

mat

ion

need

ed to

com

plet

e co

mpl

ex t

asks

∎Re

spon

dent

mus

t rec

all,

in o

rder

, a s

erie

s of

dig

its

pres

ente

d on

scr

een

Exam

ples

at h

ttp:

//w

ww

.ca

mbr

idge

brai

nsci

ence

s.co

m/b

row

se

Fred

eric

k’s

Cog

nitiv

e Re

flect

ion

Test

∎A

sses

ses

abili

ty to

sup

pres

s sp

onta

neou

s w

rong

ans

wer

in fa

vor o

f cor

rect

ans

wer

∎M

easu

res

time

pref

eren

ce a

nd ri

sk p

refe

renc

e

∎C

onsi

sts

of t

hree

que

stio

ns, e

ach

of w

hich

re

spon

dent

has

30

seco

nds

to s

olve

http

://w

ww

.sjdm

.or

g/dm

idi/

Cog

nitiv

e_Re

flect

ion_

Test

.ht

ml#

Des

crip

tion

Num

eric

al R

easo

ning

Te

st ∎

Ass

esse

s ab

ility

to u

nder

stan

d st

atis

tical

and

nu

mer

ical

dat

a, a

s w

ell a

s ab

ility

to m

ake

a lo

g-ic

al d

educ

tions

∎C

onta

ins

ques

tions

abo

ut ra

tios,

perc

enta

ge

incr

ease

/dec

reas

e, c

ost a

nd s

ales

ana

lysi

s, ra

tes

and

tren

ds, a

nd c

urre

ncy

conv

ersi

ons

∎C

alcu

lato

r and

scr

ap p

aper

can

be

used

dur

ing

the

test

∎C

onsi

sts

of 2

2 qu

estio

ns to

be

answ

ered

in 2

5 m

inut

es

http

://w

ww

.ken

t.ac

.uk/

care

ers/

test

s/m

aths

test

2.ht

m

Surv

ey

STEP

Ski

lls

Mea

sure

men

t Sur

vey

∎O

ne m

odul

e as

sess

es fu

ndam

enta

l ski

lls

(read

ing,

writ

ing,

num

erac

y) b

y co

mbi

ning

sel

f-

repo

rt a

nd te

sts

∎So

me

ques

tions

are

bou

nd to

cop

y rig

hts

http

://m

icro

data

.w

orld

bank

.org

/ind

ex.

php/

cata

log/

step

/abo

ut

Prog

ram

me

for

the

Inte

rnat

iona

l A

sses

smen

t of A

dult

Com

pete

ncie

s (P

IAAC

); Ed

ucat

ion

and

Skill

s O

nlin

e A

sses

smen

t

∎PI

AAC

mea

sure

s lit

erac

y, n

umer

acy,

and

pr

oble

m s

olvi

ng in

Org

anis

atio

n fo

r Eco

nom

ic

Co-

oper

atio

n an

d D

evel

opm

ent c

ount

ries

∎Ed

ucat

ion

and

Skill

s O

nlin

e A

sses

smen

t pro

-vi

des

indi

vidu

al-le

vel r

esul

ts c

ompa

rabl

e to

PI

AAC

resu

lts, m

easu

ring

cogn

itive

and

non

-co

gniti

ve s

kills

∎D

esig

ned

for d

evel

oped

cou

ntrie

sht

tp://

nces

.ed.

gov/

surv

eys/

piaa

c/

Lite

racy

Ass

essm

ent

and

Mon

itorin

g Pr

ogra

mm

e (L

AM

P)

∎A

sses

ses

read

ing

and

num

erac

y sk

ills

in t

he

yout

h an

d ad

ult p

opul

atio

n ∎

Adm

inis

tere

d on

pap

er

∎Av

aila

ble

for e

ligib

le d

evel

opin

g co

untr

ies

http

://w

ww

.uis.

unes

co.

org/

liter

acy/

Page

s/la

mp-

liter

acy-

asse

ssm

ent.a

spx

Busi

ness

sk

ills

Surv

ey

Busi

ness

Pra

ctic

e Ev

alua

tion

Tool

∎A

sses

ses

18 b

asic

man

agem

ent p

ract

ices

on

a 5-

poin

t sca

le fr

om w

orst

to b

est p

ract

ice

∎In

terv

iew

with

ent

repr

eneu

rs/f

irm m

anag

ers

Bloo

m a

nd V

an R

eene

n (2

007)

Busi

ness

Ope

ratio

ns

Surv

ey ∎

Col

lect

s in

form

atio

n on

the

ope

ratio

ns o

f N

ew Z

eala

nd b

usin

esse

s

∎C

onsi

sts

of fo

ur m

odul

es o

n bu

sine

ss o

per-

atio

ns, i

nnov

atio

n, b

usin

ess

prac

tices

, ski

ll ne

eds

and

recr

uitm

ent

∎C

ondu

cted

ann

ually

by

Stat

istic

s N

ew Z

eala

nd

sinc

e 20

05

∎A

chie

ved

resp

onse

rate

of 8

0 pe

rcen

t

∎Po

stal

sur

vey

sent

out

in A

ugus

t to

colle

ct in

for-

mat

ion

for t

he la

st fi

nanc

ial y

ear

http

://w

ww

.stat

s.gov

t.nz

/bro

wse

_for

_sta

ts/

busin

esse

s/bu

sines

s_gr

owth

_and

_inn

ovat

ion/

busin

ess-

oper

atio

ns-

surv

ey-in

fo-r

elea

ses.a

spx

http://www.ocdc.coop/pdf/metrics.pdf


http://www.poverty-action.org/project/0447

http://www.poverty-action.org/project/0447

https://www.finlitedu.org/team-downloads/measurement/measuring-financial-capability-questionnaires-and-implementation-guidance-for-low-and-middle-income-countries.pdf










http://www.ouriq.us

























Cons

trai

ntM

etho

dolo

gyTo

olD

escr

ipti

onO

pera

tion

al c

onsi

dera

tion

sRe

fere

nce/

link

Non

cogn

i-tiv

e sk

ills

Test

Big

5 Pe

rson

alit

y Te

st ∎

Com

mon

ly u

sed

in a

cade

mic

psy

chol

ogy

∎Bi

g 5

pers

onal

ity

trai

ts: o

penn

ess,

cons

cien

-tio

usne

ss, e

xtra

vers

ion,

agr

eeab

lene

ss, a

nd

neur

otic

ism

∎W

eb-b

ased

sur

vey

of 5

0 qu

estio

ns; t

akes

5–7

m

inut

es to

com

plet

e

∎Re

spon

dent

pro

vide

s ra

tings

from

1 (s

tron

gly

dis-

agre

e) to

5 (s

tron

gly

agre

e) to

sta

tem

ents

in o

rder

id

entif

y pe

rson

alit

y

∎Te

st a

llow

s re

spon

dent

s to

com

pare

the

ir pe

r-so

nalit

y to

oth

ers

http

://pe

rson

alit

y-te

stin

g.in

fo/t

ests

/BIG

5.ph

p

Con

nor-

Dav

idso

n Re

silie

nce

Scal

e (C

D-R

ISC

)

∎C

omm

only

use

d te

st in

mea

surin

g ab

ility

to

cope

with

str

ess

and

adve

rsit

y

∎In

itial

ly d

esig

ned

for p

sych

olog

ical

tre

atm

ent,

but n

ow u

sed

for b

road

er p

urpo

ses

∎Bo

okle

t con

tain

ing

dem

ogra

phic

que

stio

ns a

nd

the

CD

-RIS

C a

re p

rovi

ded

to re

spon

dent

s, w

ith

a re

ques

t to

retu

rn c

ompl

eted

que

stio

nnai

res

with

in a

wee

k

∎Co

nsist

s of 2

5-ite

m (5

–10

min

utes

to c

ompl

ete)

, 10

-item

(1–5

min

utes

), an

d 2-

item

(1–5

min

utes

) seg

-m

ents

cov

erin

g ps

ycho

met

ric p

rope

rtie

s

∎Ea

ch it

em is

rate

d on

a s

cale

of 0

–4, w

ith h

ighe

r sc

ores

refle

ctin

g gr

eate

r res

ilien

ce

http

://w

ww

.co

nnor

davi

dson

-re

silie

nces

cale

.com

/cd

-ris

c/tr

ansl

atio

ns.

shtm

l

Ope

n Ps

ycho

met

ric

Test

Res

ourc

e ∎

Test

s in

duct

ive

reas

onin

g, v

erba

l rea

soni

ng,

num

eric

al re

ason

ing,

Big

5 t

raits

, int

erpe

rson

al

skill

s, re

silie

nce,

ent

repr

eneu

rism

, lea

ders

hip,

an

d 16

per

sona

lity

fact

ors

∎Ea

ch m

odul

e in

clud

es a

n ex

plan

atio

n of

test

ra

tiona

le a

nd u

seht

tp://

ww

w.

psyc

hom

etric

test

.org

.uk

Clif

ton

Stre

ngth

sFin

der

∎Te

st b

ased

on

stre

ngth

s-ba

sed

psyc

holo

gy

∎Te

st u

ses

an in

vent

ory

of 3

4 “t

hem

es” t

o he

lp

peop

le d

isco

ver t

heir

tale

nts

∎O

nlin

e St

reng

thsF

inde

r ass

essm

ent

∎Te

st c

onsi

sts

of 17

0 qu

estio

ns, w

ith re

spon

ses

from

1 (to

tally

dis

agre

e) to

9 (t

otal

ly a

gree

)

http

://st

reng

ths.g

allu

p.co

m/1

1044

0/ab

out-

stre

ngth

sfin

der-2

0.as

px

Cent

er fo

r Rur

al

Entr

epre

neur

ship

’s En

trep

rene

ur S

elf T

est

∎Te

st d

evel

oped

to a

sses

s in

divi

dual

ent

repr

e-ne

uria

l pot

entia

l

∎Q

uest

ions

are

str

aigh

tfor

war

d an

d sh

ort

∎Te

st c

onsi

sts

of 3

2 qu

estio

ns, w

ith re

spon

ses

from

1 (n

o ag

reem

ent)

to 10

(str

ong

agre

emen

t)

∎Ea

ch q

uest

ion

has

diff

eren

t val

ue a

nd w

eigh

t

http

://w

ww

.tvae

d.co

m/

pdf/

entr

epre

neur

_sel

f_te

st.p

df

Entr

epre

neur

ial

Fina

nce

Lab

∎C

ompr

ehen

sive

onlin

e da

ta c

olle

ctio

n in

clud

-in

g ar

ticle

s an

d ps

ycho

met

ric te

sts

to m

easu

re

entr

epre

neur

s’ et

hics

and

cha

ract

er, i

ntel

li-ge

nce,

att

itude

s an

d be

liefs

, and

bus

ines

s sk

ills

∎Kn

owle

dge

cent

er o

n w

ebpa

ge in

trod

uces

pub

li-ca

tions

rega

rdin

g th

e us

e of

psy

chom

etric

test

s in

en

trep

rene

ursh

ip

http

://w

ww

.eflg

loba

l.co

m

Surv

ey

STEP

Ski

lls

Mea

sure

men

t Sur

vey

∎So

cio-

emot

iona

l ski

lls m

odul

es a

sses

s no

n-co

gniti

ve s

kills

∎Be

side

s Bi

g 5

pers

onal

ity

trai

ts, a

dds

mea

sure

-m

ent f

or g

rit, h

ostil

e bi

as, a

nd d

ecis

ion

mak

ing

∎Re

spon

se c

ateg

orie

s ra

nge

from

1 (a

lmos

t nev

er)

to 4

(alm

ost a

lway

s)ht

tp://

mic

roda

ta.

wor

ldba

nk.o

rg/i

ndex

.ph

p/ca

talo

g/st

ep/a

bout

Tabl

e A

1. To

ols

for a

ddre

ssin

g in

divi

dual

con

stra

ints

(con

tinu

ed)

http://personality-testing.info/tests/BIG5.php



http://www.connordavidson-resiliencescale.com/cd-risc/translations.shtml





http://www.psychometrictest.org.uk

http://www.psychometrictest.org.uk

http://strengths.gallup.com/110440/about-strengthsfinder-20.aspx



http://www.tvaed.com/pdf/entrepreneur_self_test.pdf



http://www.eflglobal.com

http://www.eflglobal.com

Cons

trai

ntM

etho

dolo

gyTo

olD

escr

ipti

onO

pera

tion

al c

onsi

dera

tion

sRe

fere

nce/

link

Non

cogn

i-tiv

e sk

ills

Surv

ey

Star

tup

Con

fiden

ce

Inde

x Su

rvey

∎M

easu

res

entr

epre

neur

s’ co

nfid

ence

in t

heir

busi

ness

as

wel

l as

in t

he n

atio

nal e

cono

mic

cl

imat

e

∎Fo

cuse

s on

new

ly in

corp

orat

ed b

usin

esse

s

∎A

n em

ail i

s se

nt to

bus

ines

s ow

ners

to a

cces

s th

e su

rvey

http

://w

ww

.kau

ffm

an.

org/

mul

timed

ia/

info

grap

hics

/201

3/ka

uffm

an-le

galz

oom

-st

artu

p-co

nfid

ence

-in

dex-

2013

Glo

bal

Entr

epre

neur

ship

M

onito

r’s A

dult

Popu

latio

n Su

rvey

∎A

nnua

l ass

essm

ent o

f ent

repr

eneu

rial a

ctiv

ity,

as

pira

tions

, and

att

itude

s of

indi

vidu

als

acro

ss

a w

ide

rang

e of

cou

ntrie

s

∎Su

rvey

for n

asce

nt a

nd e

xist

ing

entr

epre

neur

s as

wel

l as

inve

stor

s an

d ow

ner-

man

ager

s

∎In

clud

es a

few

que

stio

ns a

ddre

ssin

g m

arke

t as

sess

men

t abi

lity

and

tech

nolo

gy

∎La

ndlin

e-ba

sed

surv

ey o

r fac

e-to

-fac

e in

terv

iew

ap

proa

ch is

pos

sibl

e

∎In

stru

men

t req

uire

s a

min

imum

of 2

,000

par

tici-

pant

s (e

ntre

pren

eurs

, man

ager

s, in

vest

ors)

to ta

ke

part

in t

he s

urve

y

http

://w

ww

.ge

mco

nsor

tium

.or

g/do

cs/c

at/1

35/

ques

tionn

aire

s

Col

e, S

amps

on,

and

Zia

surv

ey o

n fin

anci

al s

ervi

ce in

In

done

sia a

nd In

dia

(risk

ave

rsio

n)

∎M

easu

res

hous

ehol

d fin

anci

al li

tera

cy a

nd

dem

and

for f

inan

cial

ser

vice

s

∎A

lso c

aptu

res o

ther

hou

seho

ld c

hara

cter

istic

s th

at m

ay b

e im

port

ant d

eter

min

ants

in b

ecom

-in

g an

ent

repr

eneu

r suc

h as

risk

ave

rsio

n

∎To

mea

sure

risk

ave

rsio

n, s

tudy

use

d ac

tual

lo

tter

ies,

for r

eal a

mou

nts

of m

oney

.

∎St

udy

cond

ucte

d no

vel s

urve

ys p

rimar

ily m

easu

r-in

g ho

useh

old

finan

cial

lite

racy

∎In

a ra

ndom

ized

fiel

d ex

perim

ent,

indi

vidu

als

are

rand

omly

off

ered

sm

all s

ubsi

dies

for o

peni

ng

a ba

nk a

ccou

nt; s

tudy

com

pare

s th

e ef

fect

of

finan

cial

lite

racy

edu

catio

n to

pric

e su

bsid

ies

http

://w

ww

.hbs

.edu

/fa

cult

y/Pu

blic

atio

n%20

File

s/09

-117

.pdf

Ash

raf,

Karla

n, a

nd

Yin

(200

8) s

urve

y on

sa

ving

pro

duct

s in

th

e Ph

ilipp

ines

(tim

e pr

efer

ence

)

∎St

udy

test

s w

heth

er in

divi

dual

s w

ould

ope

n a

savi

ng a

ccou

nt w

ith a

com

mitm

ent f

eatu

re

that

rest

ricts

the

ir ac

cess

to t

heir

fund

s

∎Su

rvey

test

s w

heth

er in

divi

dual

s ha

ve a

pr

efer

ence

ove

r nea

r-te

rm t

rade

-off

s or

not

; th

is pr

efer

ence

in h

ypot

hetic

al ti

me

reve

als

peop

le’s

econ

omic

cha

ract

eris

tics

∎U

sing

rand

omiz

ed c

ontr

ol m

etho

dolo

gy, s

tudy

ev

alua

tes t

he e

ffec

tiven

ess o

f a c

omm

itmen

t sav

-in

gs a

ccou

nt o

n fin

anci

al sa

ving

s in

the

Phili

ppin

es

∎St

udy

cond

ucte

d a

base

line

surv

ey o

n 1,7

77 e

xist

-in

g or

form

er c

lient

s of

a b

ank.

One

mon

th la

ter,

720

clie

nts

wer

e ra

ndom

ly o

ffer

ed t

he c

omm

it-m

ent p

rodu

ct

http

://ka

rlan.

yale

.edu

/p/

SEED

.pdf

Soci

al

capi

tal

Surv

ey

Soci

al C

apita

l A

sses

smen

t Too

l ∎

Inte

grat

ed q

uant

itativ

e/qu

alita

tive

tool

; key

co

mpo

nent

s ar

e su

rvey

s; in

form

atio

n in

ter-

view

s; fo

cus

grou

ps a

t the

hou

seho

ld, c

omm

u-ni

ty, a

nd o

rgan

izat

iona

l lev

els

∎M

ain

com

pone

nts

are

com

mun

ity

prof

ile a

nd

asse

t map

ping

—in

terv

iew

gui

de, c

omm

unit

y qu

estio

nnai

re, h

ouse

hold

que

stio

nnai

re, o

rga-

niza

tiona

l pro

file

inte

rvie

w g

uide

s, or

gani

za-

tiona

l pro

file

scor

e sh

eet

∎C

ompl

emen

tary

tool

s in

clud

e st

akeh

olde

r an

alys

is, i

nstit

utio

nal a

naly

sis,

soci

al im

pact

an

alys

is, b

enef

icia

ry a

sses

smen

ts

∎Ty

pica

l app

licat

ion

take

s 3–

4 m

onth

s

∎W

hen

impl

emen

ting,

soc

iolo

gica

l or a

nthr

opo-

logi

cal t

rain

ing

is he

lpfu

l, in

par

ticul

ar a

sou

nd

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

form

al a

nd in

form

al in

stitu

tions

an

d ne

twor

ks

http

://go

.wor

ldba

nk.

org/

KO0Q

FVW

770

Tabl

e A

1. To

ols

for a

ddre

ssin

g in

divi

dual

con

stra

ints

(con

tinu

ed)

http://www.kauffman.org/multimedia/infographics/2013/kauffman-legalzoom-startup-confidence-index-2013




http://www.gemconsortium.org/docs/cat/135/questionnaires




http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/09-117.pdf

http://karlan.yale.edu/p/SEED.pdf

http://karlan.yale.edu/p/SEED.pdf

http://go.worldbank.org/KO0QFVW770

http://go.worldbank.org/KO0QFVW770

Cons

trai

ntM

etho

dolo

gyTo

olD

escr

ipti

onO

pera

tion

al c

onsi

dera

tion

sRe

fere

nce/

link

Tech

nica

l sk

ills

Surv

ey

STEP

Ski

lls

Mea

sure

men

t Sur

vey

∎O

ne m

odul

e as

sess

es jo

b-re

leva

nt s

kills

suc

h as

com

pute

r use

, con

tact

with

clie

nts,

solv

-in

g an

d le

arni

ng a

t wor

k, a

nd a

uton

omy

and

repe

titiv

enes

s

∎Th

e ho

useh

old

surv

ey in

clud

es re

tros

pect

ive

ques

tions

rega

rdin

g jo

b hi

stor

y an

d ex

perie

nce

in e

duca

tion

and

trai

ning

∎Th

e em

ploy

er s

urve

y pr

ovid

es in

form

atio

n on

tr

aini

ng a

nd c

ompe

nsat

ion

∎Th

e su

rvey

con

sist

s of

hou

seho

ld s

urve

y an

d em

ploy

er s

urve

y

∎H

ouse

hold

sur

vey:

Doo

r-to

-doo

r sur

vey,

It ta

kes

2 ho

urs

to c

ompl

ete

the

full

surv

ey

∎Em

ploy

er s

urve

y: D

oor-

to-d

oor s

urve

y, It

take

s 45

m

inut

e to

com

plet

e th

e su

rvey

∎So

me

ques

tions

are

bou

nd to

cop

y rig

hts

http

://m

icro

data

.w

orld

bank

.org

/ind

ex.

php/

cata

log/

step

/abo

ut

Tale

nt S

hort

age

Surv

ey ∎

Surv

ey re

flect

s em

ploy

er p

ersp

ectiv

e w

hen

look

ing

for s

kille

d la

bor

∎Su

rvey

iden

tifie

s w

hich

indu

strie

s/jo

b po

si-tio

ns n

eed

cert

ain

skill

s (e

.g.,

hard

ski

lls:

com

pute

r/in

form

atio

n te

chno

logy

, spe

akin

g/ve

rbal

, for

eign

lang

uage

; sof

t ski

lls: i

nter

per-

sona

l ski

lls, m

otiv

atio

n, te

amw

ork,

pro

fess

ion-

alis

m, a

bilit

y to

dea

l with

com

plex

ity,

pro

blem

so

lvin

g)

∎To

pics

cov

ered

: (1)

if em

ploy

ers

are

expe

rienc

-in

g ta

lent

sho

rtag

es in

the

ir re

spec

tive

orga

ni-

zatio

n, (2

) whi

ch p

ositi

ons

do t

hey

find

mos

t di

ffic

ult t

o fil

l, (3

) why

ope

n po

sitio

ns in

the

ir or

gani

zatio

ns re

mai

n di

ffic

ult t

o fil

l, (4

) how

ta

lent

sho

rtag

es a

re a

ffec

ting

the

clie

nt-f

ac-

ing

abili

ties

of t

heir

orga

niza

tions

, (5)

wha

t em

ploy

ers

do to

sec

ure

the

skill

s th

ey n

eed

∎Ph

one

inte

rvie

w w

ith e

mpl

oyer

s

∎Su

rvey

has

bee

n co

nduc

ted

with

nea

rly 4

0,00

0 em

ploy

ers

in 4

2 co

untr

ies

acro

ss E

urop

e, t

he

Mid

dle

East

, and

Afr

ica,

the

Am

eric

as, a

nd A

sia

Paci

fic s

ince

200

6

http

://w

ww

.m

anpo

wer

grou

p.co

m/

wps

/wcm

/con

nect

/m

anpo

wer

grou

p-en

/ho

me/

thou

ght-

lead

ersh

ip/

rese

arch

-insig

hts/

tale

nt-s

ourc

es/2

013-

tale

nt-s

hort

age#

.U

1mIM

VVd

Wk0

Tabl

e A

1. To

ols

for a

ddre

ssin

g in

divi

dual

con

stra

ints

(con

tinu

ed)

http://www.manpowergroup.com/wps/wcm/connect/manpowergroup-en/home/thought-leadership/research-insights/talent-sources/2013-talent-shortage#.U1mIMVVdWk0








Tabl

e A

2. T

ools

for a

ddre

ssin

g en

viro

nmen

tal c

onst

rain

ts

Cons

trai

ntM

etho

dolo

gyTo

olD

escr

ipti

onO

pera

tion

al c

onsi

dera

tion

sRe

fere

nce/

link

Fina

ncia

l se

rvic

e

Surv

ey

The

FinS

cope

sur

vey

∎M

easu

res

leve

l of a

cces

s to

fina

ncia

l ser

vice

acr

oss

inco

me

rang

es a

nd d

emog

raph

ics

amon

g ad

ults

.

∎M

odul

es in

clud

e (1)

fina

ncia

l nee

ds a

nd/o

r dem

ands

; (2

) fin

anci

al p

erce

ptio

ns, a

ttitu

des,

and

beha

vior

s; (3

) obs

tacl

es fa

ced

and

fact

ors

that

hav

e an

influ

ence

on

fina

ncia

l situ

atio

n; (4

) cur

rent

leve

ls o

f acc

ess

to, a

nd

utili

zatio

n of

, fin

anci

al s

ervi

ces

and

prod

ucts

(for

mal

an

d/or

info

rmal

); (5

) lan

dsca

pe o

f acc

ess

(i.e.

, typ

es o

f pr

oduc

ts u

sed

in te

rms

of t

rans

actio

ns, s

avin

gs, c

redi

t, in

sura

nce,

and

rem

itta

nces

); (6

) bar

riers

to u

tiliz

atio

n of

, an

d ac

cess

to, f

inan

cial

pro

duct

s an

d se

rvic

es

Surv

eys

have

bee

n co

nduc

ted

in 14

Sub

-Sa

hara

n A

fric

an c

ount

ries,

Paki

stan

, and

Th

aila

nd

http

://w

ww

.fins

cope

.co

.za/

finsc

ope/

page

s/de

faul

t.asp

x

Regu

lato

ry

and

lega

l en

viro

n-m

ent

Thum

btac

k Sm

all

Busi

ness

Frie

ndlin

ess

Surv

ey

∎Su

rvey

mea

sure

s st

ate’

s fr

iend

lines

s to

war

d bu

sine

ss

∎C

over

s a

larg

e ra

nge

of b

usin

ess

envi

ronm

ent t

opic

s, i.e

., (1)

sta

te a

nd lo

cal g

over

nmen

t ove

rall

supp

ort o

f sm

all

busi

ness

es, (

2) h

ealth

insu

ranc

e re

gula

tions

, (3)

tra

inin

g pr

ogra

ms

and

onlin

e re

sour

ces,

(4) s

tatu

s of

resp

on-

dent

s’ bu

sine

sses

and

gen

eral

eco

nom

ic c

ondi

tions

.

Con

duct

ed in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es o

nly

http

://w

ww

.thum

btac

k.co

m/m

edia

/sur

vey/

2013

/fr

iend

lines

s/v1

/Th

umbt

ackM

etho

dolo

gy

Pape

r201

3.pd

f

Coo

pera

tive

Law

&

Regu

latio

n In

itiat

ive

(CLA

RITY

)

∎Pr

ovid

es in

form

atio

n on

coo

pera

tive

law

s, re

gula

tions

, an

d an

alyt

ical

doc

umen

ts e

nabl

ing

envi

ronm

ents

for

coop

erat

ive

deve

lopm

ent

∎A

lso

prov

ides

info

rmat

ion

on h

isto

ry o

f the

dev

elop

-m

ent o

f coo

pera

tive

law

s an

d a

set o

f con

tact

s an

d ci

ta-

tions

to re

leva

nt re

sour

ces

Regu

latio

n an

d in

terp

reta

tion

may

requ

ire

a lo

cal l

awye

rht

tp://

ww

w.o

cdc.

coop

/pd

f/en

ablin

g_co

op_

dev_

engl

ish.

pdf

Doi

ng B

usin

ess

∎Pr

ovid

es a

n ea

se-o

f-do

ing-

busi

ness

inde

x sh

owin

g w

hich

co

untr

y pr

ovid

es a

regu

lato

ry e

nviro

nmen

t con

duci

ve to

th

e st

art a

nd o

pera

tion

of a

loca

l firm

∎Sp

ecifi

c m

odul

es c

over

sta

rtin

g a

busi

ness

, dea

ling

with

co

nstr

uctio

n pe

rmits

, obt

aini

ng e

lect

ricit

y, re

gist

erin

g pr

oper

ty, o

btai

ning

cre

dit,

prot

ectin

g in

vest

ors,

payi

ng

taxe

s, tr

adin

g ac

ross

bor

ders

, enf

orci

ng c

ontr

acts

, em

ploy

ing

wor

kers

, and

ent

repr

eneu

rshi

p

Focu

ses

on re

gula

tory

asp

ects

of d

oing

bu

sine

ss; d

oes

not i

nclu

de in

form

atio

n on

so

cial

and

cul

tura

l env

ironm

ent

http

://w

ww

.do

ingb

usin

ess.o

rg/

Oth

ers

The

Nat

iona

l Exp

ert

Surv

ey (N

ES)

∎Re

ceiv

es q

ualif

ied

opin

ions

from

exp

erts

∎A

dmin

iste

red

to a

min

imum

of 3

6 ex

pert

s in

eac

h co

untr

y, m

easu

ring

nine

key

ent

repr

eneu

rial f

ram

ewor

k co

nditi

ons:

finan

ce, g

over

nmen

t pol

icie

s, go

vern

men

t pr

ogra

ms,

entr

epre

neur

ial e

duca

tion

and

trai

ning

, R&

D

tran

sfer

, com

mer

cial

and

pro

fess

iona

l inf

rast

ruct

ure,

op

enne

ss o

f int

erna

l mar

ket,

phys

ical

infr

astr

uctu

re a

nd

serv

ices

, and

cul

tura

l and

soc

ial n

orm

s

∎Fa

ce-t

o-fa

ce in

terv

iew

s w

ith e

xper

ts,

who

mus

t be

resi

dent

s of

the

targ

et o

r re

gion

∎Po

tent

ial e

xper

ts a

re fi

rst i

dent

ified

, co

ntac

ted,

and

an

appo

intm

ent s

ched

-ul

ed; t

he p

roje

ct is

the

n pr

esen

ted

and

the

inte

rvie

w c

ondu

cted

http

://w

ww

.ge

mco

nsor

tium

.org

/do

cs/d

ownl

oad/

2375

http://www.finscope.co.za/finscope/pages/default.aspx



http://www.thumbtack.com/media/survey/2013/friendliness/v1/ThumbtackMethodologyPaper2013.pdf





http://www.ocdc.coop/pdf/enabling_coop_dev_english.pdf



http://www.doingbusiness.org/

http://www.doingbusiness.org/

http://www.gemconsortium.org/docs/download/2375



Cons

trai

ntM

etho

dolo

gyTo

olD

escr

ipti

onO

pera

tion

al c

onsi

dera

tion

sRe

fere

nce/

link

Infr

astr

uc-

ture

Surv

ey

The

Nat

iona

l Exp

ert

Surv

ey (N

ES)

∎Sa

me

as a

bove

∎Fa

ce-t

o-fa

ce in

terv

iew

s

∎Q

uest

ionn

aire

incl

udes

nin

e op

en-

ende

d re

spon

ses:

thre

e fa

ctor

s tha

t re

spon

dent

s con

sider

to in

hibi

t or c

on-

stra

in e

ntre

pren

eurs

hip

in th

eir c

ount

ry,

thre

e fa

ctor

s tha

t enh

ance

or s

uppo

rt

entr

epre

neur

ship

in th

eir c

ount

ry, a

nd

thre

e re

com

men

datio

ns to

impr

ove

the

entr

epre

neur

ial f

ram

ewor

k

http

://w

ww

.ge

mco

nsor

tium

.org

/D

ata-

Col

lect

ion#

NES

FinS

cope

Mob

ile B

anki

ng

Surv

ey ∎

Surv

eys

user

s an

d no

n-us

ers

of m

obile

ban

king

ser

vice

s w

ith re

spec

t to

acce

ssib

ility

of t

he te

chno

logy

∎Fi

ndin

gs fr

om t

he p

ilot p

roje

ct s

ugge

st t

hat m

obile

ba

nkin

g is

conv

enie

nt fo

r use

rs li

ving

rela

tivel

y fa

r aw

ay

from

ban

king

ser

vice

s

∎Te

leph

one

inte

rvie

ws

wer

e co

nduc

ted

with

use

rs o

f mob

ile b

anki

ng s

ervi

ces

∎Fa

ce-t

o-fa

ce in

-hom

e in

terv

iew

s w

ere

cond

ucte

d w

ith n

on-u

sers

http

://w

ww

.fins

cope

.co

.za/f

insc

ope/

page

s/In

itiat

ives

/Mob

ile-B

anki

ng.

aspx

?ran

dom

ID=d

bb25

b1b-

e02f

-496

e-a2

8b-

6e6d

c982

2ebb

&

linkP

ath=

3&lID

=3_2

Oth

ers

Tool

s fo

r Mak

ing

Infr

astr

uctu

re W

ork

for

Wom

en a

nd M

en

∎In

trod

uces

exi

stin

g in

fras

truc

ture

tool

s (t

rans

port

atio

n,

info

rmat

ion

and

com

mun

icat

ion

tech

nolo

gy [I

CT]

) and

be

st p

ract

ices

in g

ende

r iss

ues

∎Ea

ch in

fras

truc

ture

tool

kit s

ugge

sts

indi

cato

rs m

easu

ring

how

tra

nspo

rtat

ion/

ICT

incr

ease

s en

trep

rene

ursh

ip a

nd

prod

uctiv

ity

∎Sa

mpl

e of

Gen

der-

Resp

onsiv

e Pu

blic

Tr

ansp

orta

tion

Use

r Sur

vey:

take

s 5–

10

min

utes

to c

ompl

ete;

que

stio

ns a

re

on h

ow t

rans

port

atio

n an

d m

arke

t im

prov

emen

t inc

reas

e pr

oduc

tivit

y in

bu

sine

ss; t

rans

port

atio

n m

ode,

rout

e,

time,

and

cos

t are

mea

sure

d

∎O

ther

indi

cato

rs s

ugge

sted

in t

he IC

T to

olki

t are

mod

ern

and

trad

ition

al IC

T ac

cess

and

use

, IC

T co

nten

t, em

ploy

-m

ent,

ICT

entr

epre

neur

ship

, edu

catio

n

http

://w

eb.w

orld

bank

.or

g/W

BSIT

E/EX

TERN

AL/

TOPI

CS/

EXTS

OC

IAL

DEV

ELO

PMEN

T/

0,,c

onte

ntM

DK:

2251

2733

~ pa

gePK

:1489

56~p

iPK:

21

6618

~the

Site

PK:

2443

63,0

0.ht

ml

Tabl

e A

2. T

ools

for a

ddre

ssin

g en

viro

nmen

tal c

onst

rain

ts (c

onti

nued

)

http://www.gemconsortium.org/Data-Collection#NES



http://www.finscope.co.za/finscope/pages/Initiatives/Mobile-Banking.aspx?randomID=dbb25b1b-e02f-496e







http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/0,,contentMDK:23016929~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:244363,00.html









Cons

trai

ntM

etho

dolo

gyTo

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escr

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pera

tion

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onsi

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sRe

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link

Gov

ern-

men

t ca

paci

ty/

corr

uptio

n

Surv

ey

Wor

ldw

ide

Gov

erna

nce

Indi

cato

rs (W

GI)

∎In

dica

tors

mea

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over

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r 215

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x di

men

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s of

gov

erna

nce

are

(1) v

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ext

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coun

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tabi

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and

lack

of v

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(3

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ernm

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bu

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rule

of l

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6) c

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f cor

rupt

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∎G

over

nanc

e m

easu

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rele

vant

for e

ntre

pren

eurs

are

la

ck o

f reg

ulat

ory

burd

en a

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ontr

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f cor

rupt

ion

∎Th

e W

GI c

ompi

les

and

sum

mar

izes

in

form

atio

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ta

sour

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rela

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to e

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Bus

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Envi

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urve

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loba

l Ins

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Bu

sine

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and

Risk

Indi

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http

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fo.w

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bank

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vern

ance

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aspx

#hom

e

Cor

rupt

ion

Perc

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easu

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war

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in a

cou

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e Bu

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tegr

ity

Tool

kit i

s a

six-

step

pro

cess

for b

uild

ing

an e

ffec

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anti-

corr

uptio

n pr

ogra

m. T

he s

teps

are

(1)

com

mit

to t

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sses

s th

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rren

t sta

tus,

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lan

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cor-

rupt

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prog

ram

, (4)

act

on

the

plan

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) mon

itor p

rogr

ess,

and

(6) r

epor

t

http

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nspa

renc

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g/cp

i201

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Wor

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alue

Sur

vey

∎A

sks

ques

tions

abo

ut s

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pol

itica

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co

untr

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the

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ld

∎Th

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whi

ch w

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t in

2010

–14,

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cted

via

face

-to-

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surv

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wel

l-bei

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ostm

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mat

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orld

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dex_

htm

l

Mar

ket

Mea

sure

men

ts fo

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som

e re

quire

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ritte

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http

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ww

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met

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Tabl

e A

2. T

ools

for a

ddre

ssin

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viro

nmen

tal c

onst

rain

ts (c

onti

nued

)

http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/index.aspx#home



http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2013/

http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2013/

http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/index_html





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link

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Oth

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Ensu

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and-

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en

Yout

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ng P

rogr

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How

to C

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n Ef

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re (1

) ass

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arch

que

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http

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all a

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upg

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http

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ww

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ac.z

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pers

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nov0

1.pd

f

Gen

der

Tool

kits

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ursh

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publ

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d by

Wor

ld

Bank

’s G

ende

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evel

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roup

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mal

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man

cap

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ntre

pren

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Pro

gram

∎M

odul

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t are

the

top

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bus

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gula

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en

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nmen

t ind

icat

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easu

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trai

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smal

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eneu

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ringh

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on

the

topi

c of

fem

ale

entr

epre

neur

ship

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ch p

aper

intr

oduc

es s

ampl

e su

rvey

qu

estio

ns w

hich

cov

er fi

nanc

ial a

cces

s, bu

sine

ss m

anag

emen

t, en

trep

rene

uria

l tr

aits

, and

inpu

t of f

irms

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eb.w

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bank

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g/W

BSIT

E/EX

TERN

AL/

TOPI

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DK:

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Tabl

e A

2. T

ools

for a

ddre

ssin

g en

viro

nmen

tal c

onst

rain

ts (c

onti

nued

)

http://library.iyfnet.org/library/ensuring-demand-driven-youth-training-programs-how-conduct-effective-labor-market-assessment









http://www.prism.uct.ac.za/papers/vchnov01.pdf



http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTGENDER/0,,contentMDK:23392638~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:336868,00.html









Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship

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