Supporting and managing - Imagine · PDF fileeducation and care provides the foundation ......

Supporting and managingchildren’s behaviour

An early

childhood

resource

Acknowledgements

Kerry Presser, Project Officer Children with AdditionalNeeds would like to thank the families, educators andother professionals who have contributed to thedevelopment of the Behaviour Support Policy for EarlyChildhood Services and this resource folder. Particularthanks are extended to:

Reference group

Amelia AngelakisKeith ChristieRachel ClarkeJanet HarrisHelen KowalenkoBron de KokJen Mathwin-RaymondSusan SweetmanHeather Ward

Writing group

Rachel ClarkeHelen KowalenkoJenni Pearce

Resource folder working group

Angela DavisGill NicholJanet PedlarSophie Takmaki

And to the following people for their comments on themanuscript:

Elspeth HarleyHelen LindstromJenny MacMullinDebbie Moyle and the Aboriginal Education UnitBernada Sanchez

© 2004 The State of South Australia,Department of Education and Children’s ServicesProduced by DECS Publishing266 Port Road, Hindmarsh SA 5007Designed by Eden Cartwright DesignPrinted by Gillingham Printers, South Australia

ISBN 0 7308 7715 9R2196/2

The Department of Education and Children’sServices is committed to providing highquality learning, teaching and care forchildren and students. The connectionbetween children’s social and emotionalwellbeing and their success in learning,highlighted by international research, hasinformed the development of the BehaviourSupport Policy for Early Childhood Services andthis resource folder, Supporting and ManagingChildren’s Behaviour.

Research has also shown that education andcare are key protective factors that canreduce children’s risk of poor life outcomes.This policy supports educators in achievingpositive behavioural and learning outcomesfor all children, through the provision ofsafe, supportive environments and highquality, developmentally appropriatelearning programs.

The Behaviour Support Policy for EarlyChildhood Services applies to departmentalpreschools, child parent centres, play-centres,Rural Care Programs, occasional careservices and Family Day Care CoordinationUnits. The policy is also recommended toother early childhood education and careproviders who may wish to adapt it fortheir own use.

Foreword

The policy focuses on young children priorto their entry into reception at school andshould be considered in conjunction with theSchool Discipline Policy (1996) which providesa positive and continuous approach tosupporting and managing children’sbehaviour throughout the compulsory yearsof schooling.

I would like to thank the early childhoodeducators, parent groups, associations,disability agencies and departmental stafffrom across South Australia who havecontributed to this work.

I recommend this resource to early childhoodeducators.

Steve MarshallChief ExecutiveDepartment of Educationand Children’s Services

1. Behaviour Support Policy for Early Childhood Services

2. Site behaviour code2.1 Guidelines for reviewing the site behaviour code2.2 Promoting the site behaviour code

3. A whole site approach to behaviour management3.1 Teaching and learning3.2 Effective partnerships3.3 Children’s behaviour as a form of communication3.4 Levels of intervention3.5 Curriculum implications3.6 Protective behaviours3.7 Physical environment3.8 Routines and program structure3.9 Maximising children’s cooperation3.10 Challenging behaviours

4. The context of children’s behaviour4.1 Overview4.2 Resilience4.3 Temperament4.4 Social competence and social skills4.5 Self-regulation4.6 Gender implications

5. Recording observations5.1 Locus of control signals in young children5.2 Social skills checklist5.3 Situational analysis: ABC recording

6. Specialised services6.1 Department of Education and Children’s Services6.2 Other agencies

7. Transition planning7.1 Flow chart7.2 Preschool to school checklist

8. Professional development and resources8.1 Training and development8.2 Self-evaluation checklists

9. Resources & Bibliography

Contents

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BehaviourSupport Policyfor EarlyChildhoodServices

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Children, families and educators are entitledto policy and operational guidelines thatsupport a consistent approach to behavioursupport and management. The BehaviourSupport Policy for Early Childhood Servicesapplies to departmental preschools, childparent centres, play-centres and occasionalcare services (referred to as preschools) andFamily Day Care Coordination Units.Departmental employees are bound by thepolicy which is also recommended foradaptation by other early childhoodeducation and care providers.

The policy describes the roles andresponsibilities of departmental personnel,identifies relevant legislation and describesthe department’s approach to the supportand management of children’s behaviour.The Behaviour Support Policy for EarlyChildhood Services requires that educatorssupport children in accordance with theirage and stage of development and culturalbackground to:

• express their wants and needs in ways thatrespect the rights and safety of others

• interact positively with individuals andthe group

• care for themselves, others and theirenvironment

• recognise the consequences of theirbehaviour

• choose positive behaviours

• develop problem solving skills.

These behaviours are described as appropriatebehaviours.

The policy addresses the needs of childrenwith emerging and established challengingbehaviours. Challenging behavioursendanger the safety or emotional wellbeingof the child or others, impede the child’scapacity to participate in learning and maylead to social isolation. Challenging

Behaviour Support Policyfor Early Childhood Services

behaviours may be internalised (eg withdrawaland reluctance to participate) or externalised(eg hitting, biting or damaging property).

The Behaviour Support Policy for EarlyChildhood Services and the School DisciplinePolicy (1996) support the management ofchildren’s behaviour on departmental sitesfrom the time they enter early childhoodeducation and care services, through thecompulsory years of schooling, and includeOut of School Hours Care (OSHC) services onschool sites. The latter are required to complywith the OSHC Standards (1998), developingbehaviour management strategies consistentwith those of the school.

Rationale

Research into early childhood development,education and care provides the foundationfor the policy. The following statementsarticulate the principles and beliefs thatunderpin educators’ approach to supportingand managing children’s behaviour.

• Children’s behaviour is a form ofcommunication and is purposeful.Children’s capacity to choose appropriatebehaviour is influenced by theirdevelopmental ability, temperament,interactions, life experiences andenvironmental factors.

• Children have a right to respect andconsideration as individuals, and to besupported in their learning to developappropriate behaviours for group settings.

• Children’s learning is most successful when:

– it builds on children’s priorexperiences, skills and knowledge,encouraging positive dispositionstowards learning and providing forindividual children’s learning styles

Supporting and managing children’s behaviour 7

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Behaviour Support Policy for Early Childhood Services8

– behavioural expectations are explicitand take into consideration children’sculture, age, stage of development,life experiences and the context ofthe setting

– the environment is safe, inclusive,supportive of learning and free fromharassment and bullying

– families and educators work todevelop consistent expectations tosupport the child’s learning

– children co-construct meaning andknowledge through purposeful,challenging and interesting activitiesthat build on their prior knowledgeand experiences.

• Early behaviour intervention is effective inpreventing and minimising thedevelopment and long-term effects ofongoing challenging behaviours.

Policy outcomes

1. Sites provide a safe, secure and supportiveenvironment in which children aresuccessful in learning appropriatebehaviours.

2. Sites use a positive approach to behaviourmanagement that takes into account childand contextual factors.

3. Educators work in partnership withfamilies to address children’s learning needs.

4. Challenging behaviours are addressed in atimely and appropriate manner.

Policy statements

1. The learning environment supportschildren to be successful in developingappropriate behaviours

A supportive environment is evident where:

– the site is safe, well-planned andpromotes a sense of belonging, trustand respect

– there is recognition of the importanceof play in children’s learning andsupport for them to develop thecapacity to imagine, experiment,problem solve, role-play and expressa range of feelings and ideas

– the program is enriching, varied andincludes developmentally appropriatebehavioural expectations

– staff are aware of their occupationalhealth and safety responsibilities,including the identification ofpotential hazards, seeking advice andresolution as appropriate

– children are effectively supervised atall times

– interactions are positive, recognisingand valuing children as individualsand are responsive to external factorsthat may influence children’swellbeing (eg illness, changes infamily circumstances).

2. Expectations of children’s behaviour takeaccount of their age and stage ofdevelopment

Expectations that consider children’s ageand stage of development are evidentwhere educators:

– demonstrate a broad understandingof child development anddevelopmentally appropriatebehaviours in young children

– modify their behaviour andprogramming to address the needsof individual children, includingthose with disabilities ordevelopmental delay


– are familiar with and utilise relevantprofessional reports and familyinformation.

3. Children’s behaviour is supported usinga positive approach

A positive approach to supportingchildren’s behaviour is evident whereeducators:

– model verbal and non-verbalbehaviours that are respectful andinclusive of all children and families

– model and encourage problemsolving, negotiation and conflictresolution

– notice and acknowledge appropriatebehavioural responses by children

– actively engage children inunderstanding and developingbehavioural expectations andconsequences and in goal setting

– provide opportunities for skilldevelopment throughout theprogram, such as resilience, social,coping and communication skills andprotective behaviours

– explicitly teach appropriatebehaviours and play skills, buildingon children’s strengths and priorknowledge

– provide opportunities for children topractise appropriate behaviours

– use assessment, monitoring andreporting procedures that focus onchildren’s progress and achievements

– work together as a team, using aconsistent approach.

4. Approaches to behaviour support valuethe diversity of children’s backgroundsand experiences

Valuing of diversity is evident whereeducators:

– demonstrate awareness that children’sbehaviour is influenced by theirtemperament, abilities, experiences,culture and family context

– encourage children to understandfactors that may influence otherchildren’s behaviour and to respondusing appropriate strategies

– encourage families to contribute theirideas and experiences aboutchildren’s behaviour.

5. Children’s behaviour is supported inpartnership with families and localcommunities

Effective partnerships are evident where:

– site behaviour codes are developed,through the management committeeor governing council, in partnershipwith families and the community andare reviewed annually

– site behaviour codes are provided toand discussed with enrolling families

– families and educators communicateeffectively and work together toensure that children’s behaviouraland developmental needs are met

– confidentiality is observed indiscussions with families and inexchange of information with otherservices

– transition to another setting iscarefully planned and monitored withstaff from the new setting and familiesfor children with challengingbehaviours (eg preschool to school).

6. The response to emerging challengingbehaviours is timely and appropriate

A timely and appropriate response isevident where:

– early identification of challengingbehaviours occurs

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– communication with families aboutchallenging behaviours takes place atthe earliest opportunity and is framedas a positive opportunity to addresschildren’s behavioural needs withinthe group setting

– support from departmental supportservices and/or other agenciesis sought

– children’s behaviours are assessedacross a range of informal and formallearning activities and contexts(eg small and large groups)

– planning, implementation,monitoring and review of individualbehaviour plans occurs in partnershipwith families and support services

– program planning considersbehavioural needs as part of planningfor individual children and groups.

Behavioural approaches should encourageand reinforce appropriate behaviours,ensuring the safety of the child and others.

– Children are always treated withdignity and respect and directlymonitored. Physical, verbal oremotional punishments are not used(ie smacking, shaking, verbalreprimands, shouting or anypunishment that frightens, humiliatesor threatens the child).

– Consequences for inappropriatebehaviours may include time-limitedwithdrawal of attention, which isnon-emotional and followed byredirection (ie time out).

Strategies to manage challenging behavioursexclude corporal punishment, abolished inSouth Australian government schools by1991 in response to the International Courtof Human Rights ruling (1982) that corporalpunishment is a violation of the basic humanrights of children.

Responsibilities

Preschools will use the Behaviour SupportPolicy for Early Childhood Services to furtherdevelop site behaviour codes. Site behaviourcodes describe a positive and proactiveapproach to supporting children’sdevelopment of appropriate behaviours andthe site’s behavioural expectations andconsequences. Site behaviour codes aredeveloped in partnership with governingcouncils and management committees,families and relevant members of the localcommunity. The governing council approvesthe site behaviour code.

Departmental directors and District Directorssupport the implementation of the policyacross departmental sites, while preschooldirectors/school principals and educators areaccountable for the implementation of thepolicy on their sites. Family Day CareCoordination Unit personnel are responsiblefor supporting the implementation of theadapted Guiding Children’s Behaviour Policyby Family Day Care care providers, whoseconditions of approval require them toimplement this policy.

The primary responsibility of educators is aduty of care to children whenever therelationship of child/educator applies.Duty of care includes:

• supervision of children in the range ofeducation and care contexts provided byearly childhood settings

• designing and implementing programsand procedures to promote safeenvironments

• warning children about dangeroussituations or practices

• ensuring that premises and equipmentare safe.

Duty of care varies according to factors


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including the child’s age, maturity,experience and the nature of the activity.Generally, the duty of care is greater theyounger the child, the more complex thelearning, the health and care needs of thechild and the more hazardous the situation.

A breach of duty of care occurs where therehas been a failure to exercise the level of carerequired in any particular situation. In orderfor a liability in negligence to be established,it must be proved that:

• a duty of care was owed in the circumstances

• the duty of care was breached, because ofan act or omission on the part of the personowing the duty

• a loss or injury is suffered as a result of thebreach

• the type of loss or injury suffered was areasonably foreseeable consequence of theact or omission.

If such a liability is established, a parent orstudent may make a claim for ‘damages’ asfinancial compensation for all foreseeable loss(both economic and non-economic) arisingfrom the negligence.

In the event that injuries result from aneducator’s negligence in the course of his/her employment, the Minister for Educationand Children’s Services is vicariously liableand is required to indemnify the educator forany liability incurred, unless the actionconstitutes serious or wilful misconduct.

Directors, State Office

Relevant State Office directors have aresponsibility to:

• ensure the provision of services forchildren with challenging behaviours

• ensure professional developmentopportunities for educators

• encourage review and innovation inbehaviour support/management

• engage in interagency agreements to

improve service provision

• monitor the implementation of the policy.

District Directors

District Directors have a responsibility to:

• support site managers to develop sitebehaviour codes and high qualityprograms

• implement accountability measuresthrough performance management andother methods to ensure that sites’ practiceis linked with the policy outcomes andstatements

• work cooperatively with departmentalservices and other agencies to support theprovision of behavioural services forchildren with challenging behaviours

• assist in resolving concerns and conflictsbetween departmental staff and families ormembers of the community, as appropriate

• support the management of criticalincidents.

Support services

Support services have a responsibility to:

• provide high quality behavioural supportthat is responsive to the needs of children,families and DECS sites

• support a coordinated approach toservice delivery

• evaluate and improve models ofservice delivery

• maintain up to date professionalknowledge

• provide professional development todepartmental educators.


Family Day Care Coordination Units

Family Day Care field workers and teamleaders have a responsibility to ensure:

• the environment and work practices ofcare providers are safe

• a site behaviour code is developed andreviewed regularly

• care providers demonstrate good practicein supporting and managing children’sbehaviours

• support to manage children’s challengingbehaviours is sought.

Governing councils/managementcommittees

Governing councils/managementcommittees have a responsibility to ensure:

• opportunities for the community tocontribute to the development and reviewof the site behaviour code are provided

• the site behaviour code considers thecultural and social diversity of thecommunity

• policy implementation is adequatelyresourced.

Site managers

Preschool directors and principals of childparent centres have an additionalresponsibility to ensure:

• implementation of the Behaviour SupportPolicy

• the environment and work practices ofeducators are safe

• a site behaviour code is developed andreviewed regularly

• educators demonstrate good practice insupporting and managing children’sbehaviours

• support to manage children’s challengingbehaviours is sought.

Educators

Preschool teachers, ancillary staff, occasionalcare staff and preschool directors/schoolprincipals have a responsibility to:

• model, plan and implement behaviourmanagement practices consistent with theprinciples and intent of this policy

• critically reflect on and articulatebehaviour support and behaviourmanagement practices

• seek information from families and advicefrom other professionals

• undertake professional development,as appropriate

• contribute to the development,implementation and review of the sitebehaviour code.

Expectations of families

Families are expected to:

• support the child’s regular attendance

• provide information that will assistdepartmental personnel to understandtheir child’s needs and support theirlearning

• contribute to their child’s learning andcare program (eg if relevant, providingassessment reports from other agencies).


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• South Australian Curriculum, Standards andAccountability (SACSA) Framework (2001)

• Antiracism (1996)

• Mulitculturalism in Schooling and Children’sServices (1995)

• Assessment and Reporting for Schools andPreschools (1995)

• Occupational Health and Safety (1997)

• Students with Disabilities Policy (1991)– under review

Departmental guidelines

• DECS Administrative Instructions andGuidelines

• Aboriginal Education Plan in Early Childhoodand Schooling (1999-2003)

• Fair and Reasonable: Disability DiscriminationAct Implementation Kit (2000)

• ADHD: Teaching and Managing Children andSchools (1999)

• Including Children with Disabilities andDevelopmental Delay in Preschools (1999)

• Health Support Planning in Schools,Preschools and Childcare Services (2001)

• Negotiated Education Plan (2003)

Related documents

• National Family Day Care Standards

• National Childcare Standards

• Family Day Care Quality Practices Guide

Implementation, supportand review

Departmental professional developmentcourses will incorporate the BehaviourSupport Policy for Early Childhood Services.

Preschools will use this document as thebasis for the development of site behaviourcodes, in partnership with managementcommittees/governing councils, families andthe local community.

The policy will be evaluated in conjunctionwith any review of the School DisciplinePolicy.

Relevant information

The Behaviour Support Policy for EarlyChildhood Services should be considered inconjunction with the following legislation,Department of Education and Children’sServices policies and action plans.

Legislation

• Children’s Services Act 1985

• Education Act 1972 and Regulationsunder the Act

• Equal Opportunity Act (SA, 1984)

• Occupational Health and Safety Act (1986)

• Disability Discrimination Act(Commonwealth, 1992)

Policies

• School Discipline Policy (1996)

• Family Day Care Guiding Children’sBehaviour Policy

• Preschool Enrolment Policy

• Child Protection (1998)


Ancilliary staff

Early childhood workers, school servicesofficers, bilingual assistants, preschoolsupport and occasional care staff

Appropriate behaviour

Children are encouraged, in accordance withtheir age and stage of development, to:

• contribute to a positive personal andgroup identity

• respect the rights, feelings and needs ofindividuals and the community

• develop and enhance positiverelationships

• support individuals’ contributions asmembers of a group, promote children’sautonomy and motivation to learn.

Challenging behaviours

These behaviours may be internalised(eg withdrawal and lack of participation)or externalised (eg aggression, bullying).

They include behaviours that endanger thesafety of the child or others, impedechildren’s capacity to access or participatein the curriculum.

Developmentally appropriate practice

The use of knowledge and understanding ofchild development to make thoughtful andappropriate decisions about early childhoodprogram practices; reflect an understandingthat programs for young children should bebased on what is known about youngchildren’s learning, development and theirfamily context.

Glossary

Educators

Teachers, early childhood workers, schoolservices officers, preschool directors andprincipals of child parent centres

Family Day Care Coordination Unit staff

Family Day Care field workers andteam leaders

Other agencies

Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service,the Crippled Children’s Association,Intellectual Disability Services Council, theAutism Association of SA and DownSyndrome Society

Preschools

Departmental preschools, child parentcentres, play-centres and occasional careservices

Site manager

Preschool directors, principals of childparent centres

Support services

Departmental support services personnelproviding behavioural support includepsychologists, guidance officers, specialeducators, social workers, behaviour supportand disability consultants.

Transition

The process of moving from one earlychildhood service to another (eg preschoolto school).

Site behaviourcode

2

2.1 Guidelines for reviewing the sitebehaviour code

2.2 Promoting the site behaviour code


2Site behaviour code

A site behaviour code should:

Use positive language

Describe specific strategies and consequences

Consider children with additional needs

Change over time according to children’s needs

Be tailored to accommodate the physicalenvironment, curriculum and educators’ styles

The site behaviour code is a dynamicdocument that is revisited annually to ensurethat educators are conversant with its contentand are able to apply it in practice. The sitebehaviour code should reflect current theoryand changes to the preschool community.

A site behaviour code is a statement ofvalues and expectations in relation tochildren’s behaviour. It also describes theways in which educators will support andmanage children's behaviour.

The site behaviour code supports positiveoutcomes for children, families, educatorsand the community by:

Providing a framework for the support andmanagement of children’s behaviour

Contributing to clear communication aboutchildren’s behaviour in a way that supportsrespectful and cooperative relationships betweenchildren, families and educators

Communicating values and expectations inrelation to behaviour

Addressing safety issues

Stating clearly consequences for inappropriatebehaviours

Promoting consistency in the approach byeducators to behaviour support and management

Adapted from: Maximising Positive Behaviours andManaging Challenging Behaviours, 2002 (MPB courseproduced by DETE)

Site behaviour code16

2.1 Guidelines for reviewingthe site behaviour code

Consideration of the following will assist thereview of the site behaviour code. The reviewprocess should be reflective and engage alleducators, families and the community.

• What are your beliefs about behaviour?What are the behavioural goals foryour site?

• How do your actions encourage andsupport appropriate behaviours?

• How do your actions encourage anddiscourage inappropriate or unsafebehaviours?

• What are the rules for safety and fairness?

• How will you consult and inform families?

• How will you involve children in settingbehavioural expectations?

• How will you inform new and relief staff?

• How will your site review the policy andits effectiveness?

Adapted from MPB course

Please note that district support services areavailable to support the review of sitebehaviour codes.

The policy statements can be used to supportreview of sites’ behaviour managementpractices. The following checklist will assistteams in identifying priorities forimprovement.

1. The learning environment supports children to be successful in developingappropriate behaviours

1. The site is safe, well-planned and promotes a sense of belonging, trust and respect

2. There is recognition of the importance of play in children’s learning and support forthem to develop the capacity to imagine, experiment, problem solve, role-play andexpress a range of feelings and ideas

3. The program is enriching, varied and includes developmentally appropriatebehavioural expectations

4. Educators are aware of their occupational health and safety responsibilities, includingthe identification of potential hazards, seeking advice and resolution as appropriate

5. Children are effectively supervised at all times

6. Interactions are positive, recognising and valuing children as individuals and areresponsive to external factors that may influence children’s wellbeing (eg illness,changes in family circumstances)

Notat all

Verywell


2

3. Children’s behaviour is supported using a positive approach

1. Educators’ verbal and non-verbal behaviours are respectful and inclusive of allchildren and families

2. Model and encourage problem solving, negotiation and conflict resolution

3. Notice and acknowledge appropriate behavioural responses by children

4. Actively engage children in understanding and developing behavioural expectationsand consequences and in goal setting

5. Provide opportunities for skill development throughout the program, such as resilience,social, coping and communication skills and protective behaviours

6. Explicitly teach appropriate behaviours and play skills, building on children’s strengthsand prior knowledge

7. Provide opportunities for children to practise appropriate behaviours

8. Use assessment, monitoring and reporting procedures that focus on children’sprogress and achievements

9. Work together as a team, using a consistent approach

4. Approaches to behaviour support value the diversity of children’s backgroundsand experiences

1. Demonstrate awareness that children’s behaviour is influenced by their temperament,abilities, experiences, culture and family context

2. Encourage children to understand factors that may influence other children’s behaviourand to respond using appropriate strategies

3. Encourage families to contribute their ideas and experiences about children’s behaviour

2. Expectations of children’s behaviour take into account their age and stageof development

1. Demonstrate a broad understanding of children’s development and developmentallyappropriate behaviours in young children

2. Modify their behaviour and programming to address the needs of individual children,including those with disabilities or developmental delay

3. Are familiar with and utilise relevant professional reports and family information

Notat all

Verywell

Notat all

Verywell

Notat all

Verywell

Notat all

Verywell


Adapted from: Behaviour Support Policy for Early Childhood Services, 2004

5. Children’s behaviour is supported in partnership with families and localcommunities

1. Site behaviour codes are developed, through the management committee or governingcouncil, in partnership with families and the community and are reviewed annually

2. Site behaviour codes are provided to and discussed with enrolling families

3. Families and educators communicate effectively and work together to ensure thatchildren’s behavioural and developmental needs are met

4. Confidentiality is observed in discussions with families and in exchange of informationwith other services

5. Transition to another setting is carefully planned and monitored with educators fromthe new setting and families for children with challenging behaviours (eg preschoolto school)

Notat all

Verywell6. The response to emerging challenging behaviours is timely and appropriate

1. Early identification of challenging behaviours occurs

2. Communication with families about challenging behaviours takes place at the earliestopportunity and is framed as a positive opportunity to address children’s behaviouralneeds within the group setting

3. Support from DECS support services and/or other agencies is sought

4. Children’s behaviours are assessed across a range of informal and formal learningactivities and contexts (eg small and large groups)

5. Planning, implementation, and review of individual behaviour plans occurs inpartnership with families and support services

6. Program planning considers behavioural needs as part of planning for individualchildren and groups

7. Children are always treated with dignity and respect and directly monitored. Physical,verbal or emotional punishments are not used, ie smacking, shaking, shouting or anypunishment that frightens, humiliates or threatens the child)

8. Consequences for inappropriate behaviours may include time-limited withdrawal ofattention, which is non-emotional and followed by redirection (ie time out)


2.2 Promoting the sitebehaviour code

Families are central to a child’s early learning;and skilled early childhood professionals build onthe knowledge these significant people contributeto understanding the child ... By understandingindividual families’ expectations and aspirationsfor children and finding out how they cancomplement their efforts, they actively promotemeaningful partnerships with families andcommunities and support each child's learningand sense of belonging.

(DETE, SACSA Framework, 2001, Early Years Band, p7)

Information from families at the time ofenrolment can alert educators to theparticular needs of individual children andfamily expectations about behaviourmanagement. It is suggested that familiesreceive a copy of the site behaviour codeat the time of enrolment and whenever itis reviewed.

Displaying information about the sitebehaviour code will also supportcommunication with families about thisissue. Governing councils should beconversant with the site behaviour code.

A summary of information provided by asample of families of preschool children withchallenging behaviours follows. In the courseof the Review of the Interim BehaviourManagement Policy for Early ChildhoodServices (2001), a sample of families wereasked what was important about theapproach to behaviour management in earlychildhood settings.

Developing a respectful and caringrelationship with my child

• By showing that they care about whatinterests my child and their life as partof our family

• Considering how other factors affectmy child's behaviour (eg familycircumstances, health and wellbeing)

Being positive and consistent inbehaviour management

• Knowing and building on my child'sstrengths

• Describing my child's behaviourrather than labelling the child

• Helping my child to be successful

• Showing visiting therapists how mychild learns best

• Being patient but persistent

• Identifying the triggers of challengingbehaviours and working to prevent them

• Making sure that my child understandswhat is expected of them

• Encouraging my child to solve problemsin a positive way

• Helping them to learn as part ofthe group

2

What families value


Being sensitive to the needs of families

• Making us welcome in the preschool

• Understanding we are often anxiousabout our children’s behaviour and maybe reluctant to raise these issues

• Respecting our need for privacy whendiscussing our child and keepinginformation confidential

• Asking us what we think and have triedin relation to our child’s behaviour

• Understanding how our family’s cultureimpacts on our child’s behaviour

• Telling us when we are managing ourchild’s behaviour well and when ourchild has been successful

Working together with families

• Talking about challenging behaviours whenthey happen, face-to-face

• Involving us in planning strategies to helpour child; showing what we can do at home

• Asking about what works at home

• Checking that we are comfortable with theapproach being used

• Letting us know about our child’sprogress, needs

• Giving us prior information about staffchanges and preschool events, how our childmight react and how we can support them

• Giving feedback about how our child’sday has been

• Asking whether we would like to meetformally or discuss progress throughinformal discussions

• Recommending books and videos to helpus at home

• Referring us to other services

Supporting my child’s transitionto school

• Varying the length of the transition toschool according to my child needs

• Giving us early information about theplanning process and our options

• Arranging information about schooland support

• Passing information on about thingsthat my child does well

A whole siteapproach tobehaviourmanagement

3

3.1 Teaching and learning

3.2 Effective partnerships

3.3 Children’s behaviour as a formof communication

3.4 Levels of intervention

3.5 Curriculum implications

3.6 Protective behaviours

3.7 Physical environment

3.8 Routines and program structure

3.9 Maximising children’s cooperation

3.10 Challenging behaviours


The information in this section will assist thedevelopment of a whole site approach thathas a preventative focus and supportseffective, timely intervention for challengingbehaviours.

Positive interactions between children,educators and families are supported by thephysical environment, routines and programstructures, shared expectations of behaviourfor adults and children and respectfulinteractions.

The quality of behaviour management can besignificantly improved and the social learningenvironment of a school (or preschool) isenhanced, if a whole school (or preschool)approach is developed. (Rogers, 1995)

A whole site approach to behaviourmanagement includes the behaviour of bothadults and children in that context.Educators provide an important model forthe children in their care. While childrenlearn a great deal from what educators say,they learn more from what they see.

The degree to which educators modelcollaborative, caring and supportivebehaviour will directly influence the way inwhich children relate to each other, expressemotions and understand themselves.

3.1 Teaching and learning

Behaviour management is about teachingand learning. The ultimate goal is to teachchildren to regulate their behaviour andsupport them in learning about theconsequences of their behaviour. Whenchildren regulate their behaviour andbecome self-directed, their needs andinterests become clearer to them and toothers, providing the foundation for achild-centred curriculum.

The site’s behavioural expectations must beinclusive of children's developmental

3A whole site approach tobehaviour management

abilities and their learning styles, the needsand experiences of children (girls and boys)and children from diverse cultural andlinguistic backgrounds.

Programs that are developmentallyappropriate and support children to besuccessful will extend their repertoire ofresponses and increase their confidence.Consistency in behaviour managementstrategies in the home and early childhoodsetting will ensure that children are clearabout the behaviour that is expected ofthem and of others.

High quality early childhood programsreflect educators’ knowledge about thecognitive, language, physical, sensory,emotional and social development of eachchild and the group. Teaching practiceshould reflect an understanding of currenteducational and behaviour managementtheories and practices.

Characteristics of early childhood programsthat meet individual child and group needsinclude those that:

• provide a safe and supportiveenvironment for learning

• are inclusive of children’s abilities, gender,life experiences, linguistic and culturalbackgrounds and race

• are developmentally appropriate

• consider children’s interests, experiencesand additional developmental needs

• encourage children’s development oflanguage and communication skills,including support for children’s use oftheir first language where they havelimited English (to enable expression offeelings and needs)

• support children’s emotional and socialdevelopment and positive dispositions tolearning.


A whole site approach to behaviour management22

3.2 Effective partnerships

The development of partnerships betweeneducators, families and children to clarifyvalues and determine expectations ofbehaviour is critical to the development of asafe, caring and supportive environment.Rules and routines that give children a senseof security and belonging support their needto feel physically and psychologically safe.

The site behaviour code will support anorderly and consistent approach tobehaviour management by expressingbehavioural expectations in terms ofindividual rights and social responsibilities,and describing the consequences ofinappropriate behaviours. The code needs tobe negotiated and regularly refined, but mostimportantly, explained to children andunderstood by adults.

Active involvement of community andfamily members in the early childhoodsetting is encouraged, either as volunteers oras employees. For example, sites are able toemploy Aboriginal community and familymembers as cultural instructors. Measureslike these will contribute to respectful,effective partnerships that support aninclusive curriculum.

3.3 Children’s behaviour as aform of communication

Behaviour is purposeful and the way thatchildren tell us how they are feelingphysically and emotionally. Consequently,inappropriate behaviours are not justresponses to be reduced or eliminated.Instead, we need to determine what the childis attempting to communicate and teachmore functional and appropriate ways thatthey can use to have their needs met.

Children need to be taught, rather than betold what not to do. When a child isredirected, stopped or reprimanded, anexplanation needs to be given. This allowschildren to learn what they can and cannotdo and the reasons why. Where limits andinstructions are given without an explanation,children will continue to be dependent onothers for information about what to do.

Understanding the factors that contributeto children’s behaviour is essential. Forexample, children from diverse cultural andlinguistic backgrounds with limited Englishmay find the adjustment to a totally newcultural, social and linguistic environmentconfusing. For these children, the need to besocially accepted is fundamentally importantas they adjust to an unfamiliar environmentand language. The effects of trauma, tortureand isolation may influence the behaviour ofsome children from culturally andlinguistically diverse backgrounds.

Cuong, who has high support needs, had neverbeen out of his home environment withoutmembers of his family. Accepting preschool as asafe educational setting had proved difficult forboth the family and for Cuong, who frequentlycried for some time after arrival.

From the time that the preschool bilingualworker began to work with Cuong, hisbehaviour began to change. Her use of hisfamily’s language prompted Cuong to listenintently, begin to explore the room, use eyecontact and show a more relaxed interest inthe preschool surrounds.

Children’s physical and emotional wellbeingis supported by the Child Protection Act(1993), which requires educators asmandated notifiers, to report suspected childabuse to Family and Youth Services (refer to3.6 Protective behaviours).


3.4 Levels of intervention

Assisting children’s learning of behavioursthat will enable them to develop socialrelationships and be successful learners mayrequire differential levels of response.

While a preventative approach will workeffectively for the majority of children, somechildren will require an individualisedapproach to address emerging or establishedchallenging behaviours. Early identificationand explicit teaching underpin an effectiveresponse for emerging challengingbehaviours.

Conflict between children is common in theearly years. Educators should respondquickly to defuse these situations, listeningactively and intervening to avert a potentialcrisis. Once the situation is under control, thefocus should be on helping childrenunderstand why the particular behaviour isinappropriate, rather than punishing them.Conflict presents problem-solvingopportunities. Supporting children todevelop skills in problem-solving empowersthem and provides a strategy that can beused in all aspects of life.

The behaviour of some children needs to beaddressed through more individualisedintervention; the challenge being to find outwhat triggers the child’s behaviour andidentify strategies to support behaviouralchange (refer to the chart on page 24).

Observation of the child’s behaviour andanalysis by educators and families willidentify the role that the inappropriatebehaviour serves and represent the start ofthe process for change. Behaviouralobservations also provide a framework forthe monitoring and evaluation of progress(refer to Section 5: Recording observations).

Targeted intervention for challengingbehaviours is effective where the whole teamagrees to use the same interventionstrategies. These may include:

• teaching children functionally equivalentskills (eg if physical aggression meansleave me alone, teach the child theequivalent skill, ie ‘go away’ sign)

• teaching social skills with an emphasis onrecognition of feelings, play skills, problemsolving and self-regulation

• using appropriate reinforcementschedules.


District support services will provide abehavioural assessment for identifiedchildren and assist the development of anindividual behaviour plan, which isimplemented by the site team (refer to 3.10Challenging behaviours).

Jack who has recently been diagnosed withautism, finds changing from one activity toanother, participating in group time andsharing toys or equipment particularlychallenging.

So now we’re utilising one of his strengths, hisunderstanding of pictures and visual symbols.We’ve found that by using picture symbols toplan Jack’s activities for the morning with him,and reminding him ahead of time about achange in activity, Jack’s cooperation hasimproved significantly.

The symbols also help him to communicatewith other children and participate at grouptime. Jack can now give other peopleinformation as an equal player in a game.

3


Targeted Intervention

Individual Behaviour Plan

Intensive, consistent intervention by whole team

Support services/other agency specialist intervention

Additional centre resources

Early Intervention for Identified Children at Risk

Early identification of emerging challenging behaviours

Observation and recording

Teaching of functionally equivalent skills and social skills

Advice from district support services, as required

Whole site approach to behaviour management for all children

A supportive and safe learning environment

Partnerships with families

Site behaviour code

A positive, preventative focus

Challenging, responsive curriculum

Developmentally appropriate expectations

Whole site planning, implementation, monitoring and review

Ongoing professional development

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3

3.5 Curriculum implications

The Essential Learning of Interdependencecentres on children’s development of a sense ofbeing connected with others, their capability tocontribute to the welfare of others, and theircapability to act cooperatively ... The synergycreated by the process of shared learning is madepossible only in environments where relationshipsare characterised by mutual respect, trust, effectivecommunication, compassion and responsiveness.


Curriculum is the planned program of teachingand learning constructed by educators, inpartnership with learners and others, to achieveagreed educational outcomes.

(DETE, SACSA Framework, 2001, General Introduction, p35)

The degree to which the planned program ismeaningful and relevant to individual andgroups of learners, and the depth in which itengages the learners, will have a directinfluence on the behaviour of the childrenin the program.

Principles for implementing teaching andlearning programs in the preschool settinginclude:

• setting the environment for all children tobe successful learners

• success meaning having learned somethingworthwhile

• ensuring that all children encounter theopportunities necessary for their success

• making transparent the criteria by whichall children will be judged to have beensuccessful.

The Learning Environment for preschoolchildren needs to be safe (physically andpsychologically), secure and aestheticallypleasing. The environment must supportchildren to investigate and explore theirsurroundings through a range of play,sensory and artistic experiences, including

music, art, dance and drama. Young childrenneed opportunities to be imaginative andcreative, use a range of thinking modes andutilise their developing literacy andnumeracy to shape the world around them.They need personal space, time andresources to explore, experiment, discoverand manipulate.

Families are central to a child’s earlylearning. Educators actively promotemeaningful partnerships with families thatrecognise and value each families uniqueindividual contexts, and support the sharingof information about children’s development,strengths and interests. This will supporteach child’s learning and sense of belonging.

Educators will develop meaningful andactive relationships with children. In theirpartnerships with children, educators willallow children to be co-constructors of theirown learning and will model relevant andeffective strategies for developing andmaintaining relationships, including beingan empathetic and responsible member ofthe preschool community. This will includesupporting children to problem solve, learnand practice new skills and develop resilientbehaviours. In order for children to achievesuccess, educators will support children totake an interest, be involved, persist withdifficulty, communicate with others andtake responsibility.

The Developmental Learning Outcomes(SACSA Early Years Band) are long-termaccomplishments and allow for differentdevelopmental pathways. They include:

• children developing trust and confidence

• children developing a positive sense ofself and a confident personal and groupidentity

• children developing a sense of beingconnected with others and their worlds

• children being intellectually inquisitive

• children developing a range ofthinking skills

• children being effective communicators

• children demonstrating a sense ofphysical wellbeing

• children developing a range of physicalcompetencies.

The Developmental Learning Outcomesprovide the long-term goals and clarity offocus for educators to construct learningopportunities for individuals and the group.The outcomes of effective learning can beseen in children’s:

• cognitive achievements

• dispositions to learn

• respect for themselves and others

• wellbeing.

(Pascal & Bertram, 1997)

It is important that realistic and achievablegoals are set for all learners and thateducators support children in developing therelevant skills and understandings requiredto be successful in the achievement ofdiscrete tasks.

A highly recommended resource foreducators working with Aboriginal childrenis Aboriginal perspectives on the early years oflearning, DETE 1999.

3.6 Protective behaviours

Protective behaviours is a preventative oranti-victim program that includes strategiessuch as problem solving, recognising andexpressing feelings and forming supportivenetworks. These practical physical andpsychological steps help children to create asense of safety as well as a sense ofappropriate risk taking that is an essentialskill for a fulfilled life.

While the program was initially developedto empower children against abuse, it hasevolved to include the empowerment of thechild generally, their self-esteem andconfidence. It complements other strategiesand procedures that develop a safe andsupportive environment and links closelywith the South Australian CurriculumStandards and Accountability (SACSA)Framework.

The protective behaviours program aims to:

• provide simple, practical skills andstrategies to help keep children safe

• assist children to identify and respond tosituations in which they feel unsafe

• enable children to recognise their earlywarning signs

• encourage children to develop theircommunication, problem solving andrelationship skills

• create an atmosphere where children candiscuss sensitive issues in a non-threatening manner

• encourage children to develop a networkof trusted adults

• encourage children to recognise when theyfeel unsafe

• assist children to increase their self-protection skills against all forms of abuse,assault and harassment and report anyincidences.



3

The protective behaviours program isunderpinned by two major themes:

we all have the right to feel safe all the time

nothing is so awful that we can't talk tosomeone about it

These two themes are supported by eightstrategies: theme reinforcement, networkreview, one step removed problem solvingprocess, persistence expectation, protectiveinterrupting, empowering language, riskingon purpose and community involvement.It is essential to teach the two themes andeight strategies to increase the safety optionsfor children participating in the program.

Educators have a role in supporting childrento learn coping skills that will assist them torecognise and manage their feelings, useproblem solving skills as well as a reliablenetwork system in order to expressthemselves in a way that will not jeopardisetheir confidence and self-esteem. Thedevelopment of these skills will supportchildren in taking safe risks and protectthemselves in dangerous situations.

In protective behaviour training the teacherwas explaining personal space by using hoopsand getting the children to sit in the middle oftheir hoop where they felt safe. All the Nungakids squeezed into one hoop. That was theirunderstanding of personal space and safety.Togetherness.

(DETE Aboriginal perspectives on the early years of learning,1999, p11)

Due to their age and stage of development,young children may disclose informationduring group time. For this reason, it isadvisable for two members of staff to bepresent in the event that this should occur,so that the child’s needs be appropriatelyaddressed by one staff member.

Children have a right to expect that the site’scommunity members (including thegoverning council) will know, understandand act on their responsibilities when childrenreport unsafe situations. They have a right toexpect immediate support and follow up.

In South Australia a wide range of people,including education and care staff, arerequired by law to notify Family and YouthServices (FAYS) of cases where child abuseand/or neglect is suspected. Child abuse isgenerally categorised as physical, sexual,emotional or neglect, and rarely stopswithout intervention and help.

As mandated notifiers, educators are obligedto notify FAYS when there are reasonablegrounds to suspect that a child has beenabused or neglected. Reasonable grounds forthe notification of suspected abuse or neglectmay include the following:

• when a child/young person tells you he orshe has been abused

• when your own observation of a particularchild/young person’s behaviour and/orinjuries, or your knowledge of children/young people generally leads you tosuspect that abuse is occurring

• a child/young person tells you he or sheknows someone who has been abused(a child/young person could possible bereferring to himself or herself)

• when someone else tells you (perhaps arelative, friend, neighbour or sibling of thechild/young person) who is in a positionto provide reliable information.

If you are unsure whether you have asuspicion on reasonable grounds to notify, itis appropriate to consult with a social workerby calling the Child Abuse Report Line,telephone: 13 14 78.Adapted from: DETE, Protective Behaviours, Resource Folder,1999 and DETE, Family Day Care Children’s Sexuality TrainingPackage, 2001


3.7 Physical environment

Look at the environment through the child’s eyesand improve the invitation to play.(Gordon et al, 1995)

Aspects of the physical environmentincluding furniture, equipment, theavailability and type of play areas and noiselevel will impact on children’s behaviour andtheir learning. Consider the following inrelation to your site.

Furniture and equipment

• More playground equipment is associatedwith less frequent inappropriate behaviours(eg hitting), more exercise and more playwith materials (Larson et al, 1990).

• Toys such as cars, gross motor equipmentand socio-dramatic materials promotespeer interactions, while clay, painting,puzzles or small manipulative toys arelikely to promote parallel or solitary play(Odom et al, 1992). Toys should reflect thecommunity’s diversity.

• Play materials and equipment shouldallow access and use by children withdiffering abilities and interests, be largeenough for two or more children or requiremore than one child to be fun andencourage children to play close enoughto see, hear and touch each other (Gordonet al, 1995).

• Rearrangement and addition of furniture,alteration of colour and generalattractiveness of the environment cansuccessfully increase the flow of children inareas previously avoided (Weinstein, 1977).

How does your site’s arrangement and type offurniture and equipment influence children’splay and behaviour? How can the quality ofchildren’s play and interactions be improved?

Play areas

• The number of play areas should providechildren with choice and a suitable rangeof alternatives (Hildenrand, 1990).

• Diversity in groups (eg gender, socialability, race) supports improved socialinteractions by children with lower levelsof ability (Odom & Strain, 1986).

• Smaller play areas facilitate more peerinteraction than large play areas (Brown etal, 1987). Large open spaces are associatedwith increased aggression, movement,running around and a tendency to watchrather than do (Weinstein & David, 1987).

• Reduce the amount of teacher directionduring activities to encourage peerinteraction. However, the importance ofappropriate, targeted teacher interactionswith children should not be understated.

Does the arrangement of play space providesufficient choice in activities and supportquality play and positive peer interactions?

How can the number, size/kind of playareas and the composition of peer groupsbe improved?

Noise levels

• Noise, confusion and overcrowding have anegative effect on measures of cognitive-intellectual development (5 months to5 years of age) (Lowry, 1993).

• Children have been found to give up moreoften on challenging puzzles than thoseattending quieter schools and havelowered language development,information processing and creativity(Wohlwill & Heft, 1987) in noisyenvironments.


3

• Strategies for noise control include:

– provide alternate quiet and activeprograms

– guide children to control their voicesindoors (and educators!)

– alternate the staff supervising theplayground

– locate staff work breaks in an areathat is physically separate fromthe children

– control the volume of music

– sensitise children to noise by usingquiet games and stories

– organise the space to separate noisyactivities from quiet areas

– acoustically design the interior usingcarpets, rugs or wall hangings

– use orange-red-yellow (warm tones)to stimulate and increase noise andblue-green-purple (cool tones) for acalming effect (Eastman, 1996).

• Other suggestions:

– Try putting coasters on chair and tablelegs, use cushioned table coverings,arrange the indoor area in an ‘L’ or ‘T’geometric shape and reduce crowdingeffects with no more than 10 childrenin each area.

– Use natural light where possible anduse lower levels of lighting for lessactive activities. A dimmer controlmay help to calm children.

– Regulate the temperature – a highertemperature contributes to fatigueand irritability.

– Textures provide noise cues – softenvironment (eg rugs, pillows) forlow activity, quiet areas and hardenvironments (eg wood) in active,noisy areas.

Are noise levels adversely affecting children’slearning on your site?

How can noise levels be reduced?

Special places

• Special places are created in childhoodacross numerous cultures and theirmeaning is carried throughout adult lives(Sobel, 1990).

Special places are found or constructed bychildren on their own, secret (not found orseen when inside) and owned by theircreators. They are safe places (calming,quiet and reflective); worlds created andorganised by the children and areempowering for their builders (significant,personal and special).

• Children need places to read books, tradetreasures with best friends, concentrate onsome difficult task, retreat when feelingtired or unhappy (Greenman, 1988). Theneed may relate to both physical andpsychological aloneness.

• With special places providing places forchildren to role-play who they are,equipment and materials available shouldbe inclusive of community cultures,abilities and family backgrounds. Privatespaces provide an opportunity to developa sense of self (as separate from others)and are critical to the development of self-concept and personal identity.

• Small spaces facilitate children enteringinto complex play more quickly and forlonger, with an increased attention span,and could be created by making a shelter,creating a temporary tent, using big boxes,creating nooks and crannies or using thecorners of the playground or screening(Tegano et al, 1996).


• According to Greenman (1988), childrendevelop competency and skills when theenvironment:

– offers opportunities for activeinvolvement and feelings ofaccomplishment and independence

– provides private spaces to retreat to,where they can read, talk to a friendor participate in imaginary play

– follows a routine and a physical order,reflecting what is familiar, predictableand safe

– is comprehensible and functional,with clearly developed goals andvalues, which encourageindependence and clarity

– gives children the freedom to inventand construct the spaces they need toplay and learn in

– motivates physical exploration andfree expression of movement

– allows children the autonomy to makedecisions, select activities and choosefriends, independently andconfidently.

• Further suggestions:

– ensure that each routine and learningexperience offered is accessible to all

– give clues to guide the appropriatebehaviour and expectations for spaces

– keep arrangements stable so thatchildren can establish habits andassociations

– arrange materials and equipment toencourage independence (childrencan reach them, using them safely andwith minimal help)

– arrange seats to suggest theappropriate number of children.


3.8 Routines and programstructure

Children’s behaviour and learning are alsoinfluenced by daily routines, transitions andlength of time for play. Consider thefollowing research findings in relation toyour site.

Complexity and type of play

Many studies support an associationbetween complex play and periods offree play.

• The highest percentage of time in play andthe greatest amount of participation wereelicited by playdough and block activitiesfrom 25 activities presented to children.

• There were qualitative differences inchildren’s play behaviour if they stayed forlonger periods of time. Significantly, moreconstructive play was found at the end ofchildren’s play sessions (ie the last half of a30 minute session).

Periods of extended play appeared toenable children to move beyond theinitial phase of exploration andmanipulation (functional play) and intomore constructive and dramatic play,thus enhancing opportunities for problemfinding and solving (Tegano and Burdette,1991).

• Greater individual and group constructiveplay and dramatic play were found in thelast half of a 30 minute play period(Peckover, 1988).

• 30-50 minute blocks of time for free playto allow children to persist and expandupon a play theme was recommendedby Ward (1996).


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Transition between activities

• Children in early childhood settings werefound to spend 20-35% of their total timein transitions, hence, careful planning isneeded to ensure that these times areminimised and smooth.

• Program planning for young childrenshould ensure that:

– most of the daily activities are childinitiated

– children are encouraged to chooseactivities they would like toparticipate in

– children are allowed to move betweenactivities at their own pace

– free play periods are planned forexploration without having to hurry

– active and quiet periods are balanced

– children are prepared in advance forchanges in the program.

(Eastman, 1996)

• Refer to the article by Jalongo (1986) foran evaluation of full day daily, full dayalternating days and half day preschoolsessions.

Does your site provide opportunities forchildren to ‘wallow’ in play, explore a themein play over a period of days and engagein complex play for a length ofuninterrupted time?

Discuss the strategies that you use to:

• link, extend, facilitate and enrich play

• use play to address inappropriate behaviours

• encourage girls and boys to take on and berespectful of non-stereotyped roles in play

• encourage an understanding ofmulticulturalism.

Further suggestions for consideration ...

• If learning is especially too easy or toodifficult, children may misbehave. Groupand individual needs require carefulexploration.

• A routine followed regularly giveschildren security, knowledge of what toexpect and clues about how to behave.

• Where children have limited or noEnglish, learn and use key words in thechild’s home language to signal a changeof activity and visual cues.

• Allow children who especially needvigorous activity to be outdoors uponarrival (at the beginning of the session).

• Consider open-ended activities to allowfor individual differences and abilities.

• Consider using a forced choice approachfor children who have difficulty settling inactivities during free time, eg ‘Will youplay with the truck or the bus?’

• If you find yourself using more controlthan teaching strategies, change theactivity plan.


• Rules need to be fair, easy to follow,enforceable and positively stated.

• In setting behavioural expectations,consider the developmental level of thechild, their life experience, cultural andlinguistic background. Ensure thatexpectations are realistic and achievable.

• If certain times of the day or particularactivities are more difficult for a child,analyse the task, break it down intomanageable parts, reduce the number ofparts and prioritise your expectations.Ensure that the child can experience somesuccess; be quick to recognise it and givepositive reinforcement. Your expectationscan then be gradually increased.

Communicating with children

The way you make requests is crucial inmaximising children’s compliance. Requeststhat are angry, defeatist, vague, shouted,hurried or given from a distance are lesslikely to be successful. Suggestions formaximising compliance include thefollowing:

• Get close to the child to ensure they areable to hear you and see your face; getdown to their level.

• Establish eye contact to fully engage thechild’s attention.

• Wait where possible, for a natural breakin events.

• Use clear, specific language when makingrequests and, if necessary, show them whatyou want them to do.

• Remember tone and volume of voice whenmaking requests (eg firm but friendly toneif the request is non-negotiable).

• Remember to maintain a normal volumeand tone of voice when speaking withchildren who have limited English. Also beaware that although body language assistscommunication, keep gestures to a level

A group of girls talked to their teacher aboutWilliam playing in the home corner.‘He always wants to play in there and we don’tlike it,’ they said. When the teacher questionedwhy they didn’t like it they answered, ‘He’s aboy and boys can’t be mummies.’

The teacher pointed out that girls and boys canboth look after children and be kind and caring.The teacher then asked the children about thehome corner during mat time. He asked, ‘Wholikes to play in the home corner?’ When he sawthat boys and girls put up their hands he talkedwith the children about the importance of allsorts of play for girls and boys. He used picturebooks to show men and women caring forchildren and brought his own baby into thecentre. During play time the teacher went intothe home corner with the children to modelappropriate play and encourage girls and boysto play together.


3.9 Maximising children’scooperation

Educators’ behaviour and interaction withchildren provide a model and foundation forcooperative and successful programs. Thefollowing strategies can be used to encouragechildren to comply with requests.

Behavioural expectations

• Be clear about your expectations andremind children of them as they movefrom one activity to another.

• Keep rules very simple (1 or 2 rules perarea or activity). Use visual cues (eggesture, facial expression and pictures) aswell as verbal (ie instructions). Remindchildren about the rules and anyconsequences if they are not followed.


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that preserves the dignity of the child,particularly in large groups.

• Be clear about how negotiable the requestis before you make it. If there is a choicethen give it, but phrase choices carefully.For example, choices can be open, ‘Do youwant to pack up the toys?’ to which thechild can answer ‘no’, or restricted, ‘Youcan pack up the toys or help get thecushions ready’. Do not accept a ‘no’response for the latter. Repeat the child’schoices and ask if they would like to do itby themselves or with your help.

• If the child does not have a choice then donot invite a ‘no’ response by asking aquestion. Instead, use a statement such as,‘when you have packed up the blocks, wecan have snack time.’

Including words like ‘now’ gives a timeframe, and ‘so we can’ an explanation ofwhat will happen next.

Such requests are likely to increasecompliance as they are short, direct,specific and provide information aboutthe next activity.

Further suggestions:

• If a child refuses to comply with a requestor resists direction and instruction, make itclear that they will do as you have askedbefore doing something they want to do.

• Give the child the choice of doing it feelinggrumpy or not grumpy – it is up to them,but they will do it. It is important that thechild learns that some things are non-negotiable and must be done when asked.

• If a child repeatedly refuses to complywith requests or follow directions orinstructions that are very important ornon-negotiable, it may be time to considerother strategies. Talking to the child’sfamily may reveal strategies that work athome or information about what has beentried before. Phone the district psychologist,special educator or behaviour interagencyconsultant for advice.

• Timely discussion of your approach withthe child’s family may support the use of asimilar approach at home.


A group of girls and boys were running outsidein an unsafe manner. The teacher instructedthem to ‘stop’ using a raised hand. This wasfollowed by a short explanation and questionabout why they were running. One childreplied, ‘We are chasing a dragon.’ The teacherasked what their plan was and suggested thatthe group work together to make a dragon fromboxes, painting it, making signs, food, etc.

3.10 Challenging behaviours

When a child exhibits challengingbehaviours, there can be significant impactsfor both children and adults that maycontribute to educators feeling overwhelmed.It may be helpful to consider the followingimpacts when considering how to addresschallenging behaviours.

Impacts on children and adults

The child with challenging behavioursoften experiences:

• disrupted learning, in that they may notattend at group time or stay at activitieslong enough to complete them

• difficulty forming peer relationships

• difficulty taking on new challenges.

If the behaviour involves potentiallydangerous things like climbing fences,there are duty of care and safety issues tobe considered.


Impacts on other children include beingphysically hurt, frightened or intimidatedby the child. Persistent disturbance interfereswith the child’s learning and educators’ability to teach.

The family of the child with challengingbehaviours may:

• be angry or distressed about thebehaviour

• be embarrassed and reluctant to talkwith staff or other families

• seek additional services from otheragencies

• look for advice and support fromeducators.

Families of other children may:

• be angry or distressed by the behaviour

• respond negatively and threaten towithdraw their child or demand that otherchildren be asked to leave

• ask for educators to act immediately and‘fix’ the problem

• argue with or blame another child’s family

• request a whole centre strategy

• seek recourse through the site behaviourpolicy.

The staff team may:

• have differing views about the significanceof the behaviour and not react consistentlyto the behaviour

• become stressed, angry or feel helpless

• have different ways of dealing with thebehaviour.

The pressure on educators is often to ‘fix’ theproblem quickly. Often an initial reaction isto apply new consequences to the problembehaviour. However, this can result in anescalation of the problem behaviour and/ornew behaviours.

When intervening with any difficult orchallenging behaviours, consideration mustbe given to the function of the behaviour (iewhat is the child communicating?). Anyintervention should therefore be part of aplan that firstly identifies the function of thebehaviour, and then develops strategies toteach a more appropriate way to communicatethe child’s intent.

Addressing challenging behaviours

1. Talk with the family

• Gather information about the child athome, including the influence of thefamily’s cultural background onbehaviour, the child’s likes/dislikes andinterests that can be incorporated intothe program.

• Describe your concerns about the child’sbehaviour at preschool.

• Check whether similar behaviours occurat home.

• What strategies are effective at home?

• Are there any medical issues?

• Are any other agencies/services involved?

• Refer the child, with parental consent, todistrict support services (InteragencyStudent Behaviour Management or EarlyChildhood Services) and include:

– specific information that describesthe child’s behaviours, eg frequency,triggers, duration, patterns, strategiesthat have already been tried

– a request for the specific earlychildhood support services

– details of other agencies/servicesinvolved.


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Directors and principals are also advised totelephone district support services (EarlyChildhood or Interagency Student BehaviourManagement Services).

Where families do not give consent forsupport services’ intervention, educatorshave a responsibility to:

– develop a behaviour program for thechild which is informed by theirobservations

– record the child’s behaviour

– consider the reason for the child’sbehaviour

– take into account the child’schronological age and stage ofdevelopment.

In this situation, support services personnelare able to work on the site and observe theprogram, with a view to providing advice inrelation to program modification.

2. Review the program

• Note triggers, behaviour patterns, ‘danger’times and periods when the challengingbehaviour does not happen.

• Look at the environment, routines,structures and group composition. Arethere possible modifications that wouldencourage appropriate behaviours?

• Consider support strategies, eg earlyintervention funding, bilingual support ortelephone advice from support services.

• Assess the impact of the child’s behaviouron others and address as required.

3. Plan, implement and reviewintervention strategies

• Where challenging behaviours areemerging, advice for a whole site approachcan be provided by support services.

• If challenging behaviours are placingthe child or others at risk of injury, anIndividual Behaviour Plan should bedeveloped with relevant specialisedservices and the family. The plan willsupport teaching children functionallyappropriate ways to communicate and aimto decrease the frequency and severity ofchallenging behaviours.

• This plan will require consistentimplementation by all educators. Familiesare also encouraged to use a consistentapproach at home.

• Monitoring and review are essentialcomponents of intervention.

• Educators are encouraged to seek advicefrom support services where strategiessuch as time out or physical holding toprevent the child from injuring him/herself or others are being considered.

4. Ongoing communication with thechild’s family

• Maintain a high level of communicationabout the child’s progress, needs andinvolvement in the program.

• Encourage consistency in approach atpreschool and home.

• Refer to Section 2.2: Promoting the sitebehaviour code.

5. Communication with staff

• Make time to regularly discuss andmonitor intervention strategies andemerging issues.

• Staff consistency in the approach tobehaviour management is critical.

6. Involvement of District Directors

Contact the District Director if there areoccupational health and safety concerns inrelation to staff.


Points to remember when managing a childwith very challenging behaviours:

• A child who is over-stimulated, and whosebehaviour is out of control, may need tomove away from the environmenttemporarily. Withdrawal from the group isused when alternative methods formanaging inappropriate behaviour havenot proven effective (eg ignoring, non-verbal disapproval, reprimand, redirectingto another task). Removal of the child fromthe immediate area interrupts the child’spattern of escalating behaviour by changingthe circumstances that normally encourageand maintain inappropriate behaviour,such as educator and peer attention.

• When removal is used in an educationsetting, the child is immediately placed inan area where he/she cannot continue thatbehaviour, nor receive attention for a shortperiod of time. This may mean sitting on acushion or mat, at a quiet table or in aquiet area or screened corner of the room.

• Removal does not mean that the childneeds to go to another room. The child isremoved from the activity only briefly -for between thirty seconds and twominutes depending on their age. The childmust always be within the educators’ fieldof vision. Following time out, the childshould be given positive feedback forcompleting the time well and redirectedto the original task.

• Time out (an abbreviation for ‘time outfrom reinforcement’) should be usedcautiously. Over use renders the strategyineffective. It should only ever be used as acomponent of an individualised,comprehensive, predominantly positivebehaviour change program.

• When considering the use of physicalrestraint, educators need to consider arange of factors including the safety of thechild and others, the child’s age anddevelopmental level, and the occupational

health and safety of staff. Where the safetyof others is of concern, other childrenshould be moved away to reduce the riskof injury. Advice from district supportservices is strongly recommended.

• Duty of care is paramount in themanagement of challenging behaviours(refer to the Behaviour Support Policy forEarly Childhood Services). The requirementfor duty of care will vary according tofactors including the child’s age, maturity,experience and the nature of the activity.Generally, the duty of care is greater theyounger the child, the more complexthe learning, health and care needs ofthe child, hence the more hazardousthe situation.

• A breach of duty of care occurs wherethere has been a failure to exercise the levelof care required in any particular situation.In the event that injuries result from aneducator’s negligence in the course of his/her employment, the Minister forEducation and Children’s Services isvicariously liable and is required toindemnify the educator for any liabilityincurred, unless the action constitutesserious or wilful misconduct.

The contextof children’sbehaviour

4

4.1 Overview

4.2 Resilience

4.3 Temperament

4.4 Social competence and social skills

4.5 Self-regulation

4.6 Gender implications


44.1 Overview

The information in this section describescontextual factors that influence children’sbehaviour and provides informationabout the role of educators in supportingchildren’s development of resilience,behavioural style or temperament, socialcompetence and social skills, protectivebehaviours, and self-regulation. Educatorsshould also be aware of the integral rolethat the child’s culture and gender play inshaping their behaviour.

Children enter early childhood settings as active,experienced learners ... Social constructivistapproaches to learning ... recognise that thechild’s construction of meaning andunderstanding is mediated and modified bysocial interactions within their families,communities and environments.


The child’s developmental level,learning style and wellbeing

Our knowledge of children’s developmentenables us to compare children’s behaviourand social skills with what is expected of achild of the same chronological age. We alsoneed to have an understanding of theindividual child’s developmental andbehavioural competencies, in particular,whether there are any discrepancies betweentheir level of development (ie what they canand can’t do) and their behaviour.

For example, children who have adevelopmental delay are likely to displaybehaviours more consistent with a child ofthe same developmental level, as opposed tothe same chronological age. Children whoare advanced in their development maydisplay behaviour and social skills consistentwith those expected of an older child.

The context ofchildren’s behaviour

However, the behaviour and social skills ofsome children with advanced cognitivedevelopment are more akin to theirchronological age. Sometimes these childrenhave difficulties behaviourally and sociallyas they can think and reason at moreadvanced levels than most of their peergroup, but still have difficulties coping whenthings do not go their way.

Learning styles reflect children’s culturalbackground. For example, Aboriginalchildren may prefer to learn through activeoutdoor play, learning through observationand non-verbal communication and makingindependent decisions about their activities.The social cost of making a mistake maymean that they are reluctant to ‘have a go’and more likely to say that they ‘don’t know’.While they respond to encouragement,educators may need to provide furtheropportunities for observation andindependent learning (DETE, Aboriginalperspectives on the early years of learning,1999, p14).

Children’s behaviour also reflects theirphysical health and emotional wellbeing.For example, children who are experiencingabuse or neglect may display aggressive orsexualised behaviour towards objects orpeople, or withdraw from interaction.Children who are acutely or chronically illwill fatigue easily or may withdraw fromactivities and interactions. Chronic earinfections are very common amongstAboriginal children in particular and willaffect their capacity to participate inlistening activities.

Children who have experienced torture ortrauma directly or through their family mayappear not to be interested, unable to focuson, or able to complete tasks. They mayavoid adults or appear very upset inthe presence of adults, feel uncomfortable indark places, appear reluctant to talk andparticipate in group activities or havetoileting issues.

The context of children’s behaviour38

Some children require lots of visual cuessuch as demonstrations, pictures or symbolsor real objects in order to understandlanguage. Other children may have excellentverbal skills and cope very well with verbalinformation such as instructions andquestions. Not only do children differ withregard to their style of learning, but there arealso differences in their optimal learningenvironment, as well as their rate of learning.

Our expectations of behaviour

We need to be aware that the yardstick weuse to determine what is appropriate orinappropriate behaviour reflects our own lifeexperiences, knowledge and culture. Howcan we be objective in assessing children’sbehaviour?

We cannot do so on the basis of one or twobehaviours. The emphasis must be onpatterns of behaviour rather than specificsymptoms. We need to consider thefrequency, the intensity and the constellationof behaviours, as well as other contextualfactors such as those we have just discussed.

The role of culture

The broad definition of culture includesurban/rural, language, family configuration,race, ethnicity, gender, socio-economic statusand religion. How does the culture impact onthe way we view the child’s behaviour andthe way families view their child’s behaviour?

Differences have been found in thetemperaments of children from differentcultural backgrounds due to differences inexpectations and attitudes towardstemperament and behaviour. Studies showthat children whose temperament matchesthe cultural ideal receive higher acceptanceand positive feedback. Child rearing in somecultures encourages individualism (eg UK,

USA, Aust), while others foster cooperationand conformity (eg Japan).

Differences are also found in the developmentof particular concepts and skills. For example:Aboriginal children are likely to come to anearly childhood setting with an experience basewhich values certain skill development, language,communication patterns and approaches tolearning which are generally not recognised andvalued in Western-style education.(DETE, Aboriginal perspectives on the early years of learning,1999, p10).

In addition, the Aboriginal concept of sharingdoes not emphasise ownership, and mayresult in some conflict between students whodo not share the same concept.

Our ideas about what is normal also extendsto ideas about girls and boys and ourexpectations of the kind of play and activitiesthey will engage in (refer to 4.6 Genderimplications).

The child’s temperament

Knowledge of the uniqueness of each child,in essence their individual temperamentalmakeup, is crucial to understanding a child’sbehaviour and is explored in 4.3 Temperament.

Family and social environment

Family dynamics, values and compositions,as well as the child’s social environment alsoplay a significant role in children’s behaviour.The cultural place of the child in the familyand their responsibilities will significantlyinfluence their behaviour and attendance.For example, Southern European families arelikely to have different expectations of girlsand boys; and Aboriginal children may notattend preschool for significant periods dueto family obligations such as funerals orvisiting other family members.


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Research has also shown increasing evidencethat the formation of a strong emotionalattachment between an infant and a parenthas a life long impact on behaviour.Successful attachment forms the template forthe child’s development of future trustingrelationships with others.

The absence of such a secure emotionalrelationship can lead to insecure ordisorganised attachment. This means that thechild has no consistent strategies oforganising responses to the need for comfortand security when under stress (ie whendistressed they do not seek reassurance orcomfort from adults). Such behaviours varyfrom child to child but include: apprehension,helplessness and avoidance of the attachmentfigure. Attachment problems are precursorsto future behaviour difficulties.

Changes to family circumstances frequentlyaffect children’s behaviour. Examples ofsignificant change to family circumstancesinclude children recently arrived fromanother country, refugees, changes associatedwith unemployment of a family member orrelationship breakdown.

Principles of behaviouralintervention

The principles of any behaviouralintervention should therefore include:

• a clear framework for thinking about thebehaviour and a systematic, objectiveapproach

• viewing the child’s behaviour within itscontext, not in isolation

• viewing behaviour as a form ofcommunication by the child

• maintaining a positive approach

• allowing for time (change does not usuallyoccur overnight).


4.2 Resilience

Development of resilience

Some children live through experiences ofdeprivation, adversity and stress more easilythan others. Although several children fromone family may be raised in the samesituation and conditions, some may copebetter with adversity and be seen to be moresuccessful than the others. Some childrenbecome competent and successful adults,even when raised in extremely challengingenvironments. Many children face somestressful events in their life, however children(even from the same family) have differentways of coping with the same stresses.

Children who do well in difficult lifecircumstances are described as ‘resilient’.Masten, Best and Garmezy (1991) describedchildhood resilience as

the process of, capacity for, or outcome ofsuccessful adaptation despite challenging orthreatening circumstances.

Put simply, resiliency is the capacity tosurvive, to progress through difficulty, tobounce back, to move on positively againand again.

However, resilience is not a fixed attributeand seems to vary in different situations.Children may demonstrate resiliencewhere they have shown the ability forsignificant adaptation where the culturalexpectations of home and centreenvironments are very different (eg childrenrecently arrived through migration or asrefugees, Aboriginal children). A child’sresilience may vary, depending on theadversities faced, their stage of life andgeneral circumstances surrounding them.A child can be resilient in relation to oneoutcome more than another.


Resilient children generally seek out novelexperiences, lack fear, are self-reliant, able todraw people to them, have a low level ofexcitability and distress, a strong socialorientation and have creative interests.

Resilient children have at least one skill thatgives them a sense of pride and acceptanceamong their peer group, whether it bedancing, making, singing, riding a bikeor drawing.

These children expect to do well, have highself-esteem and a belief in what they arecapable of doing and consider they willachieve success. No matter how small theircontribution may be to, for example, apreschool program, home or communityactivity, they perceive themselves as beingeffective and responsible.

A sense of being in control of theirsurroundings is important, and manychildren demonstrate an ability to have aninternal locus of control as well.Adapted from MPB course

Implications for early childhoodprograms

Family, preschool, childcare, the communityand other children provide support forresiliency in children, by providing:

• strong relationships with caring andsupportive adults, the most potentprotective factor

• opportunities for mastery and success in atleast one area, eg dancing, constructing,drawing or dramatic play

• support from and connections to externalresources, such as family, friends,preschool, childcare, school andcommunity

• high expectations about behaviour,achievement and success from thefamily, education or care setting andlocal community

• opportunities for participation andcontribution in the family, preschool,childcare, school and local community.

These buffers make a more profound impact onthe life course of children who grow up underadverse conditions than do specific risk factors orstressful life events. They appear to transcendethnic, social class, geographical and historicalboundaries ... (Werner and Smith, 1992)

Werner (1987) observed that children’s abilityand opportunity to actively recruit peoplewho can help, is a critical aspect of resilience.She found that, ‘without exception, all thechildren who thrived had at least oneperson that provided them withconsistent emotional support – agrandmother, an older sister, a teacher,a neighbour’. Werner went on to report in1996 that the children who reached out astoddlers, also did so in middle childhoodand adolescence. This and other researchemphasises that significant adults such asearly childhood educators, can make adifference to a child’s emotional andsocial developmentAdapted from MPB course

Educators and community can createenvironments that offer a balance of thefollowing:

• Caring and support

All children need to have caring adults intheir lives. Significant relationships may bewith immediate and extended families,friends, neighbours, teachers, etc.Caring relationships convey compassion,understanding, respect and interest, aregrounded in listening, and establish safetyand basic trust.


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• High expectations

Children thrive in environments that havehigh expectations for their success andgive them the support necessary to achievesuccess and a sense of mastery.High expectation messages communicatenot only firm guidance, structure andchallenge, but convey a belief in children’sinnate resilience.

• Opportunities for participation

Children are more resilient when they arerecognised as resources valued for thecontributions they make to their family,preschool, child care, school, localcommunity and society at large.Opportunities for meaningful participationand contribution include having opportunitiesfor valued responsibilities, for makingdecisions, giving voice and being heard and forcontributing one’s talents to the community.

• Reduce risk

Reduce stresses that children don’t needto face by ensuring that your site’sstructures, expectations, policies andprocedures do not add to the risks alreadyfaced by children.

Minneapolis Public Schools, Comprehensive Teaming to AssureResiliency in Students Project, 1996

4.3 Temperament

Temperament refers to the characteristic andpredictable behavioural style of a child oradult and has powerful effects on the waythat people interact with the world. There isno agreement about the degree to whichbiology and experience contribute totemperament; however, it is clearlyinfluenced by the ongoing interactionbetween genetics and the environment.

Temperament is often referred to as‘personality’. However, the concept ofpersonality includes a broader range ofcharacteristics such as intellectual level,

motivation, social values, learning and lifeexperiences (Prior et al, 2000).

Temperament plays a very important role inchildren’s development, particularly inrelation to emotional and social development.A child’s temperament directly affects theway other people shape and modify theirrelationships and reactions to the child.The subsequent social patterns that developcan have long term effects on the child’sadjustment to family life, preschool/schooland the community (Prior et al, 2000).

Dimensions of temperament

Nine dimensions of temperament, identifiedby Thomas and Chess (1977), can be placedon a continuum from a mild to a strongreaction (or low to high), giving rise tomany subtleties in children's temperamentmake-up. They are:

• activity level

• regularity of biological rhythms(eg sleeping)

• tendency to approach or withdraw asthe first response to new situations

• adaptability to change

• intensity of response

• sensitivity to sensory stimulation (sensoryawareness) and emotional sensitivity

• predominant mood (positive or negative)

• distractibility

• persistence in pursuing a goal.

These characteristics can be clusteredtogether, into three distinct temperamenttypes:

Children with an ‘easy temperament’ areflexible, consistently in a good mood,receptive to new situations, able to adaptrapidly to changes, and are mild to


moderately intense in their emotionalreactions. They sleep and eat at regular andpredictable times. Families can plan theiractivities around the child’s meal times ornaps because these occur at about the sametime every day. The child can be takenshopping and on outings because they arereliably in a good mood, show interest in newsituations and adapt quickly if at first thingsare not particularly to their liking. Theirparents tend to feel successful as caregivers,as they are rewarded with a positiveresponse to almost everything they do.

In contrast to this group, ‘slow to warm’children tend to withdraw when faced with anew experience and take a long time toadapt. These children are not particularlyactive and they tend to express theiremotions rather mildly, escalating into anintense response only if pushed beyond theirendurance in new situations.

Meet Eliza, who is low-key in new settings,observing new objects and people for a longtime before engaging with them. She cries ifpressured to approach before she is ready.In physical activities, Eliza has slow andmeasured movements, preferring sedentaryactivities such as reading books and solvingpuzzles. She tires easily from active gamesalthough she enjoys them for short periods oftime and asks to be carried after walking justa short while in spite of her ability to walk,run, and jump very well for her age.

Children like Eliza need time to observebefore they are ready to join in and are oftenconsidered shy or timid. Sometimes thesechildren are labelled as ‘anxious’ or‘insecure’, although there is no evidence thatslowness to warm and insecurity go together.A child may be quite confident, but prefer tofirst observe and later join in.

Finally, the term ‘spirited’ children wassuggested by Sheedy-Kurcinka (1991) todescribe children whose temperaments aresimply more ‘intense, persistent, perceptive,active and sensitive’. These children oftensleep, eat and toilet irregularly, withdrawfrom new situations, have difficulty adaptingto change, are hard to please, lapse into a badmood easily, and have intense emotionalreactions. They are difficult to predict andfind it difficult to regulate their behaviour.

Fiona is often on the verge of a bad mood andher moods swing, even with people she loves.She gets upset very easily, waking up cryingin the morning, and taking a long time to beready to play. Fiona has a hard time adaptingto change and dislikes new experiences. Herparents must hold her for a long time beforeshe is ready to explore.

The secure base that all children need is evenmore important for spirited children, becausetheir moodiness and readiness to withdrawwork against them in many situations.At times, however, these children are alsothe most interesting to be with, becausetheir intense emotions and sensitivity helpthem to notice things other children arenot even aware of.


• Educators can support children’sdevelopment by responding differentiallyto individual children’s temperaments.For example, a supportive environmentwill allow an Aboriginal child wholearns through observation, time towatch/observe others’ interactions andfeel comfortable in the environmentbefore being expected to participate ingroup activities.


4

• A child who rates consistently high or lowin any aspect of temperament is notpredestined to react that way. Experiencesand interactions contribute to shapingchildren’s temperament. A difficulttemperament is seen as a risk factor forongoing difficulties in the family andwider environment for the child.

• Adults find it easier to work withchildren’s behaviour when theirtemperament styles are complementary.A poor fit occurs when there is a mismatchbetween the adults’ expectations and thechild’s ability to fulfil them. Where thisoccurs, educators should be mindful tomodify their approach to supportsuccessful learning and mutuallyacceptable solutions.


4.4 Social competence andsocial skills

The importance of positive social relationships isfundamental to children’s sense of self ... Aschildren are involved in learning experienceswhere they plan, choose, negotiate and share theirlearning, they develop a sense of self-worth andenjoyment that contributes to the dispositionsthat will lead to lifelong learning.(DETE, SACSA Framework, 2001, p51)

Development of social competenceand social skills

Social competence refers to children’s abilityto initiate and maintain satisfyingrelationships with others and to interactappropriately with their peers should theydesire (Hill, 1989). It can be viewed across arange of social contexts including within theimmediate and extended family, child careand preschool.

The ability to initiate and maintain positive socialinteraction with others is considered by many tobe an essential developmental achievement. Socialinteractions provide opportunities for children tolearn and perform social skills that may criticallyinfluence their later social, emotional, andacademic adjustment.(Hops cited in Michelson, Sugai, Wood & Kazdin, 1983)

The term ‘social skills’ refers to a range ofverbal and non-verbal behaviours that assistindividuals to establish and maintainrelationships with others. Social behaviourscan be grouped as follows:

• cooperation – helping others, sharing,complying with rules

• assertion – initiating behaviours such asasking for information, or respondingto the action of others (eg responding topeer pressure)

• responsibility – ability to communicatewith adults about concerns

• empathy – showing concern for thefeelings of others

• self-control – responding appropriately inconflict situations.

(Gresham & Elliot, 1990)

There is wide variation in children’s learningof social skills. Children may learn someskills, but not others, depending on theirdevelopmental abilities, cultural backgroundand life experiences. Often it is assumed thatchildren should know what to do and howto handle a range of social situations.However, most social skills need to beexplicitly taught, with many opportunitiesprovided for children to practise them andto be appropriately reinforced by adults andother children.


Aboriginal children are often in the difficultposition of learning to meet two very differentsets of expectations – one at home and the otherin the early childhood and school environment.

(DETE, Aboriginal perspectives on the early years of learning,1999, p10)

There is an abundance of evidencesupporting the relationship between socialand behavioural competence in childhoodand later life adjustment (Kazdin, 1987;Loeber, 1982; Mize & Ladd, 1990; Parker &Asher, 1987; Yoshikawa, 1995). In adulthood,research shows that between 2% and 5% ofthe general population have some degree ofsocial skill difficulty such as being isolated,rejected or withdrawn (Hops cited in Azar,Ferguson & Twentyman, 1992).

Child research has shown that:

• poor social skills and interpersonalrelationships have often been found to beassociated with behaviour difficulties(Sanders & Markie-Dadds, 1996)

• approximately 5-10% of school-agedchildren are estimated to have difficultiesin establishing and maintainingfriendships (Asher & Renshaw, 1981).


When we consider that programs aimed atenhancing social competence are mosteffective when started as early as possible,the role of early childhood services insupporting children’s development of socialcompetence cannot be understated(Schneider & Byrne, 1995).

Discussion with families about theirexpectations will enhance understanding ofthe experiences and learning that children

bring to the program. Where particular socialskills are being encouraged, discussion abouthow they will assist the child's learning willsupport a collaborative approach and thechild’s learning.

Educators can foster children’s developmentof social skills in ways that include:

• explicit teaching in structured socialsituations through modelling androle-plays

• creating activities that include thoseexperienced by children in different socialsettings, particularly from differentcultural backgrounds

• social coaching and feedback in naturalplay-based settings

• small group cooperative games with goodrole models to provide opportunities topractise social skills

• involving families, helps in thegeneralisation and maintenance of skillslearnt at preschool

• using children’s literature as a basis fordiscussion and reinforcement of socialskills that are being encouraged.

Teaching social skills in early childhood; Let’s talkabout it (DETE, 1998) provides manypractical ideas.

4.5 Self-regulation

Development of self-regulation

Self-regulation includes our reactions to basicneeds, such as drinking when thirsty, gettingout of the rain if we are cold and wet and ourreactions to conflict. While infants andyoung children depend on caring adults’external regulation (or action) to have theirneeds met, they increasingly learn to controland direct their own behaviour andgradually become more independent.


4

Self-regulation or control of behaviourtherefore varies with children’s age and stageof development, life experiences and culturalexpectations. Discussion with families abouttheir expectations is important in gaining anunderstanding of the learnings that childrenbring to the early childhood setting.

Inappropriate behaviour may reflect adultexpectations that are too high or too low forthe child’s particular developmental stage.Children who develop control of theirbehaviour are likely to become independentlearners with effective social skills, whilethose who do not develop control of theirown behaviour will be at risk of problemssuch as severe separation anxiety,impulsivity, persistent tantrums andaggressive behaviours.


Children learn best through repetitiveexposure to controllable challenges. Theyneed opportunities to develop new ways ofresponding to the way they feel and to theirenvironment, and to practise increasing self-regulatory control.

Moderate, predictable challenges in a safeand secure environment will help buildresilience. Alternatively, unpredictable orsevere stress associated with high risk forchildren will not assist development andmay restrict the child’s ability to learn newinformation. Educators need to talk withfamilies to ensure that they are aware ofsituations that create unpredictable orsevere stress in children from backgroundsthat may differ significantly from the earlychildhood environment.

The following strategies will assist educatorsto support children’s development of socialand emotional behaviour, their motivationfor self-regulation and pro-social behaviour.

• Design the environment so thatresponsibilities, opportunities (choices),expectations and consequences are clearand appropriate for children’s interestsand developmental stage. Environmentscan encourage independent action andinitiative.

• Materials need to be accessible to childrenwithout intervention from adults. Playspaces for different types of activitiesshould be designed, eg designated areasand procedures for the use of messymaterials such as paint, clay and sand canprotect children’s efforts.

• Rules for joint use of materials so thatchildren understand and do not needadults to mediate disputes.

• Prepare the environment to include avariety of activities children can safely andproductively complete.

• Establish a small number of ground rulesthat minimise the need for adultintervention and focus on what childrenare permitted to do.

• Respect children’s ideas for activities,even when problematic, using problemsolving to find alternative ways ofcarrying them out.

• Involve children in discussing the reasonsfor developing rules and formulatingthem. Help them understand therelationship between their own goals andthe behavioural strategies they are using toreach them. Finally, help children tounderstand the relationship between theirown rights or welfare and that of anotherchild or the group (reciprocity).

• Set children up for success. Children aremore highly motivated to self-regulatetheir behaviour when they see themselvesas competent and able to exercise control.Adult assistance strategies may include:

– asking questions to help childrendiscover their own solutions


– ensuring that expectations andstandards do not exceed individualchildren’s level of ability, makingthem feel incompetent even if theyperform at an age appropriate level

– giving feedback that focuses onspecific aspects of what the child hasdone to provide information to thechild about their competence.

• Connect children’s behaviour with itseffects and help the child understand whatothers may be feeling. Give reasons forsocial rules and make the effects ofinappropriate behaviours on others clear.Positive behaviours that redress accidentalor intended injuries to others can besuggested.

• Encourage cooperative interactions amongchildren by helping them learn strategiesthat support independent cooperation,such as suggesting sharing or taking turnswhen there are arguments over materials,as well as ways of negotiating trade-offsthat benefit both parties.

• Encourage children to take responsibilityfor tasks that benefit the preschoolcommunity to help them developresponsible attitudes. Attributing pro-social motives to children will help themto associate these motives to themselvesand then expect to behave in similar waysin the future.

• Children learn from what they see and aremore or less likely to share and help,depending on the behaviour of peers andadults. Aggression is learned in this way,especially when it brings rewards or isignored by adults. Educators shouldmonitor and intervene to provideappropriate guidance and active supportfor cooperative and caring behaviours.


4

Anger Management:Temper Monster Metaphor

One way of teaching children to control ormanage their anger is by using the metaphor ofa “Temper Monster”. The child learns how to bethe boss of their temper. This should be theirchallenge each day. Make sure you approach thisin a fun and relaxed way.

1. Talk with the child about their “tempers”.For example:• everyone has a temper• “tempers” usually stay under control

and are not a problem – we are the bossof our “tempers”

• sometimes “tempers” get out of controland cause lots of problems – the “temper”becomes the boss of us

• it can be hard for some people to keep their“temper” under control. Many peopleneed some help to do this

2. Tell the child that you know a great wayto help them to be the boss of their“temper”. Be enthusiastic and encouraging.Start by drawing or making a model of your“temper”. Describe what it looks like (eg lotsof sharp spikes, long arms and legs forthrowing and kicking, fire breathing) and thecolour of your “temper” (eg red hot, black, alldifferent colours).

3. Talk about the things that make your“temper” get very big and become theboss of you. For instance, when people takeyour things or ignore you. Discuss thephysiological changes that you notice whenthese things happen, such as feeling hot;your heart beating fast, throwing somethingor shouting. Tell the child that althoughthese things feel “uncomfortable”, theycan be helpful too, as they are signs thatyour “temper” is getting bigger andbecoming the boss.

4. On a large piece of paper, draw your“temper” when it is really big and theboss of you. Describe again the things that

make your body feel uncomfortable and makethe temper get bigger and bigger inside you.This can help make the concept of the “tempermonster” more concrete and understandable.

5. Encourage the child to talk about thingsthat make their “temper” become theboss. Give examples of incidents on your siteand ask if this made them feel like shouting,etc. Encourage the child to draw a picture/make a model of what their “temper” lookslike when it becomes the boss of them.

6. Discuss different ways of containing their“temper” to stop it from getting too bigand becoming the boss. This could includeputting it in a box, jar or bag which is tied orlocked up. Decide with the child where to keepthe “temper box/jar/bag”, somewhere outof the way but easily accessed by the childwhen necessary.

7. A box, jar or bag can help stop the “temper”from becoming too big, but the child mustmake sure their “temper” is under controlevery day. Ask the child how they can do thiswhen they start to feel like shouting, etc; asthis is a sign that the temper is getting out ofcontrol, becoming the boss and escaping!

8. After the child has tried one strategy forcontrolling their “temper” they will then needto check the “temper” box, jar or bag tomake sure it hasn’t escaped! Go with the childto make sure the “temper” box/jar/bag is stillwhere it should be, and still locked or tied.This is an important step as it can serveas a distraction from the incident and bea reinforcement for the child that theyhave control.

9. Remember to reward any attempts thechild makes to control their “temper”.Discuss what they did, how it worked, howthey felt, what they would do next timeand so on. Remind the child again of theprocedure for keeping their “temper” undercontrol and praise their increasing skill at“temper” control.

Adapted from: Davis, A, 1995, Brief guidelines for behaviour management


4.6 Gender implications

Children as young as two or three yearsbegin to recognise gender differences.MacNaughton (1999) states, ‘By four years ofage, they know their gender and what theyand those around them normally expect of aperson of their gender.’ Children’s thinking,feelings and behaviour are influenced bytheir awareness of gender.

While the role of ‘nature versus nurture’continues to be debated, there is evidenceto show us that behavioural differencesbetween boys and girls are shaped by theirdifferent social experiences. Girls and boysbring attitudes and beliefs to the learningsituation that has been developed throughinteractions with family and communitymembers and the media (known as socialconstruction).

Children’s gender is viewed by researchers,including MacNaughton, to influence allaspects of children's development, ‘fromtheir development, values, beliefs, language,emotion, imagination, cognition and style ofcommunication, to their involvement inphysical activities, use of space and socialrelationships’ (MacNaughton, 1999).


Children’s awareness of gender is one ofmany factors that can influence theirbehaviour. Other factors that should also beconsidered include children’s lifeexperiences, cultural and family background,temperament, age and stage of development,social skills and physical and emotionalwellbeing. The theory of gender as a socialconstruction adds to our understanding ofchildren’s behaviour and enables us to seethat children’s behaviour patterns can beinfluenced by interactions in the earlychildhood setting.

When addressing children’s behaviour thefollowing should also be considered:

• gathering information about the genderdynamics between children

• evaluating the significance of gender inchildren’s development of behaviour(eg aggressive, physical, compliant ornon-assertive behaviours)

• planning experiences that promote genderequity and appropriate behaviour

• teaching children to recognise stereotypedbehaviour that impacts on their capacity tointeract and learn, to think critically aboutwhat they see and take action for change

• encourage children to talk about their playexperiences to clarify their feelings aboutwhat is happening

• create opportunities to explore feelingsabout gender through informal discussions,art, song, movement and stories

• promote gender equity by finding anddiscussing female heroines and maleheroes in non-traditional gender roles

• talk with children about the ways we feeldifferent sometimes, the fun of trying outto be different people and the importanceof respecting others’ rights to pretend playnon-traditional roles.

Adapted from: MacNaughton, 1999

The use of critical questions during groupand story times provide opportunities toquestion accepted beliefs about gender,eg with books: Who is in the picture? Whois missing? What are the boys/girls doing?What else could the girls/boys do? Otherstrategies include explicit teaching of groupskills, respectful ways of speaking to eachother and negotiating and resolvingdisagreements.


4

Jemma stood up and proudly told the group,‘When I grow up I want to ride a motor bike.’Some children laughed at her. The teachernoted Jemma’s discomfort and recognised thisas a teachable moment. He asked why theywere laughing.

‘Girls don't ride motor bikes,’ said Nathan.The teacher asked, ‘Is that true?’ The childrenbegan to discuss this and several said that theyknew women who rode motor bikes or had seenthem on television. ‘My auntie rides a motorbike,’ said Jemma, ‘that’s why I want to rideone too.’ The teacher suggested that Jemma’sauntie could visit the centre one day to showthe group her motor bike.

Recordingobservations

5

5.1 Locus of control signals inyoung children

5.2 Social skills checklist

5.3 Situational analysis: ABC recording


5In planning to address challengingbehaviours, information should be gatheredfrom families, educators, and where relevant,other professionals, in order to develop acomprehensive view of children’s sociallearning across a variety of contexts.

Recording observations of children’sbehaviour may occur in a variety of ways.Checklists and other observation sheets areuseful to support the information gatheringprocess. However, information gained usingthese tools should always be consideredwithin the context of children’s abilities,cultural and linguistic backgrounds andlife experiences.

Documentation of observations using thefollowing proformas will contribute to thebroad picture of a child’s development andprovide baseline data for the planning ofindividual behaviour plans.

Recording observations

• Enjoys exploring/trying newexperiences

• Enjoys demonstrating own ideas,skills, knowledge

• Does not spontaneously exploresituations

• Reluctant to share ideas, skills,knowledge

Recording observations52

5.1 Locus of control signals in young children

• Readily expresses ideas and needs

• Approaches new situations/activities with ease

• Knows routines and organises self

• Readily initiates interactions toachieve goals

• Rarely expresses ideas and needs

• Reluctant to approach newsituations/activities

• Disorganised in managing self

• Rarely initiates interactions toachieve goals

Child’s Name:

2 1 0 -1 -2

Confidence

Eagerness

2 1 0 -1 -2

Resourcefulness

2 1 0 -1 -2

• Tries a range of options toachieve purpose

• Seeks alternatives when oneoption is not useful

• Finds information, materialand people to achievepurpose

• Enjoys experimenting,investigating

• Transfers learning andunderstanding from onesituation to another, makesconnections between previousexperience and new situations

• Does not explore options

• Leaves activity if chosen optionis problematic

• Does not seek information,materials or people to achieveown purpose

• Uninterested in experimenting,investigating

• Does not transfer learning fromone situation to another

Individual Observation Scale

Department of Education, Training and Employment / deLissa Institute of early Childhood and Family Studies


5

Locus of control signals in young children Individual Observation Scale

• Attends to the activity

• Shows determination

• Not easily distracted

• Invests energy towards goals

• Reluctant to engage

• Loses interest easily

• Is distracted easily

• Disorganised use of energy

2 1 0 -1 -2

Purposefulness/persistence

2 1 0 -1 -2

Selectivity

• Recognises the range of optionsavailable

• Makes choices about whichoption will be used

• Makes use of availableopportunities on own initiative

• Listens and acts on other’ssuggestions and comments

• Takes responsibility for choices,actions, self and belongings

• Makes links between causeand effect

• Operates within the realities ofthe environment

• Demonstrates realistic expectationsof self and others

• Unaware of range of options

• Reluctant to make choices

• Reluctant to use opportunitiesspontaneously

• Rejects, refuses to believeothers’ constructive suggestions

• Expects that others are responsiblefor belongings, actions, and choices

• Does not make connectionbetween cause and effect

• Does not recognise the limitsof the environment

• Has unrealistic expectationsof self and others

Department of Education, Training and Employment / deLissa Institute of early Childhood and Family Studies


5.2 Social skills checklist

Information from families about children’ssocial skills in other contexts will provide amore comprehensive view of children’s sociallearning. The following should be consideredwithin the context of children’s abilities,cultural background and life experiences.

Place a tick along the continuum to indicatethe child’s stage of social skill development:YES (the child has this skill and uses it);NO (the child does not use/has not learnedthis skill); or EMERGING (the child isbeginning to use this skill).

Basic interaction skills No - Emerging - Yes Coping skills No - Emerging - Yes

Inappropriate behaviours

Getting along skills

Using language (the abilityto speak in a way othersunderstand – considerhome language)

Using non-verbalcommunication:• smiling• using eye contact• using appropriate voice

Starting (finding someoneto interact with)

Greeting skill

Listening(looks and pays attention)

Reciprocating interaction(saying something to/looking at someone whenthey talk to you)

Making sense(talking is on the topic)

Taking turns talking

Asking questions

Using situationallyappropriate behaviour

Hitting, poking

Taking others’ possessions

Destroying others’creations or work

Acknowledging anotherchild’s interaction

Independence

Managing conflict:• expressing rights and

feelings clearly• sensitive to the rights

of others• compromising• being assertive

Coping with harassment,peer pressure (especiallyfor minority groups)

Being a leader

Being a follower

Seeking help

Sharing

Turn taking

Making rules andfollowing them

Assisting others

Touching inappropriate ways

Co-operating with others

Being polite –please, thank you


5

Teaching social skills in early childhood: Lets talk about it, 1998, Department of Education, Training and Employment

Making friends No - Emerging - Yes Entry skills No - Emerging - Yes

Being approving andsupportive of peers

Exercising sensitivity andtact (not being too strong)

Showing affection

Willing to follow requests

Including and acceptingothers

Using sustaining skills

Sharing a common game,joke, conversation

Grooming appropriate(wash hands, clean face)

Observing groupbefore entry

Thinking about possiblecourses of action

Selecting most appropriate

Waiting for natural break

Beginning to behave insame way

Referring to affiliation


5.3 Situational analysis:ABC recording

Looking at the context of behaviour is auseful way of identifying the causes ofbehaviour and finding a pattern. It involveslooking at the behaviour (B), what precededit (A) and what followed it (C) – the ABCapproach. This is also referred to asevent sampling.

1. Antecedents (what preceded thebehaviour)

Behaviours tend to vary with their socialsetting or internal conditions, so it isimportant to look at the typical conditionsbefore, and at the same time as, thebehaviour occurs.

What are the events or demands on thechild that typically precede or trigger thebehaviour? eg day and time of day, whois present and the physical environment(location, activity)

2. Behaviour

What is the behaviour?How is the behaviour described?

Establish the behaviours you want tochange and describe them in terms of whatyou observe.

Describe the new or desired behaviour(eg asking for a turn) that will removethe anticipated problem behaviour(eg biting, hitting).

3. Consequences

The events or consequences followingthe behaviour.

What happens following thebehaviour – who does what to whom,when and where?

For example, the responses from others(eg attention, angry comments), a materialpayoff (eg child acquires something) orsomeone stops making a particular demandof the child (eg pack up your toys).Adapted from MPB course


5

Name:


ABC behaviour diary

Antecedents(What happenedbefore)

Behaviour Consequences(What happenedafter)

TimeandDate

Specialisedservices

6

6.1 Department of Education andChildren’s Services

6.2 Other agencies


66.1 Department of Education

and Children’s Services

Children with challenging behaviours andwho are enrolled in government and affiliatepreschools and child care, can be referred todistrict support services with the consent offamilies. Early referral is encouraged tosupport timely intervention and positiveoutcomes for children and educators.Support Services personnel can be contactedby telephone to provide advice where this isurgently required.

Support Services for children and studentswith challenging behaviours are provided bypsychology, interagency student behaviourmanagement, special education and socialwork personnel. Services include:

• assessment

• support with program planning

• individual behaviour plans

• information and advice to staff andfamilies

• staff professional development

• short-term counselling for families

• liaison with relevant agencies.

Intervention will consider the whole centrecontext, routines and interactions and requirea whole team approach for success.

Information gathering is supported by adetailed description of the following:

• the nature and frequency of the child’sbehaviours

• when the challenging behaviourscommenced, and in what context/s

• information that may be related(eg changes in family circumstances)

• whether challenging behaviours arecontext-specific or occur across home,preschool and other settings

Specialised services

• triggers for challenging behaviours

• effective strategies in managingchallenging behaviours.

Additional supports may be available to sitesto support the implementation of individualbehaviour plans, such as preschool bilingualor preschool support workers.

Please refer to the DECS Sites and Services,2003 for district office contact details.

6.2 Other agencies

Child and Adolescent Mental HealthService (CAMHS)

• Employs a multi-disciplinary approach toservices for children and young peoplewith mental health issues, aged 0-18 yearsof age and their families. Services areprovided by child and family specialistsincluding psychologists, psychiatrists,social workers, nurses, occupationaltherapists and speech pathologists.

• Services include individual, group andfamily therapies and mental healthpromotion activities and liaison with otherservice agencies and preschools/schools.

• Referral is usually made by families/guardians phoning the service closest tothem. Information regarding a child oradolescent may be accepted from areferring person or agency, however,contact from the family/guardian isalso required. A central telephonenumber for information about localservices is 8161 7198.

• Services are available throughout countryareas on a permanent or visiting basis.Information about regional services isavailable by telephoning 8632 5304.

Specialised services60

Child and Youth Health

Child and Youth Health works to improvethe health of children and young people,focusing on the promotion of health and theprevention of ill-health, and to supportparents who are the primary carers ofchildren and young people. Services include:

• Parent Helpline: a 24 hour, 7 day a weektelephone service providing informationand support to parents living in SouthAustralia on any concern about child oryouth health, parenting, development orbehaviour. Phone 1300 364 100.

• Parent Easy Guides and Parenting/ChildHealth database include informationabout children’s behaviour http://www.cyh.sa.gov.au.

• Universal screening of preschool childrenaged 4 years on preschool sites.

• Child and family health centres: Childrenaged 0-12 years. These centres providehealth checks, parenting information andsupport, first time parent groups,behaviour management information,referral to other agencies and hearing/vision screening.

In addition, the following services areavailable from selected Child and FamilyHealth Centres (the larger One Stop Shops):a parent and health resource area; parentinggroups for issues relating to new babies,toddlers and school aged children; extendedhours – late Thursday and Saturdaymornings; and drop-in service.

Please telephone 8303 1500 for informationabout Child and Youth Health services.

Community Health Services

The availability of psychology services forchildren through community health variesacross metropolitan and country areas and

depends on service priorities. Psychologyservices for children are generally providedby CAMHS, however, community healthcounselling services may be available tofamilies. Service providers should contacttheir local community health service todetermine whether psychology services areavailable, and if so, the eligibility criteria foraccessing the service.

Family and Youth Services

Family and Youth Services provides supportand assistance to the community, especiallythose experiencing disadvantage or who arein need of care and protection. Services assistyoung people who offend or are at risk ofharm, families and children at risk, those atrisk of poverty, Aboriginal people andvulnerable adults in the community. Formandatory notifications, telephone the ChildAbuse Report Line on 13 14 78.

Migrant Health Service

A health care agency for people of non-English speaking backgrounds:

• provides immigrants with culturallyappropriate health education andinformation

• ensures that refugees have access to thehealth care system as soon as possible afterarriving in South Australia.

All the services offered are free andconfidential. All staff are bilingual/multilingual and bicultural interpretersare available.

Migrant Health Services are statewide andinclude health assessment and screening,bilingual GP services, immunisation,counselling for individuals and families, aclinical psychology service and referralto family doctors, community health centresand hospitals.


6

Services are available to non-Englishspeaking background communities andhealth agencies located in rural areas.

21 Market Street, Adelaide (opposite theCentral Market), telephone 8200 3900.

Paediatric hospitals

General paediatric services are availablefrom major public hospitals. While theseservices assess the needs of children withmore than one area of developmental delayor disability, they do not provideintervention services for children withbehavioural difficulties who are referred tocommunity services, eg CAMHS, DECS.

Multidisciplinary assessment services can beaccessed via:

• The Child Development Unit based at theWomen’s and Children’s Hospital (phone8161 7000), which has outreach servicesin Mount Gambier, Port Lincoln andWhyalla.

• The Child Assessment Team at FlindersMedical Centre (phone 8207 5511).

• The Child Development Unit, Flinders andFar North Community Health Service(phone 8648 5800).

Parenting SA

Parenting SA is an initiative of theGovernment of South Australia designed topromote the value of parents and to improvethe quality of parenting. It promotesparenting groups, courses, informationand resources on its website http://www.parenting.sa.gov.au and produces theParenting Easy Guides available throughmany government agencies and otherservices. Please telephone 8303 1660 forfurther information.

Private practitioners

The range of services provided by privatepsychologists and psychiatrists includeassessment, counselling, behaviourprogramming and family therapy. Privatepractitioners listings can be found in theyellow pages.

Transitionplanning

7

7.1 Flow chart

7.2 Preschool to school checklist


7Smooth transition between children’sservices and from preschool to school isimportant for all children, and is particularlyrelevant for children with additional needsincluding challenging behaviours.

Good practice in transition includes:

• families, educators, support services andother agency staff having a clearunderstanding of their roles andresponsibilities in the process

• setting specific time frames, tasks andoutcomes

• support for family involvement in theplanning and decision making fortheir child

• focusing on the child’s needs and beingflexible in the implementation ofguidelines

• sharing information between families,preschool, school, support services andother agency staff. This information willenable staff in the new setting to build onthe knowledge, skills and experiences ofthe child

• streamlining planning to make the processas efficient as possible, ie forms,assessments and participants in planningmeetings

• providing early information to enablepreparation for the child’s entry.

Transition planning

The following have been successful insupporting children’s transition to school:

• sharing of successful strategies

• supported transition visits through thePreschool Support Program

• an extended period of transition to school(discuss with district support services)

• observation visit by the reception teacherto the preschool

• an additional school visit by thepreschool group

• short-term part-time attendance at bothpreschool and school

• additional transition visits.

Adapted from http://www.nexus.edu.au/divisions/programs/northdistricts

Transition planning64

Transition planning

Review meeting for child with challengingbehaviours (2 terms prior to expectedschool entry)

• Preschool director arranges meetingwith family and support services staff,as required

• Plan steps prior to school attendance

Planning for school attendance bysupport services

• Interagency Student BehaviourManagement/other school supportservices

• Link with involved support services staffto gather information, assess supportneeds and plan for additional resourceswhere required

Planning meeting for school attendance(term prior to school attendance)

• Preschool director arranges meetingwith family, school support servicesand other professionals, as required

• Coordinate meeting with familiesand school principal to plan child’stransition

7.1 Flow chart

Outcomes

• Child referred by preschool director &/orschool principal to Interagency StudentBehaviour Management Services

• Timeline for future meetings attachedto referral

• Family encouraged to enrol childat school

• Information about curriculum andsupport needs in school collated andinterpreted

• Additional resources and solutions to bedocumented for discussion at planningfor school meeting

• Child’s progress discussed

• ILP/NEP planning is reviewed anddocumented

• Chosen school option discussed

• Transition program established

• Curriculum and support needsdetermined

• Monitoring process established



7

7.2 Preschool to school checklist

The preschool director and school principal share responsibility for ensuring that an appropriateprocess occurs.


Preschool Directors

• link families with support services staff for information about schooling options

• contact the school principal about a child’s transition needs

• invite families, school staff and other relevant people to the transition planning meeting or NEP

• share information (including children’s records) with the school to assist planning of behaviourmanagement strategies, curriculum, and other supports for successful transition

School Principals

• manage planning for schooling and involving relevant preschool staff

Early Childhood Services

• work with preschool staff and families in identifying children who will require ongoing supportas they move from preschool to school

• provide information to preschool staff and families regarding transition processes, referralprocesses

• provide advice to relevant support services and school staff to assist with planning forschool entry

• contribute to the planning and review of the ILP/NCP

• transfer information (including relevant assessments) to school staff and school supportservices staff

Interagency Student Behaviour Management Services

• support school support personnel to develop/implement Student Development Plans to ensurea continuous and integrated educational plan

• liaise with Early Childhood Support Services and/or preschool staff

• meet with families to share relevant information and encourage their active involvement in thetransition process

• alert relevant support services to ensure that appropriate supports are in place

Professionaldevelopmentand resources

8

8.1 Training and development

8.2 Self-evaluation checklists


88.1 Training and development

Professional development activities can beaccessed via the Training and DevelopmentUnit web site http://www.learnsa.net/tandd/

Requests for professional developmentcourses can be directed to:

• The Training and Development UnitTelephone 8463 5801 / Fax 8463 5810email: [email protected]

• The Gowrie Training CentreTelephone 8234 5219 / Fax 8234 5850http://www.gowrie-adelaide.com.au

• Support Services personnel at yourdistrict office

• Aboriginal Education UnitTelephone 8343 6500 / Fax 8343 6515

• Preschool Bilingual ProgramTelephone 8226 2546 / Fax 8226 3572

Professional developmentand resources

Relevant courses and workshops currentlyavailable include:

• Aboriginal perspectives in SACSA

• Aboriginal perspectives on the early years

• Aboriginal English workshops

• Anti-bias training package (contact theEarly Years Team, Aboriginal Education)

• Constructivism, Essential Learnings andAboriginal Learners

• Contextual Teaching and Learning inAboriginal Education

• Developing a Site Behaviour Code(contact District Support Services)

• Encouraging Social Skills and BuildingSelf-Esteem

• ESL in the Mainstream

• Cultural Inclusion in the SACSAFramework – Early Years

• Guiding Children’s Behaviour(The Gowrie Training Centre)

• Language and Behaviour

• Maximising Positive Behaviour andManaging Challenging Behaviour

• Quirky Kids: Recognising andResponding to Their Needs

• Understanding Language and Culture

Professional development and resources68

8.2 Self-evaluation checklists

The following checklists have been adapted from the Classroom Management Workbook (DETE,undated) to assist site teams to evaluate their early childhood program and behaviourmanagement practices.

When you have completed one or more self-evaluation checklist/s:

1. Prioritise changes that you would like to make to the site, the program or your teachingmethodology.

2. How will you monitor the impact of these changes on children’s behaviour?

3. Plan a date for review

4. Consider the extent to which the changes made a difference to behaviour on your site.If not, what will the next step be?


8

Physical environment

1. invite children to play?

2. allow for quiet and active activities?

3. present stimulating choices?

4. provide sufficient areas that are large enough for two or morechildren?

5. support successful quiet and active activities?

6. allow children to have a ‘special’ place that is private, safe,familiar and where they can be in control?

7. remain constant long enough to support children in developinghabits and associations?

8. change frequently enough to provide new experiences andstimulation?

Needs improvement A strength

Does the way I have arranged the physical environment ...

1. provide sufficient play equipment to maintain interest in activities?

2. promote peer interaction?

3. allow easy access and use by children of differing abilities andinterests?

4. encourage more than one child to play collaboratively?

5. encourage children to use all play spaces?


Does my choice and arrangement of play materials and equipment ...



In planning the environment do I consider ...

1. colours that influence noise transmission?

2. separating noisy from quiet activities?

3. providing alternate quiet/noisy activities?

4. lower lighting levels for less active activities that requireconcentration?

5. providing soft textures (eg cushions, rugs) for low activity, quietareas?

6. limiting the number of children per play area to no more than ten?


1. easy access to storage areas?

2. sufficient room for group time?

3. clear traffic routes between tables and play areas?

4. special areas? (eg home corner, a quiet area)

Do I arrange floor space to allow ...


Is the way that I arrange the physical environment ...

1. necessary and meaningful for children?

2. too visually stimulating or not enough?

3. providing particular displays for short enough periods of time tomaintain interest and relevance?

4. reflective of children’s involvement, or only the ideas of the staff?

5. bright and cheery? Do we include living things (eg fish, reptiles,plants)?


8

Routines


1. mainly the work of children, or my own?

2. all children’s creative efforts or only the best?

Do I display ...


1. Movement between inside and outside areas

2. Movement within the room

3. Movement in the outside area

4. Packing up

5. Gaining the attention of other children

6. Gaining the attention of staff

7. Completion of tasks/activities

8. Use of special areas (eg home corner/quiet area)

9. Moving into groups

How appropriate is children’s behaviour during daily routines?



In developing and implementing site rules, do I ...

Site rules

1. actively involve girls and boys in the development of centrerules?

2. ensure that all children understand each rule and how it linkswith their rights and responsibilities?

3. define rights clearly?

4. ensure that rules inform girls and boys about how they areexpected to behave?

5. enforce the consequences for breaking rules?

6. discuss rules with children’s families?

7. have the centre’s rules on display?

8. have as few rules as possible?

9. provide feedback about cooperation?

remind children about rules when necessary?10.


8


Learning program

Does my program planning and implementation ...

1. consider each child’s strengths and areas that requirestrengthening?

2. provide activities for all levels of ability and interest?

3. reflect an understanding of how children’s family, culture, race andlinguistic background influence their learning and interactions?

4. build on child-initiated activities and interests?

5. ensure that most of the daily activities are child-initiated?

6. provide long enough play periods to allow the development ofcomplex play?

7. balance active and quite periods?

8. prepare children for changes in activity?

9. minimise the number of transitions between activities?

provide a regular routine to give children security, knowledge ofwhat to expect and clues as to how to behave?

allow children who like vigorous activity to be outdoors uponarrival?

provide open-ended activities to allow for individual differencesand abilities?

10.

11.

12.



Does my teaching methodology ...

1. meet the needs of children with different learning styles and abilities?

2. provide socially skilled peers for children with developmental delay orchallenging behaviours?

3. often mean that children must listen for long periods of time?

4. mean that children must have prerequisite social skills (eg groupskills, independent learning skills) that some children do not have?

5. keep children active and busy in learning?

6. allow children to make choices (appropriate to their learning anddevelopment)?

7. make expectations clear and check that children have understood?

8. actively seek children’s questions and ideas?

In my interactions with children and adults, do I ...


1. act as a positive model?

2. express instructions positively?

3. consider using a forced-choice approach for children who havedifficulty settling in activities during play time? (eg you can play inthe sandpit or on the play equipment)

4. explain the purpose of my tasks & activities?

5. vary learning activities?

6. provide specific feedback about children’s performance?

7. provide frequent feedback?

8. highlight what the child has learned?

9. clarify what the child needs to achieve next?

observe children’s behaviour in a variety of contexts?

celebrate children’s learning? If so, how?

relate children’s learning to their families?

10.

11.

12.


8


Programming for diversity

Does my programming support children to ...

1. understand and appreciate each children’s abilities and strengths?

2. understand and appreciate diverse family structures?

3. research different aspects and influences of social, cultural andenvironmental diversity?

4. become aware of connections, similarities and differences betweenpeoples?

5. explore the linguistic diversity of their wider community?

6. explore, research and discuss contextual aspects of contemporaryand traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures?

7. develop an awareness of the history, languages and dialects of theAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of their area?

8. participate in processes of Reconciliation in their local community?

9. observe and discuss the different ways that physical environmentscan include or exclude people?

learn about and reflect on the different ways in which children andadults are invited to participate, or excluded from participating?

consider and articulate how resources can be used in inclusive orexclusive ways?

explore and begin to analyse the way texts, pictures, advertisements,commercial products and media construct gender, ability, cultureand race?

discuss and analyse issues relating to bias and stereotyping,including the impact on individuals and groups?

recognise unfairness in personal and general relationships andinteractions?

develop strategies for challenging stereotyping and unfairness?

begin to think critically about a range of perspectives and revisittheir understandings?

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.


Encouragement

Consequences for inappropriate behaviour

Before completing this checklist, you maywish to record some of a session or gatherfeedback from your peers, and analyse whatyou hear.

1. I encourage children

2. I encourage children three times more often than I verballyreprimand them

3. I make feedback specific

4. I vary the words that I use when I encourage

5. I try to ‘catch children being good’

6. I praise all children, even those who are a) quiet and shy, b) veryable, c) tend to misbehave, d) are average

7. I encourage both boys and girls equally

8. I emphasise appropriate behaviour through social reinforcementrather than through rewards

9. I praise improvement rather than perfection



1. I apply consequences for inappropriate behaviour consistently

2. I apply consequences immediately

3. My consequences are effective with all children

4. I remain calm when I respond to inappropriate behaviour

5. I focus on the child’s behaviour rather than his/her personality whenI respond to inappropriate behaviour

6. I make a special effort to note a child ‘being good’, who hadpreviously been displaying inappropriate behaviour

7. The consequences for inappropriate behaviour are part of a wholesite approach

Resources &Bibliography

9


9Aboriginality

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 1999, Aboriginal perspectives onthe early years of learning, Adelaide: DETE.

Brown, B, 2001, Combating discrimination,London: Trentham Books.

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 2000, A communicationassessment for Aboriginal children and students,Adelaide: DETE.

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 2001, Early learning series,Adelaide: DETE.

Behaviour management

Biddulph, S, 1984, The secret of happy children:a new guide for parents, Sydney: Bay Books.

Crary, E, 1993, Without spanking or spoiling:a practical approach to toddler and preschoolguidance, 2nd ed, Seattle: Parenting Press.

Dodd, S, 1994, Managing problem behaviours: apractical guide for parents and teachers of youngchildren with special needs, Artarmon, NSW:MacLennan and Petty.

Essa, E, 1995, A practical guide to solvingpreschool behaviour problems, 3rd ed, Florence,KY: Delmar.

Sanders, M, 1992, Every parent: a positiveapproach to children’s behaviour, Sydney:Addison-Wesley.

Conflict resolution

Butterworth, D & Fulmer, A, 1990, Conflict,control, power: a curriculum to teach peacefulconflict resolution to children aged 0-10 years,Dalkeith, WA: Child and Family Consultants.

Resources

Kreidler, WJ, 1984, Creative conflict resolution:more than 200 activities for keeping peace in theclassroom, Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

Levin, DE, 1994, Teaching young children inviolent times: building a peaceable classroom,Cambridge, MA: Educators for SocialResponsibility.

Rice, JA, 1995, The kindness curriculum:introducing young children. St Paul, MN:Redleaf Press.

Smith, CA, 1993, The peaceful classroom:162 easy activities to teach preschoolerscompassion and cooperation, Mt Rainier, MD:Gryphon House.

Wichert, S, 1989, Keeping the peace: practicingcooperation and conflict resolution withpreschoolers, Philadelphia, PA: New Society.

Curriculum

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 2001, ‘Playing fair: teachingyoung children to resist bias’, (brochure)Adelaide: DETE.

Larson, N, Henthorne, M & Plum, B, 1994,Transition magician: strategies for guiding youngchildren in early childhood programs, St. Paul,MN: Redleaf Press.

McNaughton, G, 1997, Techniques for teachingyoung children: choices in theory and practice.South Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman.

Feelings

Akass, S, 1996, Grizzly bears, London: ABC.

Aliki, 1987, Feelings, London: Pan Books.

Bang, M, 1999, When Sophie gets angry – really,really angry ... New York: Blue Sky Press.

Baynton, M, 1997, Why do you love me?Auckland, NZ: Scholastic.

Resources78

Bryant-Moyle, K, 1998, I’m happy, Hove,East Sussex: Wayland.

Bryant-Moyle, K, 1998, I’m shy, Hove,East Sussex: Wayland.

Corentin, P, 1997, Papa! San Francisco, CA:Chronicle Books.

Crowley, RJ & Mills, JC, 1989, Cartoon magic:how to help children discover their rainbowswithin, New York: Magination Press.

Curtis, JL, 1998, Today I feel silly and othermoods that made my day, New York:Harper Collins.

Dillon, IL, 1994, Exploring anger with yourchild, Palo Alto, CA: Enchante Publishing.

Duffield, N, 1995, Talking to kids – with feeling,Auckland, NZ: Random House New Zealand.

Emberley, E & MA, 1997, Glad monster, sadmonster: a book about feelings, Boston, MA:Little Brown.

Emberley, E, 2000, Go away, big green monster!London: Walker Books.

Faulkner, K, 1998, Panda makes faces, Mascot,NSW: Koala.

Moses, B, 1993, I feel angry, Hove, EastSussex: Wayland.

Moses, B, 1993, I feel frightened, Hove, EastSussex: Wayland.

Moses, B, 1993, I feel jealous, Hove, EastSussex: Wayland.

Moses, B, 1993, I feel sad, Hove, East Sussex:Wayland.

Moses, B, 1993, I’m lonely, Hove, East Sussex:Wayland.

Moses, B, 1997, I’m worried, Hove, EastSussex: Wayland.

Neuman, SB & Panoff, RP, 1983, Exploringfeelings: activities for young children, Atlanta:Humanics.

Offerman, L, 1999, Little teddy bear’s happyface, sad face: a first book about feelings, NoblePark, Vic: Five Mile Press.

Oram, H, 1997, Angry Arthur, New York:Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Sendak, M, 2001, Where the wild things are,London: Bodley Head.

Viorst, J, 1972, Alexander and the terrible,horrible, no good, very bad day, North Ryde,NSW: Angus and Robertson.

Grief and loss

Dillon, IL, 1994, Exploring grief with your child,Palo Alto, CA: Enchante Publishing.

Fitzgerald, H, 1992, The grieving child:a parent’s guide, Sydney: Simon and Schuster.

Mellonie, B & Ingpen, R, 1983, Beginnings andendings with lifetimes in between, Melbourne:Hill of Content.

Oehlberg, B, 1996, Making it better: activitiesfor children living in a stressful world, St Paul,MN: Redleaf Press.

Parker, J, 1995, Understanding grief and loss,Watson, ACT: Australian Early ChildhoodAssociation.

Varley, S, 1992, Badger’s parting gifts, London:Picture Lions.

Multiculturalism

Fields, M & Boesser, C, 1998, Constructiveguidance and discipline – preschool and primaryeducation, New Jersey: Merrell.


9

Harry, B, Kalyanpur, M & Day, M, 1990,Building cultural reciprocity with families –case studies in special education, Maryland:Paul H Brooks.

Ramsey, P, 1998, Teaching and learning in adiverse world, New York: Teachers College Press.

Roseberry-McKibbin, C, 1995, Multiculturalstudents with special language needs, California:Academic Communication Associates.

Schmidt Neven, R, 1996, Emotional milestones,Melbourne: ACER.

Occupational health and safety

Back off [CD-ROM] 2000, Adelaide:Department of Education, Training andEmployment.

In ya face: countering violence in schools[CD-ROM & video] 1998, Adelaide:Department of Education, Training andEmployment.

Relaxation

Andrews, I & Andrews, D, 1994, Let’s imagine[sound recording], Perth: Magic Music.

Garth, M, 1992, Moonbeam: a book ofmeditations for children, Blackburn North, Vic:Harper Collins.

Garth, M, 1994, Sunshine: more meditations forchildren, Blackburn North, Vic: Collins Dove.

Hobday, A & Ollier, K, 1998, Creative therapy:activities with children and adolescents,Camberwell, Vic: Australian Council forEducational Research.

James, V, Let’s imagine: A world of fun andfantasy [audio cassette], Perth, WA:Magic Music.

O’Neill, C, 1993, Relax, Swindon: Child’sPlay International.

Pearson, M & Nolan, P, 1995, Emotional releasefor children: repairing the past, preparing thefuture, Camberwell, Vic: Australian Councilfor Educational Research.

Roe, D, 1996, Young children and stress: howcan we help, Watson, ACT: Australian EarlyChildhood Association.

Self-esteem and life skills

Deal, R, 2000, The I can monsters [cards],Bendigo, Vic: St Luke’s Innovative Resources.

Deal, R, 1999, Strengths in teams [cards],Bendigo, Vic: St Luke’s Innovative Resources.

Feldman, JR, 1997, Ready-to-use self-esteemactivities for young children, West Nyack, NY:Center for Applied Research in Education.

Katz, LG & McClellan, DE, 1997, Fosteringchildren’s social competence: the teacher’s role,Washington, DC: National Association forthe Education of Young Children.

Oser, A, 1997, Star power for preschoolers:learning life skills through physical play, St Paul,MN: Redleaf Press.

Procter, I & Cox, S, 1991, A self-conceptcurriculum for young children, Melbourne:Longman Cheshire.

Temperament

Carey, WB, 1997, Understanding your child’stemperament, New York: Macmillan.

Kurcinka, MS, 1992, Raising your spirited child:a guide for parents whose child is more intense,sensitive, perceptive, persistent, energetic, NewYork: Harper Perennial.

Bibliography

DECS, 2004, Behaviour support policy for earlychildhood services, Adelaide: DECS.

Degangi, G, 2000, Paediatric disorders ofregulation in affect and behaviour: a therapist’sguide to assessment and treatment, California,USA: Academic Press.

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 1999, Aboriginal perspectives onthe early years of learning, Adelaide: DETE.

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 2001, Family day care children’ssexuality training package, Adelaide: DETE.

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 1999, Protective Behaviours:a personal safety program for children and adults,Adelaide: DETE.

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 2000, Reflect and evaluate forlearning: an early childhood tool, Adelaide: DETE.

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 2001, South Australiancurriculum, standards and accountability(SACSA) framework, Adelaide: DETE.

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, 1998, Teaching social skillsin early childhood: let’s talk about it,Adelaide: DETE.

Department of Education, Training andEmployment, [undated], Classroommanagement workbook, South Group ofDistricts: DETE.

Eastman, W, 1996, ‘Environmentalpsychology and ergonomics: planning toreduce noise in an early childhood setting’,Canadian Children.

Eastman, M, 1997, Taming the dragon in yourchild: solutions for breaking the cycle of familyanger, New York: Wiley.

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Asher, S, 1990, ‘Recent advances in the studyof peer rejection’, in Peer rejection in childhood,eds SR Asher & JD Coie, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, pp 3-14.

Asher, SR & Renshaw, PD, 1981, ‘Childrenwithout friends: social knowledge and socialskill training’, in The development of children’sfriendships, eds SR Asher & JM Gottmann,New York: Cambridge University Press,pp 273-96.

Azar, ST, Ferguson, ES & Twentyman,CT, 1992, Principles and practice of relapseprevention, ed PH Wilson, New York:Guildford Press, pp 322-48.

Balson, M, 1988, Understanding classroombehaviour, 2nd ed, Melbourne: AustralianCouncil for Educational Research.

Benard, B, 1992, ‘Peer programs: a majorstrategy for fostering resiliency in kids’,The Peer Facilitator Quarterly, 9, pp 14-17.

Bronson, MB, 2000, Self-regulation in earlychildhood, New York: Guilford Press.

Brown, WH, Fox, JJ & Brady, MP, 1987,‘The effects of spatial density on the sociallydirected behaviour of 3 and 4 year oldchildren during freeplay: an investigation ofa setting factory’, Education and treatment ofchildren, 10, pp 247-58.

Cartledge, G & Fellows MJ (eds), 1980,Teaching social skills to children: innovativeapproaches, New York: Pergamon.

Cotton, P & Jackson, H (eds) Earlyintervention and prevention in mental healthapplications of clinical psychology, Melbourne:Australian Psychology Society, pp 59-87.

Davis, A, 1995, ‘Brief guidelines forbehaviour management’, Adelaide: DETE(unpublished).


Gordon, SA, Green, KM & Worns, SL, 1995,‘Creating an environment that supports thedeveloping social skills of all children’,Child Care Information Exchange, 9, pp 47-50.

Greenman, J, 1988, Caring spaces, learningplaces: children’s environments that work,Redmont, WA: Exchange Press.

Gresham, FM, & Elliot, SN, 1990, Social skillsrating system, Circle Pines, MN: AmericanGuidance Services.

Hildenrand, V, 1990, Guiding young children,New York: MacMillan.

Hill, T, 1989, ‘Neglected and rejectedchildren: promoting social competence inearly childhood settings’, Australian Journal ofEarly Childhood, 14 (1), pp 11-16.

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