1

Supplementary Information for Temple occupation and the tempo of collapse: A case study from Angkor Wat, Cambodia

Alison K. Carter Miriam T. Stark

Seth Quintus Yijie Zhuang Hong Wang Piphal Heng

Rachna Chhay Corresponding Author: Alison Kyra Carter Email: acarter4@uoregon.edu Includes:

Supplementary text Figs. S1 to S4 Tables S1 to S4 References for SI reference citations

www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1821879116

2

Supplementary Information Text Here, a detailed discussion on the radiocarbon dates, their Bayesian analysis, ceramic and excavation data, and the geoarchaeology are presented. Radiocarbon dates The dates from the 2010 and 2013 field seasons were previously published (1-3). Dates and context information from the 2010, 2013, and 2015 field seasons at Angkor Wat are listed in Table S1. As samples were identified during excavation, they were carefully removed from the surrounding soil matrix using metal trowels, placed in aluminum foil, and their X, Y, and Z coordinates were noted on paper plan maps. Samples from the 2013 excavations were analyzed at Beta Analytic as were the 2010 dates (1, 2). Seven samples were selected for radiocarbon dating at the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory in Illinois State Geological Survey, Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

The standard procedure ABA (acid-base-acid) pretreatment was used for AMS 14C dating of these charcoal samples. The same pretreatment was also applied to the UIUC 14C-free wood blank and wood working standards that include IAEA C5 (Two Creek forest wood) and FIRI- D (Fifth International Radiocarbon Inter-Comparison D wood) samples. All samples were boiled for 1 hour in 2M HCl and rinsed to neutrality using DI-water; then soaked in 0.125 M NaOH for an hour and rinsed to neutrality using DI-water; then soaked in 2M HCl for 30 minutes and rinsed to pH 6 using DI-water. Samples were dried in an oven overnight at 70°C. About 2 mg of each of the unknown samples, wood blank, and working standard samples were placed into preheated quartz tubes for sealed quartz tube combustion at 800°C with minimal amount of CuO granules (~0.3 g). Quartz tubes were preheated at 800°C for 2 hours, and CuO granules were preheated at 800°C one day before the usage. The combustion was programmed for 2 hours at 800°C, and then cooled from 800°C to 600°C for 6 hours to allow Cu to reduce the NxO to nitrogen gas. The purified CO2 was collected cryogenically under less than 5 mTorr vacuum condition for AMS 14C analysis. Purified CO2 was submitted to the Keck Carbon Cycle AMS Laboratory of the University of California-Irvine for AMS 14C analysis using the hydrogen-iron reduction method (4). A split of purified CO2 was also analyzed for δ13C values using the in-house Finnegan 252 IRMS (isotope ratio mass spectrometer) with a dual inlet device. All results have been corrected for isotopic fractionation, with δ13C values measured on prepared graphite using the AMS spectrometer (5). Sample preparation blanks (at least 2 aliquots) have been subtracted, based on the measurements of UIUC 14C-free wood sample. The AMS analysis indicated that after blank subtraction, wood working standards of IAEA C5 and FIRI-D yielded target values with 1s deviations. Bayesian Analysis The limitations of standard radiocarbon analysis create ambiguities in temporal interpretations. Such is the case at Angkor Wat where plateaus on the calibration curve extend the variance of date ranges to the point of coarse-grained temporal resolution. One potential remedy to this situation is the use of Bayesian calibration programs (6). The use of prior information, specifically stratigraphic evidence, provides an opportunity to restrict the temporal ranges of individual dates and events (7). The relatively simple stratigraphic record at Angkor provides useful prior information within which to evaluate radiocarbon dates from the site. Based on the available dates and stratigraphic sequence, we built a three-phase Bayesian model using Oxcal

3

4.3.2 (8) calibrated using the IntCal 13 atmospheric calibration curve (9) (Table S2). All samples dated and used as part of this model were well-preserved unidentified charcoal.

The three phases included in our model were defined by the stratigraphic units identified in the project area (Layers 1-3, discussed in main text). Dates within each phase were unordered. Boundaries, which are a command used to define associated groups of radiocarbon dates, were placed at the beginning and end of each phase. The end boundary of Layer 3 is modeled as the same as the start boundary of Layer 2 as the layers are interpreted as temporarily contiguous. This interpretation is supported when the boundaries are modeled as separate entities as estimated time elapsed between boundaries is 0-53 years (95.4% HPD). In contrast, the boundaries for the end of Layer 2 and the start of Layer 1 are not shared in the model since temporal contiguity cannot be assumed based on visual evaluation of radiocarbon dates in each layer and the presence of non-overlapping boundaries when they are modeled as separate entities (see below). Non-ambiguous stratigraphic associations were determined for 18 radiocarbon dates, dates associated with ambiguous stratigraphic context were omitted.

The first iteration of the model with all stratigraphically associated dates included produced a poor model agreement (Amodel = 46.7, Aoverall = 46.1) with two radiocarbon dates from Layer 2 (340149 and A3751) identified as potential outliers based on their individual agreement indices (A < 60). These dates are older than expected within the stratigraphic sequence, and we interpret this to be a product of old wood effects. The second iteration, wherein the two outliers were removed, and the 16 remaining dates are analyzed, resulted in a model with acceptable agreement (Amodel = 68.6, Aoverall = 68). Each individual date has an agreement index above 74. The absence of dated short-lived taxa is a potential limitation to this model, especially in light of the fact that two determinations may be affected by an old wood effect. While all other dates are internally consistent, which would suggest that such old wood effects are minimal, this is assumed rather than confirmed. Future dating programs in and around Angkor should consider restricting radiocarbon dating to samples that have been identified to taxa to control for potential issues associated with old wood. Geoarchaeology The geoarchaeological investigation was carried out during the 2015 fieldwork season. Soil micromorphology and geophysical samples were collected from the excavated trenches on Mound S1E2M1. The micromorphological samples were processed at McBurney Laboratory for Geoarchaeology, University of Cambridge, following the standard procedure developed by Charles French and Tonko Rajkovaca (10). Particle Size Distribution of the sediments were analyzed at the Department of Geography, UCL, using Malvern Mastersizer 2000. Here we present detailed analytical results of the micromorphological examination and particle-size-distribution (PSD) analysis from Trenches 36, which was located in the central portion of the mound and Trench 44 within the associated depression or pond (see Fig. 3 of main text). This information provides evidence to understand the pre-Angkorian local landscape, site formation process during the occupation of the mound, and the post-Angkorian phase of the mound.

The particle sizes and micromorphological features of the examined samples and their corresponding archaeological contexts are summarized in Table S3. The pre-construction local landscape belonged to a wider alluvial floodplain, as demonstrated by the well-sorted sediments that were deposited through fine sorting process in alluvial setting. The presence of typical micromorphological features related to soil formation such as limpid clay coatings with moderate birefringence is indicative of a stable alluvial landscape that encouraged soil formation. It should

4

be noted that there is abundant micro-charcoal in the soil groundmass, which might be related to land clearance or similar activities taking place in the wider landscape. In the ensuing period, the Angkorian occupants began to dig into the alluvial sediments in the low-relief area to form the pond/depression, while on the higher ground, they raised the surface probably by removing the earth dug from the low-relief areas. Such activities are clearly evidenced by the highly mixed groundmass present in the corresponding thin sections (Table S3). This ground-raising activity transformed the local hydrological regime, leading to the formation of some calcitic features that are often formed under dry conditions. However, such dry conditions were temporary once alluvial sedimentation resumed. Land clearance or firing events continued as indicated by a charcoal lens overlying on top of the pre-Angkorian alluvial sediments.

During the occupation of the mound, the raised ground and the low-relief/depression were maintained/managed for most of the time. Whilst steady and probably slow building up of alluvial sediments was continued, the sediments are characterized by an evident increase of moderate-sorting, sub-rounded-shaped coarse particles. This points to a change in sedimentation and water regimes of the wider alluvial landscape. There is presence of limpid to dusty clay coatings with layered structure. Combined together, these micromorphological features and sedimentary characteristics suggest disturbed but relatively stable surface with some vegetation and favored by wet-dry alternations with incipient and periodic soil formation. We should also note that the land use patterns during the occupation at the mound were quite localized and patchy.

The pond was gradually silted up after continuously received surface eroded materials from the surrounding areas. At the end of its ‘life cycle’, it experienced frequent episodes of wet-dry alternations as the water depth became shallower and shallower. Although there is no 14C dates available from the pond yet, this gradual abandonment of the pond might also mark the cessation of the use of the mound. The sedimentary transition from Layer 2 to Layer 1 saw the sedimentation of even coarser, more poorly-sorted and angular-to-sub-angular-shaped particles with increased organic matter, both from the immediate local environment. This was followed first by bioturbation as the surface erosion stopped and second by a return to a slightly gentle sedimentation regime with slightly better sorted coarse particles. Limpid clay coatings are present, suggesting weak soil formation; and the presence of surface crustal features indicate raindrop impact of subsequent drying on the surface which was not covered by much vegetation. Excavation Methodology and Data As noted in the main text, there have been three field seasons of excavations within the Angkor Wat enclosure. Smaller trenches were used within the Angkor Wat enclosure primarily due to limitations placed on conducting large-scale excavations within temple enclosures by the APSARA Authority. Additionally, the enclosure space is heavily forested and cutting or disturbing trees is discouraged. A total of six trenches were excavated in the 2010 field season and an additional 19 were excavated in 2013 on mounds, mound slopes, adjacent to the laterite enclosure wall, and in depressions (1).

A total of 22 trenches were excavated in the 2015 field season, all located on or around mound S1E2M1 (Figure 2 in main text, fig S1). Most trenches were 1x2 meters, with 1x1 meter extensions added in some cases. Trenches were selected to sample space around the mound, but were extended as promising features were uncovered. Most of the trenches were concentrated just east of the center of the mound, where numerous features were identified in sub-surface remains. Figure S3 shows an overhead view of multiple trenches from the 2015 excavations

5

highlighting the concentration of flat-laying sandstone pieces, which may have been part of a floor surface. Figure S4 shows a circular feature of stones and brick, which may have been a hearth. On top of and surrounding this feature were broken ceramics fragments and charcoal.

Figure S2 and Table S4 present the count of ceramics from the 2013 and 2015 excavations at Angkor Wat by layer. Not included in these counts were a small number of ceramics from the 2015 excavations which were from mixed layer contexts. Layer 1 was a thin layer of organic, loamy topsoil, which frequently contained ceramics (earthenwares, stonewares, and tradewares). Identification of specific types of Chinese tradeware ceramics, such as those that date to the Ming Dynasty, along with preliminary radiocarbon dates, suggested this layer dated to the Post-Angkorian period (15-17th centuries CE). Layer 2 was a thicker layer that contained increased ceramics and post-holes, surfaces in the form of pot-breaks and flat-lying stones, and possible hearth features (figs. S2-S4, Table S4). Layer 3 is associated with the initial re-organization of the landscape and construction of the mound-depression grid system around the temple as well as the construction of Angkor Wat (Figure 2). A small number of Chinese tradeware ceramics from the Song (960-1279 CE) and Yuan Dynasties (1271-1368 CE) were also found in Layers 2 and 3. Chinese tradewares were of limited use to date layers more precisely because they were frequently found as small non-diagnostic pieces and constituted only 5% of our ceramic assemblage. Furthermore, the wide production age ranges for common types of Chinese tradewares complicates their use for tightening our chronology (11: 29-30). Nevertheless, based on these multiple lines of evidence (ceramic data, radiocarbon dates, and historic documentation about the construction of the temple itself), we argued Layers 2 and 3 likely dated to the 12-13th centuries CE during the Angkorian period (1, 3).

6

Fig. S1: Topographic map of mound S1E2M1 within the Angkor Wat enclosure showing

locations of trenches excavated during the 2015 GAP field season. Trench 19 was excavated in 2013. The depression to the north of the mound is a pond. Lidar elevation data courtesy of

KALC. Figure made by Piphal Heng.

7

Fig. S2. Count of ceramics from Layers 1, 2, and 3 from the 2013 and 2015 Field Seasons at Angkor Wat. For specific counts see Table S4.

8

Fig. S3. Trenches 39, 42,43, 44, 45, 47,49, 51,54, and 56 from above showing the concentration of sandstone pieces running through the trenches. Photo by Phirom Vitou.

9

Fig. S4. Feature from Trench 43. Left image shows concentration of charcoal and broken ceramics. Right image shows the circular stone and brick features underneath, which may have

been a hearth.

10

Table S1: Radiocarbon dates from Greater Angkor Project excavations at Angkor Wat. Conventional Radiocarbon dates calculated using the IntCal13 curve.

Lab ID Lab

Context Info

Conven-tional

C14 Date BP

2σ calibrated date range Context info Layer Notes

340152 Beta

AWT2010 6006N.16.23

Trench 6 Charcoal

410 ±30

Cal AD 1430 to 1522 (82.8%)

Cal AD 1578 to 1583 (0.5%)

Cal AD 1591 to 1620 (12.1%)

From layer of residential debris that is either redeposited trash or

primary refuse. Taken from bottom of wall trench foundation.

1

Not included in current

analysis, due to likely

bioturbation. Source (1)

306433 Beta

AWT2010 1024

Trench 2010-1

Charcoal

410±30

Cal AD 1430 to 1522 (82.8%)

Cal AD 1578 to 1583 (0.5%)

Cal AD 1591 to 1620 (12.1%)

Within a rock chip layer in West Gopura that included sandstone

chips, small crystals and Chinese ceramics of the

Ming Dynasty (AD 1368–1644). Debris

from 16-17th century CE modifications of the

West Gopura.

1 Source (2)

340154 Beta

AWT2010 8004.16.02 Trench 8 Charcoal

360±30

Cal AD 1450-1530 (47.7%)

Cal AD 1540-1635 (47.7%)

May represent end of thin layer of occupation.

Found in association with 16-18th century CE

tradewares.

1 Source (1)

306432 Beta

AWT2010 1022

Trench 2010-1

Charcoal

340±30 Cal AD 1470-1640 (95.4%)

See notes for 306433 above 1 Source (2)

306434 Beta

AWT2010 1026

Trench 2010-1

Charcoal

300±30

Cal AD 1489-1604 (69.6%)

Cal AD 1611-1654 (35.8%)

See notes for 306433 above 1 Source (2)

A3745 UIUC

AWT2015 53004

Trench 53 Charcoal

175±15

Cal AD 1667-1685 (18.1%)

Cal AD 1734-1784 (49.4 %)

Cal AD 1796-1807 (8.8%)

Cal AD 1929 (19.1%)

Associated with a charcoal concentration and possible crucible

1 From 2015

GAP excavations

A3746 UIUC

AWT2015 39004

Trench 39 Charcoal

120±15

Cal AD 1683-1735 (27.0%)

Cal AD 1806-1893 (56.7%)

Cal AD 1907-1930 (11.7 %)

Associated with a cluster of Qing

tradeware ceramics 1

From 2015 GAP

excavations

400834 Beta

AWT2013 27011.16 Trench 27

430±30 Cal AD 1421-1499 (90.7%)

Disturbed context, charcoal is directly

associated with possible 1

Not included in current

analysis. From

11

Charcoal Cal AD 1507-1511 (0.6%)

Cal AD 1601-1616 (4.1%)

post-hole, which should date the onset of Layer 3 but dates are associated

with Layer 1

2013 excavations, previously

unpublished

340151 Beta

AWT2010 5003W.16.02

Trench 5 Charcoal

350±30

Cal AD 1458-1531 (41.3 %)

Cal AD 1539-1635 (54.1%)

In layer with charred ceramics and charcoal

flecking 1 Source (1)

340149 Beta

AWT2010 3005E.16.02

Trench 3 Charcoal

1000±30

Cal AD 983-1051 (71.0%)

Cal AD 1082-1128 (19.2%)

Cal AD 1135-1152 (5.2%)

From above sandstone chip layer, thought to

date terminus of temple construction

2

Not included in current

analysis, interpreted to

be outlier, possibly related to old wood or

disturbed context. Source

(1)

A3751 UIUC

AWT2015 49023

Trench 49 Charcoal

975±15

Cal AD 1018-1048 (58.6%)

Cal AD 1088-1123 (30.5%)

Cal AD 1138-1149 (6.4%)

From a charcoal rich feature in Layer 2 2

Not included in current

analysis, interpreted to

be outlier, possibly related to old wood or

disturbed context. From

2015 GAP excavations

A3747 UIUC

AWT2015 43010

Trench 43 Charcoal

960±15

Cal AD 1022-1052 (34.7%)

Cal AD 1082-1129 (47.3%)

Cal AD 1134-1152 (13.4%)

Taken from above a feature with earthenware and charcoal (hearth?)

2 From 2015

GAP excavations

A3749 UIUC

AWT2015 43015

Trench 43 Charcoal

915±15

Cal AD 1041-1108 (58.6%)

Cal AD 1116-1163 (36.8%)

Possible hearth feature with ceramics and

charcoal 2

From 2015 GAP

excavations

A3748 UIUC

AWT2015 49011

Trench 49 Charcoal

905±15

Cal AD 1042-1105 (56.4%)

Cal AD 1117-1170 (37.5%)

Cal AD 1175-1183 (1.5%)

Taken from above a feature with fired

clay/brick 2

From 2015 GAP

excavations

340153 Beta

AWT2010 7003A.16.03

Trench 7 Charcoal

840±30

Cal AD 1059-1063 (0.4%)

Cal AD 1154-1264 (95.0%)

From end of Angkorian occupation layer? With Chinese tradewares and

Khmer stonewares

2 Source (1)

400832 Beta

AWT2013 17016.16.01 Trench 17 Charcoal

820±30 Cal AD 1165-1265 (95.4%)

From ceramics concentration at

interface of Layer 2 and 3.

2 Source (3)

12

340150 Beta

AWT2010 3016W.16.01

Trench 3 Charcoal

950±30 Cal AD 1024-1155 (95.4%)

From below a sandstone chip layer associated

with temple construction 3 Source (1)

A3750 UIUC

AWT2015 36017

Trench 36 Charcoal

895±15

Cal AD 1046-1093 (43.5%)

Cal AD 1120-1140 (9.9%)

Cal AD 1147-1208 (42.1%)

Taken from beneath a ceramics cluster 3

From 2015 GAP

excavations

400831 Beta

AWT2013 17017.16.01 Trench 17 Charcoal

880±30

Cal AD 1042-1105 (27.0%)

Cal AD 1117-1222 (68.4%)

From a charcoal lens below a ceramics

concentration 3 Source (3)

400833 Beta

AWT2013 19007.16.04 Trench 19 Charcoal

880±30

Cal AD 1042-1105 (27.0%)

Cal AD 1117-1222 (68.4%)

From a ceramics cluster with many complete jars 3 Source (3)

306437 Beta

AWT2010 1029

Trench 2010-1

Charcoal

1150±30 Cal AD 776-971

(95.4%)

From fill within a structure that included redeposited material

N/A

Not used in current analysis

due to disturbed

context. Source (2)

306435 Beta

AWT2010 1028B Trench 2010-1

Charcoal

900±30 Cal AD 1039-1210

(95.4%)

Taken from disturbed context in southern face of foundation of “buried

towers” near West Gopura.

N/A

Not used in current analysis

due to disturbed

context. Source (2)

306436 Beta

AWT2010 1028A Trench 2010-1

Charcoal

850±30

Cal AD 1052-1080 (5.2%)

Cal AD 1152-1260 (90.2%)

Taken from disturbed context in southern face of foundation of “buried

towers” near West Gopura.

N/A

Not used in current analysis

due to disturbed

context. Source (2)

13

Table S2: Oxcal Code for Angkor Wat Bayesian Model Plot() { Sequence("Angkor Wat") { Boundary("Start of Layer 3"); Phase("Layer 3") { R_Date("340150", 950, 30); R_Date("A3750", 895, 15); R_Date("400831", 880, 30); R_Date("400833", 880, 30); }; Boundary("Layer 2/3 Transition"); Interval("Layer 2/3 Gap"); Phase("Layer 2") { R_Date("A3747", 960, 15); R_Date("A3749", 915, 15); R_Date("A3748", 905, 15); R_Date("340153", 840, 30); R_Date("400832", 820, 30); }; Boundary("End of Layer 2"); Interval("Pre- Post- Angkorian Gap"); Boundary("Start of Layer 1"); Phase("Layer 1") { R_Date("306433", 410, 30); R_Date("340154", 360, 30); R_Date("340151", 350, 30); R_Date("306432", 340, 30); R_Date("306434", 300, 30); R_Date("A3745", 175, 15); R_Date("A3746", 120, 15); }; Boundary("End of Layer 1"); }; };

14

Table S3. Particle sizes and micromorphological features of the examined samples and their corresponding archaeological contexts.

Sample no. Depth and

context Description

Tr. 36:1 37-50cm Layer 2a and Layer 1b

Upper unit: Poorly sorted groundmass with abundant medium to coarse sand-sized particles of sub-angular to angular shape (8%). Small, thin limpid to dusty clay coatings and surface crustal features with fine laminae. Abundant iron nodules, well to moderately impregnated. Middle unit: granular microstructure. Poorly sorted groundmass with abundant coarse to pebble-sized particles mostly of angular-shape (10%). Charcoal and abundant organic matter (4-5%); partially preserved plant tissues. Lower unit: Poorly sorted groundmass with abundant minerals (5%), mainly fine to coarse sand sized. Limpid to dusty clay coatings, sometimes with layered structure; Abundant iron nodules, well to moderately impregnated. 4% organic matter.

Tr. 36:2 60-71cm Layer 2a and Layer 2b

Poorly sorted groundmass (but better than Tr. 36:1). 1). Abundant (7-8%) limpid clay coatings, layered and sometimes disrupted, light yellowish, strong birefringence 2). Iron nodules, moderately to loosely impregnated, 4-5% 3). Compound pedofeatures: thin reddish clay coatings or iron-rich nodules superimposing on limpid clay coatings

Tr. 36:3 80-90cm Layer 2b and 3a

Same as Tr. 36:2 in terms of the texture/fabric, but more rounded-shaped 1). Thin, reddish, iron-rich coatings. 2). Iron nodules, well to moderately impregnated. 1) and 2) 10% 3). Calcite nodules and infillings, 2-3%

Tr. 36:4 98-112cm Layer 3a and 3b

Upper unit: very poorly sorted sediments, but the minerals are slightly more sub-rounded shaped, less angular-shaped 1). Compound pedofeatures 2). Calcite nodules, loosely impregnated. 3). Silty clay coatings or surface crustal features? 4). Iron nodules 4-5% Lower unit: sediments are better sorted, containing much less coarse particles, more rounded-shaped minerals. 1). Limpid light yellowish clay coatings, layered, 5% 2). Iron nodules, 7-8% 3). Surface crustal features

15

4). Compound pedofeatures Tr. 44:1 27-36cm

Layer 1c and 2a

Poorly to moderately sorted groundmass, 6-7% minerals, rounded to sub-rounded shaped 1). Thin, layered, dusty clay coatings and hypo-coatings, 3% 2). Iron nodules, moderately impregnated, 6-7% 3). OM: 3-4%, some partially decomposed and preserve plant tissues. 5% fine organic matter or pigments, especially concentrated on the upper part. Some plant tissues are covered or coated by iron

Tr. 44:2 45-59cm Layer 2b and 3a

Upper unit: very poorly sorted sediments, angular to sub-angular minerals 1). Dusty clay coatings and hypo-coatings, light yellowish, layered, and strong birefringence, 4-5% 2). Silty clay coatings, thin, layered, 3% 3). Limpid to dusty clay coatings, layered, 2% 3). Minerals look very similar to clay coatings (micas) 4). Iron nodules and stainings 5). OM: large, partially decomposed, plant tissues preserved, 4-5% Lower unit: dramatic change in sedimentation, much better sorted sediments, 5% fine to medium-sand-sized minerals, angular to sub-angular 1). Limpid, layered clay coatings, light yellowish, sometimes disrupted, 2-3% 2). Iron nodules and stainings, 10%; associated with these are iron-depleted areas in the groundmass 3). Dusty, layered clay coatings and hypo-coatings, 3% 4). Compound pedofeatures 4). Charcoal

Tr. 44:3 52-63cm Layer 3a and 3b

Upper unit: 5% sub-rounded to sub-angular shape minerals, poorly sorted 1). Limpid to dusty clay coatings, light yellowish to brownish color, layered sometimes disrupted, 6-7% 2). Dusty to silty clay coatings, 2-3% 3). Iron nodules, 4% 4). Charcoal lens Lower unit: well sorted, typical alluvial sediments, 2% rounded to sub-rounded, fine to medium-sand-sized minerals 1). Limpid to dusty layered clay coatings, light yellowish to brownish 2). Iron nodules and stainings, 5-6% 3). Charcoal, 5%

16

Table S4: Count of ceramics from Layers 1, 2, and 3 from the 2013 and 2015 excavations at

Angkor Wat.

Unglazed stoneware

Brown glazed

stoneware

Green glazed

stoneware Tradewares Earthenware

> 2cm2 Earthenware

< 2cm2 Total

Layer 1 233 100 83 170 1251 2198 4035 Layer 2 350 190 249 277 1833 2546 5445 Layer 3 117 33 63 46 503 701 1463

17

References 1. Stark MT, Evans D, Rachna C, Piphal H, & Carter A (2015) Residential patterning at

Angkor Wat. Antiquity 89(348):1439-1455. 2. Sonnemann TF, O'Reilly D, Rachna C, Fletcher R, & Pottier C (2015) The buried

‘towers’ of Angkor Wat. Antiquity 89(348):1420-1438. 3. Carter AK, Heng P, Stark MT, Chhay R, & Evans DH (2018) Urbanism and Residential

Patterning in Angkor. Journal of Field Archaeology 43(6):492-506. 4. Southon JR (2007) Graphite reactor memory—where is it from and how to minimize it? .

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 259(1):288-292. 5. Stuiver M & Polach H (1977) Reporting of 14C data. Radiocarbon 19:355-363. 6. Buck CE, Litton CD, & Smith AFM (1992) Calibration of radiocarbon results pertaining

to related archaeological events. Journal of Archaeological Science 19:497-512. 7. Dye TS & Buck CE (2015) Archaeological sequence diagrams and Bayesian

chronological models. Journal of Archaeological Science 63:84-93. 8. Bronk Ramsey C (2017) Methods for Summarizing Radiocarbon Datasets. Radiocarbon

59(6):1809-1833. 9. Reimer PJ, Bard E, Bayliss A, & Beck JW (2013) IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon

Age Calibration Curves 0–50,000 Years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55(4):1869-1887. 10. French C (2015) A Handbook of Geoarchaeological Approaches for Investigating

Landscapes and Settlement Sites (Oxbow Books, Oxford). 11. Desbat A (2011) Pour une révision de la chronologie des grès Khmers. Aséanie 27:11-34.