Supplementary data · Norway E-mail: [email protected] ... Tesla S model 60 kWh 2025 188...
Transcript of Supplementary data · Norway E-mail: [email protected] ... Tesla S model 60 kWh 2025 188...
Supplementary data The size and range effect: lifecycle greenhouse gas
emissions of electric vehicles
Linda Ager-Wick Ellingsen, Bhawna Singh, and Anders Hammer Strømman
Industrial Ecology Programme and Department of Energy and Process Engineering,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU),
NO-7491 Trondheim,
Norway
E-mail: [email protected]
Contents 1. Scope and method ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Scoping vehicles size and segments .............................................................................................. 2
1.2 Electric vehicle inventory .............................................................................................................. 3
1.2.1 Inventory for vehicle production, use, and end-of-life treatment ......................................... 3
1.2.2 Inventories for battery production and end-of-life treatment .............................................. 3
1.3 The fossil envelope – lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of conventional vehicles .................... 5
1.3.1 Production and use................................................................................................................. 5
1.3.2 End-of-life treatment impacts ................................................................................................ 6
2. Results ................................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Complete numerical results .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Sensitivity analysis – electricity source ......................................................................................... 7
4. References ........................................................................................................................................... 9
1. Scope and method
1.1 Scoping vehicles size and segments For twenty EVs, we obtained curb weight (kg) and NEDC energy requirement (kWh/km). These data
as well as their data sources are listed in table S1.
Table S1 Collected data for a range of electric vehicles
Electric vehicle model Weight (kg)
NEDC Energy requirement (Wh/km)
Reference
Smart Fortwo electric drive 900 151 (Daimler AG 2012a)
Mitsubishi iMiev 1110 135 (Mitsubishi Motors Europe BV 2013)
Peugeot iOn 1120 135 (Peugeot 2014)
Citroën C-Zero 1120 126 (Citroën 2013; GoingElectric 2014b)
VW e-up! 1139 117 (Volkswagen AG 2013)
BMW i3 1195 129 (BMW AG 2013)
Kia Soul EV 1490 147 (Kia Bil Norge AS 2014)
Peugeot Kangoo 1501 155 (Renault 2014; Renault 2013; Elbilforening 2014)
Renault Zoe 1503 146 (Renaut 2014)
VW e-golf 2014 1510 127 (Volkswagen AG 2014)
Nissan e-NV200 1542 165 (Nissan Motor (GB) LIMITED 2014)
Renault Fluence Z.E. 1543 119 (GoingElectric 2014c)
Nissan LEAF 1548 150 (Nissan Motor 2014)
Citroën Berlingo s 1589 210 (Citroën 2014; GoingElectric 2014a)
Ford Focus Electric 1615 154 (Norsk elbilforening 2014; auto revue 2014)
Citroën Berlingo l 1628 210 (Citroën 2014; GoingElectric 2014a)
Mercedes B Class Electric drive 1725 166 (Daimler AG 2014)
BMW Active e 1800 140 (BMW AG 2014)
Tesla S model 60 kWh 2025 188 (Tesla Motors 2014)
Tesla S model 85 kWh 2108 204* ( Tesla Motors 2014; www.fueleconomy.gov 2014)
*The NEDC energy requirement for the Tesla model S with an 85 kWh battery was unattainable. The energy requirement given in the table
was based on the U.S. official government source for fuel economy information and the NEDC energy requirement for the Tesla S model
with a 60 kWh battery. U.S.85kWh = 0.236(www.fueleconomy.gov 2014) and U.S.60kWh = 0.217(www.fueleconomy.gov 2014)
𝑁𝐸𝐷𝐶85𝑘𝑊ℎ = 𝑈. 𝑆.85𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑈. 𝑆.60𝑘𝑊ℎ
∗ 𝑁𝐸𝐷𝐶60𝑘𝑊ℎ
1.2 Electric vehicle inventory To ensure comprehensive understanding of each of the lifecycle phases, the most complete and
detailed inventories available on EVs (Hawkins et al 2013) and Li-ion batteries (Ellingsen et al 2013;
Dewulf et al 2010) were synthesized and adapted.
1.2.1 Inventory for vehicle production, use, and end-of-life treatment
Hawkins et al (2013) present a comprehensive cradle-to-grave inventory of EVs. Their sub-
inventories for vehicle (without battery) production and end-of-life treatment were adjusted
according to vehicle weight.
As for the use phase, we considered two factors: EV energy requirement and total driving distance.
The NEDC energy requirements (ENEDC) does not take into account the losses in the battery or the
charger. The NEDC energy requirements were divided by the energy efficiency (η) of the battery
(95% (Miljøbil Grenland 2012)) and charger (96%) to establish EV energy requirement (EEV) including
losses.
𝐸𝐸𝑉 =𝐸𝑁𝐸𝐷𝐶
𝜂
Based on the energy requirement (EEV) and a total mileage of 180,000 km, the total lifetime energy
requirement of the EVs was calculated. NEDC energy requirement, EV energy requirement, and total
lifetime energy requirement for the different sized EVs are displayed in table S2.
Table S2 Energy requirement
Segment NEDC energy requirement (Wh/km)
EV energy requirement (Wh/km)
Total lifetime energy use (kWh)
A - mini car 133 146 26251
C - medium car 155 170 30633
D - large car 169 185 33371 F - luxury car 189 207 37205
1.2.2 Inventories for battery production and end-of-life treatment
The most important modification was in relation to the number of battery cells. Higher energy
capacity required an increase in the number of battery cells. Furthermore, each cell required a nylon
cassette with aluminium heat-transfer plates. These cassettes made up much of the module
packaging, and therefore the number of battery cells influenced module packaging weight changes.
Each battery module (30 cells) had one battery management board. These were very light, and as the
number of battery management boards were the only adjustment performed on the battery
management system, there was little change in weight for this component group. The difference in
cooling system weight was mainly due to the number of radiators. Battery packaging was changed
mostly due to the size of the battery tray. Component weights are displayed in table S3.
Table S3 Weight of battery components
Component group 17.7 kWh battery
26.6 kWh battery
42.1 kWh battery
59.9 kWh battery
Battery cells (kg) 102 152 241 343
Module packaging (kg) 32 48 76 108
Battery management system (kg) 9.1 9.4 9.9 10.5
Cooling system (kg) 8.1 10.5 16.1 23.5
Battery packaging 26 33 50 69
In table S4, we have the weight of the battery pack and the vehicle (without battery), as well as the
entire vehicle.
Table S4 Weight of battery, vehicle (without battery), and total EV
Segment
Battery weight (kg)
Vehicle weight (kg)
EV weight (kg)
A - mini car 177 923 1100 C - medium car 253 1247 1500 D - large car 393 1407 1750 F - luxury car 553 1547 2100
For end-of-life treatment of the battery, an inventory based on the pyrometallurgical treatment
described in Dewulf et al (2010) was compiled.
Table S5 Battery EOL treatment inventory
Input Output Unit Econinvent process
CaO (lime) 1.3E-01 kg lime, hydraulic, at plant/ CH/ kg
Cooling water 1.4E+04 kg water, decarbonised, at plant/ RER/ kg
Cokes 7.7E-01 MJ hard coal, burned in industrial furnace 1-10MW/ RER/ MJ
Total heat 2.3E-01 MJ heat, unspecific, in chemical plant/ RER/ MJ
Facility 1.9E-08 p facilities precious metal refinery/ SE/ unit
Total Electricity 1.6E-01 kWh medium voltage
Spent battery 1.0E+00 kg
Heat loss 2.5E+00 MJ Heat, waste/ air/ unspecified
Alloy 4.8E-01 kg
Slag 2.5E-01 kg
1.3 The fossil envelope – lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of conventional
vehicles Note that the LCA results for the ICEVs only provide indicative benchmarks.
1.3.1 Production and use
From automobile manufacturers Mercedes-Benz and Volkswagen, LCA results for production and use
of cars in segment A, C, D, and F were collected. Vehicle curb weight (kg), production impact (ton
CO2-eq), and use phase impact (g CO2-eq/km) were collected. For mini cars, results were gathered for
two gasoline up! models (Wolkswagen AG 2015). For medium cars, LCA results were collected for the
gasoline and diesel Golfs, the gasoline A 180 BlueEFFICIENCY, and the gasoline B 170 (Volkswagen AG
2012; Daimler AG 2012b; Daimler AG 2011). For large cars, results were collected for the diesel and
gasoline Passats, the gasoline C 250, and gasoline CLS 350 (Daimler AG 2010; Daimler AG 2015a;
Volkswagen AG 2010). For the luxury cars, only the report on the gasoline S 500 was available
(Daimler AG 2015b). To get a larger sample size of the use phase impacts, we also included use phase
emissions (g CO2/km) from the S 350 BlueTEC and the BMW 7 series (Daimler AG 2015b; BMW AG
2015). We converted these use phase emissions (g CO2/km) to use phase impacts (g CO2-eq/km) by
multiplying the emissions with a conversion factor. The conversion factor was the use phase impact
divided by the use phase emission of the S 500 and was found to be 1.2. Production intensity (ton
CO2-eq/ton vehicle) was calculated based on curb weight and production impact.
Table S 6 Data collected for internal combustion engine vehicles
Seg
men
t
Car model Curb weight
(kg)
Production (ton CO2-
eq)
Production intensity (ton CO2-
eq/ton vehicle)
Use phase impact (g CO2-eq/km)
Use phase
emission (g
CO2/km)
Average use
phase emission
(g CO2/km)
Report year
A -
min
i ca
r
up! 929 3.5 3.8 131 2013
up! BlueMotion 940 3.8 4.0 117 2013
C -
med
ium
ca
r Golf VII 1.2 TSI 1205 5.1 4.2 133 2014
B 170 Blue EFFICIENCY 1240 5.4 4.4 196 2011
A 180 Blue EFFICIENCY 1295 6.1 4.7 159 2012
Golf VII 1.6 TDI 1295 5.0 3.9 109 2014
D -
larg
e ca
r C 250 1405 8.7 6.2 149 2015
Passat 1.4 TSI 1473 7.0 4.8 185 2010
Passat 2.0 TDI BMT 1572 7.4 4.7 135 2010
CLS 350 BlueEFFICIENCY 1660 10.8 6.5 194 2010
F -
luxu
ry c
ar
S 500 1920 11.0 5.7 247 199-213 206 2015
S 350 BlueTEC 1880 180* 146-155 151 2015
BMW 7 series 1755 189* 119-197 158 2015 *Calculated based in average use phase emissions (g CO2/km)
Based on the collected data, we then calculated the average weight, average production intensity,
and average use phase impact for each of the segments.
Table S 7 Calculated average weight, production intensity, and use phase impact
Segment Average weight (kg) Average production intensity (ton CO2-eq/ton vehicle)
Average use phase impact (g CO2-eq/km)
A - mini car 935 3.9 124
C - medium car 1259 4.3 149
D - large car 1528 5.6 166
F - luxury car 1852 5.7 205
The production impact of the ICEVs were calculated by multiplying the segments’ average weights by
the segments’ average production intensity. Average use phase impact was calculated by the total
mileage of 180,000 km to find the total use phase impact. .
1.3.2 End-of-life treatment impacts
Impact of EOL treatment from the ICEV inventory by Hawkins et al (2013) was scaled linearly
according to the average vehicle weights.
2. Results 2.1 Complete numerical results
Table S8 Lifecycle impacts of electric vehicles. Impact is measured in ton CO2-eq per vehicle over a lifetime of 180,000 km.
Scenario 1 - European electricity mix
Production Use EOL Total
A - mini car
Ecar 4.8 13.1 0.4 18.3
Battery 2.2 0.5 0.1 2.8
Total 7.0 13.7 0.5 21.1
C - medium car
Ecar 6.5 15.3 0.6 22.3
Battery 3.2 0.6 0.1 3.9
Total 9.6 15.9 0.6 26.2
D - large car
Ecar 7.0 16.7 0.6 24.3
Battery 4.9 0.7 0.1 5.7
Total 11.9 17.4 0.7 30.1
F - luxury car
Ecar 8.0 18.6 0.7 27.3
Battery 6.9 0.8 0.2 7.9
Total 14.9 19.4 0.9 35.2
Table S9 Lifecycle impacts of conventional vehicles. Impact is measured in ton CO2-eq per vehicle over a lifetime of 180,000 km.
Segment Production Use EOL Total
A - mini car 3.6 22.3 0.3 26.3
C - medium car 5.4 26.9 0.5 32.7
D - large car 8.5 29.8 0.6 38.9
F - luxury car 10.6 37.0 0.7 48.3
Table S10 Cradle-to-gate climate change potential intensity
Segment Cradle-to-gate GWP intensity (ton CO2-eq/ton car)
EVs
A - mini car 6.3
C - medium car 6.4
D - large car 6.8
F - luxury car 7.1
ICEV
s
A - mini car 3.9
C - medium car 4.3
D - large car 5.6
F - luxury car 5.7
2.2 Sensitivity analysis – electricity source Below are the numerical results for the sensitivity analysis.
Table S1 Lifecycle result for the EVs powered by coal-based electricity. Impact is measured in ton CO2-eq per vehicle.
Segment Production Use EOL Total
A - mini car 7.0 27.0 0.5 34.5
C - medium car 9.6 31.5 0.6 41.8
D - large car 11.9 34.3 0.7 47.0
F - luxury car 14.9 38.3 0.9 54.1
Table S2 Lifecycle result for the EVs powered by natural gas-based electricity. Impact is measured in ton CO2-eq per vehicle.
Segment Production Use EOL Total
A - mini car 7.0 15.6 0.5 23.1
C - medium car 9.6 18.2 0.6 28.5
D - large car 11.9 19.9 0.7 32.6
F - luxury car 14.9 22.2 0.9 38.0
Table S3 Lifecycle result for the EVs powered by wind-based electricity. Impact is measured in ton CO2-eq per vehicle.
Segment Production Use EOL Total
A - mini car 7.0 0.5 0.5 8.0
C - medium car 9.6 0.6 0.6 10.9
D - large car 11.9 0.7 0.7 13.4
F - luxury car 14.9 0.8 0.9 16.6
Table S4 Lifecycle result for the prospective green energy scenario. Impact is measured in ton CO2-eq per vehicle.
Segment Production Use EOL Total
A - mini car 3.5 0.5 0.3 4.2
C - medium car 4.8 0.5 0.4 5.7
D - large car 5.7 0.6 0.4 6.7
F - luxury car 6.9 0.6 0.5 8.1
Figure S 1 Lifecycle impacts of conventional vehicles and green energy EV scenario. The chart on the left side displays emissions in a cumulative manner with production, use, and end-of-life (EOL) treatment. The grey shaded area, which we refer to as the fossil envelope, indicates the lifecycle GHG emission of the conventional vehicles (segments A, C, D, and F are indicated on the right of the fossil envelope). The EV results are coloured green. In the column chart on the right, the emissions are broken down in a contributional manner with battery production, vehicle production, use, and EOL treatment.
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