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Including Fathers in the Picture: A Meta-Analysis of Parental Involvement and Students' Academic Achievement
by S. Kim & N. E. Hill, 2015, Journal of Educational Psychology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000023
Online Appendix 1A.
Summary of studies with correlations between parent involvement and achievement for fathers and mothers (cross-sectional)
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
Banerjee et al. (2001)Journal article
92 5th grade School involvement (e.g. Enjoy talking with child's teacher)
Mothers WJR1 Letter-word identification
Mothers +.06
WJR Passage Comprehension
Mothers +.12
Beaumont (2006)Dissertation
514 5th grade Parent Academic involvement (home-based-- e.g. help with homework or school project, encourage to study, help study for test)
Students GPA and academic performance ratings (child and parent reports)
MothersFathers
+.12+.10
Bissonnette (2000)Dissertation
129 4th-7th grades
Home-based involvement (e.g. talk with child about school learning, check
Parents Academic competence(teacher ratings)
MothersFathers
-.08-.09
1 WJR = Woodcock-Johnson Revised (1990).
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
homework) Academic competence (self-ratings)
MothersFathers
-.11-.19
Bogenschneider (1997)Journal article
1,275 girls
1,158 boys
9th-12th grades
General involvement (school and home-based involvement combined)
Students GPA Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.25+.25
+.29+.24
Brody et al. (1995)Journal article
90 9-12 years old
School involvement (e.g. school visit, meet teacher)
Teachers and parents
Academic competence and WISC-R2 vocabulary and mathematics scores combined
MothersFathers +.37
+.23
Brody & Flor (1998)3 Journal article
156 7.7 years old (5-12)
School involvement (e.g. school visit, meet teacher)
Teachers Academic competence and WJR vocabulary and mathematics scores combined
Mothers +.19
Brody et al. (1999)Journal article
139 6-9 years old
Goal to be well-educated(General measure of academic value)
Mothers WJI mathematics score
Mothers +.18
WJI language score
Mothers +.19
2 WISC-R = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised.3 Brody & Flor (1998) and Brody et al. (1999) draw from the same sample but report different measures of involvement.
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
Cheung & McBride (2008)Journal article
91 5th grade Support and encouragement (e.g. Encouragement of hard work and learning)
Students Academic competence GPA
Mothers +.47+.22
Achievement Demands (e.g. parents care about exam results, encourages child to work hard)
Academic competence GPA
+.24+.31
Surveillance (e.g. Makes child do supplementary exercises, does not allow TV until homework is finished)
Academic competence GPA
+.16+.23
Clark (1993)Book chapter
460 3rd grade Homework help (e.g., involvement in child's homework activities)
Home-based involvement (e.g., talk with child about homework, check homework)
Parents Comprehensive test of Basic skills, Form U
Mothers4 +.09 -.14
Mothers .00 -.04
Corlew (2009)Dissertation (both)
215 10th-12th grades
General involvement (e.g. Check homework, talk about the importance of school; volunteer to help at school).
Fathers GPA Fathers +.28
4 The author could not provide separate correlations, but around 80% of the respondents were mothers.
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
Cutler (1989)Dissertation
66 girls
56 boys
3rd, 5th grades
General involvement (monitor homework, attend parent-teacher conferences)
Parents Standardized Achievement score
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
-.34 .00
.00 .00
Grades (from report cards)
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
.00+.32
.00
.00
Delgado-Hachey & Miller (1993)Journal article
70 1st-6th grades
Minimum demands for child achievement (how low a child's grades can be before mother tells child)
Mothers Stanford Achievement testGPA
Mothers -.42-.45
Pleasing demands for child achievement (how high a child's grades can be before mother praises child)
Stanford Achievement testGPA
Mothers -.32 -.29
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
Dumka et al. (2009)Journal article
560 7th grade Home-based involvement (emphasis on achievement)
Parents GPA Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.05+.01
+.21-.01
Fuligni (1995)Dissertation
365 3rd, 4th grades
School involvement (e.g. go to parent meeting at school)
Academic competence (teacher-ratings)ReadingMathLanguage
Mothers +.04
+.07+.03+.04
Value education Academic competence ReadingMathLanguage
Academic competence ReadingMathLanguage
+.09 +.09 +.08 +.15
Educational expectations +.19+.27+.28+.21
Fuligni (1995)Dissertation
365 3rd, 4th grades
Importance placed on school performance (e.g. how important is it that your child do well in school?)
Academic competence (teacher-ratings)ReadingMathLanguageAcademic competence (teacher-ratings)Reading
-.06
-.14-.11-.11
Homework rules -.16
-.19
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure CorrelationMathLanguage
-.17-.16
Homework help Parents Academic competence (teacher-ratings)ReadingMathLanguage
-.18
-.18-.19-.18
Talk about school at home
Academic competence (teacher-ratings)ReadingMathLanguage
Mothers +.19+.15+.15+.11
Ginsburg & Bronstein (1993)Journal article
93 mothers60 fathers
5th grade Surveillance of homework(monitoring & direct aid)
Parents GPA MothersFathers
-0.44-0.28
Stanford Achievement test(total battery)
MothersFathers
-.33-.25
Grolnick & Slowiaczek (1994)Journal article
302 6th (N= 100), 7th (N= 99), 8th grades (N= 102)
Behavioral involvement (school involvement-- e.g. attending parent-teacher conferences)
Students GPA
Academic competence(teacher ratings)
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.30+.19+.31+.20
Personal involvement (academic socialization, e.g. interest in child grades and what happens at school)
GPA
Academic competence(teacher ratings)
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.17+.17+.18+.14
Parent intellectual involvement GPA Mothers +.14
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
(activities at home)Academic competence(teacher ratings)
FathersMothersFathers
+.14+.13+.10
Hale (2003)Dissertation
126 girls
80 boys
5th grade General involvement (Home-based and academic socialization-- e.g. ask about school, grades, talk about how important school is for future of child).
Students State Criterion Referenced test Reading
Mathematics
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers FathersGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.14+.03
+.25+.20
+.05+.07
+.22+.13
Hale (2003)Dissertation
126 girls
80 boys
5th grade Communicate with school (e.g. talk with teachers/classmate's parents)
Reading
Mathematics
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers FathersGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
-.10-.20
-.19-.01
+.02-.11
-.27-.03
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
Volunteer at school (e.g. attend school programs, come to help at school)
Reading
Mathematics
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers FathersGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.11-.02
+.13+.08
+.17+.07
+.15+.10
Hale (2003)Dissertation
126 girls
80 boys
5th grade Homework help (e.g. help with homework, help plan homework time or chores)
Reading
Mathematics
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers FathersGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
-.01-.03
-.02-.15
+.04+.02
-.01-.05
Hines (2009)Dissertation
153 11th-12th grades
Educational expectations (e.g. importance of good grades, attending college)
Students GPA MothersFathers
.00
.00
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
Houser (1995)Dissertation
99 2nd-5th grades
Importance of education(e.g. important not to miss school, get to school on time, do homework)
Mothers California standardized test Reading Writing Math
Mothers +.02+.03+.09
Value college education (list benefits of college education)
Reading Writing Math
+.01-.04-.01
Parent educational aspirations (importance of earning a college degree)
Reading Writing Math
+.02+.02+.06
Home and school involvement (e.g. visit school, check homework)
Reading Writing Math
-.04-.05-.07
Hsu et al. (2010)Journal article
8,180 7th grade (first wave in 2001)
Career plan discussion Students Standardized test score in comprehensive cognitive ability (administered by TEPS5)
MothersFathers
+.10+.14
Check homework MothersFathers
+.12+.21
Participate in school activities MothersFathers
+.12+.07
Hung (2005)Journal article
128 boys 6th grade Home-based involvement Students Chinese test scoreMath test score
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.29+.25+.28+.24
School-based involvement Chinese test score
MothersFathers
+.35+.28
5 TEPS = Taiwan Education Panel Survey (Chang, 2003).
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure CorrelationMath test Mothers
Fathers+.28+.30
Aspirations (educational and occupational)
Chinese test
Math test
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.37+.44+.38+.43
133 girls Home-based involvement Chinese test
Math test
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.28+.24+.28+.26
School-based involvement Chinese test
Math test
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.44+.24+.26+.13
Aspirations (educational and occupational)
Chinese test
Math test
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.41+.45+.38+.34
Ji et al. (1993)6
Journal article120 1st graders145 5th graders
1rs grade, 5th grade
Educational expectations Fathers Cognitive test (vocabulary, math, etc.)
Fathers (grade 1)Fathers (grade 5)
+.18+.38
Jodl et al. (2001)Journal article
444 7th grade Home-based academic involvement
Parents Academic abilityMother-report Father-report
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.09+.06+.06+.13
6 In this study, it was assumed that n1 = n2 because the sample sizes for the separate groups were not reported. Sensitivity analyses were conducted including and excluding this effect size.
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
School involvement Mother-report Father-report
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.19-.01+.11+.06
Educational expectations and aspirations
Mother-report Father-report
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.59+.44+.49+.63
Value for education (e.g. chances for positive future outcomes)
Mother-report Father-report
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.35+.27+.36+.42
Kim & Rohner (2002)Journal article; Kim (1999)Dissertation
245 6th-12th grades General involvement (homework help, attendance of school program for parents, encouragement of schooling)
Students GPA MothersFathers
+.18+.28
Lee et al. (2007)Journal article
Girls985mothers 139 fathers
Boys863mothers169 fathers
10th grade General involvement (e.g. attend school activities, work on homework)
Parents Standard test scores Reading
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
.00+.06
+.02-.09
Math Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
-.03+.11
.00-.06
Academic Girls
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure CorrelationcompetenceEnglish teacher report
Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.02+.27
+.09+.04
Math teacher report
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
.00+.19
.00-.03
Levin et al. (1997)Journal article
106 1st grade7 Homework help Mothers Scholastic standing ranked by teacher (reading, math, homework)
Mothers -.35
Li (2006)Dissertation
589 12-19 years old (7th to 12th grades)
Parent involvement (e.g. parent knows how to help child do well in schoolwork, parent has a great deal of knowledge about education)
Students School grades MothersFathers
+.14+.11
McBride et al. (2005)Journal article
1,334 5-12 years old
Communication about school at home
Parents Teacher report of child achievement and standardized test (WJI) combined
MothersFathers
+.04+.13
Physical involvement at school (e.g. volunteer)
MothersFathers
+.10+.24
7 This is originally a longitudinal study from 1st to 3rd grades. Correlations for the 1st grade were reported because cross-sectional within grade intercorrelations only were reported in the study (for grades 1 and 3).
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
Talk with teachers & school officials
MothersFathers
+.25+.31
Melby (1993)Journal article
393 7th grade Parent educational values (importance of education)
Parents Grades School report Parent report Child report
MothersFathersMothersFathersMothersFathers
+.06+.08+.11+.15+.13+.13
Melby (1993)Journal article
393 7th grade Communicate about grades at home Grades
Reading Math
.00+.29
Communicate about college at home
Grades Reading Math
.00 .00
Nelson (2010)Dissertation
198 8th grade General involvement (home, school, academic socialization) and motives
Mothers LEAP8 standardized test(language and math)
Mothers +.17
Newland et al. (2013)Journal article
174 U.S. 8-11 years old Home-based involvementSchool-based involvement
Fathers Achievement Fathers +.20**+.14
100 Taiwan Home-based involvementSchool-based involvement
Fathers Achievement Fathers +.13 +.13
Nord (1997)Research report
26,164 mothers K-1225,343 fathers
School involvement (e.g. volunteered at school, attended
Parents Gets mostly As (dichotomous)
MothersFathers
+.16+.16
8 LEAP = high-stakes Louisiana Educational Assessment Program (LEAP).
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
8,936 single mothers1,117 single fathers
a class event) MothersFathers
+.14+.17
Plunkett et al. (2008)Journal article
108 girls
86 boys
9th grade Academic support (General involvement-- e.g. Helped child do well at school)
Students GPA Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.08+.08
+.17+.10
Plunkett et al. (2009)9
Journal article
1,245 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th grades
Schoolwork help at home(e.g. monitor homework, help children do well in school)
Students Grades(self-reported)
MothersFathers
+.10+.13
Rogers et al. (2009)Journal article
231 5th, 6th grades
Participation with homework (e.g. Check homework)
Students Grades (math, science, language averaged)Academic competence SAQ-T10
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.10-.08+.22-.14
Active management of the learning environment (e.g. brings home educational activities for the family)
Grades (math, science, language averaged)Academic competence SAQ-T
MothersFathersMothersFathers
+.18+.06+.17+.06
Encouragement and support for learning
Grades (math, science,
MothersFathers
+.17+.05
9 Both studies from Plunkett draw from the same sample, but the results are presented separately because there is little overlap and the measures differ in each study.10 SAQ-T = School Activity Questionnaire-Teacher Form.
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlationlanguage averaged)Academic competence SAQ-T
MothersFathers
+.18+.06
Sanghavi (2010)Dissertation
101 1st-3rd grades School engagement (e.g. attend PTA, special events at school)
Parents MBA11 (reading, writing, mathematics)
MothersFathers
-.03+.05
Homework assistance (e.g. assign schoolwork at home, check schoolwork)
MothersFathers
+.05+.10
Educational activities at home (e.g. math and science activities)
MothersFathers
+.05+.07
Seginer et al. (1988)Journal article
70 boys 1st grade Contact with school Mothers Standardized test Reading Arithmetics MothersMother ratings Verbal QuantitativeStandardized test Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal Quantitative
-.01-.17
+.02-.24
Home-based involvement (e.g. discussion about school at home, encouragement of reading and after-school programs)
+.19+.07
+.12+.12
11 MBA = Mini-battery of Achievement (Woodcock, McGrew, & Werder, 1994).
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure CorrelationStandardized test Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal QuantitativeStandardized test Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal QuantitativeStandardized test Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal Quantitative
Positive reinforcement of performance (reaction to child grades)
+.18+.12
+.12+.07
Punishment of poor performance
-.09-.14-.37-.04
Homework inspection-.29-.15
-.05+.08
Seginer et al. (1988)Journal article
70 boys 1st grade Expectations of performance (e.g. expectations of student grades at school)
Mothers Standardized test
Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal Quantitative
Mothers +.24+.32
+.46+.10
Seginer & Vermulst (2002)Journal article
161 Arab girls
168 Arab boys
8th grade General involvement (school-related support)
Students English test scores
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.21+.28
+.31+.34
Math test scores Girls
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
192 Jewish
Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.21+.31
+.32+.29
English test scores
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.14+.18
+.03+.10
Math test scores Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.06+.14
+.12+.13
Sirin & Rogers-Sirin (2004)Journal article
336 15.36 years old(12-19)
Parent educational value (e.g. values child performance/ academic attainment)
Mothers GPA (math and English)
Mothers +.15
Smith (1989)Journal article
206 6th, 8th, 10th grades
General support(recognition of achievement)
Parents School grades MothersFathers
+.02+.25
Tam (2009)Journal article
461 3rd-5th grades
Parent involvement in education (mixture of home, school, and academic socialization-- e.g. homework supervision, discussion with teacher, attend parent-school functions, involve in child career planning)
Parents Standardized test Chinese, English, math(Hong Kong Attainment Test; HK education department, 2000)
Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.05-.06
+.10 .00
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
Tan (2011)Dissertation
64 4th-6th grades Homework involvement (e.g. assisting, reviewing, and monitoring homework)
Fathers Academic competence (father and teacher ratings)
Fathers +.01
School involvement (e.g., attending PTA meetings, helping out in the classroom) -.18
Tan & Goldberg (2009)Journal article
91 grades K-5 Homework involvement (e.g. assisting, reviewing, and monitoring homework)
Parents School grades (English, math, science, social science)
MothersFathers
+.07-.09
Direct involvement in school (e.g. attend parent-teacher meetings, school functions)
MothersFathers
+.14-.22
Wood et al. (2010)Journal article
334 7th, 8th grades
Educational expectations Mothers Standardized achievement in math and reading
Mothers +.35
Academic competence (math, reading, science, writing, grades, and general intelligence)
+.39
Yeo, K.Y. (2007)Dissertation
371 girls
341 boys
3rd-6th grades
Learning at home (e.g. talk about school day)
Students GPA (English, math, science)
Mothers (girls)Mothers (boys)
+.11
+.18
Author (year)Document type
Sample size
Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement
Respondent
Outcome measure Correlation
School communication (e.g. attend parent-teacher meetings)
Mothers (girls)Mothers (boys)
+.31
+.24
School-based participation (e.g. volunteering, decision-making, collaborating)
Mothers (girls)Mothers (boys)
+.05
+.11
Online Appendix 1B.
Summary of studies with correlations between parent involvement and achievement for fathers and mothers (longitudinal)Author (year) Document type
Sample size Grade Level
Type of parent involvement Respondent Outcome measure Correlation
Englund et al. (2004)Journal article
187 1st grade (time 1) to 3rd grade (time 2)
School involvement (e.g. teacher knows parents, parents concerned about child schoolwork)
Teachers Academic progress (teacher ratings) in 3rd grade Mothers +.10
Educational expectations Mothers Mothers +.29Flouri (2006)Journal article
4,003 10 years old Interest in child education Teachers Educational attainment
MothersFathers
+.30+.30
Grolnick et al. (2000)12
Journal article
60 6th grade (time 1) to 7th grade (time2)
School involvement (e.g. attend parent-teacher conferences)
Mothers, students, teachers
Grades in 7th grade (time 2, 1 year later) Reading Math
MothersMothers
+.27+.25
Cognitive involvement (e.g. engage in intellectually stimulating activities with child such as going to library)
Mothers, students Reading Math
MothersMothers
+.25+.26
Personal involvement (interest and knowledge about school lives of children, e.g. when report card comes out)
Mothers, students Reading Math
MothersMothers
+.37+.14
12 Cross-sectional correlations were also reported for students in 6th grade and 7th grade, but only longitudinal correlations were retained correlating 6th grade involvement with 7th grade achievement.
Author (year) Document type
Sample size Grade Level
Type of parent involvement Respondent Outcome measure Correlation
Killian (2003)Dissertation
179 5th grade (time 1), 6th grade (time 2)
School involvement (e.g. How often did you go this year to open house or open school nights?)
Parents SAT9 test scores (reading, math, language arts, and spelling)in 6th grade (time 2)
MothersFathers
+.21 .00
Home involvement (e.g. How often have you helped your child with homework?)
MothersFathers
.00+.10
Melby & Conger (1996)Journal article
347 7th grade (time 1) to 11th grade (time 4);4 waves of data collected
General involvement(setting standards for appropriate behavior such as doing schoolwork, monitoring adherence to standards) in 8th-9th grades (waves 2, 3)
Parents
Students
Observations
GPA (school reports)in 11th grade (time 4)
MothersFathers
MothersFathers
MothersFathers
+.22+.20
+.27+.23
+.23+.18
Mistry et al. (2009)13
Journal article
426 12.2 years old (avg. grade 5.82)at time 1
Educational expectations Mothers (All outcomes collected three years later at time 2)WJI (reading and math)
Mothers +.18
Teacher ratings of academic competence
Mothers +.05
GPA Mothers +.12
13 This study uses the same sample and variables as in another study (Benner & Mistry, 2007), which is cross-sectional. Therefore, information was coded only for this study, which reports longitudinal outcomes.
Author (year) Document type
Sample size Grade Level
Type of parent involvement Respondent Outcome measure Correlation
Visser (1987)14
Journal article
386 7th grade girls
345 7th grade boys
7th, 9th grades Academic socialization(perceived interest, expectations, and encouragement from parents)
Students Mathematics test scores(collected 4 months later)
7th gradeGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.40+.38
+.42+.43
351 9th grade girls
333 9th grade boys
9th gradeGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers
+.49+.49
+.23+.28
14 Separate correlations were reported by grade (grades 7 and 9), but these were merged in the table for parsimony.
Online Appendix 2.
Summary of studies using National or Original datasets and performing multivariate analyses
Author (year) Document type
Sample characteristics
Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome
measureRegression coefficient
Size and significance
Bogenschneider (1997)Journal article15
Original data (U.S.)9th-12th grades N= 601 Asian*
N = 170 Black*
N = 364 Hispanic*
Multiple regression
General involvement (school and home-based involvement combined)
(controlling for parent's education and child gender)
GPA MothersFathers
MothersFathers
MothersFathers
β = .10β = .16
β = .08β = .17
β = .10β = .12
p<.05p<.001
nsp<.05
p<.10p<.05
Cooksey & Fondell (1996)Journal article
N = 1,250 fathersNSFH: 87-88 (U.S.);16
N = 570 fathers of preteens (5-11 years old)
Ordered probit analyses
Helping with reading or homework
School performance as measured by grades in class
Fathers .063 p<.10
N = 475 fathers of teens (12-18 years old)
Helping with reading or homework
Fathers .013 ns
Family structure of focal child (5 variables)(controlling for age, sex of child, household income, father's race, education, difference in father's age from age of focal child, father's family structure as a child, father's work hours, focal child's age, and focal child's sex.)
15* Numbers marked with an asterisk (*) are based on children’s reports of their parents (for the specific parent involvement variables in question). Correlations were reported for White students, but regression coefficients were reported for the other ethnicities.16 Listwise deletion was used for this study.
Author (year) Document type
Sample characteristics
Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome
measureRegression coefficient
Size and significance
Desimone (1999)Journal article
N = 19,386 students*NELS: 888th grade
Multiple regression
Talk with father about planning high school program
GPA Fathers β = .05 p<.001
Parent involvement variables
(11 variables)
Mathematicsstandardized test scores
β = -.03 p<.001
Readingstandardized test scores
β = -.03 p<.001
Hanson (2007)Journal article
N = 1,062 students* Original data, Knowledge networks data:2003 (U.S.) N = 281 African American women (13-30 years old)
Multiple regression
Educational aspirations High school Science grades
MothersFathers
β = -.43β = .49
p<.20p<.05
Involvement in school
(controlling for age, family income, and rural-urban residence)
MothersFathers
β = .00β = -.04
nsns
N = 781 White women (13-28 years old)
Educational aspirations MothersFathers
β = .05β = .47
nsp<.05
Involvement in schoolFamily measures (e.g. closeness, experiences and attitudes towards science; 9 variables)
MothersFathers
β = -.01β = .06
nsns
Hawkins (2006)Dissertation
N = 232 students*Original data (Ohio, U.S.)High school students
Multiple linear regression
Interest in schoolwork & achievement values(15 items including items related with homework
Academic Performance(math, science, English,
Author (year) Document type
Sample characteristics
Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome
measureRegression coefficient
Size and significance
(85.3% African American)
monitoring and help, and academic socialization, such as stressing education and setting high standards)
overall) Student report Teacher report
FathersFathers
β = -.002β = -.010
nsns
Participation in school functions (e.g. participation in parent-teacher conferences, volunteering at school, participation in school programs for parents)
Student report Teacher report
FathersFathers
β = .096β = -.010
nsp = .051
Henry, Merten, Plunkett, & Sands (2008)Journal article
N = 502 students*Original data (Los Angeles, U.S.)High school (13-19 years old)Latino majority
Multilevel random intercept regression
Parent educational aspirations
Neighborhood factors (2 variables), mother and father support, monitoring, and educational attainment
GPA MothersFathers
β = .12β = .03
p<.01ns
Hines (2009)17
DissertationN = 153 African American male students
Hierarchical multiple regression
Parent monitoring (school-based and home-based involvement-- e.g. involved
GPA MothersFathers
β = .11β = .00
nsns
17 Hines (2009) also reports regression weights for one additional type of parent involvement, which is not reported here since correlations were retrieved for this specific variable from the narrative.
Author (year) Document type
Sample characteristics
Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome
measureRegression coefficient
Size and significance
Original data11th-12th grades
in tasks and completing activities, attend parent-teacher conferences)Communication about school Mothers
Fathersβ = -.06β = .19
nsns
Other parenting variables (3), parent education, family structure (3)
Levin et al. (1997)Journal article
N = 106 students and their mothers Original data (U.S.), longitudinal 1st grade18
(time 1) to 3rd grade (time 2)
Hierarchical multiple regression
Homework help Changing scholastic standing ranked by teacher from grade 1 to grade 3 (reading, math, homework)
Mothers β = -.09 ns
Parenting variables, previous achievement
Muller (1995)Journal article
N = 13,881 students*NELS: 888th grade
Hierarchical multiple regression
Talk about high school program with father
8th grade mathematics achievement test score
Fathers β = -.442 p<.01
Talk about high school program with mother
Mothers β = .801 p<.001
18 This is originally a longitudinal study from 1st to 3rd grades. Longitudinal beta regressions were reported in addition to cross-sectional correlations at 1st grade.
Author (year) Document type
Sample characteristics
Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome
measureRegression coefficient
Size and significance
26 additional demographic background and parenting variables
Paulson (1994)Journal article
N = 80 students*Original data (U.S.)9th grade
Multiple regression
Achievement values(e.g. expectations)
School grades(self-reported)
BoysMothers FathersGirlsMothers Fathers
sr = .43sr = .36
sr = .33sr = .15
p<.01p<.05
p<.05ns
N = 34 boys N = 46 girls
Interest in schoolwork (e.g. checking homework)
Boys Mothers FathersGirlsMothers Fathers
sr = .31sr = -.36
sr = .16sr = .07
p<.05p<.05
nsns
Involvement in school functions(e.g. goes to school activities)
BoysMothers FathersGirlsMothers Fathers
sr = .10sr = .27
sr = .05sr = .01
nsp<.10
nsns
Strauss (2000)Dissertation
N = 91 students and their familiesOriginal data
Hierarchical multiple regression
Homework involvement Class grades(teacher or parent-
Fathers β = -.04 ns
Author (year) Document type
Sample characteristics
Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome
measureRegression coefficient
Size and significance
1st-5th grades (only 2 kindergarten students included)
reported)Direct school involvement(e.g. classroom volunteering, teacher contacts)
Father β = -.19 ns
Parent-teacher conference attendance
Fathers β = -.22 p<.10
Xie (1997)Dissertation
N = 392 students,* 392 mothers, 392 fathersOriginal data (Beijing, China)5th-6th grades
Multiple regression
Expectation for child future education(parent report)
School performance (teacher-ratings)
Fathers β = .16 p<.01
Involvement in study (e.g. homework help) parent report child report
MothersFathers
β = -.12β = -.15
nsp<.05
Spend time with child in study daily(parent report)
MothersFathers
β = -.16β = -.11
p<.01p = .07
Parenting variables (7 variables), child expectation
Zellman & Waterman (1998)
N = 193 students and their mothers19
Hierarchical multiple
School-site involvement(e.g. Attend meetings)
Standardized reading scores
Mothers β = .18 p<.05
19 N = 111 in the regressions because no outcome collected for private school second graders.
Author (year) Document type
Sample characteristics
Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome
measureRegression coefficient
Size and significance
Journal article Original data (Los Angeles, U.S.)2nd, 5th grades
regressionFamily and child background characteristics (5 variables)
Zhan & Sherraden (2002)Research Report
N = 591 students and their mothers (female-headed households)NSFH:87-88 (wave 1), 92-95 (wave 2)12 to 18 years old
Hierarchal multiple regression
Educational expectations (High school or less) Some college Bachelor's degree Master or doctorate degree
Home ownership, savings (2 categories)
GPA at wave 1(cross-sectional)
Mothers B = .56B = 1.07B = 1.98
p<.01p<.01p<.001
Logistic regression
High school attainment at wave 2 (5 years later)
B = 1.19B = 1.43B = 2.64
p<.01p<.01p<.01
Online Appendix 3.
Summary of studies using National or Original datasets performing Structural Equation Modeling
Author (year) Document type
Sample size & characteristics
Program used
Predictor variables
Outcome measure Regression coefficient
Size and significance
Hawkins (2007)Journal article
N = 6,788 students*Add Health:95-96 (U.S.)longitudinalavg. 15.89 years old (grades 7-12) at wave 1 predicting achievement one year later
Mplus Father communication (talk about school grades, talk about school-related topics, talk about social events)
School grades (English, math, social studies, science)
Fathers (nonresident)
Fathers (resident)
β = 0.04
β = 0.09
ns
p<.05
N = 3,394 non-resident biological fathersN = 3,394 resident biological fathers
(controlling for child support, age, gender, race (5), born in marriage, ever lived with father, years since lived with father, father/mother education, father/mother born in the U.S., nonresident mother, stepfather in home, closeness to mother)
McBride et al. (2009)Journal article
N = 390 children, 390 mothers, 390 fathers
PSID-CDSI/II:97-02 (U.S.)8.58 (7-10) years old at Time 2
Mplus School involvement at Time 2(8 items assessing parents' participation in school-related activities, e.g. volunteered in classroom)
WJR20 reading and math Achievement at Time 2
[1] Fathers Mothers
[2] Fathers Mothers
β = -0.42β = 0.26
β = -0.176β = 0.172
p<.05p<.05
nsp<.05
20 WJR = Woodcock-Johnson Revised (1990).
Author (year) Document type
Sample size & characteristics
Program used
Predictor variables
Outcome measure Regression coefficient
Size and significance
McBride et al. (2009)Journal article
Early parenting at Time 1[1] Household-centered [2] Child-centered[3] Parental Limit-setting[4] Responsibility[5] Affection(controlling for 8 demographiccharacteristics variables)
WJR reading and math Achievement at Time 2
[3] Fathers Mothers
[4] Fathers Mothers
[5] Fathers Mothers
β = -0.21β = 0.20
β = -0.21β = 0.22
β = -0.25β = 0.21
p<.05p<.05
p<.05p<.01
p<.01p<.01
Palmer (2004)Dissertation
N = 467 students, 467 mothers, 467 fathersOriginal data, Ogden Youth and Family Project: 95 (U.S.)5th grade, 8th grade
Mplus Parent involvement composite (includes homework supervision and parent-school interaction)
GPA Mothers21
Fathersβ = -0.49β = 0.45
nsp<.05
Parent aspirations for education β = -0.13β = 0.52
nsp<.05
Parenting variables (3 latent variables)
21 Mothers and fathers were represented in two separate SEM model.
Online Figures.
Figure 1. Funnel plot for the random-effects model for studies including an effect size for fathers (n = 33). 6 effect sizes were imputed to the right. The adjusted effect size was .17 (95% CI = .14/.21), which is higher than the actual observed value of .14 (95% CI = .10/.18).
Note. White circles represent the effect sizes of all samples from studies providing bivariate correlations. The black circles represent the imputed effect size.
Figure 2. Funnel plot for the random-effects model for studies including an effect size for mothers (n = 47). 0 effect sizes were imputed.
Note. White circles represent the effect sizes of all samples from studies providing bivariate correlations. The black circles represent the imputed effect size.