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Supplemental Materials Including Fathers in the Picture: A Meta-Analysis of Parental Involvement and Students' Academic Achievement by S. Kim & N. E. Hill, 2015, Journal of Educational Psychology http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000023 Online Appendix 1A. Summary of studies with correlations between parent involvement and achievement for fathers and mothers (cross-sectional) Author (year) Document type Sample size Grade Level/ Age Type of parent involvement Respon dent Outcome measure Correlation Banerjee et al. (2001) Journal article 92 5th grade School involvement (e.g. Enjoy talking with child's teacher) Mother s WJR 1 Letter- word identificat ion Mothers +.06 WJR Passage Comprehensi on Mothers +.12 1 WJR = Woodcock-Johnson Revised (1990).

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Supplemental Materials

Including Fathers in the Picture: A Meta-Analysis of Parental Involvement and Students' Academic Achievement

by S. Kim & N. E. Hill, 2015, Journal of Educational Psychology

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000023

Online Appendix 1A.

Summary of studies with correlations between parent involvement and achievement for fathers and mothers (cross-sectional)

Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

Banerjee et al. (2001)Journal article

92 5th grade School involvement (e.g. Enjoy talking with child's teacher)

Mothers WJR1 Letter-word identification

Mothers +.06

WJR Passage Comprehension

Mothers +.12

Beaumont (2006)Dissertation

514 5th grade Parent Academic involvement (home-based-- e.g. help with homework or school project, encourage to study, help study for test)

Students GPA and academic performance ratings (child and parent reports)

MothersFathers

+.12+.10

Bissonnette (2000)Dissertation

129 4th-7th grades

Home-based involvement (e.g. talk with child about school learning, check

Parents Academic competence(teacher ratings)

MothersFathers

-.08-.09

1 WJR = Woodcock-Johnson Revised (1990).

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

homework) Academic competence (self-ratings)

MothersFathers

-.11-.19

Bogenschneider (1997)Journal article

1,275 girls

1,158 boys

9th-12th grades

General involvement (school and home-based involvement combined)

Students GPA Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.25+.25

+.29+.24

Brody et al. (1995)Journal article

90 9-12 years old

School involvement (e.g. school visit, meet teacher)

Teachers and parents

Academic competence and WISC-R2 vocabulary and mathematics scores combined

MothersFathers +.37

+.23

Brody & Flor (1998)3 Journal article

156 7.7 years old (5-12)

School involvement (e.g. school visit, meet teacher)

Teachers Academic competence and WJR vocabulary and mathematics scores combined

Mothers +.19

Brody et al. (1999)Journal article

139 6-9 years old

Goal to be well-educated(General measure of academic value)

Mothers WJI mathematics score

Mothers +.18

WJI language score

Mothers +.19

2 WISC-R = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised.3 Brody & Flor (1998) and Brody et al. (1999) draw from the same sample but report different measures of involvement.

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

Cheung & McBride (2008)Journal article

91 5th grade Support and encouragement (e.g. Encouragement of hard work and learning)

Students Academic competence GPA

Mothers +.47+.22

Achievement Demands (e.g. parents care about exam results, encourages child to work hard)

Academic competence GPA

+.24+.31

Surveillance (e.g. Makes child do supplementary exercises, does not allow TV until homework is finished)

Academic competence GPA

+.16+.23

Clark (1993)Book chapter

460 3rd grade Homework help (e.g., involvement in child's homework activities)

Home-based involvement (e.g., talk with child about homework, check homework)

Parents Comprehensive test of Basic skills, Form U

Mothers4 +.09 -.14

Mothers .00 -.04

Corlew (2009)Dissertation (both)

215 10th-12th grades

General involvement (e.g. Check homework, talk about the importance of school; volunteer to help at school).

Fathers GPA Fathers +.28

4 The author could not provide separate correlations, but around 80% of the respondents were mothers.

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

Cutler (1989)Dissertation

66 girls

56 boys

3rd, 5th grades

General involvement (monitor homework, attend parent-teacher conferences)

Parents Standardized Achievement score

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

-.34 .00

.00 .00

Grades (from report cards)

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

.00+.32

.00

.00

Delgado-Hachey & Miller (1993)Journal article

70 1st-6th grades

Minimum demands for child achievement (how low a child's grades can be before mother tells child)

Mothers Stanford Achievement testGPA

Mothers -.42-.45

Pleasing demands for child achievement (how high a child's grades can be before mother praises child)

Stanford Achievement testGPA

Mothers -.32 -.29

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

Dumka et al. (2009)Journal article

560 7th grade Home-based involvement (emphasis on achievement)

Parents GPA Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.05+.01

+.21-.01

Fuligni (1995)Dissertation

365 3rd, 4th grades

School involvement (e.g. go to parent meeting at school)

Academic competence (teacher-ratings)ReadingMathLanguage

Mothers +.04

+.07+.03+.04

Value education Academic competence ReadingMathLanguage

Academic competence ReadingMathLanguage

+.09 +.09 +.08 +.15

Educational expectations +.19+.27+.28+.21

Fuligni (1995)Dissertation

365 3rd, 4th grades

Importance placed on school performance (e.g. how important is it that your child do well in school?)

Academic competence (teacher-ratings)ReadingMathLanguageAcademic competence (teacher-ratings)Reading

-.06

-.14-.11-.11

Homework rules -.16

-.19

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure CorrelationMathLanguage

-.17-.16

Homework help Parents Academic competence (teacher-ratings)ReadingMathLanguage

-.18

-.18-.19-.18

Talk about school at home

Academic competence (teacher-ratings)ReadingMathLanguage

Mothers +.19+.15+.15+.11

Ginsburg & Bronstein (1993)Journal article

93 mothers60 fathers

5th grade Surveillance of homework(monitoring & direct aid)

Parents GPA MothersFathers

-0.44-0.28

Stanford Achievement test(total battery)

MothersFathers

-.33-.25

Grolnick & Slowiaczek (1994)Journal article

302 6th (N= 100), 7th (N= 99), 8th grades (N= 102)

Behavioral involvement (school involvement-- e.g. attending parent-teacher conferences)

Students GPA

Academic competence(teacher ratings)

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.30+.19+.31+.20

Personal involvement (academic socialization, e.g. interest in child grades and what happens at school)

GPA

Academic competence(teacher ratings)

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.17+.17+.18+.14

Parent intellectual involvement GPA Mothers +.14

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

(activities at home)Academic competence(teacher ratings)

FathersMothersFathers

+.14+.13+.10

Hale (2003)Dissertation

126 girls

80 boys

5th grade General involvement (Home-based and academic socialization-- e.g. ask about school, grades, talk about how important school is for future of child).

Students State Criterion Referenced test Reading

Mathematics

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers FathersGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.14+.03

+.25+.20

+.05+.07

+.22+.13

Hale (2003)Dissertation

126 girls

80 boys

5th grade Communicate with school (e.g. talk with teachers/classmate's parents)

Reading

Mathematics

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers FathersGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

-.10-.20

-.19-.01

+.02-.11

-.27-.03

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

Volunteer at school (e.g. attend school programs, come to help at school)

Reading

Mathematics

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers FathersGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.11-.02

+.13+.08

+.17+.07

+.15+.10

Hale (2003)Dissertation

126 girls

80 boys

5th grade Homework help (e.g. help with homework, help plan homework time or chores)

Reading

Mathematics

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers FathersGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

-.01-.03

-.02-.15

+.04+.02

-.01-.05

Hines (2009)Dissertation

153 11th-12th grades

Educational expectations (e.g. importance of good grades, attending college)

Students GPA MothersFathers

.00

.00

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

Houser (1995)Dissertation

99 2nd-5th grades

Importance of education(e.g. important not to miss school, get to school on time, do homework)

Mothers California standardized test Reading Writing Math

Mothers +.02+.03+.09

Value college education (list benefits of college education)

Reading Writing Math

+.01-.04-.01

Parent educational aspirations (importance of earning a college degree)

Reading Writing Math

+.02+.02+.06

Home and school involvement (e.g. visit school, check homework)

Reading Writing Math

-.04-.05-.07

Hsu et al. (2010)Journal article

8,180 7th grade (first wave in 2001)

Career plan discussion Students Standardized test score in comprehensive cognitive ability (administered by TEPS5)

MothersFathers

+.10+.14

Check homework MothersFathers

+.12+.21

Participate in school activities MothersFathers

+.12+.07

Hung (2005)Journal article

128 boys 6th grade Home-based involvement Students Chinese test scoreMath test score

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.29+.25+.28+.24

School-based involvement Chinese test score

MothersFathers

+.35+.28

5 TEPS = Taiwan Education Panel Survey (Chang, 2003).

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure CorrelationMath test Mothers

Fathers+.28+.30

Aspirations (educational and occupational)

Chinese test

Math test

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.37+.44+.38+.43

133 girls Home-based involvement Chinese test

Math test

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.28+.24+.28+.26

School-based involvement Chinese test

Math test

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.44+.24+.26+.13

Aspirations (educational and occupational)

Chinese test

Math test

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.41+.45+.38+.34

Ji et al. (1993)6

Journal article120 1st graders145 5th graders

1rs grade, 5th grade

Educational expectations Fathers Cognitive test (vocabulary, math, etc.)

Fathers (grade 1)Fathers (grade 5)

+.18+.38

Jodl et al. (2001)Journal article

444 7th grade Home-based academic involvement

Parents Academic abilityMother-report Father-report

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.09+.06+.06+.13

6 In this study, it was assumed that n1 = n2 because the sample sizes for the separate groups were not reported. Sensitivity analyses were conducted including and excluding this effect size.

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

School involvement Mother-report Father-report

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.19-.01+.11+.06

Educational expectations and aspirations

Mother-report Father-report

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.59+.44+.49+.63

Value for education (e.g. chances for positive future outcomes)

Mother-report Father-report

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.35+.27+.36+.42

Kim & Rohner (2002)Journal article; Kim (1999)Dissertation

245 6th-12th grades General involvement (homework help, attendance of school program for parents, encouragement of schooling)

Students GPA MothersFathers

+.18+.28

Lee et al. (2007)Journal article

Girls985mothers 139 fathers

Boys863mothers169 fathers

10th grade General involvement (e.g. attend school activities, work on homework)

Parents Standard test scores Reading

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

.00+.06

+.02-.09

Math Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

-.03+.11

.00-.06

Academic Girls

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure CorrelationcompetenceEnglish teacher report

Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.02+.27

+.09+.04

Math teacher report

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

.00+.19

.00-.03

Levin et al. (1997)Journal article

106 1st grade7 Homework help Mothers Scholastic standing ranked by teacher (reading, math, homework)

Mothers -.35

Li (2006)Dissertation

589 12-19 years old (7th to 12th grades)

Parent involvement (e.g. parent knows how to help child do well in schoolwork, parent has a great deal of knowledge about education)

Students School grades MothersFathers

+.14+.11

McBride et al. (2005)Journal article

1,334 5-12 years old

Communication about school at home

Parents Teacher report of child achievement and standardized test (WJI) combined

MothersFathers

+.04+.13

Physical involvement at school (e.g. volunteer)

MothersFathers

+.10+.24

7 This is originally a longitudinal study from 1st to 3rd grades. Correlations for the 1st grade were reported because cross-sectional within grade intercorrelations only were reported in the study (for grades 1 and 3).

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

Talk with teachers & school officials

MothersFathers

+.25+.31

Melby (1993)Journal article

393 7th grade Parent educational values (importance of education)

Parents Grades School report Parent report Child report

MothersFathersMothersFathersMothersFathers

+.06+.08+.11+.15+.13+.13

Melby (1993)Journal article

393 7th grade Communicate about grades at home Grades

Reading Math

.00+.29

Communicate about college at home

Grades Reading Math

.00 .00

Nelson (2010)Dissertation

198 8th grade General involvement (home, school, academic socialization) and motives

Mothers LEAP8 standardized test(language and math)

Mothers +.17

Newland et al. (2013)Journal article

174 U.S. 8-11 years old Home-based involvementSchool-based involvement

Fathers Achievement Fathers +.20**+.14

100 Taiwan Home-based involvementSchool-based involvement

Fathers Achievement Fathers +.13 +.13

Nord (1997)Research report

26,164 mothers K-1225,343 fathers

School involvement (e.g. volunteered at school, attended

Parents Gets mostly As (dichotomous)

MothersFathers

+.16+.16

8 LEAP = high-stakes Louisiana Educational Assessment Program (LEAP).

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

8,936 single mothers1,117 single fathers

a class event) MothersFathers

+.14+.17

Plunkett et al. (2008)Journal article

108 girls

86 boys

9th grade Academic support (General involvement-- e.g. Helped child do well at school)

Students GPA Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.08+.08

+.17+.10

Plunkett et al. (2009)9

Journal article

1,245 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th grades

Schoolwork help at home(e.g. monitor homework, help children do well in school)

Students Grades(self-reported)

MothersFathers

+.10+.13

Rogers et al. (2009)Journal article

231 5th, 6th grades

Participation with homework (e.g. Check homework)

Students Grades (math, science, language averaged)Academic competence SAQ-T10

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.10-.08+.22-.14

Active management of the learning environment (e.g. brings home educational activities for the family)

Grades (math, science, language averaged)Academic competence SAQ-T

MothersFathersMothersFathers

+.18+.06+.17+.06

Encouragement and support for learning

Grades (math, science,

MothersFathers

+.17+.05

9 Both studies from Plunkett draw from the same sample, but the results are presented separately because there is little overlap and the measures differ in each study.10 SAQ-T = School Activity Questionnaire-Teacher Form.

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlationlanguage averaged)Academic competence SAQ-T

MothersFathers

+.18+.06

Sanghavi (2010)Dissertation

101 1st-3rd grades School engagement (e.g. attend PTA, special events at school)

Parents MBA11 (reading, writing, mathematics)

MothersFathers

-.03+.05

Homework assistance (e.g. assign schoolwork at home, check schoolwork)

MothersFathers

+.05+.10

Educational activities at home (e.g. math and science activities)

MothersFathers

+.05+.07

Seginer et al. (1988)Journal article

70 boys 1st grade Contact with school Mothers Standardized test Reading Arithmetics MothersMother ratings Verbal QuantitativeStandardized test Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal Quantitative

-.01-.17

+.02-.24

Home-based involvement (e.g. discussion about school at home, encouragement of reading and after-school programs)

+.19+.07

+.12+.12

11 MBA = Mini-battery of Achievement (Woodcock, McGrew, & Werder, 1994).

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure CorrelationStandardized test Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal QuantitativeStandardized test Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal QuantitativeStandardized test Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal Quantitative

Positive reinforcement of performance (reaction to child grades)

+.18+.12

+.12+.07

Punishment of poor performance

-.09-.14-.37-.04

Homework inspection-.29-.15

-.05+.08

Seginer et al. (1988)Journal article

70 boys 1st grade Expectations of performance (e.g. expectations of student grades at school)

Mothers Standardized test

Reading ArithmeticsMother ratings Verbal Quantitative

Mothers +.24+.32

+.46+.10

Seginer & Vermulst (2002)Journal article

161 Arab girls

168 Arab boys

8th grade General involvement (school-related support)

Students English test scores

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.21+.28

+.31+.34

Math test scores Girls

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

192 Jewish

Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.21+.31

+.32+.29

English test scores

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.14+.18

+.03+.10

Math test scores Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.06+.14

+.12+.13

Sirin & Rogers-Sirin (2004)Journal article

336 15.36 years old(12-19)

Parent educational value (e.g. values child performance/ academic attainment)

Mothers GPA (math and English)

Mothers +.15

Smith (1989)Journal article

206 6th, 8th, 10th grades

General support(recognition of achievement)

Parents School grades MothersFathers

+.02+.25

Tam (2009)Journal article

461 3rd-5th grades

Parent involvement in education (mixture of home, school, and academic socialization-- e.g. homework supervision, discussion with teacher, attend parent-school functions, involve in child career planning)

Parents Standardized test Chinese, English, math(Hong Kong Attainment Test; HK education department, 2000)

Girls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.05-.06

+.10 .00

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

Tan (2011)Dissertation

64 4th-6th grades Homework involvement (e.g. assisting, reviewing, and monitoring homework)

Fathers Academic competence (father and teacher ratings)

Fathers +.01

School involvement (e.g., attending PTA meetings, helping out in the classroom) -.18

Tan & Goldberg (2009)Journal article

91 grades K-5 Homework involvement (e.g. assisting, reviewing, and monitoring homework)

Parents School grades (English, math, science, social science)

MothersFathers

+.07-.09

Direct involvement in school (e.g. attend parent-teacher meetings, school functions)

MothersFathers

+.14-.22

Wood et al. (2010)Journal article

334 7th, 8th grades

Educational expectations Mothers Standardized achievement in math and reading

Mothers +.35

Academic competence (math, reading, science, writing, grades, and general intelligence)

+.39

Yeo, K.Y. (2007)Dissertation

371 girls

341 boys

3rd-6th grades

Learning at home (e.g. talk about school day)

Students GPA (English, math, science)

Mothers (girls)Mothers (boys)

+.11

+.18

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Author (year)Document type

Sample size

Grade Level/Age Type of parent involvement

Respondent

Outcome measure Correlation

School communication (e.g. attend parent-teacher meetings)

Mothers (girls)Mothers (boys)

+.31

+.24

School-based participation (e.g. volunteering, decision-making, collaborating)

Mothers (girls)Mothers (boys)

+.05

+.11

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Online Appendix 1B.

Summary of studies with correlations between parent involvement and achievement for fathers and mothers (longitudinal)Author (year) Document type

Sample size Grade Level

Type of parent involvement Respondent Outcome measure Correlation

Englund et al. (2004)Journal article

187 1st grade (time 1) to 3rd grade (time 2)

School involvement (e.g. teacher knows parents, parents concerned about child schoolwork)

Teachers Academic progress (teacher ratings) in 3rd grade Mothers +.10

Educational expectations Mothers Mothers +.29Flouri (2006)Journal article

4,003 10 years old Interest in child education Teachers Educational attainment

MothersFathers

+.30+.30

Grolnick et al. (2000)12

Journal article

60 6th grade (time 1) to 7th grade (time2)

School involvement (e.g. attend parent-teacher conferences)

Mothers, students, teachers

Grades in 7th grade (time 2, 1 year later) Reading Math

MothersMothers

+.27+.25

Cognitive involvement (e.g. engage in intellectually stimulating activities with child such as going to library)

Mothers, students Reading Math

MothersMothers

+.25+.26

Personal involvement (interest and knowledge about school lives of children, e.g. when report card comes out)

Mothers, students Reading Math

MothersMothers

+.37+.14

12 Cross-sectional correlations were also reported for students in 6th grade and 7th grade, but only longitudinal correlations were retained correlating 6th grade involvement with 7th grade achievement.

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Author (year) Document type

Sample size Grade Level

Type of parent involvement Respondent Outcome measure Correlation

Killian (2003)Dissertation

179 5th grade (time 1), 6th grade (time 2)

School involvement (e.g. How often did you go this year to open house or open school nights?)

Parents SAT9 test scores (reading, math, language arts, and spelling)in 6th grade (time 2)

MothersFathers

+.21 .00

Home involvement (e.g. How often have you helped your child with homework?)

MothersFathers

.00+.10

Melby & Conger (1996)Journal article

347 7th grade (time 1) to 11th grade (time 4);4 waves of data collected

General involvement(setting standards for appropriate behavior such as doing schoolwork, monitoring adherence to standards) in 8th-9th grades (waves 2, 3)

Parents

Students

Observations

GPA (school reports)in 11th grade (time 4)

MothersFathers

MothersFathers

MothersFathers

+.22+.20

+.27+.23

+.23+.18

Mistry et al. (2009)13

Journal article

426 12.2 years old (avg. grade 5.82)at time 1

Educational expectations Mothers (All outcomes collected three years later at time 2)WJI (reading and math)

Mothers +.18

Teacher ratings of academic competence

Mothers +.05

GPA Mothers +.12

13 This study uses the same sample and variables as in another study (Benner & Mistry, 2007), which is cross-sectional. Therefore, information was coded only for this study, which reports longitudinal outcomes.

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Author (year) Document type

Sample size Grade Level

Type of parent involvement Respondent Outcome measure Correlation

Visser (1987)14

Journal article

386 7th grade girls

345 7th grade boys

7th, 9th grades Academic socialization(perceived interest, expectations, and encouragement from parents)

Students Mathematics test scores(collected 4 months later)

7th gradeGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.40+.38

+.42+.43

  351 9th grade girls

333 9th grade boys

        9th gradeGirls Mothers FathersBoys Mothers Fathers

+.49+.49

+.23+.28

14 Separate correlations were reported by grade (grades 7 and 9), but these were merged in the table for parsimony.

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Online Appendix 2.

Summary of studies using National or Original datasets and performing multivariate analyses

Author (year) Document type

Sample characteristics

Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome

measureRegression coefficient

Size and significance

Bogenschneider (1997)Journal article15

Original data (U.S.)9th-12th grades N= 601 Asian*

N = 170 Black*

N = 364 Hispanic*

Multiple regression

General involvement (school and home-based involvement combined)

(controlling for parent's education and child gender)

GPA MothersFathers

MothersFathers

MothersFathers

β = .10β = .16

β = .08β = .17

β = .10β = .12

p<.05p<.001

nsp<.05

p<.10p<.05

Cooksey & Fondell (1996)Journal article

N = 1,250 fathersNSFH: 87-88 (U.S.);16

N = 570 fathers of preteens (5-11 years old)

Ordered probit analyses

Helping with reading or homework

School performance as measured by grades in class

Fathers .063 p<.10

N = 475 fathers of teens (12-18 years old)

Helping with reading or homework

Fathers .013 ns

Family structure of focal child (5 variables)(controlling for age, sex of child, household income, father's race, education, difference in father's age from age of focal child, father's family structure as a child, father's work hours, focal child's age, and focal child's sex.)

15* Numbers marked with an asterisk (*) are based on children’s reports of their parents (for the specific parent involvement variables in question). Correlations were reported for White students, but regression coefficients were reported for the other ethnicities.16 Listwise deletion was used for this study.

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Author (year) Document type

Sample characteristics

Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome

measureRegression coefficient

Size and significance

Desimone (1999)Journal article

N = 19,386 students*NELS: 888th grade

Multiple regression

Talk with father about planning high school program

GPA Fathers β = .05 p<.001

Parent involvement variables

(11 variables)

Mathematicsstandardized test scores

β = -.03 p<.001

Readingstandardized test scores

β = -.03 p<.001

Hanson (2007)Journal article

N = 1,062 students* Original data, Knowledge networks data:2003 (U.S.) N = 281 African American women (13-30 years old)

Multiple regression

Educational aspirations High school Science grades

MothersFathers

β = -.43β = .49

p<.20p<.05

Involvement in school

(controlling for age, family income, and rural-urban residence)

MothersFathers

β = .00β = -.04

nsns

N = 781 White women (13-28 years old)

Educational aspirations MothersFathers

β = .05β = .47

nsp<.05

Involvement in schoolFamily measures (e.g. closeness, experiences and attitudes towards science; 9 variables)

MothersFathers

β = -.01β = .06

nsns

Hawkins (2006)Dissertation

N = 232 students*Original data (Ohio, U.S.)High school students

Multiple linear regression

Interest in schoolwork & achievement values(15 items including items related with homework

Academic Performance(math, science, English,

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Author (year) Document type

Sample characteristics

Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome

measureRegression coefficient

Size and significance

(85.3% African American)

monitoring and help, and academic socialization, such as stressing education and setting high standards)

overall) Student report Teacher report

FathersFathers

β = -.002β = -.010

nsns

Participation in school functions (e.g. participation in parent-teacher conferences, volunteering at school, participation in school programs for parents)

Student report Teacher report

FathersFathers

β = .096β = -.010

nsp = .051

Henry, Merten, Plunkett, & Sands (2008)Journal article

N = 502 students*Original data (Los Angeles, U.S.)High school (13-19 years old)Latino majority

Multilevel random intercept regression

Parent educational aspirations

Neighborhood factors (2 variables), mother and father support, monitoring, and educational attainment

GPA MothersFathers

β = .12β = .03

p<.01ns

Hines (2009)17

DissertationN = 153 African American male students

Hierarchical multiple regression

Parent monitoring (school-based and home-based involvement-- e.g. involved

GPA MothersFathers

β = .11β = .00

nsns

17 Hines (2009) also reports regression weights for one additional type of parent involvement, which is not reported here since correlations were retrieved for this specific variable from the narrative.

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Author (year) Document type

Sample characteristics

Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome

measureRegression coefficient

Size and significance

Original data11th-12th grades

in tasks and completing activities, attend parent-teacher conferences)Communication about school Mothers

Fathersβ = -.06β = .19

nsns

Other parenting variables (3), parent education, family structure (3)

Levin et al. (1997)Journal article

N = 106 students and their mothers Original data (U.S.), longitudinal 1st grade18

(time 1) to 3rd grade (time 2)

Hierarchical multiple regression

Homework help Changing scholastic standing ranked by teacher from grade 1 to grade 3 (reading, math, homework)

Mothers β = -.09 ns

Parenting variables, previous achievement

Muller (1995)Journal article

N = 13,881 students*NELS: 888th grade

Hierarchical multiple regression

Talk about high school program with father

8th grade mathematics achievement test score

Fathers β = -.442 p<.01

Talk about high school program with mother

Mothers β = .801 p<.001

18 This is originally a longitudinal study from 1st to 3rd grades. Longitudinal beta regressions were reported in addition to cross-sectional correlations at 1st grade.

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Author (year) Document type

Sample characteristics

Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome

measureRegression coefficient

Size and significance

26 additional demographic background and parenting variables

Paulson (1994)Journal article

N = 80 students*Original data (U.S.)9th grade

Multiple regression

Achievement values(e.g. expectations)

School grades(self-reported)

BoysMothers FathersGirlsMothers Fathers

sr = .43sr = .36

sr = .33sr = .15

p<.01p<.05

p<.05ns

N = 34 boys N = 46 girls

Interest in schoolwork (e.g. checking homework)

Boys Mothers FathersGirlsMothers Fathers

sr = .31sr = -.36

sr = .16sr = .07

p<.05p<.05

nsns

Involvement in school functions(e.g. goes to school activities)

BoysMothers FathersGirlsMothers Fathers

sr = .10sr = .27

sr = .05sr = .01

nsp<.10

nsns

Strauss (2000)Dissertation

N = 91 students and their familiesOriginal data

Hierarchical multiple regression

Homework involvement Class grades(teacher or parent-

Fathers β = -.04 ns

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Author (year) Document type

Sample characteristics

Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome

measureRegression coefficient

Size and significance

1st-5th grades (only 2 kindergarten students included)

reported)Direct school involvement(e.g. classroom volunteering, teacher contacts)

Father β = -.19 ns

Parent-teacher conference attendance

Fathers β = -.22 p<.10

Xie (1997)Dissertation

N = 392 students,* 392 mothers, 392 fathersOriginal data (Beijing, China)5th-6th grades

Multiple regression

Expectation for child future education(parent report)

School performance (teacher-ratings)

Fathers β = .16 p<.01

Involvement in study (e.g. homework help) parent report child report

MothersFathers

β = -.12β = -.15

nsp<.05

Spend time with child in study daily(parent report)

MothersFathers

β = -.16β = -.11

p<.01p = .07

Parenting variables (7 variables), child expectation

Zellman & Waterman (1998)

N = 193 students and their mothers19

Hierarchical multiple

School-site involvement(e.g. Attend meetings)

Standardized reading scores

Mothers β = .18 p<.05

19 N = 111 in the regressions because no outcome collected for private school second graders.

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Author (year) Document type

Sample characteristics

Modeling technique Predictor variables Outcome

measureRegression coefficient

Size and significance

Journal article Original data (Los Angeles, U.S.)2nd, 5th grades

regressionFamily and child background characteristics (5 variables)

Zhan & Sherraden (2002)Research Report

N = 591 students and their mothers (female-headed households)NSFH:87-88 (wave 1), 92-95 (wave 2)12 to 18 years old

Hierarchal multiple regression

Educational expectations (High school or less) Some college Bachelor's degree Master or doctorate degree

Home ownership, savings (2 categories)

GPA at wave 1(cross-sectional)

Mothers B = .56B = 1.07B = 1.98

p<.01p<.01p<.001

Logistic regression

High school attainment at wave 2 (5 years later)  

B = 1.19B = 1.43B = 2.64

p<.01p<.01p<.01

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Online Appendix 3.

Summary of studies using National or Original datasets performing Structural Equation Modeling

Author (year) Document type

Sample size & characteristics

Program used

Predictor variables

Outcome measure Regression coefficient

Size and significance

Hawkins (2007)Journal article

N = 6,788 students*Add Health:95-96 (U.S.)longitudinalavg. 15.89 years old (grades 7-12) at wave 1 predicting achievement one year later

Mplus Father communication (talk about school grades, talk about school-related topics, talk about social events)

School grades (English, math, social studies, science)

Fathers (nonresident)

Fathers (resident)

β = 0.04

β = 0.09

ns

p<.05

N = 3,394 non-resident biological fathersN = 3,394 resident biological fathers

(controlling for child support, age, gender, race (5), born in marriage, ever lived with father, years since lived with father, father/mother education, father/mother born in the U.S., nonresident mother, stepfather in home, closeness to mother)

McBride et al. (2009)Journal article

N = 390 children, 390 mothers, 390 fathers

PSID-CDSI/II:97-02 (U.S.)8.58 (7-10) years old at Time 2

Mplus School involvement at Time 2(8 items assessing parents' participation in school-related activities, e.g. volunteered in classroom)

WJR20 reading and math Achievement at Time 2

[1] Fathers Mothers

[2] Fathers Mothers

β = -0.42β = 0.26

β = -0.176β = 0.172

p<.05p<.05

nsp<.05

20 WJR = Woodcock-Johnson Revised (1990).

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Author (year) Document type

Sample size & characteristics

Program used

Predictor variables

Outcome measure Regression coefficient

Size and significance

McBride et al. (2009)Journal article

Early parenting at Time 1[1] Household-centered [2] Child-centered[3] Parental Limit-setting[4] Responsibility[5] Affection(controlling for 8 demographiccharacteristics variables)

WJR reading and math Achievement at Time 2

[3] Fathers Mothers

[4] Fathers Mothers

[5] Fathers Mothers

β = -0.21β = 0.20

β = -0.21β = 0.22

β = -0.25β = 0.21

p<.05p<.05

p<.05p<.01

p<.01p<.01

Palmer (2004)Dissertation

N = 467 students, 467 mothers, 467 fathersOriginal data, Ogden Youth and Family Project: 95 (U.S.)5th grade, 8th grade

Mplus Parent involvement composite (includes homework supervision and parent-school interaction)

GPA Mothers21

Fathersβ = -0.49β = 0.45

nsp<.05

Parent aspirations for education β = -0.13β = 0.52

nsp<.05

  Parenting variables (3 latent variables)      

21 Mothers and fathers were represented in two separate SEM model.

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Online Figures.

Figure 1. Funnel plot for the random-effects model for studies including an effect size for fathers (n = 33). 6 effect sizes were imputed to the right. The adjusted effect size was .17 (95% CI = .14/.21), which is higher than the actual observed value of .14 (95% CI = .10/.18).

 

Note. White circles represent the effect sizes of all samples from studies providing bivariate correlations. The black circles represent the imputed effect size.

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Figure 2. Funnel plot for the random-effects model for studies including an effect size for mothers (n = 47). 0 effect sizes were imputed.

 

Note. White circles represent the effect sizes of all samples from studies providing bivariate correlations. The black circles represent the imputed effect size.