Super Mileage

8/12/2019 Super Mileage

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SUPERMILEAGE

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the

Requirement for the award of degree ofBachelor of Technology

SUBMITTED BY:

Jayant Lamba (100871133795)Ashish Chawla(100871133775)Ankir Uppal(100871133774)Sushant Jain(100871133823)Siddharth Guleria(100871133819)Sagar(100871133812)Gurnam Singh(100871133783)Himanshu Chauhan(100871133789)Harshit Sharma(100871133788)

Abhishek Mittal(100871133766)

SUPERVISED BY:

Gaurav Soni(A.P. Mechanical Department)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICALENGINEERINGCHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY


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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work title

SUPERMILEAGE

submitted as part of Bachelors degree in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

at

CHANDIGARH GROUP OF COLLEGES,

is an authentic record of our own work carried out

under the supervision of

ER. GAURAV SONI

Place: CGC,Gharuan

Name:

1. Jayant Lamba (100871133795)

2. Ashish Chawla(100871133775)

3. Ankir Uppal(100871133774)

4. Sushant Jain(100871133823)

5. Siddharth Guleria(100871133819)

6. Sagar(100871133812)7. Gurnam Singh(100871133783)

8. Himanshu Chauhan(100871133789)

9. Harshit Sharma(100871133788)

10. Abhishek Mittal(100871133766)

B.TECH(MECHANICAL)

7TH

SEMESTER


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Learn by Listening or Reading,Understand by reflecting or Implementing

This line tells the story of Practical knowledge and Theoretical knowledge. Practical knowledge in

itself is an experience, in which we learn not only what is written in the books but especially whats

not. Practical knowledge bridges the gap between the educated and the qualified. It is practical

knowledge, which teaches us not what to do but how to do. We cannot achieve anything worthwhile in

any field of science on the basis of theoretical knowledge from the books, because books tells only

what have to do and human mind just grasps or stores the information whatever is written inside a

book, only practical knowledge tells how to do and then we implement our mind.

An acknowledgment We meant to felicitate all those people who have lent us their valuable support

and help for the successful completion of my report. We take this opportunity to sincerely shower

panegyrics on one and all that have made this happen.

Starting with expression of immense pleasure and joy, We pen-down words of sincere and loyal

gratitude to our revered guide Er. GAURAV SONI

who guided us in most affable manner with the best of his technical concept at every junction of need

of Our Major Project.

Er. GAURAV SONI GROUP MEMBERS:

Mechanical Engineering

Jayant Lamba (100871133795)Ashish Chawla(100871133775)Ankir Uppal(100871133774)Sushant Jain(100871133823)Siddharth Guleria(100871133819)Sagar(100871133812)Gurnam Singh(100871133783)Himanshu Chauhan(100871133789)

Harshit Sharma(100871133788)Abhishek Mittal(100871133766)


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Project Summary

A single seated highly efficient transport vehicle High efficiency aerodynamic design

Ultra-lightweight Carbon fiber shell

Real time driver communications

Intelligent vehicle control system

Push button engine controls

Super efficient engine

Highly efficient fuel management system

Target efficiency of 400 km/l with the carburetor and 700 km/l

with the injectors


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Introduction

Abstract

The Supermileage is a single-person vehicle propelled by a small, one cylinder, four-

stroke engine. Its body is composed of lightweight materials, aerodynamically

shaped to reduce any thrust or forces that oppose the movement of the vehicle. The

objective of making this vehicle is to obtain the highest combined miles per gallon

ratio possible set out on a specific race track. The team members will have the

opportunity to show their ingenuity and demonstrate the current and futuregenerations that there is an unlimited field of green engineering technology. The

main goal of this project is to create awareness, within public, about fuel

consumption and promote the reduction of toxic gas emissions by vehicles. This is

important because these young men and women are the future engineers and

scientists who will research and develop technology that will positively impact the

environment.


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Project Formulation

Overview

The overall goal of this project is to design the rolling chassis and aerodynamic body

for an automobile aimed at achieving high fuel efficiency. The extended goal is to

fabricate the chassis and body and integrate the other support systems of the

automobile and finish with an end product of a working car to be operated.

Project Objectives

The main task items separate the clear-cut objectives of this project.

Firstly, we intend on design and building a chassis out of a suitable material that will

give minimum weight to support the drive system and the driver. We intend on

running suitable optimization and computer-aided test to choose the material, tube

diameter and member configuration capable of attaining the above-mentioned goal.

The second goal is associated with the aerodynamic body design and fabrication.

This will be achieved by optimizing the body and by running compute-aided flow

simulations as well as real life testing on 3-D prototypes.

The final and ultimate goal is to build the car and operate it to achieve an maximum

possible overall efficiency.

Literature Survey

Aerodynamics

A simple definition of aerodynamics is the study of the flow of air around andthrough a vehicle, primarily if it is in motion. Energy is required to move a car

through the air; this energy is also used to overcome a force called drag.Drag is determined by vehicle speed, frontal area, air density, and shape.


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Figure 1: Change in Drag and Friction with changing shape

The aerodynamic drag on cars are caused by following; pressures that act on the

front area of the car, suction at the rear of the car, underbody regions and roughness

of the vehicle surface such as protrusions and projections. Figure 2 and Figure 3

illustrate the frontal vacuum and the rear suction respectively.


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Figure 2 Frontal Pressure caused by flowing air

Figure 3: Rear Vacuum caused by flowing air


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Figure 4: Common Drag Coefficients


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Constraints and other Considerations

Moving forward with this project, the first constraint that surfaces is the fact that this

is a very expensive project. The quality of the materials used will depend heavily of

the amount of money that is available for purchasing. Also, during the fabricationphase of the project when we have to outsource services, we would have to balance

experience and dependability with how much we can actually spend on hiringoutside help for fabrication duties.

Project Management

Overview

Project management is an essential component of this design project. The first step

was to define realistic but ambitious goals for our project. These goals had to becarefully chosen so that our fundamental engineering skills were utilized effectively.

In order to achieve out goals, a plan for design, simulation, fabrication and testinghad to be developed before any work was done on the project.

Jayant lamba served as the project manager and his main responsibility was to firstly

assign the tasks to group members also Er. Gaurav soni was selected as facultyadvisor who guide the group through the three main segments of the project, namely;

. Design and simulations

. Fabrication. Final testing.The key to realizing out goals and to successfully completing the project fabrication

and technical report writing deadlines, specific tasks were divided up amongst theten-member team.

Breakdown of Work into Specific Tasks

The very first task among all team members was discussing the feasibility of the

project based on time available, budget restrictions and capability of the groupmembers to design and fabricate such a project. A plan had to be developed to lead

to the completion of the project. Three key phases were identified and under which

the specific tasks were divided up amongst the group members.The first phase called the Design and Simulation phase. The entire team worked on a

concept design for the chassis of the car however the job of creating Solidworksdesign was charged to team member Himanshu Chauhan, Siddharth Guleria and


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Sagar Aggarwal. Using solid works they were to design a lightweight chassis to

withstand the weight of the driver, the engine, the body and all other components ofthe car. The chassiss roll bar also had to be design to withstand specified loads.

With the input of the entire team and the advisor the design was changed and

manipulated in order to achieve the goals. They both also carried out simulations onthe chassis design using Solidworks. They were also charged with the responsibility

of designing the body of the car using Solidworks. At the same time the other teammembers continued the literature survey and other research like material availability

in the available cost , modifications in engine, making body shell etc. Sushant Jainwas assigned the job of researching the material required within the available

budget. Abhishek Mittal and Gurnam Singh take charge of research work for making

body shell. Whereas Jayant Lamba, Ankit Uppal and Sushant Jain were assignedwith job of studing in detail about engine modifications.

With the design finalized, the second phase of the project call the Fabrication phasebegan. Jayant lamba, Siddharth Guleria, Ashish Chawla and Ankit uppal decided theangles and other specifications required to complete the chassis work. A professional

welder and bender were hired. However, Jayant lamba did the positioning of

members for welding and bending and welding was done as designed. With thechassis fabricated, team-member Ashish Chawla and Harshit Sharma was in charge

of designing and installing the steering and braking component of the car along with

the tyres selection.

CHASSIS

The essential contribution of the vehicle chassis that is focused on with regards to

the optimum performance is the aspect of low body load (weight contribution). Thisaspect determined the material used in attempt reduce chassis weight. For full

verification and credibility of material selection as well as optimum configuration of

chassis structural members, stress analysis is carried out to ensure that the

integration of the material properties of the aforementioned light-weight material aswell as the configuration of the vehicle chassis member are able to coincide.

MATERIAL SELECTION

For the vehicular body, in regards to the material of which it would be made, theselection of material must coincide with critical design criteria for any material to be

utilized in fabrication. What the material must be of a light weight composition thatis substantially rigid, contain physical properties that will reduce aerodynamic


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frictional forces and cost effective. The choices for material were between that of

aluminium, carbon fibre and fibre glass. Each of the three materials is efficientlylight weight with carbon fibre being the lightest and aluminium the heaviest of the

three so one might suggest the use of carbon fibre and this would be a viable choice

theoretically. Each of the three materials is substantially rigid for all intents andpurpose and lightweight as aforementioned but the ultimate determining factor in

this case would be the cost efficacy of the three materials and of the three the mostcost effective with relatively greater strength and lightweight property combinations

is the fibre glass. So it is this material that is used to construct the vehicle body. Thechassis consists of the combination of both steel and aluminium alloy used where

necessary for optimal performance. Where the use of aluminium is necessary there

needed to be a selection between industrially used aluminium i.e.The choice was made between Aluminium 2024, 6061 & 6063 with the following

justifications:

Aluminium 6061 was chosen with the fact that Aluminium 2024 has relatively poorweldability, Aluminum 6063 is theoretically half the strength of Aluminum 6061

and design using 6061 were carried out with mild conservation. The use of 6063

would prove non beneficial as the system would have a great failure probability.


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ENGINEERING ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Frame Design


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Various test analysis

1.


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2.


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3.


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4.

Design Specifications

In order to meet the objectives set out for this project there are certaindesign specification that we are bounded by and will use as a guide for designing

and fabricating the chassis and body.These specifications are followed because infuture if we want to compete in any competition then no changes should be made in

design .These are as following :-

The Roll bar needs to be able to withstand a 250 kg force applied at any direction.

The roll bar also need to be between 2 to 4 inched above thedrivers head and completely outside the shoulders of the driver.


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The driver must be seated in the vehicle and positioned with his feet

forward, pointing in the direction of travel. The driver cannot be positioned facingforward.

The driver must be protected from the engine by the implementation of a wall ofsteel or aluminum material of 0.813 mm (0.032 inches) minimum thickness must

completely separate the operator from the engine.

The driver must also be separated from all moving parts of the automobile.

Engine and Power train:

The engine that is being used is a Honda Gx35.

It is a highly efficient 35 cc 4 stroke petrol engine producing 1.3 hp.

Figure 5: Honda Gx35

Model Name GX35

Type e-SPEC air-cooled 4-strokesingle-cylinder OHC

Displacement (cm3) 35.8

L x W x H (mm) 198x234x240

Outfitted Weight (kg) 3.88

Dry Weight (kg) 3.33

No. of Cylinders / Bore x Stroke (mm) 1 / 39x30

Maximum Output/Engine Speed(kW[PS]/rpm)

1.2[1.6]/7,000

Maximum Torque (N-m[kg-m]/rpm) 1.9[0.19]/5,500

Direction of Rotation Counterclockwise(viewed from output shaft side)

Fuel Type Automotive-grade unleaded gasoline

Fuel Tank Capacity (L) 0.65

Fuel Consumption (g/kW-h [g/PS-h]) 360 [265]

Oil Reservoir Capacity (L) 0.1

Carburetor Diaphragm type (overflow return)


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Ignition Transistorized magneto

Spark Plug NGK CM5H/CMR5H

Starter Recoil type

Figure 6: Specification of Honda Gx35

Why Gx35 only ?

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY

4-stroke - no fuel/oil mixing

Full 360 "any-side-up" operation - use and store in any position

Exclusive rotary-slinger lubrication system

FUEL EFFICIENT, HIGH OUTPUT OPERATION

Approximately half the operating cost of comparable 2-stroke engines

Efficient port configuration and large diameter valves maximize power output

Lighter, more rigid valve train

Carburetor equipped with accelerator pump for fast, easy acceleration

SMOOTH PERFORMANCE

Precision engineered components result in lower vibration

Lighter piston minimizes vibration

Ball bearing supported crankshaft for greater stability Roller bearing supported connecting rod

EXCEPTIONALLY QUIET

Belt-driven OHC design reduces mechanical noise

Large capacity, multi-chamber exhaust system

Sophisticated air intake system

PROVEN RELIABILITY High quality materials, fit, and finish

Lifetime timing belt design

Integrated fuel system protection

Diaphragm carburetor


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EASY TO USE AND MAINTAIN

Easily accessible spark plug

Easy to drain and re-fill oil

No mixing of gas and oil

EASY STARTING

Exhaust decompression system

Unique low inertia design

EMISSIONS COMPLIANT

CARB and EPA certified

No catalyst necessary

AVAILABLE OPTIONS

Special designs for horizontal and vertical applications available


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Transmission

Transmission design is such that the engine can be disconnected from the driving

wheels so as to allow the vehicle to be stationary with the engine running.

The drivetrain for the Supermileage vehicle is a direct drive transmission,

consisting of the following main components:

Clutch

Hubs

Sprockets and Chains

Gears

Direct-Drive

With the direct drive transmission, there is only one gear ratio; therefore, the onlydriver input to the powertrain is throttle and clutch. There are several reasons that

direct drive was chosen for the Supermileage vehicle:

The Honda GX35 has relatively flat performance curves with regards torque andpower output and fuel consumption. Therefore, the engine can operate over a wide

range of RPMs and still supply adequate power with low fuel consumption.

A geared transmission would not be of any benefit due to the linear performance

curves. A geared transmission would also add extra weight.

Direct drive results in one less function that the driver has to perform duringcompetition. This simplifies the drivers function and allows them to focus on thefore mentioned driving strategy.

After proper meshing of gears we were able to achieve a reduction of 16:1 whichhelped us to control the rpm.

ClutchIt was agreed that a centrifugal clutch would be more efficient than a disk clutch

because of the chosen driving strategy. The driver can keep the disk clutch engaged

at all times due to the free wheel at the rear wheel. A centrifugal clutch will onlyengage when the engine shaft is rotating above a specific RPM. This will create

inefficiencies during engine startup and when the driver lets off the throttle during

cornering. It was difficult to find more than one source for a disk clutch for ourapplication. Disk clutches either come in large, vehicle sized applications or smaller

sized than are primarily used for industrial machinery.


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Hubs

One hub was designed to transmit power from the motor to the rear wheel.

Rolling resistance

Rolling resistance is a major parasitic drag that occurs between the tires and theground. For a cyclist,

rolling resistance can account for up to 80% of drag at speeds of 6mph, and as muchas 20% at speeds of

25mph, therefore decreasing rolling resistance will make the Supermileage vehiclemuch more efficient.

When a tire holding up weight bulges against the ground it increases the contact

area, To minimize the frictionone needs to decrease this contact patch by investing in a thinner tire or increasing

the tire pressure in the current tire.


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The Rolling Resistance was an important factor that was considered in the

development of the drivetrain.Fr= Crmg

Where,

Fr = Rolling Resistance (N)m = Mass of Vehicle and Driver (kg)

g = Acceleration due to Gravity (m/s2)The Coefficient of Rolling Resistance (Cr) for pneumatic tires on a dry surface, can

be approximated by the following,

Cr= 0.005 + 1/p [0.01 + 0.0095(v/100)2]

P = Tire Pressure (Bars)

V = Vehicle Velocity (Kph)

Exhaust System: Engine exhaust will be directed to exit the body of the vehicle by

the way of an insulated muffler..

Guards and Shields: All moving power train components will be guarded to

prevent damage to fuel carrying components and prevent injuries to the driver in the

event that breakage should occur. Shielding will also protect against any potentialcontact with the driver or support personnel when components are moving. The

vehicle will have a belly pan to completely separate the driver from the pavement.All fuel system components will be guarded or restrained to prevent contact with

moving parts. In addition, all electrical components will be guarded and/or

restrained to prevent contact with moving parts and prevent abrasion of the

insulation.

Brake System: Due to the fact that our vehicle is set to have an average speed of 25-30 km per hour. The braking system that will be installed is high-end bicycle breaks

capable of bring the vehicle to a complete stop in 3 meters, traveling at a speed of15kph.


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Steering

Steering is the term applied to the collection of components, linkages, etc. whichwill allow a vessel (ship, boat) or vehicle (car,motorcycle,bicycle) to follow the

desired course. An exception is the case ofrail transportby whichrail

tracks combined together withrailroad switchesprovide the steering function.

The most conventional steering arrangement is to turn the frontwheels using ahandoperatedsteering wheel which is positioned in front of the driver, via

thesteering column, which may containuniversal joints, to allow it to deviatesomewhat from a straight line.

The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired

directions. This is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears.One of the fundamental concepts is that ofcaster angleeach wheel is steered with

a pivot point ahead of the wheel; this makes the steering tend to be self-centeringtowards the direction of travel.

General Steering System Requirements

A steering system should be insensitive to disturbances from the ground/roadwhile providing the driver/controller with essential feedback as needed tomaintain stability.

The steering system should achieve the required turning geometry. For example, itmay be required to satisfy the Ackermann condition.

The vehicle should be responsive to steering corrections.

The orientation of the steered wheels with respect to the vehicle should be

maintained in a stable fashion. For example, passenger vehicles require that thesteered wheel automatically return to a straight-ahead stable equilibrium position.

It should be possible to achieve reasonable handling without excessive control

input (e.g., a minimum of steering wheel turns from one locked position to theother).

Passenger Steering Requirements

Driver should alter steering wheel angle to keep deviation from course low.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorcyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_trackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_trackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steering_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steering_columnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caster_anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caster_anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caster_anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caster_anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steering_columnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steering_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_trackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_trackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorcyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile


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Correlation between steering wheel and driving direction is not linear due to:

a) turns of the steering wheel, b) steered wheel alterations, c) lateral tire

loads, and d) alteration of driving direction.

Driver must steer to account for compliance in steering system, chassis, etc. as wellas need to change directions.

Driver uses visual as well as haptic feedback. For example, roll inclination of

vehicle body, vibration, and feedback through the steering wheel (effect of self-centering torque on wheels).

It is believed that the feedback from the steering torque coming back up t hrough

the steering system from the wheels is the most important information used by many

drivers.

There are many different options for the steering design. We have looked at two

different systems which include the rack and pinion and the Ackerman SteeringPrinciple.

Rack and pinion steering

The pinion gear rotates with the steering shaft, moving the rack from side to side.Several full turns of the pinion are required to shift the rack from lock to lock.

Because there are so few parts in the steering linkage, rack and pinion is a veryprecise and responsive steering system and is often used in sports cars.

Many modern cars use rack and pinion steering mechanisms, where the steeringwheel turns the pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a linear gear thatmeshes with the pinion, converting circular motion into linear motion along the

transverse axis of the car (side to side motion). This motion appliessteeringtorque to the swivel pin ball joints that replaced previously usedkingpins of

the stub axle of the steered wheels viatie rods and a shortlever arm called thesteering arm.

The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of feedback anddirect steering "feel". A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does

wear and developlash,the only cure is replacement.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rack_and_pinionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingpin_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tie_rodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backlash_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backlash_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tie_rodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingpin_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rack_and_pinion


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Rack and pinion geometry

Ackerman Steering Principle

The Ackerman Steering Principle defines the geometry that is applied to all vehicles

(two or four wheel drive) to enable the correct turning angle of the steering wheels tobe generated when negotiating a corner or a curve.

Aligning both wheels in the proper direction of travel creates consistent steeringwithout undue wear and heat being generated in either of the tyres.

Obviously with turning one wheel more than the other you are mis-aligning the

wheels and you need to do this whilst allowing both wheels to be pointing straight

forward when the car is not turning. To enable this to happen, the mis-alignment

needs to progress from zero (wheels pointing straight ahead) to a point where thereis a sufficiently different angle between both wheels to create the alignment of both

wheels when they are both fully turned.


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The steering system installed in the car

TOE

Inautomotive engineering,toe, also known as tracking, is the symmetricangle thateach wheel makes with the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, as a function of staticgeometry, and kinematic and compliant effects. This can be contrasted withsteer,

which is the antisymmetric angle, i.e. both wheels point to the left or right, inparallel. Positive toe, or toe in, is the front of the wheel pointing in towards the

centreline of the vehicle. Negative toe, or toe out, is the front of the wheel pointingaway from the centreline of the vehicle.Toe can be measured in linear units, at the

front of the tire, or as an angular deflection.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steer_(automotive)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steer_(automotive)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_engineering


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In arear wheel drivecar, increased front toe in provides greater straight-line stability

at the cost of some sluggishness of turning response. The wear on the tires ismarginally increased as the tires are under slight side slip conditions. Onfront wheeldrivecars, the situation is more complex.

Toe is always adjustable in production automobiles. Maintenance offront end

alignment, which used to involve all three adjustments, currently involves only

setting the toe; in most cases, even for a car in which caster or camber areadjustable, only the toe will need adjustment.

Turning at low speed and kinematic (or Ackerman) steering

What is low-speed?

Negligible centrifugal forces

Tires need not develop lateral forces

Pure rolling, no lateral sliding (minimum tire scrub).

-At low speed the wheels primarily roll without slip angle.

If the rear wheels have no slip angle, the center of the turn lies on the projectionof the rear axle. Each front-steered wheel has a normal to the wheel plane that
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear_wheel_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear_wheel_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear_wheel_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_wheel_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_wheel_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_wheel_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_wheel_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_alignmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_alignmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_alignmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_alignmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_alignmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_alignmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_wheel_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_wheel_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear_wheel_drive


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passes through the same center of the turn. This is what Ackermann geometrydictates.

Correct Ackermann reduces tire wear and is easy on terrain.

Ackermann steering geometry leads to steering torques that increase with steerangle. The driver gets feedback about the extent to which wheels are turned. With

parallel steer, the trend is different, becoming negative (not desirable in a steeringsystem positive feedback).Hence this study pointed us towards using TheAckerman Steering Principle.

Photograph of complete car with steering

A normal Ackerman steering is used


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Set the negative camber, based on the tyre temperature readings for instance, youare maximising outside tyre grip, at the expense of inside tyre grip. Toe out helps

to compensate for negative camber on the inside tyre. This indicates pro-Ackermanmight be usefull for cars carrying a lot of negative camber.


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A throttle is the mechanism by which the flow of a fluid is managed byconstriction or obstruction.

An engine's power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet gases

(i.e.,by the use of a throttle), but usually decreased. The term throttlehas come torefer, informally and incorrectly, to any mechanism by which the power or speed

of an engine is regulated. What is often termed a throttle(in an aviation context) is

more correctly called a thrust lever. For a steam engine, the steam valve that setsthe engine speed/power is often known as a regulator.


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What is Carbon Fiber?

A carbon fiber is a long, thin strand of material about 0.0002-0.0004 in (0.005-0.010

mm) in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are

bonded together in microscopic crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the

long axis of the fiber. The crystal alignment makes the fiber incredibly strong for its

size. Several thousand carbon fibers are twisted together to form a yarn, which may

be used by itself or woven into a fabric. The yarn or fabric is combined with epoxyand wound or molded into shape to form various composite materials. Carbon fiber-

reinforced composite materials are used to make aircraftand spacecraft parts, racing

car bodies, golf

club shafts, bicycle frames,

fishing rods, automobile springs, sailboat masts, and many other components where

light weight and high strength are needed.


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Carbon fibers are classified by the tensile modulus of the fiber. The English unit of

measurement is pounds of force per square inch of cross-sectional area, or psi.

Carbon fibers classified as low modulus have a tensile modulus below 34.8

million psi (240 million kPa). Other classifications, in ascending order of tensile

modulus, include standard modulus, intermediate modulus, high modulus, and

ultrahigh modulus. Ultrahigh modulus carbon fibers have a tensile modulus of

72.5 -145.0 million psi (500 million-1.0 billion kPa). As a comparison, steel has a

tensile modulus of about 29 million psi (200 million kPa). Thus, the strongest carbon

fibers are ten times stronger than steel and eight times that of aluminum, not to

mention much lighter than both materials, 5 and 1.5 times, respectively.

Additionally, their fatigue properties are superior to all known metallic structures,

and they are one of the most corrosion-resistant materials available, when coupled

with the proper resins.

Thirty years ago, carbon fiber was a space-age material, too costly to be used in

anything except aerospace. However today, carbon fiber is being used in wind

turbines, automobiles, sporting goods, and many other applications. Thanks to

carbon fiber manufacturers like Zoltek who are committed to the commercialization

concept of expanding capacity, lowering costs, and growing new markets, carbon

fiber has become a viable commercial product.

Why Choose Fiberglass over other materials

Strong and long-lasting: Pound for Pound fiberglass is stronger than sheet metal.

Fiberglass has a high resistance to corrosion, it will not rust. Perfect for productsused outside, in states near the ocean, with the high salt content in the air. Fire-

retardant resins can make your products stand up against fire and will only char not

burn up. Perfect when products will be around corrosive chemicals.

Design Freedom: There are very few restrictions with molding fiberglass, giving the

engineer unlimited possibilities. Get away from the old boxy looking products and

design visually appealing ones that are still as structurally strong and durable. Cantake a multi-piece part and convert it into just one.

Appearance: Using fiberglass for product covers and enclosures definitely improves

its esthetics. Achieve any look and feel desired. Finishes give fiberglasscomponents a high tech appearance.


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Cost Effectiveness: With steel being dependant on Chinas steel prices, you will

have stable prices with fiberglass. Lower costs for maintenance and warranty work.A lighter and stronger product results in lower costs for shipping and storage.

Special Characteristics: Fiberglass is non-conductive and radio frequencytransparent. Perfect for housing electronics without disturbing their performance

and protect employees from hazards inside. Fiberglass absorbs sound waves morethan bounces off, thus giving it extremely good acoustics, for lowering machinery

volumes and achieving acceptable and/or required sound levels. Unlike metal,plastic, and wood; fiberglass has the least expansion and contraction with heat, cold

and/or stress.

Because of these characteristics, fiberglass should be considered whenever there is a

significant amount of fabrication to aluminum or stainless steel as often times a

better part can be made at a lower or very competitive price with each molded partbeing consistently well within manufacturing tolerances.

Fiberglass

Fiberglass is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust material. Although strengthproperties are somewhat lower thancarbon fiber and it is less stiff, the material is

typically far less brittle, and the raw materials are much less expensive. Its bulk

strength and weight properties are also very favorable when compared to metals, andit can be easily formed using molding processes.

Steps to make fiberglass body

1. Find an appropriate mould.To make a product out of carbon fiber, you must find a mold that is of the

appropriate shape and size. Some molds designed for use in the production or repair

of cars can be purchased at automotive supply stores. Similarly, you may be able to

find the molds for certain bike parts at local cycling shops. These products may alsobe obtained through Internet retailers or we can build mould on our own. For very

short production runs (less than 10 parts), temporary molds can be made from wood,

foam, clay or plaster.

2. Prepare the mould.

Once you have found the perfect mold, spray the inside of it with fiberglass resin.

For best results, make sure that all nooks and crannies of the mold are completely
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiber


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Page | JJ

saturated with the resin. Depending on the size of the mold, you may need more than

one can of fiberglass resin.

3. Apply the fiber cloth

Quickly press sheets of fiber cloth into the mold. As with applying the resin, make

sure you completely cover all sections of the interior mold with the fiber cloth. If

there are particularly small corners or angles, you may want to consider pressing the

fiber cloth into the crannies with a screwdriver or other small tool.

4. Add additional fiberglass resin.

Spray the inside of the mold one more time with the fiberglass resin. The fiber cloth

should be completely saturated with the product by this time.

5. Heat the carbon fiber.

Carefully close the mold. Place it inside the autoclave, and allow the carbon fiber to

heat for at least 15 or 20 minutes. When this time has passed, remove the mold, and

allow it to sit undisturbed for 3 hours.

6. Examine the product.

Open the mold and remove the final product. Inspect the carbon fiber on all sides,

making sure there are no cracks or other forms of damage. Consider applying a light

coat of clear epoxy to the product as a final step in the creation of carbon fiber.


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39/41

Page | LL

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The Mercedes-Benz book by Victor Boesen, Doubleday 1981, p. 22,ISBN 0-385-12554-2

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"Car".(etymology). Online Etymology Dictionary.Archivedfrom the original on 24 May2008. Retrieved 2008-06-02.

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"1679-1681R P Verbiest's Steam Chariot".History of the Automobile: origin to 1900.Herg.

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Longstreet, Stephen.A Century on Wheels: The Story of Studebaker. New York: Henry Holtand Company. p. 121. 1st edn., 1952.

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