Sukbinder Barn

8/6/2019 Sukbinder Barn

1/34

Brand placements in video games

History of Video games

The first idea of making a video game came to the mind of an engineer named Ralph

Baer in 1951. He was asked to make television by the company he worked for Loral,

the basic idea was to develop a television which had games within it, but the

company was not interested in such type of ideas. In the year 1950 the very firstvideo game was created by college students in a lab this was done using their free

time. And again a similar with a similar idea in 1960s a student from MIT Steve

Russell made space war a game on a minicomputer. And within that year in 1960s

Ralph Baer created a game which was playable on a T.V. And in the year 1968 he

got a patent right for the game (Gamesspot 1)

1980 was the beginning of the new video game evolution, in the same year th ere

were major games released which were very successful Space invaders from Atari

and Pac Man of Namco. The main reason that led to the fortune of the gaming

console was the success of arcade games. In particular the arcade game in the

United States in 1981 alone created a profit of 5 billion dollars (Gamesspot2)

The second biggest video game console was launched in the year 1982 along with

the entrance of Colecovision. A major part of the companys profit came along from

the gaming patents acquired by Nintendo, which exclusively included Donkey Kong

and Dong Kong Junior. After a brief pause between the era of 1980s Nintendo took

over as market leader with the launch of their Eight bit gaming system in 1986.

Later on in 1980s Nintendo continued to rule the industry with blockbuster games

like Super Mario Bros and Tetris. While at the start of 1989 Nintendo developed a

niche market segment by launching a gaming set which was hand held and was


2/34

named GameBoy. As 1990s started Nintendo was facing a new opponent with

serious completion from Segas 16- bit Genesis gaming system.

The Genesis dominated the market for 5 long years, then in 1994 sega upgraded its

system from 16 bit to 32x which helped it to play 32 -bit cassette games, but however majority of the console gaming industry choose not to work on the 32x console , later

on in the 1990s an interactive multiplayer named 3DO was created by a company

and was patented and produced by only limited companies like Sanyo , goldstar and

Panasonic. But in turn the high price 699$ proved to be a downfall and lead to failure

of the companies and its patent holders. (Gamespot3). In 1995 proved to be turn ing

point in history of video game consoles when Sony arrived with the P S One (Play

station One). Sonys console was priced at 299$ and soon captured the whole

console gaming industry. After the launch of the P S 2 (Play station 2) in the year 2000 .Later on in 2001 Xbox

was released by Microsoft into the console market. The play station was successful

way beyond imagination and created a great deal of enthusiasm among gamers , it

was as if every gamers dream to have one. The demand for the P S 2 was sky high,

it was nearly impossible to buy one from retailers. So it turn out that the console

game which was available for 299$ was sold for 1000$ and above due to short

supply (Gamespot 4). Within a year Sony was able to sale more than 10 million Play

Station 2 consoles.

In 2005 Microsoft launched Xbox 360 which had efficiently processed power. In

addition to that it also could play DVDs and also had its online community Xbox live

which enabled the Xbox 360 owners to play multiplayer games online. Micr osoft

made the first move and got advantage in capturing the market and gave good

competition to Nintendo and Sony. The 360 also had a hard drive which allowed

storing games.

Sony released Play station 3 in November 2006 in Asia, America and March 2007 al l

over Europe . Playstation had a special feature which allowed it play blu -ray disc and

store games. It was the first and foremost which could deliver high definition output.


3/34

It also had wireless remotes using blue-tooth it has two versions the 160 GB and 250

GB

Wii launched by Nintendo in 2006 November is a video game console , it instantly

gave competition to Sonys play station 3 and Xbox 360 of Microsoft . The Wii has a

wider market reach than both of its competitors.(Nintendo) As on 2010 December ,

wii is more successful over Sony and Microsoft in sales world over.(Nintendo 2) In

last year on December 09 Wii broke all records for the fastest selling console in just

a month ever in the U S.(Nintendo 3) .Wii has a unique characteristic quite unlike

any of other video game consoles , it has wireless remote controller, that is used asa handheld remote which can detect movements is 3-D. It also has motion sensing

technology. Like the Xbox has live similar to that Wii has Wii Connect 24, which

helps the console to get updates and messages from the internet. (Nintendo 4) .Wii

is the 5 th console game released by Nintendo just after gamecube, it also has

playback which helps the players play all gamecube games on Wii.

Ever since Wii was released, its sales figures have been consistently much higher

than that of its competitors, NDP group claims that Nintendo sold Wii consoles far

greater in number than playstation and Microsoft combined together in mid2007.(Kuchera Ben)

Introduction

Gaming Market

Games are not considered a niche market anymore. And no longer is the idea of

game players are only those wearing specs and nerd types. Games are nowbelieved to be worth well over 10 Billion dollars (Sandoval, 2005). Games are now

quickly replacing T.V music videos , movies and many other forms of entertainment

media. Previous studies reveal that games are a bigger source of entertainment than

T.V (Rodgers, 2002). Mediaedge:cia studies reveals that playing games as the 4 th

most popular form of media after T.V , Internet, music, and estimated almost 150


4/34

million game players in the US alone. The study also shows the socio-demographic

features of game-players, displaying strong male percentage of 64, in contrast of

female percentage of 36, age group primaril y belonged to the age group of 12 to 34.

Game-players were literate (64%)

Brand placement in video games

Advertisements in videogames can be classified under two categories

1. Advergaming - Which refers to creating games specifically according to abrand in a way to popularise it ,

2. In- game advertising Which refers to the brands and products which areplaced inside a game similar to that of a movie o r music video.

(mediaedge:cia report, 2005).

Games have quickly evolved as the new form of brand placements , though there

has been comparatively less research done in the area and placements done in

video games. Studies done by Nielsen Entertainment 2004 claims that in -game

advertisements are more helpful in improving brand recall and recognition and

almost one fourth of game-players recalled the advertisements displayed in the

games played by them. Advertisements which are much better co-ordinated are

much more convincing. Therefore exposure via in -game advertisements tends to

increases the chances of selling of the brand. Past researches which explore product

placements in games are done by Chaney, Lin, and Chaney (2004) and Nelson

(2002).

At the very beginning of product placement in 1980s , the video game company sega

placed a Marlboro billboard in few of its video games (Neer, 2006). At the early

stages of product placements it use to be practise to include brands in the videogames by their respective inventers , who in turn would pay the companies for

placing the brands in the video games(Leeper, 2004). In todays time it is the exact

opposite , now companies pay to the game inventors to have their brand placed in

the video games. Before the game Need for speed was launched by a very huge


5/34

gaming company Electronic Arts, many advertising agencies were in the race for

placing their products in the games(Delaney 2004).

P roduct placements Vs Brand P lacements

The earlier reviews of brand placements were done by Karrh (1988) who insists thatproduct placement is the very most popular form of depiction; on the other hand

brand placements are more accurate. Karrh also believes that its a brand (Like

Mercedes) not a car which a product thats actually placed.

Though it is still unclear that whether a product placed is considered as a car or a

brand placed called Mercedes, which is considered as a brand when placed in ad or

billboards with just the Mercedes logo , The logo which is a way of symbolizes the

car. But then it depends on persons perception who is watching ad or billboard.

Hence in some way its a individualistic belief.However, according to Karrh(1988) it would be highly unlikely for anyone who is

willing to pay to get their product pl aced. Till date none of the company has yet paid

to anywhere to get their product segment placed. Hence it makes much more sense

to call it brand placement rather then product placement.

Literature Review

Games are quickly evolving in a new form of advertising, moreover there is little

research done over the marketing activities used in promoting brands in games. In

America only the sales figure of PC and video games went to 7.4 billion dollars

(Entertainment Software Association (ESA) 2007a). Market research group NDP

declared 920 million in U.S last year (Bus iness Week).Where as in Australia the


6/34

estimated value of placements in games alone were predicted at 1.25 billion

Australian dollars (Manktelow 2005; Schneider & Cornwell2005). Brand placement

evolved out of free supplies by organisations to a Billion doll ar corporate companies

which are run by commercial companies which are looking for new platforms to

advertise brands. (Delorme & Reid 1999; Nelson et al. 2004; Shea 2004).One of thebiggest soft drink Company Coke declared to promote its product in the dir ection of

Games and DVDs (Grover et al. 2004).

While technological advancements over a period of time have (for eg satellite T.V

DVDs blu-ray) have made much easier for the audience to avoid advertisements. In

return the corporate companies need to find a lternatives to traditional advertising.

Brand placement in the field of media is one of the strategies which marketers have

started to implement. Brand placement refers to the involvement of brand identifiers

in entertainment field , in place of commercia l advertisements(Karrh1998; McCarty2004; Morton and Friedman 2002)

Brand placements have been marketed in a various forms of entertainment media

which consist of video songs , movies, T.V shows (Gould and Gupta 2006; Karrh

1998; Vollmers and Mizerski 1994).

Increasing brand awareness is among the most common goals advertisers have in

using product placement in games. It is often assumed that the number of people

playing a game is equal to the number of people actually paying attention to

the brand names embedded in the game. A game player is engaged in playing the

game, however, and that is what occupies primary attention. Since brand names

displayed in a game are not the focal object of attention, it is important for

advertisers to determine whether their brand name is actually being noticed.

Most cognitive psychologists believe that attention is the process of allocating

cognitive capacity to an object or task (Kahneman 1973; Lang and Basil 1998). In

discussing attention, researchers often focus on two aspects: its selective aspect

and its intensive aspect (Kahneman 1973; Lynch and Srull 1982; Olshavsky 1993).

Intensity of attention refers to the amount of cognitive capacity that is allocated to a

particular task. Selectivity refers to the selective alloca tion of cognitive capacity to a

particular task in preference to others.


7/34

The concept of branding is becoming more and more popular in the world of entertainment as a result of decline in traditional forms of advertising. (Lowrey,

Shrum, and McCarty 2005). Other than brand promotion in television(e.g., Gould and

Gupta 2006),, print media ie magazines(e.g., Van Reijmersdal, Neijens, and Smith

2005) and newspapers, and movies, games have proven to be a new platform of

brand placements. (e.g., Garcia and VanBaker 2004). Nowadays there are games

which are specially developed to work as adverts to promote brands, there is a clear

difference between a real game and advergame. (Kretchmer 2005, p. 7). The

advergame is less complex , short and simple with short game play, it can bepromoted easily via, interenet on gaming websites , or suggesting friends , viral

marketing.

Conjoining brands in games is becoming a popular business in todays world.

PricewaterhouseCoopers estimates that brand placements in games would be a 3$

Billion business by 2009, which should come as a surprise because 69% of

American males have claimed to play games(Entertainment Video Software

Association 2006) . As per the Boston research fi rm Yankee Group , the

advergaming industry, which is a part of gaming industry , is estimated to create a

huge sum of 312. Million by 2009.

Popular brands such Burger King, Coke , Honda, and Gillette have started investing

in advergaming (Shields 2006.) In a particular coke advergame the gamer has to

grab soda bottles that are dropped off a conveyer belt. And the results of the

advergame for Burger King show 40% increase in sales. (Wilson 2007).

Steady increase in academic interest as to how customers behav e to the persuasive

messages (e.g., Farrar, Krcmar, and Nowak 2006; Nelson, Yaros, and Keum 2006;

Yang et al. 2006).

Wh at is Brand placement


8/34

What is brand placement? Its popularly known as, and less correctly referred as

product placement, its a brand which comes on more highlight than a product , as

per (Babin and Carder 1996; Delorme, Reid, and Zimmer 1994; Karrh 1995a. 1994),

brand placement is able to project the proper essence of activity.

In other words brand placement is also defined by including branded merchandise ,

via the medium of video , audio in electronic media

Types of brand placements

Brand placements in Movies

In spite of the wide-spread significance of brand placements, very less information is

available, and known to consumers; Mau, Kehres, and Silberer (2006, p1),

The very first researches conducted by Nebenzahl and Secunda (1993), covered the

customers view point on brand placements , it was done in the united states of

America, the survey was done on the age group of 18 to 34 year olds. This resulted

in positive behaviour in relation to placements , and choose brand placements over

traditional types of advertisements which occurred on television, because it was

considered as a disturbance.

Therefore, Nebenzahl and Secunda (1993) concluded that the people who were

against brand placements were more so for moral reasons, a study done by Gupta

and Gould (1997) who implied the moral aspects to different products like tobacco,

liquor and arms were assumed to less agreeable to be placed in movies. While ,

Gupta and Gould (1997 ) also learned that females were less positive in comparison to

men about such arguable placements.

A research done by Morton and Friedman (2002) that refers to consumers assumption

to purchase attitude, therefore by investigating the importance of buying behaviour

towards brand placement a connection could be established between consumer

buying behaviour and brand placements. The study shows results which underpins


9/34

the belief that positive behaviour towards typical brand placements which can help in

making the consumer buy the product, and the negative attitude would demotivate

the consumer to buy that product. (Morton and Friedman, 2002)

Brand placements in video games. Apparently the very first study conducted by Nelson (2002) on customers behaviour

towards brand placements consisted of 36 students in America they were given a

questionnaire which gave out a positive result towards brand placements in games

and students also revealed through questionnaire that placements made the game

feel more real in terms of game- play and experience, but the other results also

indicates that the degree of approval of placements relies upon the which type of

game it is and where and in which way was the brand placed.

Another study showed outcome very much alike Nelson (2002), Molesworth (2005)

this research consisted of five focus groups of four game players each, and each of

the players after playing games were evaluated and it was found out that the game

players felt positive about brand placements due to the fact it brought reality to

game-play and it also helped in funding the game designers. While some of the

evaluations also revealed that a few game players were worried th at gamedevelopers would create games significantly for producing a high profit via brand

placements, it was recognised as a negative aspect of brand placements.

Despite the fact that academic research done above has analysed consumer

behaviour towards brand placements in different genres like games, films, music

videos and T.V. It appears that game-players are seemingly more eager and positive

towards such brand placements as compared to other people watching placements

in movies, or music videos or T.V. The reason for this can be due the truth that

games are not yet as definitive as movies are. Hence its upon the games features

how good they are and how real they make the game look like. (Ho , 2006).


10/34

E ffect of brand placements on Memory

When it comes to films and T. V , the common objective would be to maximise

publics awareness towards the brand , which would result in more number of people

recalling the brand. (dAstous and Chartier 2000). Previous research on brand

placements indicates stress being laid on audiences memory in relation to brand

placed in a T.V or a feature film. (Karrh 1998; McCarty 2004; Yang, Roskso -

Ewoldsen, and Roskos-Ewoldsen 2004). Studies done on brand placements with

regard to memory has resulted in varied outcomes (Babin and Carder 1996; Ongand Meri 1994; Yang, Roskos-Ewoldsen, and Roskos-Ewoldsen 2004)

According to Ong and Meri (1994) brand placements have invariably has varied

effects on different brands, for example, in a particular movie falling down was

shown to people, out of whom most people were able to remember the coca -cola

brand which was placed in the movie but only few were able to remember beer by

hamms (Ong and Meri 1994).

There is previous empirical study done on brand placement in games but very less

literature is available on the same. But the significance of brand placement in games

and its effect on game players with regards to attitude towards brands is as

important as brand placement in movies or music videos (Nelson 2002). Within two

researches which consisted of sports games , Nelson (2002) concluded that game

players were able to recall 27% of brands just after they finished playing the game,

and just 13 % of them were able to recall brands after an interval of five months.

The game players were also able to remember the brand which related to them

directly, which they liked or brands which were regionally placed. Such type of brand

had more recall value than those of international ones like coca -cola or Pepsi. A

telephonic interview done Activision along with Neilsen Entertainment, the data was


11/34

collected included only men from 8years old to 34 year old. From whom 25% of

game players were able to remember brand placements from the games they

played. (Activision 2004) Moreover almost 33% of the game players agreed to the

fact that brand placements had an impact on their buying behaviour (Activision

2004).

, Chaney, Lin, and Chaney (2004) discovered that game players who played a first

person shooting game were able to recall the posters which were in the game, but

were unable to remember the brands on the which were present on the banners and

posters, A similar survey done by Grigorovici and Constantin (2004) had mixed

results some of the occasions the players were able to recall the brands and some

they could not for example, the game players were able to remember brands

immediately when they appeared on banners ,on the other hand game players were

not able to recall brands were placed elsewhere in the game other than the

billboards and sometimes when games required high level of concentration the game

players would rather than focussing on brand placements give importance to just the

game play.

Nonetheless , previous research which evaluated brand recall and brand awareness

within music videos ,feature films and games have two big disadvantages , firstly

majority of the research conducted does not confirm whether brand recall and brand

awareness takes place due to the game players or audience watching movies

recalled them in particular, or by co -incidence. Sometimes the game players just

guess particular brands because they are well known than others.

In order to have manage such a problem, a tracking solution is implemented through

which in survey the game players could be corrected if they recalled the wrong

placement which was not present in the game , and the research could get correct

results by making the game players do the survey again , but that could lead to a big


12/34

delay in the survey being conducted . Moreover previous research merely stresses

upon brand recall and brand awareness as a degree of recollection with regards to

brand placements.

Researchers (Graf and Schacter 1985, 1987) argue that conventional techniques of

brand awareness and recall cannot correctly determine the degree of a brand

placements impact on the game players memory; majorly there are two types of

memories implicit and explicit, the implicit memory could be affected by placements

even when audience do not have any explicit memory in order to view the brand.

(Auty and Lewis 2004; Law and Braun 2000; Law and Braun -LaTour 2004).

Implicit memory and Ex plicit memory

Explicit memory happens when a person tries to remember a particular occurrence

which has already taken place. There are two ways through which explicit memory

can be measured via recall and recognition. These two are able to evaluate various

features of explicit memory (Townsend and Ashby 1984). Unlike explicit memory,

implicit memory doesnt depend upon memory recall. (Graf and Schacter 1985,

1987; Law and Braun-LaTour 2004).

The significance of implicit memory is a course of action in which a particular

instance could affect the recognition of consecutive events irrespective of the

previous event (Jacoby and Kelley 1987).

Previous studies on implicit memory with regards to brand placement research that,

the participants were not able to remember the names of brand which had been

shown to them, the names of the brands however would have been affected by

popularity and alternative choices (Auty and Lewis 2004; Yang, Roskos -Ewoldsen,

and Roskos-Ewoldsen 2004).


13/34

There is no association at all within these two memories implicit and explicit

according to various researchers scholars (Graf and Schacter 1985, 1987; Jacoby

and Dallas 1981; Richardson- Klavehn and Bjork 1988; Roediger 1990; Schacter

1987; Tulving, Schacter, and Stark 1982). Another study on brand placements inmovies with regards to implicit and explicit memory suggests no relation between the

two (Yang 2004; see also Auty and Lewis 2004; Shapiro and Krishnan 2001)

Implicit memory is considered as a crucial aspect in advertisement studies (Duke

and Carlson 1993, 1994; Krishnan and Chakravarti 1999 ) due to the disadvantages

of explicit memory scholars have been forced to take up implicit memory as an

alternative (Shapiro and Krishnan 2001)

Specifically, Duke and Carlson (1993) recommend that customers buyingbehaviour can be affected by conscious and unconscious recall , even while buying.

Implicit memory has the ability to identify effects from coincidental advertisements

which take place when participants arent focussed towards watching the advert

(Shapiro and Krishnan 2001). Therefore implicit memory could pose as an

important aspect of brand placements even when the previous advert has not been

recalled properly (Sanyal 1992).

Very few researchers have conducted research relating to adverts with regards to

implicit memory (Duke 1995; Duke and Carlson 1994; Krishnan and Chakravarti

1993; Krishnan and Shapiro 1996; Shapiro and Krishnan 2001). Although these

studies done are very less in terms of figures still these studies are enough to back

the application of implicit memory, because implicit memory can uncover effects of

adverts which normally go undetectable by methods which are used through explicit

memory.

Implicit Memory in Brand P lacements Researc h

Law and Braun (2000) applied implicit memory to examine the level of effectivity of

brand placements in relation to T.V . It was discovered that such placements not jut

determined explicit standards of retention , but even implicit standards of retention.


14/34

During the research the people selected for survey would suppose they are

assisting their friends do shopping for brand - new home.

It was found that the people shopped for household items for their friends which

were same as they saw on jerry Seinfeld , they choose house hold items which were

shown in the latest telecast rather than the one particular show which was shown tothem previously. This shows that placements can alter buying behaviour when it

comes to brands(Roskos-Ewoldsen, Roskos-Ewoldsen, and Carpentier 2002; Yang

2004; Yang, Roskos-Ewoldsen, and Roskos-Ewoldsen 2004).

Brand recall

Aaker (1996: 10), explains that brand recall is considered as a individuals power to

recall brands that were placed in movies which has been watched. It wasdiscovered that audience who were watching movie had a higher brand recall when

the placements were displayed consistently rather than displaying just one time.

According (Aaker, 1996: 10) brand recall associates to audiences power to

recollect the brand from memory (Aaker, 1996: 10).

.

Brand categories, which consist of a brand placed in movies or music videos can

help in recollecting the brand placed within movies or videos ( Dodd & Johnstone,

2000: 143). But it demands audiences complete attention in recollecting the brand

from their memory when granted a crucial clue. Brand awareness could prove to be

beneficial for a marketier.

Aaker (1996: 174), suggests , there are three discrete merits, it gives brand a feel

of being familiar, the attractiveness of a brand would ascertain if it would be recalled

at a crucial point of time in the buying of the brand, brand awareness is considered

to an advantage which can be long-lasting and credible. An important constituent

which can be determining , is individuals recall and memory. Consistent display of

brand in a movie has a significant purpose Balasubramanian (1994: 21) stresses

thar recall is believed to be an impo rtant mesure of brand placements effect on

consumers.


15/34

Brand affiliations are the one of many ways that a marketier could implement by

psychologically provoking consumers to buy their brands. According to Bove,Houston & Thill (1995: 248), brand affiliations are specified as perceptual experience

and pictures which audience associate with special brands.

Marketing agendas that relate powerfully and make a favourable picture , has

confident and pleasing affiliations regarding t he brand on the individuals

perception(Keller, 2003: 70). The affiliation connected to a firm and its brand can be

long lasting to its company and its assets. Alba & Chattopadhyay (1986: 363) discovered that movies audience which has

been shown persistent brand placements will improve the brands awareness and

brand recall. Brand awareness is examined as degree of stimulation of the brand

inside the individuals mind (Berry & Miller, 1998: 3).

Every individual is into a dilemma and requires to decide in day to day life that

comprises of memory cognitive processes Atkinson & Shiffrin (1971: 84) a positionin which data enters through outer surroundings and goes through receptive memory

in to the short term memory. Important data is transferred on to long term memory ,

here the data can be available for a long period of time for eg couple of months to

couple of years(Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971: 84). A movie goer has more chance of

having a short term memory if the placement in the movie is recent , but if the movie

goer is repeatedly shown the placement for over a period of time he or she then has

a better chance of a long term memory recall .

Recognition


16/34

As per Dodd & Johnstone (2000: 143), brand recognition is considered as

individuals power to recognize a brand in a movie. If a brand wants brand

awareness it should have fair enough time to display its image or logo in order to be

noticed by the audience along with that the placement should be well structured likevideo or audio or both. Brand recognition needs a person to distinguish stimulation

which is incidental from stimulation which is external and perhaps irrelevant (Dodd &

Johnstone, 2000: 143). Brands need to have dist inguishing characteristics from

others such that it could be easily recognised by the audience.

Brand recognition relies specifically upon the aim of brand placements in the field of

entertainment such as movies as claimed by DAstous and Chartier (2000: 33) The

duration of time that a brand is displayed is known as the aim of the placement and

the magnitude to which the brand is placed in a movie scene and if the moviewatcher was or was not able to watch the placement is considered as unobjective .

Brands could be established in a movie obliquely by innovative placements for eg

posters and afverts using hoardings or stage set placement in which the brand is

placed in a regular surroundings for eg a drawing room, Such type of placements

also contribute to realness to the brand and the movie too. (Dodd & Johnstone,

2000: 143).

It depends upon the input taken while a watching a movie, the movie watcher can or cannot recognise brands which were critically placed in a movie. There are six

different classes affecting the manner the brands are placed in movies contributing

to recognition which evolved during a study done by DAstous & Chartier (2000: 33).

It was discovered that recognition of brands relies upon nuances , duration and

consolidation inside the placement area , like movie or a game. And it also depends

upon individuals tastes and preferences about the brand .

Earlier study done by Gupta & Lord (1998: 49) shows brand and brand recognition

is high when a brand placement in volves video as well as audio placement incontrast to just a quiet video use. Salient video placement is when the brand is

recognised easily by target audience and when it has a big prominent scene in a

movie.


17/34

A exquisite video placement of the brand has less duratio n of placement and

backdrop prop up excluding the audio placement .eg a car on a poster going on a

free way. This is when the person can see only the car in the backdrop of the poster

which is distinctly noticeable.

Limited capacity model

Every marketers basic aim is to improve brand awareness with the use of brand

placements in video games. Oftentimes it is pre -assumed that the number of game-

players playing the game equals the number of people watching the brand

placements appearing in the game. When game player is involved in playing the

video game, this involves his primary concentration . Because brand names exposed

in video games are not central target of attention , its crucial for the marketer toascertain if their brand is reality is being observed by the game players

Almost all psychologists consider that attention is the way in which cognitive capacity

is accorded to a target (Kahneman 1973; Lang and Basil 1998) While talking about

attention investigators always concentrate on two characteristics intensive feature

and selective feature(Kahneman 1973; Lynch and Srull 1982; Olshavsky 1993).

Intensity of attention means selective distribution of cognitive capability towards a

specific work in choice over others.

Limited capacity model of attention was created to illustrate selective and intensive

features of attention (Kahneman 1973). The model presumes that a individuals

attentional capability at any one point of time is confined(Kahneman 1973). The

entire capability assigned to carry out all actions can be split up into two divisions ,

capability assigned to common task, and reserve capability (Kahneman 1973; Lynch

and Srull 1982).

Reserve capability is assigned to subordinate tasks and other environments . It is

assumed that capability applied to execute common task cant be applied for

subordinate tasks.. More the capability applied for common task , the lesser the

individual has usable capability to finish subordinate task.


18/34

Common task and reserve capability are significant for comprehending the

consequences of brand placements in video games on memory. Playing the video

game is the common task for gamers and processing adverts placed in the game is

a subordinate task(Grigoro vici and Constantin 2004). More the attention the game

requires while playing the game the less the attentional capability will be used for processing adverts present in the game.

Brand P lacement P ro x imity

Considering the fact that there is very less reserve capability , many elements which

can impact the effectiveness of brand placement in video games affecting brand

memory. A significant point to be noted is the place where the brand is displayed in

the video game, this is known as proximity . Particular brands were located in the

central visible field.Previous studies analysing brand placement revealed thatdistinctive brand placements outmatched subtle placements in relation to evoking

memory(dAstous and Chartier 2000; Gupta and Lord 1998). The same concept

should be implemented in terms of games. During a game play the game player is

much focussed of just playing the game.

Focal brands are always displayed in the middle of the video game so the

information of focal brands being processed is essential to common task(which

means game play is important to player rather than processing advertisements) and

an individual may be less capable to execute the subordinate task. When brands are

placed on backdrop posters there should reserve memory to process brands.

E LABORAT ION LIK E LIHOOD MOD E L

What is the reason for an individual to recall and advert or be influenced to buy a

specific brand is kind of difficult. Consumer behaviour theories cant fully reason in

what way consumers process influential information. A theory primarily implemented

to make clear how consumers process information is Elaboration likelihood model.

The elaboration likelihood model suggests that an individual process information

purely by his or her interest in the information. (Petty and Cacioppo, 1983).


19/34

When an individual has an interest or extremely affected by an advert, then the

individual transfers the info through main path, if an individual is not interested then

he or she transfers the info via outer path, Main path processing requires more

illustration that outer path, which depends on subordinate notions like is the anchor

attractive. Information that is relevant to the individual (high interest) is transferredvia main path, after this the individuals decides whether if he or she likes the content

from the information, if the individual like it then it affects their mental outlook , which

would result in change in mode of conduct.

On the other hand if the individual does not like it then their mental outlook does not

get affected. If an individual finds the content from the info a bit relevant (low

interest), external notions which is how attractive is the anchor, or colour of brand

which gets crucial and receives a lot of focus. Hence this theory suggests,

consumers would go for the brand only if they like the anchor sponsoring the brand.Brands which are able to bring forth low interest buying intention, for e.g. FMCG

(brands related to fmcg products) Brands which are related to long life time and

which are expensive for eg car and bikes etc which are expected to actuate the main

path since people think a lot in making decision whether to buy the product or not

hence when they retrieve the information it makes more sense to them(Petty and

Cacioppo, 1983).Brand placements are expected to go via subordinate path because

the information regarding the brand placement consists of a brands logo or symbol.

While the audience is watching a feature film or a T. V program, the likeliness of that

particular audience is centered towards the movie rather that the placement in the

movie or T.V program. There is a low interest towards the placements.

A similar instance occurs while the game player is involved in game play, when it

comes to car games; the game player is more attentive towards controlling the car

and not ramming into walls which have brand placements on them in the form of

posters. In simple words, processing placements relies solely on game players

engagement with the gaming contentWhen game players are extremely engaged in

the content while playing videogames in contrast to just viewing it, the game players

are mostly expected not to concentrate on placements as external clues. While

viewing a game play , the individuals engagement is less than that of game player

when he is playing the game. Hence the individual is expected to be more focussed

on external clues like posters and hoardings


20/34

However consumers assume that brand placement are not important and would

rather ignore such placements during a game play because that would distract them

from the game, Krugmans (1965) low involvement theory proposes that audience

does process , irrelevant information even if it of no use , they can do so without

being attentive towards it. Krugmans (1965) mentions in his published paper TheImpact of Television Advertising, a research consisting of four advertisements

displayed consistently is somewhat alike to content classified as irrelevant. So game

players who are active can still note particular posters and hoardings in the game but

when asked to recall those brands on the posters they may not be able to do so. But

less recall in the case of active game players rather than passive game players is

due to model of Elaboration Likelihood. The theories mentioned above, it can be

analysed that during the game play the gamer is involved in controlling the car and is

highly engaged in it and is aroused , in such a way that their whole concentration isin to the game and finishing the race, any external clues which are posters and

hoardings are assumed as a interference in game play and hence such inform ation

is rejected by the game player due to confined processing power of the brain. But

when the individual is in a passive condition he or she is highly expected to be

attentive towards the whole game rather than just driving the car and could end up

seeing the posters and hoardings which the active game player cannot do so while

driving the car. A study conducted which included research on a football game which

has a very higher exhilaration results in a adverse outcome and low brand recall of

posters and hoardings (Pham, 1992). While a video game which is related to car

racing is more likely to stimulate the game players , low brand recall in the racing

game is anticipated from the players playing the game rather the audiences viewing

the game. The theory below links attention to recall called the multiple resource

theory.

MULT IP LE RES OURC E TH E ORY OF ATT E NT ION

The theory of multiple resources suggested by Wickens (1984) proposes that

multiple attentional resources does exist and people can do two different jobs at the

very same time and still pay attention to both, for eg playing a car racing game and

at the same time noticing the placements on the posters. However if the two jobs

need different attentional resources, the execution of the jobs can be effect ive

without substantial disturbance. However it relies upon the how the resources are

distributed if the two jobs demand mutual attentional resources(Smith and Buchholz,


21/34

1991).It implies that game players in active state can be capable of retaining an

recalling posters and hoardings and the secondary date would relate to their aim

during the game play. Hence the list of posters which can be recalled relies upon the

number of resources allotted to that process. The below paragraph illustrates

primary and secondary task.

P R IMARY- SE CONDARY TA S K TH E ORY

People at times are involved in more two or more tasks, it can be consistent or at

consistent intervals. Researchers named it as primary-secondary activities or

concurring activities(Hendrix and Qualls, 1981; Juster and Stafford, 1985; Walker

and Woods, 1976). Since the primary task is playing the game, game play requires

more resources in contrast to secondary tasks for eg noticing posters while playing

the game. When both task primary and secondary are combined and limited capacitymodel together ,It can be revealved that people can are able to manage their

memory resources within two different tasks in car racing game like finishing the race

which is primary task, processing data which is not linked to the ga me plays aim.

(Lavie, 1995, p. 452),Recall depends upon the reserve capacity is allotted to

processing posters and hoardings, and this again relies upon capacity used in

primary task. The total of the two capacities is consistent and confined as per limit ed

capacity model. Henceforth the more requirements for resources to finish primary

task, the lesser the placements are recollected. It is hard to determine the exact

resource allotted in a lab study , another way of finding resource allotted would be to

calculate period of time elapsed to get to finish line To get across the finish line and

fulfil the aim speedily , the game players needs more focus in doing so, in simple

words the more time required to complete the race, the lesser resources are

dedicated towards the completion of primary task, as a result of this spare time

remains to process secondary activity , resulting in better brand recall of placements

including poster and hoardings

Researc h Met h odology

The methodology chapter involves in depth examination applied to analyse the

participants, their inputs and their changing interests , 10 participants were taken

from various universities in London. Out of which 7 were males and 3 were females

and they belonged to the age group of 18 to 34. However a small same size would


22/34

confine outer efficacy and lay other restrictions, a sample from students is taken

intentionally because it will decrease singular degree of fluctuation. Moreover

mediaedge:cia report (2005) claims almost 80 percent of the game players in U.S

only belong to the age group of 12 to 34 more over 89 percent of teenagers play

video games . Subsequently sample size from students is justifiable as to the aim of the research is not to generalize the outcome from the universal sample size but

taking into consideration the target market which is the youth between 18 to 34 and it

makes much more sense to take the same sample size from the same age group.

P ROC E DUR E

Participants were taken from different courses and levels right from undergrads to

post grads and were asked to come to lab, after that the participants were informed

they need to review car racing game and give suggestions abou the game, theparticipants were also told the basic aim of the research was to obtain the game

players views on the car game called gran turismo 4.

When the participants came to the lab they were divided into two groups

Driving the car with placements in it in the form of posters.

Viewing the game with posters in it.

Playing the game was termed as active state, and viewing the game was termed

passive state. Participants were given proper seating arrangements then a play

station 2 console was connected to a LCD television with gran turismo game CD

loaded into the console. Participants were informed about the driving rules of the car

racing game to the active state game groups. The aim of the racing game was to get

the car across the finishing line and be the first to do. The car can be steered with

the help of a play station joystick controller to go left or right forward and backwards

The control x is used for accelerating, and square button for brakes, triangle for

reverse and joystick to go left and right. Participants were asked t o play the game

and feel at home as they would be playing the game on their own TV, it was made

sure the volume and the race track selected was same for everyone.The placements

which were present in the game as posters and hoardings besides the side walls,

thirteen different brands were embedded in the car racing game, the posters were

placed at same lengths from each other all over the racing track. The brands

belonged to various product classes, FMCG, car products and electronic items .


23/34

After the objective of the game was finished , all participants we give a sheet of

paper and were note down the brands which they could recollect during game play .

After filling the sheet of paper the participants were transferred to a different room

and the mediator had a normal discussion regarding their courses and university life.

An hour long evaluation took place in order to assemble information from participants

about how they felt about the brand placements and whether they noticed it or

ignored it.


24/34

Findings

ATTENTION AND MEMORY

According to Khaneman (1973) attention and memory depends upon the type of activities. Someactions requires more attention and memory than the others. Many actions are carried outsimultaneously, but attention is allotted depending upon type of action. Attention and memory areclosely related to each other but state of alertness can increase awareness Khaneman (1973). Brainacts as central processing unit in which all the actions are analyzed and processed; depending uponthe type of action attention is designated. For instance in car racing video game, brain analyses thedemand require to drive a car and hence dedicates attention based upon the requirement.

AROUSAL

Stoke and Kites (2001) suggested arousal as, basic energetic state of an organism. Many researchersused variety of physiological test to measure the level of arousal such as EEG, EKG, level of reticularactivity, facial muscle tension, rate of respiration and blood pressure (Caccioppo and Tassinary,1990; Lang, Greenwald, Bradley and Hamm, 1993), self reported rating is considered to be much

easier and common method to assess the level of arousal.

For instance while playing racing car video game- a person should focus on the other information aswell. Arousal level is directly proportional to amount of processing and efficiency in playing videogame. Hence, increase in arousal level also increases level of processing and improves efficiency inplaying video game, and restores memory.

All in all, based on multiple resource theory and primary-secondary task theory, it can be concludedthat, recall can be referred as time take by an individual s to complete the race. Moreover, othertheories on attention, memory and arousal suggest that recall depend on level of arousal whileplaying or watching the videogame. The forthcoming areas will analyze the mere effect of exposureand psychological reactance theory to see whether brand placement in video games will have aneffect on attitudes and purchase intentions of customer.


25/34

References

Lowrey, Tina M., L. J. Shrum, and John A. McCarty (2005), The Future of Television

Advertising, in M arketing Communication: Emerging Trends and Developments, Allan

Kimmel, ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 113 132.

Van Reijmersdal, Eva A., Peter C. Neijens, and Gloria E. Smi th (2005), Readers Reactions

to Mixtures of Advertising andcEditorial Content in Magazines, Journal of Current Issues

and Research in Advertising, 27 (2), 3953.

Gould, Stephen J., and Pola B. Gupta (2006), Come on Down:How Consumers View GameShows and the Products Placed in Them, Journal of Advertising, 35 (1), 6581.

Garcia, Denise, and Ben Van Baker (2004), Advergaming Gets Consumers to Play While

Advertisers Pay, GartnerG2 Report ( January).


26/34

Kretchmer, Susan B. (2005), Changing Views of Commercialization in Digital Games: In -

Game Advertising and Advergames as Worlds in Play, paper presented at DIGTAR

conference, Changing Views: Worlds in Play, Vancouver, June, available at

www.gamesconference.org/d igra2005/

overview.php

Entertainment Video Software Association (2006), Sales, Demographics and Usage Data

2006, available at www .theesa.com/archives/files/Essential%20Facts%202006.pdf

Shields, Mike (2006), In -Game Ads Could Reach $2 Bil, M ediaweek (April 12).

Wilson, Douglas (2007), Burger King Gets Its Games on,available at

www.gamespot.com/news

Farrar, Kristie M., Marina Krcmar, and Kristine L. Nowak (2006), Contextual Features of

Violent Video Games, Mental Models and Aggression, Journal of Communication, 56 (2),

387405.

Nelson, Michelle R. (2002), Recall of Brand Placements in Computer/Video Games,

Journal of Advertising Research, 42 (2), 8092.

Entertainment Software Association (ESA) (2007a) Top 10 industry facts, available at

http://www.theesa.com/facts/index.asp ,

http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_33/b3947119.htm

Manktelow, N. (2005) Through innocent eyes. Sy dne y M orning Herald: Icon , 25 March,

p. 1.

Delorme, D. & Reid, L. (1999) Moviegoers experiences and interpretations of brands in films revisited. Journal of Advertising , 28(2), pp. 7195.

Grover, R., Lowry, T., Khermouch, G., Edwa rds, C. & Foust, D. (2004) Can Mad Ave.

make zap-proof ads? Its blurring the lines between promotion and programming

as DVRs gain ground. Business Week , 3868 (February), p. 36.


27/34

Karrh, James A. (1994), Effects of Brand Placement in Motion Pictures, in P roceedings of

the 1994 Conference of the American Academ y of Advertising, Karen W. King, ed., Athens:

University

of Georgia, 9096.

Kahneman, Daniel (1973), Attention and Effort, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Gupta, Pola B., and Kenneth R. Lord ( 1998), Product Placement

in Movies: The Effect of Prominence and Mode on Audience Recall, Journal of Current

Issues and Research in Advertising, 21 (1), 4759.

Rodgers, Anni Layne (2002), Game Theory, online available at

http://www.fastcompany.com/articles/2002/02/yaya.html

Sandoval, G. (2005), Industry seeks more female video game programmers,

Information Week , July 29, 2005.

Mediaedge:cia (2005), Playing with brands, online available at

http://www.mecglobal.com/output/Page1463.asp

Nielsen Media Research Services http://www.nielsenmedia.com/services.html

Chaney, I., Lin, K., and Chaney, J. (2004), "The Effect of Billboards Within the Gaming

Environment," Journal of Interactive Advertising , 5 (1) online available at

[http://www.jiad.org/vol5/no1/chaney/index.htm]

Neer, K., 2006. How product placement works.

http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/product -placement.htm

Leeper, J., 8 January 2004. A place for product placement. GameSpy.com.http://archive.gamespy.com/ces2004/placement/

Delaney, K., 28 July 2004. Ads in videogame pose a new threat to media industry.

The Wall Street Journal Online.

http://www.tinotopia.com/archived web pages/wsj 28jul04 product -placement-in-video-

games.pdf


28/34

Karrh, J. A., Fall 1998. Brand placement: A review. Journal of Current Issues and

Research in Advertising 20 (2), pp31 49.

Games spot

http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/p2_01.html

Games pot 2

http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/ p4_02.html

Gamespot 3


Gamespt 4


Nintendo

"Nintendo hopes Wii spells wiinner" . USA Today .

Nitendo 2

Consolidated Financial Highlights" (PDF). Nintendo. 2009-10-29. p. 9. Retrieved 2009-10-

29.

Nitendo 3

"Wii and DS thrash competition in US News" .Eurogamer .

Nitendo4

Nintendo Corporation - Nintendo President, Satoru Iwata, media briefing speech at E3 2006

Kuchera, Ben (2007-07-24). "Nintendo the big winner, PS3 dead last for the first half of 2007" . Ars Technica.

Babin, Laurie A. And sheri Thompson Carder (1996), Viewers Recognition of Brands Placed

within a Film, International Journal of Advertisiong. 15. 120 -151.


29/34

Mau, G., Kehres, S., Silberer, G., July 2006. Communicating brands playfully:

The impact of ad placement in computer games. 5th International Conference on

Research in Advertising (ICORIA).

Nebenzahl, I. D., Secunda, E., 1993. Consumers attitudes toward product placement

in movies. International Journal of Advertising 12 (1), pp1 12.

Gupta, P. B., Gould, S. J., Spring 1997. Consumers perceptions of the ethics and

acceptability of product placements in movies: Product category and individual

differences. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising 19 (1), pp37 50.

Morton, C. R., Friedman, M., Fall 2002. i saw it in the movies: Exploring the

link between product placement beliefs and reported usage behaviour. Journal of

Current Issues and Research in Advertising 24 (2), pp33 39.

Molesworth, M., 2005. Real brands in imaginary worlds: Investigating playersexperiences of brand placement in digital games, version 348 revised Jan

2005, Bournemouth University, Media School.

Ho, R., April 2006. Videogames that sell. Creativity 14 (4), p21.

dAstous, Alain, and Francis Chartier (2000), A Study of Factors Affecting Consumer

Evaluations and Memory of Product Placements in Movies, Journal of Current Issues and

Research in Advertising, 22 (2), 3140.

McCarty, John A. (2004), Product Placements: The Nature of the Practice and Potential

Avenues of Inquiry, in The P s y cholog y of Entertainment M edia: Blurring the Lines Between

Entertainment and P ersuasion, L. J. Shrum, ed., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 4561.

Yang, Moonhee (2004), The Effectiveness of Brand Placements in the Movies: Levels of

Placements, Explicit and Implicit Memory, and Brand Choice Behavior, Ph.D. diss.,

University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa. , Beverly Roskos-Ewoldsen, and David R.

Roskos-Ewoldsen (2004), Mental Models for Brand Placeme nt, in The P sy cholog y of

Entertainment M edia: Blurring the Lines Between Entertainment and P ersuasion, L. J.

Shrum, ed., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 7998.

Roskos-Ewoldsen, David R., Beverly Roskos -Ewoldsen, and Francesca Dillman Carpentier

(2002),


30/34

Media Priming: A Synthesis, in M edia Effects in Theor y and Research, 2nd ed., Jennings

B. Bryant and Dolf Zillmann, eds., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 97120.

Babin, Laurie A., and Sheri T. Carder (1996), Advertising Via

the Box Office: Is Product Placement Effective? Journal of P romotion M anagement, 3 (1/2), 3151.

Ong, Beng Soo, and David Meri (1994), Should Product Placement in Movies Be Banned?

Journal of P romotion M anagement, 2 (3/4), 159175.

Activision (2004), Activision and Nielsen Entertainm ent Team to Provide Advertisers with

Standardized Measurement Metrics for Video Game Audiences, Press Release, April

8, available at http://investor.activision.com/ReleaseDetail .cfm?ReleaseID=149231/.

Grigorovici, Dan M., and Corina D. Constantin (2004), Experiencing Interactive Advertising

Beyond Rich Media: Impacts of Ad Type and Presence on Brand Effectiveness

in 3D Gaming Immersive Virtual Environments, Journal of Interactive M edia, 5 (1), 3153.

Graf, Peter, and Daniel L. Schacter (1985), Implicit and Explicit Memory for New

Associations in Normal and Amnesic Subjects, Journal of Experimental P s y cholog y :

Learning, M emor y , and Cognition, 11 (3), 501518. , and (1987), Selective

Effects of Interference on Implicit Memory for New Associations, Journal of

Experimental P s y cholog y : Learning, M emor y , and Cognition, 13 (1), 4553.

Auty, Susan, and Charlie Lewis (2004), The Delicious Paradox: Preconscious Processing

of Product Placements by Children, in The P s y cholog y of Entertainment M edia: Blurring the

Lines Between Entertainment and P ersuasion, L. J. Shrum, ed., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum, 117133.

Townsend, James T., and F. Gregory Ashby (1984), S tochastic M odeling of Elementar y P s y chological P rocesses, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jacoby, Larry L., and Mark Dallas (1981), On the Relationship Between Autobiological

Memory and Perceptual Learning, Journal of Experimental P s y cholog y : General, 110 (3),

306340. , and Colleen M. Kelley (1987), Unconscious Influence of

Memory for a Prior Event, P ersonalit y and S ocial P s y cholog y Bulletin, 13 (3), 314336.


31/34

Richardson-Klavehn, Alan, and Robert A. Bjork (1988), Measures of Memory, Annual

Review of P s y cholog y , 39, 475543.

Roediger, Henry L., III (1990), Implicit Memory: A Commentary, Bulletin of P s y chonomic

S ociet y , 28 (4), 373380.

Schacter, Daniel L. (1987), Implicit Memory: History and Current Status, Journal of

Experimental P s y cholog y : Learning, M emor y and Cognition, 13 (3), 501518.

Tulving, Endel, Daniel L. Schacter, and Heather A. Stark (1982), Priming Effects in Word -

Fragment Completion Are Independent of Recognition Memory, Journal of Experimental P s y cholog y : Learning, M emor y , and Cognition , 8 (4), 336342.

Shapiro, Stewart, and H. Shanker Krishnan (2001), Memory - Based Measures for

Assessing Advertising Effects: A Comparison of Explicit and Implicit Memory Effects,Journal of Advertising, 30 (3), 113.

Duke, Charles R. (1995), Explorat ory Comparisons of Alternative Memory Measures for

Brand Name, P s y cholog y and M arketing, 12 (1), 1936., and Les B. Carlson (1993),

A Conceptual Approach to Alternative Memory Measures for Advertising Effectiveness,

Journal of Current Issues and Rese arch in Advertising, 15 (2), 114. , and

(1994), Applying Implicit Memory Measures: Word Fragment Completion in Advertising

Tests, Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 16 (2),

2940.

Krishnan, H. Shanker (1993), Varieties of Brand Memory Induced by Advertising:

Determinants, Measures and Relationships, in Brand Equit y and Advertising: Advertisings

Role in Building S trong Brands, David A. Aaker and Alexander L. Biel, eds., Hillsdale, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum, 213231. , and Dipanka Chakravarti (1999), Memory Measures

for Pretesting Advertisements: An Integrative Conceptual Framework and a Diagnostic

Template, Journal of Consumer P s y cholog y , 8 (1), 137. , and Stewart Shapiro

(1996), Comparing Implic it and Explicit Memory for Brand Names from Advertisements,

Journal of Experimental P s y cholog y : Applied, 2 (2), 147163.

Sanyal, Abhijit (1992), Priming and Implicit Memory: A Review and a Synthesis Relevant for

Consumer Behavior, Advances in Consumer Research, 19, 195805.


32/34

Law, Sharmistha, and Kathryn A. Braun (2000), Ill Have What Shes Having: Gauging the

Impact of Product Placements on Viewers, P s y cholog y and M arketing, 17 (12), 10591075.

, and Kathryn A. Braun-LaTour (2004), Pr oduct Placements: How to Measure Their

Impact, in The P s y cholog y of Entertainment M edia: Blurring the Lines Between

Entertainment and P ersuasion, L. J. Shrum, ed., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum, 6378.

aaker, d. a. (1996). Building strong brands . London: the free press.

balasubramanian, s. k. (1994). beyond advertising and publicity: hybrid messages

and public policy issues. Journal of Advertising , 23 (4), 1-21, fromhttp://weblinks1.epnet.

com/citation.asp?tb=1&_ua=%5f2&_ sid+92317498%2d8

dodd, c. a. & jo hnstone, e. (2000). Placements as mediators of product salience within a

uk cinema audience. Journal of M arketing Communications , 6 ,141-158.

bove, c. L., houston, m. j. & thill, j. v. (1995). M arketing (2nd ed.). London: mcgraw-hill.

keller, k. L. (2003). strategic product management: building, measuring and managing

product equit y (2nd ed.). upper saddle river, nj: prentice-hall.

alba, j. W. & chattopadhyay, a. (1986). Salience effects in brand recall. Journal of M arketing

Research , 23 (4), 363-369.

berry, L. & miller, s. (1998). brand salience versus brand image: two theories of advertising

effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Research , 12 (2), 1-11.

atkinson, r. c. & shiffrin, r. m. (1971). the control of short -term memory. S cientifi c American ,224 , 82-90.

Kahneman, Daniel (1973), Attention and Effort, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Lang, Annie, and Michael D. Basil (1998), Attention, Resource Allocation, and Communication Research: What Do S econdar y Task Reaction Times M easure An y wa y? vol.21, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Lynch, John G., and Thomas K. Srull (1982), Memory and Attentional Factors in Consumer Choice: Concepts and Research Methods, Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (1), 1837.

Basil, Michael D. (1994), Secondary Reaction -Time Measures, in M easuring P s y chological Responses to M edia M essages, Annie Lang, ed., Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 85 93.


33/34

Olshavsky, Richard W. (1993), Attention as an Epiphenomenon: Some Implications for

Advertising, in Attention, Attitude, and Affect in Response to Advertising, Eddie M. Clark,Timothy C. Brock, and David W. Stewart, ed., Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 97 106.

Petty, R.E., Cacioppo, John T., and Schumann, D. (1983), Central and Peripheralroutes to advertising effectiveness: The moderating role of involvement, Journal of Consumer Research , Sept. 1983

Krugman, J.A. (1965), "The Impact of Television Advertising: Learning WithoutInvolvement," P ublic Opinion Quarterl y , 29, pp. 349-356.

Pham, M. Tuan (1992), Effects of Involvement, Arousal, and Pleasure on theRecognition of Sponsorship Stimuli, Advances in Consumer Research, 19, 85 -93

Wickens, C. D. (1984), Engineering P s y cholog y and Human P erformance ,Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.

Smith, H. and Laura M. Buchholz (1991), "Multiple Resource Theory and Consumer Processing of Broadcast Advertisements: An Involvement Perspective," Journal of

Advertising , Volume 20, Number 3, (September), pp. 1-8.

Juster and Stafford (1985) Time, goods, and well-being , F. Juster and F. Stafford,eds., Michigan: Institute for Social Research

Walker, K.E. and Woods, M.E. (1976), Time use: A measure of household production of famil y goods and services , Washington D.C.: American HomeEconomics Association.

Lavie, N. (1995), Perceptual load as a necessary condition for selective attention,Journal of Experimental P sy cholog y : Human P erception and P erformance , 21, 451468. ________. and Tsal, Y. (1994), Perceptual load as a major determinant of thelocus of visual selective attention, Percept Psychophysics, 56, 183-197.

Stokes, A.F. (1995). Sources of stress-resistant performance in aeronautical making:The role of knowledge representation and trait anxiety. 39 th Human and Ergonomicssociety annual meeting , san diego , CA, oct ,1995, proceedings . Vol 2 (A96 -1300102-54,p. 887-890

Cacioppo, J. T., and Tassinary, L. G. (1990), Psychophysiology andpsychophysiological inference, in P rinciples of ps y choph y siolog y : P hy sical, social,and inferential elements Cacioppo, J.T., and Tassinary, L.G., eds., New York:Cambridge University Press, 3-33.

Lang, A. (1992), A limited capacity theory of television viewing, Paper presented tothe Information Systems Division of the International Communication Association,Miami FL.


34/34

Greenfield, P. M., Camaioni, L, Ercolani, P., Weiss, L, Lauber, B. A. and Perucchini,P. (1994), Cognitive socialization by computer games in two cult ures: Inductivediscovery or mastery of an iconic code? Journal of Applied Developmental P s y cholog y , 15, 59-85.

Sukbinder Barn

Documents

Transcript of Sukbinder Barn