Sufism in Medieval Hindi Literature

Sufism in Medieval Hindi LiteratureAuthor(s): Charles S. J. WhiteReviewed work(s):Source: History of Religions, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Summer, 1965), pp. 114-132Published by: The University of Chicago PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1061806 .Accessed: 10/02/2012 04:27

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Charles S. J. White SUFISM IN MEDIEVAL HINDI LITERATURE

EARLY SUFISM IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD

Sufism is an expression of the mystic temperament found in the

religion of Islam, particularly after the second century A.H. (A.D.

822). It advocated an intense concern for divine love, combined with certain physical and psychic disciplines to create states of

ecstasy in its practitioners.1 The exact etymology of the word Sufi has not been determined

by scholars. Commonly, the Sufis themselves believed that it came from the Arabic word safa meaning purity. The denigrators of the Sufis liked to point to a different origin-that the poorest members of the early Arab community resorted to the benches (suffa) in front of the mosque for their bed and shelter. Other writers in- sisted that the meaning of the word comes from suf, the woolen

garments worn by the Sufis. The importance of Sufism cannot be exaggerated in the final

development of Islamic religion-giving to it a breadth of religious expression that it would otherwise not have had. Orthodox Muslims have always opposed the mystic tendency in the Sufi movement, with its emphasis on the possibility of union with God, on the ground that it detracts from the absolute transcendence of

1 "Sufis," Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark Co., 1922), Vol. XII.

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the deity revealed in the teachings of Muhammad in the Koran. Although the early Sufis were not unorthodox in their teachings about the deity, they were led through the influence of Hellenistic philosophy, especially neo-Platonism, and the spread of the teachings of the eastern religions, especially Buddhism and Vedanta, to certain points of view that were, strictly speaking, heretical. But the heresy of that early period did not lead to essential ruptures in the wholeness of Islam. Instead, Sufi movements were incorporated into the organic life of Islam and created there an extension of sensibility and a unique type of religious experience.

Sufism spread so quickly throughout the Muslim world that it reached the shores of India at a very early date.2 There in the course of a long period of maturation it came under the influence of Indian religious forms and created a style of its own.3

2 Mir Valiuddin, The Quranic Sufism (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, n.d.), p. 8. 3 What differentiates Sufism from the ordinary practice of Islam lies perhaps

in its elaboration of discipline, including the liturgical prayers and pilgrimage, into a more ascetically structured system. The emphasis upon asceticism can be traced in part to the Koranic image of a God whose transcendence is veiled in mystery and severity. A sense of the fearfulness of God created the need for measures of self-discipline in order to escape his vengeance. This was complicated by the belief that his law was unfathomable to man except insofar as it had been revealed in the scriptures. But in the end this interpretation of the Koranic injunctions could not satisfy the inherent need for an opening toward the experience of God as something more than implacable will. The evidence for the possibility of experiencing God lovingly in one's own person was on all sides for the religious person alive in the Islamic context in that period. There were first of all the various Christian groups of monks that lived in the desert areas of Arabia and who claimed to have such experiences. Then, as the orbit of Islamic dominance swung north and east toward the Greek and Indian worlds, the literature of the ancient Greek philosophers with its teachings about the oneness of the universe with man was translated into Arabic, while persons like Mansur Hallaj traveled in India and came under the influence of the Shankarite monism dominant in India in that period. As a result of the various external influences brought to bear on the central Muslim teachings, they were considerably modified. One of the great temptations faced by the Sufis generally was so to equate God and the world as to create the impression that they were indistinguishable. This is the tendency toward pantheism-a problem for mystics of various traditions who look to the universe itself to find the form of God. In Persian Sufism there was an antinomian emphasis that presented poetry, feasting, music, and dancing as the central core of the experience leading up to enlightenment. This also was criticized by the orthodox who held to more puritanical ideals.

The Sufi practitioner who brought the most respectability to Sufism was the great Persian intellectual Muhammadu 'l-Ghazali. He taught at the Nizamiyya College at Baghdad and acquired the reputation of being the most skilled dialectician of the period, but this did not satisfy his longing for personal union with God, and so at the height of his career he resigned his professorship and took up the life of a mendicant. Wandering west and north, Ghazali disguised himself and only rarely presented an appearance at the centers of learning along his route, although his writings were known by then throughout the Islamic empire, and he would have received a warm welcome any place. Finally, toward the end of his life, he returned to teaching in his home town of Tus where he established an academy and convent. There he died on December 18, A.D. 1111, having achieved the unique distinction of mastering both the formal contents of Islamic theology and dialectic and becoming their chief exponent, as well as representing the highest level of mystical experience and its explanation among the Sufi mystics (Tor

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Sufism in Medieval Hindi Literature

GENERAL CHARACTER OF INDIAN SUFISM

A tendency that was already evident in the writings of the Arabian Sufis comes into the center of attention in the Persian writers of love narratives, or Masnavis, which are allegorical renderings of divine love in terms of human passion. Under the influence of the Persian writers, later Indian Muslim writers in the vernacular literatures adopted the conventions of the Mas- navis to describe their own religious experience. Moreover, India itself from a very early period in its classical literature had created certain conventions, involving erotic images, to describe the divine- human encounter. Thus the ground was prepared and the time propitious for a fusion of Persian (and Arabic) with Hindu poetic conventions in the vernacular literatures of the Sufis in the Indian Middle Ages.

In the medieval period in Indian literature Sufism swept across North India, giving rise to dozens of poets who wrote in regional languages and dialects. At an even earlier period the Sufis had

already settled in the south of India on the Malabar Coast where their influence had been indirectly felt on Indian literature- perhaps even on the Bhagavata-Purdna.4 The Persian poets Nezami, Maulana Rum, Sanai, Umar Khayyam, Farridduddin Attar, Jami, and Hafiz had helped to create the tradition that was later to influence Indian poetry. In India proper, the centers of Persian study were Lahore, Delhi, Madau, Dalmau, and Jaunpur. There were schools in these cities where Persian and Arabic were

taught. The Hindi poets were well trained in Persian but were also influenced in their writing by the literature of the already existing languages, as well as by certain folk traditions.

The first Sufi saint who came from Persia was Huzviri. He settled in Lahore, in the modern state of Pakistan, in A.D. 1026. His most famous work, a book on Sufi philosophy, Kashful Mahzub, was written in Persian. Another famous Sufi, Muinu Din Chishti, came to India in A.D. 1190 and founded the Chishti sect of dervishes. With him the real history of Sufism in India begins. He settled first in Delhi and from thence moved to Azmir Sheriif, three hundred miles southwest, where he preached his doctrines

Andrae, Mohammed the Man and his Faith [New York: Barnes & Noble, 1935]; R. C. Zaehner, Hindu and Muslim Mysticism [London: University of London, 1960]; Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali the Mystic [London: Luzac & Co., 1944]; R. A. Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Mysticism [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1921]).

4 Charlotte Vaudeville, "Evolution of Love Symbolism in Bhagavatism," Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. LXXXII, No. 1 (March, 1962).

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among the common people. His successor, Khvaz Bakhtiyar Kaki, was the second important leader of the Chishti sect. He was followed by Baba Pharid, who in turn was succeeded by Amer Husero. An important saint of this order was Sheikh Malim, to whose intercession the birth of Akbar's son was attributed. Another important order of Sufis, the Kadaria sect, was closely connected with the Chishti but did not contribute appreciably to the development of Hindi literature. The Suhrawardi had among its members the famous poet, Kutuban, sometimes considered to be in the first rank of Hindi poets.5

In the troubled history of North India in the early Middle Ages an event of importance in the development of Hindi literature was the sacking and burning of Delhi in 1398 by Tamurlane. As a consequence of this attack, nearly all the Persian scholars in the capital fled to the city of Jaunpur which then became the cultural center of the area. Its later reputation grew so great that it came to be called "Shiraza Hind," after the name of the city in Persia where Hafiz had lived.

In Jaunpur there was a madharsa called the Atala Masjid to which scholars from other Muslim countries used to come to study law and theology. It was an important center for music as well as for the various Sufi orders. In addition, some important new movements began in the area. Malik Muhammad Jaysi, the author of the poem known as Padmdvat,6 concerning the love of Princess Pad- mavati and Prince Ratansen, was a member of the Mehadevi Movement, a Sufi sect started in Jaunpur. It was in this context that the writing of Hindi Sufi literature gathered its momentum.

It will be worthwhile to record here the principal known Masnavis in Hindi so that we may have perspective on the movement as a whole. Mulla Dauid's Candayan, written in 1380, concerned the love of the heroine, Princess Canda, for Prince Lovils. Kutuban's Mrigdvati, written in 1504, concerned the love of Princess Mrigavati and Prince Rajkumvar. Among the most important narratives, Manjhan's Madhumdlti, with its story of the love of Madhumalti and Manohar, stands out. Another work, known as Citrdvali, was composed by Usman in 1613. The so- called Jian Dipak of Sheikh Nabi, perhaps written in 1619, concerns the love of Prince Jfiandip for Princess Devyani.

5 John A. Subhan, Sufism: Its Saints and Shrines (Lucknow: Lucknow Pub- lishing House), passim; and the writings and lectures of S. M. Pandey. 6 Another poetic narrative of Jaysi's, called Citrarekhd has some but not all of the characteristics of a true Masnavi. The hero of this narrative, Pritam Sinha, does not follow the usual course of exhausting experience while in search of love.

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In addition to these narratives, which were written in Avadhi, certain others have come down to us in Dakkhani, the Urdu dia- lect of the Deccan. Among these are the Kutub Mushtari, written by Mulla Bajahi in 1610, which concerns the love of Prince Muhammad Kuli and Princess Mushtani. Another work by the same author is the Sabras, composed in 1636, describing the love of Prince Dil and Princess Husn. Another Masnavi by Gavasi of Golkunda relates the story of the love of Prince Saiphulmuluk and Princess Babiul Jamal. It was written in 1617 or 1619. In Bijapur in 1617 the poet Mukimi composed the tale of Candarbadan and Mahiydr on the model of the previously mentioned work.

After the seventeenth century A.D., the tradition continues. Kasim Shah wrote Hansjawahar and Mir Muhammad wrote Anurdga Bdnsuri and Indravati. The last known Masnavi, Premakaham, was written by Nasir in A.D. 1917.7

GENERAL CHARACTER OF HINDI SUFI LOVE NARRATIVES

The goal of the Indian Sufi love poetry was the exposition of a

technique for achieving union with God. In this context the love of a man for a woman was written about insofar as it served as a model for the divine-human relationship. The God of the Sufis was nevertheless the ineffable God of the higher mysticism. Jaysi in his Padmdvat says, "the Lord is one, he is invisible, formless and shapeless. No-one gave birth to him. He is precisely the root cause of the whole world." Manjhan in his poem Madhumalti says somewhat the same thing. "God is formless and one. He is made of invisible substance." Usman refers to the lord as shapeless. Sheikh Nabi also in his Jnan Dipak describes the lord as pure, holy, invisible and formless.8

What is the relationship of Muhammad to the Lord? Dr. Pandey quotes from Manjhan who said, "Muhammad was separated from the Supreme Lord, therefore for his sake the Lord created the world and caused the drum of his love to be beaten in the whole world." Manjhan says that God assented to the existence of Muhammad: insofar as the Lord is secret and unmanifested, in his manifested form he is Muhammad. He goes on to say that the Lord is one without a second. But Kutuban, Jaysi, Sheikh Nabi, and Usman take a different view. Usman, for example, says that

7 This outline of the history of Sufi literature is from S. M. Pandey, Madhyayu- gin Premdkhydn Allahabad: Mitra Prakasan Pradet, n.d.), pp. 34 if.

8 Ibid., p. 119. 118

Muhammad is a portion of the Supreme Lord and is like the splen- dor of the beams of his radiance in the world.9

In respect to the relationship between the world and its creator, these Hindi Sufi poets attempt various explanations with a particular focus. One of the images used to describe this relationship is that of a painter toward his painting. Dr. Pandey sums up the various themes using these terms, "the Lord and the world are related to each other as the painting is to the painter, as the ray of light is to the sun, as the wave to the ocean."10

In general Malik Muhammad Jaysi and Sheikh Nabi can be compared and contrasted with respect to their viewpoints on the nature of God. Their principal concern in certain passages is to point out the impossibility of establishing whether God is immi- nent or transcendent. Instead of coming to a "rationalistic" con- clusion on the subject they are of the opinion that God in his own form (svarup) is best described in the so-called Friendship Sura in the Koran in which it is written, "Say that God (Allah) is one. Allah is bountiful. Nothing has been born from him and he has given birth to nothing and no-one is (fashioned) in his likeness."11

In the south certain writers like Mulla Vajahi and other poets attempted to keep their descriptions of God close to that in the Koran by emphasizing the Arabic concept of Tawhid (divine unity). They all agreed, as well, that Allah made the world out of love for Muhammad. Dr. Pandey quotes Malik Muhammad Jaysi to this effect. "He [God] created one [perfect] man. His name was Muhammad. The first light was with him and for love of him the world was created."12

If the world was created for the sake of love, then love has a particular dignity in the scheme of things. Manjhan said, "At the root of the world love entered in," and "Love indeed is the basis for the world." The love of Allah for Muhammad becomes the image of the love that exists generally throughout the world- it is toward the appropriation of that love that the world has its movement and meaning.

If God is in the world in the form of love, it becomes clear that the goal of the devotee who seeks to know God's love is to find what it is in the world that reveals love. A beautiful woman can become the image that reveals the divine enchantment. A statement of Manohar, the hero of Madhumdlti, makes this quite clear as he rhapsodizes on the qualities of his beloved Madhumalti.

9 Ibid., p. 120. 10 Ibid., p. 121. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid., p. 122.

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"The existence of that form is incomparable. Effulgent rays come from her eyes. From that form flows an ocean of peace. From that form comes the perfume of flowers that give enjoyment. That form is sun and moon. In this imperfect world that form is perfect." The poet Malik Muhammad Jaysi says of Padmavati, "In the way that the light of the moon is hidden by the sight of the risen sun, in the same way the form of Padmavati hides the beauty of all other beautiful women." Having seen the beauty of Padmavati the hero Ratansen loses his senses. Jaysi describes it this way- "Ratansen saw a thousand rays diffused from her form. Wherever he looked it was as though a lotus were blooming."13

But in spite of the fact that the way of love is appealing to the senses and the heart of the devotee, it is an extremely difficult

path to follow. Jaysi says, "Beyond sorrow is the honey of love which, if one would taste it, he must be able to bear the anguish of death." Usman says, "That path [of love] is inaccessible . . . on it the bird cannot go nor the ant climb." Dr. Pandey says, "In Hindi Sufi poetry, the protagonists must face difficulties. In Mrigdvati, [the hero] Rajkumvar, in Padmdvat, Ratansen. In Madhumdlti, Manohar and in Citrdvali, Sujan-all must endure uncommon difficulties."14

One of the most important themes in the whole of bhakti literature is also present in the writings of the Indian Sufis and is one of the most striking examples of their mutual relationship. It is the concept of virdha or separation-the emphasis upon the

painful aspect of the love relationship that gives much of Indian literature its peculiar poignancy.

In the heart of the lover there is always the fervent desire that he might possess his beloved, but his desire for union is never fulfilled until the devotee has been burned in the flame of separation....For the sake of finding the supreme Lord it is necessary that the devotee become emancipated from all longing for the world and that he see the Lord alone everywhere. Until he has suffered in the pangs of separation, the sinfulness of the heart cannot be destroyed and the devotee cannot become an enlightened one. For this reason in Sufi literature a description of virdha is given in ample form. Not only in India but in Persian love narratives also there is an ample description of virdha. In Nizami's Laild-Majnu, Majnu remains throughout life in the torment of separation; he only manages to meet Laila indeed after death.15

Jaysi said, "In love are both enjoyment and separation in the same way that both honey and the wasp [sic] are in the honey-

s3 Ibid., p. 124. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid., p. 125.

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comb." Malik Muhammad Jaysi describes the virdha of his hero Ratansen in this way. "Heaven and earth both burned as a consequence of his suffering from virdha. His virdha was so excessive that it penetrated the whole world." Manjhan said, "Virdha came [into being] at the foundation of the world. It could not have been created without holy virdha."16 In these and other expressions the poets refer to their sense of the inevitable union of the suffering of separation with love and how it is even to be cultivated as a value. From the religious point of view the experience of viraha corresponds to the disciplined purgation of the senses of the yogi or the follower of a religious ideal for whom the sensory world with all of its temptations must be overcome before enlightenment is achieved.

A mysterious question lies at the heart of the whole process of movement toward God through the imagery and experience of love. How is it that certain persons are brought to this type of experience? Dr. Pandey quotes from Padmdvat as follows, "At the time of the birth of love in the heart there is a commencement of trouble. Wherever the time of love has arrived, another thing cannot flourish [there]. He [the afflicted one] examines it daily. It never grows enfeebled. It extends everywhere." He goes on to say, "But the pain of love never lessens the happiness. The pain does not occur in everyone, only in those for whom the Lord wishes [it]."17 Thus the answer to the question of who becomes a Sufi, one who experiences divine love, depends upon the will of the Lord.

Another sign of the true devotee is his singleness of mind (ekanishthathd). The devotee does not think of any other person besides his beloved. It is a convention in these love narratives for the hero to become a yogi for the sake of his beloved. In Padmdvat, Ratansen becomes a yogi, while in Madhumalti, Manohar puts on the garment of an ascetic and goes in search of his beloved. Another aspect of this type of convention is that the hero and heroine have either been lovers or husband and wife in a previous birth or have known and loved each other in childhood and become separated. The hero's assumption of yogi guise is a part of the process of bringing about the reunion of the parted lovers. The intensity of the love of the Sufi is expressed allegorically in the words of Ratansen as he describes his feelings for Padmavati, "I desire Padmavati with my every breath. For her name I am sacrificing my life. Padmavati is my heart and soul. I hear her voice in my

16 Ibid., p. 126. 17 Ibid., p. 128.

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very bones. Whether I should live or die, Padmavati will always be with me."18

As a part of the discipline of the path of love, the hero must first of all cleanse his heart. Dr. Pandey says, "In Padmdvat Mahadeva says to Ratansen, 'You have cried a great deal, now you should cry no more; without the support of suffering you would not have obtained your beloved. You have now become an enlightened one. You have purified your body of all filthiness. Now you may go on the path of love.'"19 On the other hand, the hero's purity is sub- jected to fantastic scrutiny by the beloved. This naturally impedes the course of love. For example, Padmavati has received a message from Ratansen carried to her by a parrot. He reveals his love to her, but she reflects cautiously on the whole affair.

He is enamored of me. I might wish (under the circumstances) that we could meet today. But at this moment he does not comprehend my secret meaning. He only understands the secret meaning of love who has died and then tied the knot. I know (for certain) that he is yet unripe. I do not know whether or not he is fully prepared for the enjoyment of love. I do not know whether he is fragrant with the fragrance of sandalwood or not. I do not know whether he has become the sun and climbed into the heaven or not.20

Besides the general specification that the hero must be cleansed of impurity, the convention also required of him that he develop certain moral traits. First of all, he had to be free from excessive preoccupation with self. Then he had to eliminate all envy and anger from his personality. He had to look on the various aspects of the world dispassionately with the demeanor of an ascetic. In essence this involved his complete detachment from care for the demands of the will and the body. "Love must have grown to such proportions in his body that ... he is not afraid of death. He cares no longer for life." Social distinctions as well were wiped out. Someone asks the hero of Padmdvat, "Oh, Yogi, tell me what is your caste, station in life and where do you live?" To these and other similar questions the hero replied quite simply that as a yogi he had abandoned all distinctions of caste and the like. Moreover, he had ceased to care for the opinion of the world and whether he would be punished or whether he would receive rewards. In fact his personal situation was transcended. "The hero seizing the support of the effulgence of the rays of God makes the effort of obtaining (knowledge) of the Supreme Lord."21

18 Ibid. 19 Ibid., p. 130. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid., p. 131.

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It can be seen from the above that the efforts of the hero in the Sufi love narratives take on a highly religious aspect, however much the imagery of the narrative is cast within the framework of profane love. In this sense the experience of the lovers can be described as a spiritual journey, ddhydtmik ydtrd. A journey im- plies the existence of various stages or stopping points along the way until the end result, which is the union of the self, dtman, with the supreme Brahman, is achieved. When this union occurs, then no further obstacles remain. In this connection Usman in his Citrdvali said, "On this path there are four countries... In the four countries are four cities and in the four cities are four fortresses . . ." The path to these fortresses is beset by thugs so that travelers are often robbed on the way.22

The relationship of these four cities to the path of spiritual development is as follows. The first city, Bhogpur is set aside for the enjoyment of the senses. The traveler goes from house to house and in each finds greater pleasure than in the last. The person who stays in this city is lost in the toils of maya and cannot, unless he makes a special effort, begin to know the true mystic path. From Bhogpur the traveler can go on to Gorakhpur where there are caves and monasteries inhabited by yogis and sanyasis. In Gorakhpur there is only talk about God and nothing else. But the second stage is far from being free from dangers. Criminals roam through Gorakhpur, to which they have fled for various reasons, but they remain blind to spiritual truth and can only go on after having passed through death. The third city, Nehanagar, can only be entered when "even a king has become penniless." This city is characterized by the quality of dispassion, so that good and bad alike are perceived with equanimity. The fourth city, Rupnagar, is the hardest of all to find and is only achieved after one has broken through the boundaries of Nehanagar. Rupnagar is indescribably beautiful, but it is only achieved by "one among crores." Of those who enter there, all have abandoned "garments, wheels and supports," which is to say, all the things of the world.

These cities have also been designated by Arabic philosophical terms that describe the states of mystical ascent. Thus Bhogpur (or Bhognagar) corresponds to ndsut, the state of ignorance and worldly involvement. Gorakhpur corresponds to malkilt, the ordinary term for heaven, the abode of angels, etc. Nehanagar corresponds to the Arabic term jabrit. It is the place of yogic discipline where abandonment of self, dispassionateness, etc., come into

22 Ibid., p. 132.

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existence. The final stage, lahut or hakikat, corresponds to the highest city in the scheme of spiritual development. Lahut has reference to the achievement of Truth, in the absolute sense.

These various levels of spiritual ascent, however, must also be integrated into the plots of the narratives that concern themselves with telling about how two lovers meet, are separated, and are reunited. But it is not always easy to find exact correspondences between the plot and the system we have outlined. The general correspondences can be imagined and traced. Thus in the poem Mrigavati, the period from the time of the birth of the hero Rajkumvar to his meeting with Mrigavati is called the level of Bhogpur or ndsut. The period after the meeting with Mrigavati, in which the hero assumes the life of an ascetic, can be called the Gorakhpur or malkut level. He enters into the second state instantly upon seeing Mrigavati. From thence he enters the state of Nehanagar or jabriit as he singlemindedly devotes himself to the ideal of his search for Mrigavati. It is not clear in this narrative where the hero arrives at the level of lahit.23

Somewhat the same condition prevails in an attempt at describing the mystic levels in Padmdvat. The hero Ratansen is in the state of ndsut until he receives the message from Padmavati carried by the parrot. Until his arrival at Sinhaldvip, the fort in which Padmavati resides, he may be in the state of malkut. Thereafter, until his wedding with Padmavati, he is in the state of jabrit. But then the plot takes a different turn and the lovers are separated again for a long period of time. This adds an element of confusion in establishing the point at which Ratansen achieves the

highest level of spiritual attainment. It is likewise the case, as Dr. Pandey points out, in Madhumdilt and Citrdvali that the marriage of a hero and heroine marks the high point in the narrative. To be sure, it may be conceived as a mystic marriage between the soul and God, but, on the other hand, there is the probability that in Indian Sufi literature asceticism was subordinated finally to a particular image of heavenly consummation, built on a spiritual- ized concept of carnal love.24

The role of the guru is also more or less important in the achievement of the highest level of spiritual life by the protagonists of the Sufi love narratives. Thus, in the writings of Malik Muhammad

23 Ibid., p. 137. 24 Ibid. This element is very strongly present in certain aspects of the Krishnite

tradition, for example. There is the overt eroticism of the Gitagovinda as well as the more chaste relationship of Radha and Krishna in the poems of Sfir Das and others.

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Jaysi, the author says, "the guru is the one who brings to birth in the heart of his pupil the spark of virdha."25 The guru of Ratansen and Padmavati is the parrot Hiriman, although there is no episode, as such, in which a guru is formally presented to the pair. In reality, it is the Lord who is the guru, but he operates through such beings as the parrot, or he may work through the hero or heroine with respect to each other or to someone else-as is the case with Ratansen's relationship with Kumaron.

On the whole, diverse methods are used to describe the course of love and to resolve the several conflicts that exist in the plot. On the one hand, there is the question of the marriage and the role it plays in furthering the desires of the protagonists for perfect spiritual and physical union. On some occasions love is not even engendered until after marriage, a concept not unfamiliar to Indian life. Often the resolution of love is a semitragedy, at least from the point of view of life in this world. In Mrigdvati the hero and heroine marry, but then the prince dies and is joined on the pyre by Mrigavati and a second wife. Likewise in Padmdvat the two wives of Ratansen commit sati upon his execution. In the Persian tradition as well the motif of tragedy and death occurs in Nizami's Laild Majni in which the heroine dies first and the hero subse- quently expires at her graveside and meets her later in heaven.

On the other hand, Manjhan and Usman think it unseemly to portray death. Usman said, "To tell a story of death in verse seems to me to be an evil; the one who has drunk of the nectar of love-what shall he die of? From age to age his soul remains alive."26

It is Dr. Pandey's opinion that, of the various influences that can be found-the tendencies toward one type of religious expression or another-in the last analysis it is the Arabic and Persian, in short, the Islamic influences that control the narratives and create the special forms of religious expression. This is true even though Muslim writers have borrowed freely from Hinduism and from earlier Indian philosophy to describe Islamic concepts.27

MADHUMALTI

In Manjhan's Madhumdlti we can examine more closely some of the elements of the Hindi Masnavi.28 The poet opens with an in-

25 Ibid., p. 138. 26 Ibid., p. 139. 27 Ibid., p. 140. 28 The plot of the poem is as follows: Surjbhan was the king in a city named

Kanyagiri. He was very wealthy, but on account of not having a son was troubled

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vocation of God, presumably of Allah, but couched in terms that remind us of the Hindu background. The poet seeks to praise God adequately, but he feels that he cannot.

He who gives comfort, affection and love, The Creator of the two worlds in the shape of Om, My mind has no light like yours In order to praise you my lord.

The poet goes on to make reference to the ordinary way in which the Indian wise men praise God. He refers to the

Learned men, sages, those who meditate on Brahman: All might try [to sing] your praises in this world. But with one tongue how could they depict them ?

The theological problem that exists in the invocation is revealed in one of the closing lines. The poet writes, "In his own beauty He exists everywhere in the three worlds in various forms." The

at heart. An ascetic came to his kingdom. The king served the ascetic for a period of twelve years while the latter remained in samddhi. When the monk had come out of samddhi and had blessed the king, he provided that the king should have a son. The son was named Manohar. Pandits predicted that in fourteen years, eleven months, and nine days love would be born in the prince's heart. The prince's birth was celebrated with joy throughout the kingdom, as was the festival accompanying his fifth birthday. It was further predicted that the prince would become accomplished in all the arts and sciences.

When the prince was twelve years old, the king thought, "Now I have grown old and I should give my kingdom to the prince." This he did. But at the same time, in accordance with the predictions of the pandits (when the prince had reached fourteen years of age) the fire of love began to spread through his heart. In the course of events, one night while the prince was sleeping a fairy transported him to the city of Maharas where King Vikram's daughter Madhumalti was. There the fairy left the prince. Having seen the form of the princess, Prince Manohar fell in love with her. She was a beautiful woman, perfect from head to toe. The two engaged in conversation about love in which Manohar revealed the eternal character of their relationship, i.e., that they had been united in a previous stage of existence. After this conversation the princess became enamored also. The fairy then transported the prince back to Kanyagiri. When the prince awoke, he was agitated and unhappy. His nurse Shaja inquired concerning his sadness; his father, being a wise man and ascertaining that his son was not suffering from any physical disorder, guessed that he must be in love.

The upshot of the affair was that one day Prince Manohar left his mother and father and, having become a yogi, set forth on a sea voyage. Accompanied by his friends, he was beset by a storm that sank his ship. Calling on Hari, Manohar was the only one to survive, clinging to a piece of wreckage. When he reached shore, he set forth on a path into the forest where he met a maiden named Prema, who was the friend of Madhumalti. Prema had been carried off to that place by a demon. Under Manohar's escort, Prema, who had learned of the prince's plight, promised to assist him in his love suit and arranged an interview with Madhumalti that caused her to be changed into a bird. After various adventures, however, Madhumalti was changed back into a princess and the couple met again in Kanyagiri where they were at last married. Madhumalti's friend Prema was also married, to Taracand, the prince who had rescued Madhumalti while she was in the enchanted form of a bird. (This summary of the plot of Madhumdlti is from Pandey, op. cit., pp. 76 ff.).

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concept herewith introduced is that God and the world are really equivalent or coextensive, the familiar pantheist heresy with which Sufis so often have been charged.

This kind of imagery comes through even more clearly in the succeeding stanza in which the unity and multiplicity of God are both described.

That Lord exists in many ways. Of one form he has assumed many forms. He is everywhere in the three worlds. That Lord lives blissfully in various forms. The Creator creates the world however He likes. Death was, death is and death will be. Without a single abode, He lives in bliss everywhere. Without a form that Lord has many forms. There is but one light completely perfect at every glance In the three worlds. From the one light come various images, And these images have various names.29

Thus in Madhumdlti the three worlds and the all-pervasive light call to mind the Hindu imagery of the cosmos as well as the un- conditioned Brahman of the Upanishads who is like light extending through the whole of the created order. The concept of the projection of the world in various images is reminiscent of the monistic Indian theory of the projection of the world as maya, the illusion created by the Supreme Brahman in his 1la1. It also calls to mind the Platonic concept of the reflection of the world as the alter image of a supramundane reality.

An idea that is common to most Indian devotional literature in which the devotee expresses his longing for divine communion is also present in the Hindi Masnavis. Manjhan writes,

He who having been born in this world never recognizes you His life is desperate and he repents after death. He who having been born in this world desires anything

apart from you Obtains no benefit from his sojourn in this world. Oh, my Creator, desire abides in my heart. From you I want

only you.

This kind of statement stands outside the movement of the writing as a whole, reflecting the feeling of the poet himself who longs for the traditional bhaktic knowledge of and union with God.

29 Manjhan, Madhumalti, ed. M&atprasad Gupt (Allahabad: Mitra Prakashan, Prvt., 1961), p. 3. This and the following stanzas or lines cited are found (ibid.), in sequence. The author of this article assumes sole responsibility for their translation.

5 + H.o.R. 127


Following these general statements about God that have little or nothing to do with Islamic concepts per se, the poet goes on to make specific references to the central figure in Islam, the prophet Muhammad. But again the more or less monistic background of Sufi thought is apparent in the seventh stanza of the poet's eulogy of the Prophet:

Now listen to the report of him Who in the separation of himself God appeared. He who himself came into the world in human form, The whole of the world is his attribute. His light appeared everywhere: Muhammad, whose name is the lamp of creation, For him God made the world. In the three worlds the trumpet of love was blown. His name is Muhammad, king of the three worlds. For him God desired to create the world. He (Muhammad) pointed his finger and the moon fell Into two pieces. By the dust of his feet the whole universe became stable.

If we compare the imagery here with that of the stanzas that describe God himself, it seems that in his portrayal of Muhammad the poet has not distinguished between the Prophet and God. Yet there is a distinction between God and Muhammad. It is like the distinction that exists, say, between Vishnu and his incarnations, Krishna or Rama. These are the embodiment of the Supreme Being, in such a way that his transcendence is not minimized, since they ultimately reveal his cosmic character. But he has been reduced to a form in which he can be loved personally. There is little difference between the Hindu feeling about the avatars of Vishnu and the following description of the relationship of God to Muhammad:

Muhammad, having become the root of [the cosmic] tree, The whole universe is its branch. God put a crown of nine lacs on his head. There is no one who can equal him. He is the body and the whole world is his reflection. He is the hidden creator whom everyone recognizes. Muhammad, who is the manifestation of God, no one knows. He who is visible, invisible and limitless. The same has taken the form of Muhammad. The name of the form remains Muhammad. There is no difference in their meaning. Their skill is the same. Shout it out loudly! Let the whole world listen to it. All! The same is unmanifested.

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Following the presentation of Muhammad in this peculiarly Sufi form, the poet goes on to call to mind the famous friends of the Prophet: Ababakar, Umar, Usmana, and Ali. Then he pro- ceeds to mention King Salim, under whose patronage the poets of the age labored. He says in the tenth stanza:

Salim has become a great king in the world, Who enjoys power throughout the whole earth, Who, becoming angry, puts his feet in the stirrups And shakes Indra's throne. Everywhere in the nine regions and the seven islands, His name has reached and fear has prevailed. He holds the kingdom of the middle world. In this world no one is as heroic as he. He is feared in the ten directions of the world. The edge of his sword has caused Lanka to tremble. Lord of the earth and enjoyer of merit, he is the abode

of the fourteen (wisdoms). The great king who destroys the arms of others Is that man in truth who is great, powerful and wise.

It is interesting to see how in this section the poet, describing a presumably good Muslim king, is capable of making a comparison between the king and traditional figures in Hindu mythology. Thus he says in another stanza: "He is Haricand in truth; he out- distanced Bali in generosity. He is Yudishthira in righteousness in the Kali Yuga." But this is only natural for a writer who is draw- ing on the current background of his own culture to create a literary work. The remarks made about the king also call to mind the tendency toward hyperbole in this type of writing. For the reader, or listener, to these lines, considering the tradition of exaggerated romance that exists throughout literature at certain periods, the story would have been flat without the accustomed heightening of time, place, and character. It was also a matter of expediency in this period that poets and writers of chronicles should enlist the favor of kings through flattering remarks.

In the sixteenth stanza the poet calls attention to his guru, from whom he has obtained the greatest spiritual blessings in this world.

As in the rising of the sun the world is lightened In the same way his [the guru's] brightness extends From Udaryacal to Astacal. [In the way that] eyes are brightened by the sun, In the same way are the stars of the eyes of those

with supreme knowledge. [For] those who are born [like] bats in this world, For them the sun has risen in darkness.

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[If] for those who gather courage in this Kali Yuga, By this courage itself [they] gain spiritual success. [Even for those] without the courage to achieve spiritual

success Sheikh Muhammad gives unlimited victory. As base metals become gold through touching the

philosopher's stone, Similarly I obtain spiritual victory without spiritual power By visiting Sheikh Muhammad.

In so many aspects of Indian religion the relationship between a devotee and God is mediated through the guru, who has achieved enlightenment (i.e., the understanding of spiritual truths) and is able to lead the devotee to a similar experience. Many stanzas are devoted to the qualities of the guru. The one below indicates the specific role of such a master. Once again there is ample use of Hindu imagery.

For anyone who comes with desire in his heart He obtains knowledge of the supreme deity (only) by seeing

his face. Knowledge of the Supreme Brahman comes to his heart. The one [Sheikh Muhammad Gaus] who is absorbed in

meditation Shows you the ultimate reality. He who has wasted his days in sleeping is like the person Who has abandoned his pack in the market place. But the fate of a person is not known. As much love as a person has that much attainment he

achieves. (For him) in whose fate it was assigned, He saw Muhammad Gaus in this world. In whom God has created fulness of insight, In him the trumpet of knowledge has blown.

Aside from this introductory material, which is quite extensive in itself and sheds a good deal of light on the religious context of the narrative in Madhumdltz, we are presented with certain striking features in the context of the story itself. Thus the situation at the

opening of stanza 44 is that King Surujabhanu is king in the city of Kanari. He has everything that his heart could desire, "an army, [a harvest of] grain, treasure, horses and elephants." But in one

respect the king's wishes had not been fulfilled, "in the king's heart

day and night anxiety (grew) on account of not having a son." One day, as if in answer to the king's prayers, an ascetic appeared

in the vicinity of Kanyagiri-a man of great renown whom the

king implored to grant him the favor of an heir. The ascetic lapsed into a trance, that is, into samddhi, and the king remained and

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attended him night and day for twelve long years. The result was that, because of the king's devotion and through a semimagical process, his wife bore a son, the hero Manohar, whose birth was accompanied by various auspicious portents. The priests said;

He will be king and a great world conqueror. Groups of Gandharvas and Sages will come to pay Respects at his door. All the kings of this world will serve him. He is replete with good omens and intelligence. He will be a knower of the Real.

Soon the priests revealed that, in addition to becoming a great world sovereign, Manohar "will meet someone who will be his own true love . . . In the breast of the prince the sorrow of separation will grow. The prince will suffer (terribly) in separation from her. Having become a yogi, the prince will wander for one year."

After many adventures the prediction of the soothsayers was fulfilled and Manohar met Madhumalti. The circumstances sur- rounding their meeting were conventional, but the heights of emotion which that meeting held for the young prince are summed up in passages of great beauty. The prince said, "Listen, Oh beloved, long ago the Creator created your love and mine.... This life brought you and me into the world." Hence their love was pre-existent, but not only in the sense that they had passed through the conventional round of births and rebirths at some time together in the past, but that they had actually been one.

You and I both always lived together And always dwelt in one body. You and I were both one body. [Our] two earths have been mixed with the same essence. One essence [water] flows in two streams. One lamp has been lighted in two homes. One life has entered into two homes. One fire is burning in two places. We [are] one, but our incarnation is two. [In] one temple two doors were made. One only was the light, one only the form, One only was the breath and one only the body. If someone wishes to surrender himself, Why should there be any question about it?

A problem is raised by this kind of imagery in considering the movement of the soul toward God. Presumably the concept of the two lovers is a metaphor on the relationship between God and the soul; but if God and the soul are essentially one, how can a

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love relationship actually exist ? It is like the problem faced in the Vedantic explanation of the union between the soul and God. When all the distinctions between the self and God are erased, can there be said to be a soul at all? The difficulty lies in reconciling the Sufistic tendency toward monism and pantheism with the dualistic symbolism of a human love affair. Hindu devotional poetry was perhaps better equipped for handling this paradox philosophically as a consequence of the later development beyond Advaita in the dualistic schools. Nevertheless, the Sufi writers, by maintaining a peculiar tension between monism and dualism, enhanced the suggestiveness of their poetry and described a dis- tinctive aspect of religious experience.

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Sufism in Medieval Hindi Literature

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